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CHAPTER-V
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The literary meaning of analysis according to the Encyclopedia and
Dictionary of Education is the study of a literary work for highlighting its special
feature in matter of style, composition, ideas, aesthetic appeal and moral or
philosophical values (Biswas, A. and Agarwal, J.C., 1971). Analysis of data
means the collected data are organized and tabulated systematically in order to
determine the inherent facts. Usually, the data are studied from as many angles
as possible to explore the new facts or the relationships. The analysis process
requires an alert, flexible and open mind. No similarities, differences, trends
and any outstanding feature should go unnoticed in data analysis process. It
involves breaking down of the existing complex factors into simpler parts and
putting the parts together in new arrangements for the purpose of
interpretation. Interpretation means deriving meaning from the analyzed data.
Hence, it follows the analysis of the data. Interpretation of data is process of
careful, logical and critical examination of results obtained after analysis of any
research data. It plays a vital role in the research process, essentially of stating
what the results (Findings) show, what does they mean, what is their (results‘)
significance and what are the answers to the original problem. The task of
interpretation has two major aspects viz., i) to establish continuity in search
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through linking the results of a given study with those of another, and ii) to
establish some explanatory concepts. Thus, interpretation means therefore be
considered as the device through which the factors what have been observed
by the researcher in the course of the study are explained. It provides a
theoretical concept that can serve as a guide for further researches.
Analysis and interpretation of data are the important phase of any
research work. The process of analysis begins on the point when the skeleton
plans of the actual collected data are put/set properly or meaningful order
whereas interpretation process starts after the analysis function is over.
After collection of necessary data and information from the various
primary and secondary sources the researcher has arranged all the documents
chronologically and interpreted with proper references on the basis of
objectives and mentioned in the following ways-
(i) The Causes of constituting various Commissions and Committees on
education regarding school education in India after independence.
(ii) Implementation of various recommendations given by various
Commissions and Committees in various times so far the
development of school education in India.
(iii) The impact of various Commissions and Committees with regard to
School education in Assam.
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5.2 COMMISSIONS AND COMMITTEES BEFORE AND AFTER
INDEPENDENCE
Today, the education system in India mainly comprises of primary
education (classes I-V), upper primary (middle school) education (classes VI-
VIII), secondary education (classes IX-X), senior secondary education (classes
XI-XII) and, thereafter, highereducation. In other words, elementary education
consists of eight years of schooling (classes‘ I-VIII). Each of secondary and
senior secondary education consists of two years of schooling. Higher education
starts after passing the higher secondary education, also called intermediate
education. Depending upon the stream (general, medical, engineering, legal,
etc), doing graduation takes three to five years. Post-graduate courses are
generally of two to three years duration. After completing post-graduation,
scope for doing research in various educational institutes remains open. For
medium of instruction, three language formulas are followed during 5+3+2
years of schooling.
The origin of the present system of education in India can be traced to
the beginning of the nineteenth century when a controversy raged over the
issue -- whether oriental learning and science should be spread through the
medium of Sanskrit, Arabic or Persian, or Western sciences and literature be
spread through English as the medium of instruction? Lord Macaulay was a
central figure in this language debate. Though both the groups the Orientalists
and the Anglicists--stuck to their respective stands, neither of these groups
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wanted to suppress the local vernaculars, mother tongues of the people. In
other words, both the groups agreed that education would be conducted in the
vernacular during the initial years of education. Macaulay's Minute, 1835 did
finally pave the way for the continuance of schools and colleges where
indigenous learning was being imparted and also for promotion of European
literature and science among the natives of India. That marked the real
beginning of bilingualism in educational system of India. Subsequently,
Despatch of the Court of Directors of the East India Company popularly known
as Wood‘s Education Despatch of July 19, 1854 formed the basis for creating a
system of education, from the primary school to the University. Since then
serious efforts were made by the Government to promote education at all
levels.
Nevertheless, it was not a simple and smooth journey for the
government of India to establish and evolve a system that could satisfy every
section of the society. Dissatisfaction of the people started surfacing as and
when the outcomes of educational and development measures undertaken by
the government did not seem to match their aspirations and expectations. As a
result, various measures for educational reconstruction followed, time and
again, in the form of institution of commissions and committees for
examining/reviewing/reforming the existing system, and initiation of new
policies, programmes, etc vis-a-vis the changing needs, problems and
challenges of different sections of the society and the country as a whole. Some
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landmark developments in the history of modern Indian education during the
pre-independence period include the following.
Hunter Commission, officially known as Indian Education Commission
(1882)
Indian Universities Commission (1902)
Government Resolution on Educational Policy (1913)
Calcutta University Commission (1917) also called Sadler Commission
Hartog Committee (1929)
Sapru Committee (1934)
Abbot-Wood Report (1936-37)
ZakirHussain Committee (1937)
Wardha Education Committee of the Central Advisory Board of
Education (1939) also called B. G. Kher Committee
Central Advisory Board of Education Report (1944) or Post-War
Educational Development Report popularly called the Sargent Report
(1944).
While some of these reports covered entire system of education, some
others focused on its selected sectors or levels. Similarly, the Government of
independent India, in pursuance of the constitutional mandate, has also
initiated several measures for social and economic reconstruction of the
country. As a result, measures for educational reconstruction had inevitably
followed. Various commissions and committees were appointed at different
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times to survey, study, review and recommend improvements in the existing
system, policies and programmes of education. Reserving the net effect of all
these for later sections of this paper, it is appropriate here to recall the
chronology of some landmark commissions, committees, policies, programmes
and frameworks.
University Education Commission (1948-49) popularly called Dr.
Radhaksrishan Commission
Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) popularly called Dr.
Mudaliar Commission
Committee on Higher Education for Rural Areas, Rural Institutions (1954)
-- Shri K. L. Shrimali Committee
National Committee on Women's Education (1958) --
ShrimatiDurgabaiDeshmukh Committee
University Grants Commission‘s Review Committee on Education (1960)
-- Prof. K.G. Saiyidain Committee
U. N. Dhebar Commission (1960)
Committee on Emotional Integration (1961) -- Dr. Sampurnanand
Committee
Committee on Plan Projects: Study Team for Selected Educational
Schemes (1961) – Shri B. N. Jha Committee
Study Group on the Training of Elementary Teachers in India (1961)
Kothari Committee on Model Act for Universities (1961)
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University Grants Commission‘s Committee on Education as an Elective
Subject at the Undergraduate Stage (1963) -- Mr. A. R. Wadia
Committee
Study Group on the Study of English in India (1964) – Prof. Gokak
Committee
Education Commission (1964-66), popularly called Dr. D. S. Kothari
Commission
Committee of Members of Parliament on Education (1967)
Three Delegations by University Grants Commission (1967-1971)
Steering Committee of Planning Group on Education (1968)
National Policy on Education (1968)
Review Committee on the Working of National Council of Educational
Research and Training (1968) -- Dr. Nag Chaudhuri Committee
Study Group on the Development of Pre-school Child (1970) – Shrimati
Mina Swaminathan Committee
Gajendragadkar Committee on Governance of Universities and Colleges
(1971)
National Committee on 10+2+3 Educational Structure (1972) -- Dr.
Shukla Committee
Committee on Secondary Teacher Education of NCTE (1973-77) -- Dr.
Jha Committee
Committee on Elementary Teacher Education of NCTE (1975) -- Dr.
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Malcolm S. Adiseshaiah Committee
University Grants Commission‘s Panel on Teacher Education During Fifth
Plan Period (1974)
The Curriculum for Ten-Year School: A Framework (1975)
Standing Committee of National Council for Teacher Education (1975-76)
Review Committee on the Curriculum for Ten-Year School (1977) --
ShriIshwarbhai Patel Committee
Working Group on Vocationalisation of Education (1977-78) -- Dr.
Malcolm S. Adiseshaiah Committee
Draft National Policy on Education (1979)
Study Group on INSAT Television Utilisation for Education and
Development (1980) -- Shri S. SathyamCommittee
National Commissions on Teachers – I & II: The Teacher and Society
(1983-85) – Prof. Chattopadhyaya Commission
Working Group to Review Teachers' Training Programme (In the Light of
the Need for Value-Orientation) (1983)
Challenge of Education: A Policy Perspective (1985)
National Curriculum for Primary and Secondary Education: A Framework
(1985)
National Policy on Education (1986)
National Policy on Education: Programme of Action (1986)
National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education – A
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Framework (1988)
National Curriculum for Teacher Education: A Framework (1988)
Committee for Review of NPE 1986: Towards an Enlightened and
Humane Society (1990) -- AcharyaRamamurhty Committee
University Grants Commission‘s Report of the Curriculum Development
Centre in Education (1990)
NCTE Committee for Teacher Education Programme Through Distance
Education Mode (1990)
Central Advisory Board of Education Committee on Distance Education
(1992)
CABE Committee on Policy, 1992
National Policy on Education 1986: Programme of Action 1992
National Advisory Committee: Learning Without Burden (1992)
The National Council for Teacher Education Act, 1993
Group to Examine the Feasibility of Implementation of the
Recommendations of the National Advisory Committee (1993) -- Prof.
Yashpal Committee
Committee on B.Ed. Correspondence (1993) -- Prof. Ramlal Parikh
Committee
University Grants Commission‘s Committee on B.Ed. Correspondence,
Distance Education Programme (1994)
Special Orientation Programme for School Teachers (SOPT) (1994-97)
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Committee of National Council for Teacher Education on Different Modes
of Education Used for Teacher Preparation in India (1995)
University Grants Commission‘s Committee on B.Ed. Through
Correspondence for In-service Teachers (1995) -- Prof. Takwale
Committee
Planning Commission‘s Report on Teacher Education in Five Year Plans
(1951-97)
NCTE Curriculum Framework for Quality Teacher Education (1998)
National Curriculum Framework for School Education (2000)
National Curriculum Framework (2005)
Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education (2006)
National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education (2009)
Panel to Review the functioning of the University Grants Commission
(UGC) and the All-India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) (2008),
later rechristened as The Committee to Advise on Renovation and
Rejuvenation of Higher Education (2009) -- Prof. Yashpal Committee
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
The latest commission is the National Knowledge Commission (NKC)
2006-09, which is popularly called Sir Sam Pitroda Commission. Here, it is
important to note that the NKC, a high-level advisory body to the Prime Minister
of India, was set up with the objective of transforming India into a knowledge
society. In its endeavor to transform the knowledge landscape of the country,
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the NKC had reportedly submitted around 300 recommendations on 27 focus
areas during its three and a half year term. While the term of the NKC had
come to an end, the implementation of NKC's recommendations is currently
underway at the Central and State levels. The report with so many
recommendations itself speaks volumes about the need for revamping the
entire education system in India. The Report of NKC read with the latest
Yashpal Committee Report is likely to renovate, revamp and rejuvenate the
existing system. A National Commission for Higher Education and Research is
expected to subsume as many as 13 existing professional councils and
regulatory agencies including the University Grants Commission (UGC) and the
All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE).
Hence, it is observed from the above discussion that the Government of
India has constituted a good number of committees, commissions, policies and
initiatives have been taken up by the government after independence to
promote and develop the whole educational scenario of the country. Here the
researcher has make an efforts to study the emergence of the constitutions of
these committees and commissions after independence; which are shown in the
following ways-
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Section-I
5.3 THE CAUSES OF CONSTITUTING VARIOUS COMMISSIONS AND
COMMITTEES
The task before independence India was to remove all infirmities of the
inherited educational system and transform it into a social force geared to
socio-economic transformation of the Indian society and relate education to
live, needs and aspiration of the society. Within such conceptual framework,
education was conceived as being intertwined with the developmental process
as one of its importance components. It took some time to clearly outline the
directive principles of state policy (Article no 45) of our constitutions which
reads:
―The state shall endeavor to provide, within a period of 10 years from
the commencement of this constitution, for free and compulsory education for
all children until they complete the age of 14 years‖.
Social reformers and Indian national leaders had realized long before
independence the value of education as one of most powerful instruments for
socio-economic development and modernization of our society. While struggling
for independence form colonial rule, they tried to expand educational facilities
in the country. When the colonial government prepared post war educational
development in 1944. (Sargent report 1944), it was criticized on the ground
that it took a long period of 40 years to universalize elementary education for
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children upto the age of 14 years. This concern for rapid expansion of
education in the country found expression in the constitution.
The constitution of India-the character of India‘s Freedom is a unique
and rare blue print of our democracy. As it embodies India‘s full self-expression
and mirrors the hopes and aspirations of people, it is natural that education
should find an honoured place in this document.
5.4 THE PREAMBLE OF CONSTITUTION
The preamble has a great bearing on educational policies and
programmes. It reads
―We the people of India having solemnly resolved to constitute
India into a sovereign democratic republic and to secure to all its citizens-
justice: social, economic and political;
Liberty: Of thought, expression, believe, faith and worship.
Equality: Of status and of opportunities; and to promote among them all.
Fraternity: Assuring the dignity of the individual and unity of nations.
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5.5 CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS OF EDUCATION IN INDIA
Article 28: According to our Constitution article 28 provides freedom as
to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational
institutions.
Article 29:This article provides equality of opportunity in educational
institutions.
Article 30:It accepts the right of the minorities to establish and
administrate educational institutions.
Article 45:According to this article "The state shall endeavour to
provide within a period of ten years from the commencement of this
Constitution for free and compulsory education for all children until they
complete the age of 14 years."
We notice that the responsibility for universal elementary education lies with
the Central Government, the State Governments, the Local Bodies and
voluntary organizations.
Article 46: It provides for special care to the promotion of education
and economic interests of the scheduled caste, scheduled tribes and the weaker
sections of society.
Article 337: This provides for special provision with respect to
educational grants for the benefit of Anglo-Indian community.
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Article 350A: This article relates to facilities for instruction in mother
tongue at primary stage.
Article 350B: It provides for a special offer for linguistic minorities.
Article 351: This article relates to the development and promotion of
the Hindi language. The seventh schedule of the Indian Constitution contains
legislative powers under three lists viz. The Union List, the State List and the
Concurrent List
5.6 THE UNION LIST
This list contains 97 subjects where the following entries are related to
education:
Entry 13: To provide Educational and Cultural relations with foreign
countries.
Entry 62: The institutions known at the commencement of the
Constitution as National Library, The Indian Museum, the Imperial War
Museum, the Victoria Memorial, and Indian War Memorial. Any other such
institutions financed by the Government of India wholly or in part and declared
by the Parliament by law to be an institution of national importance.
Entry 63: Institutions of national importance. The institution known at
the commencement of this Constitution as the BHU, AMU and Delhi University
etc. declared by Parliament by law to be an institution of national importance.
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Entry 64: The institution of scientific and technical education financed
by the Government of India wholly or in part and declared by law to be
institutions of national importance like IITs and lIMs.
Entry 65: Union agencies and institutions for:
(i) Professional, vocational or technical training, including the training of police
officers.
(ii) The promotion of special studies or research.
(iii) Scientific or technical assistance in the investigation of detection of crime.
Entry 66: Coordination and determination of standards in the institution
of higher education or research and scientific and technical institutions.
5.7 STATE LIST
State list consists of 66 entries, out of which the following is the entry
related to education:
Entry 12: According to this entry all libraries, museums and other
similar institutions controlled or financed by the state, ancient and historical
monuments and records other than those declared by or under law made by
the Parliament to be of the national importance.
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5.8 CONCURRENT LIST
It comprises 47 entries, among them the following are related to
education:
Entry 20: Economic and social planning.
Entry 25: Education, including technical education, medical education
and universities subject to provision of entries 63,64,65,66 of list (Union List).
Entry 34: Newspapers, books and printing presses.
(A) Education of minorities
Article 28 of the Constitution has made certain provisions for the
education of the minorities including-
(i) No religious instruction shall be provided in educational institutions wholly
maintained out of state funds.
(ii) If any institution has been established under any endowment trust even if
administrated by state, can impart religious education.
(iii) None person attending an educational institution recognized by the state or
receiving funds from state government shall be required to take part in any
religious worship or instruction that may be conducted in such institutions or in
any premises attached there to unless such person or if such person in a minor
and his guardian has given his consent thereto.
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(B) Cultural and Educational Rights
Under article 29 and 30 for the protection of educational interest of minorities
viz.
(i) Article 29 (i): Any section of citizen residing in the territory of India
on any part thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall
have the right to conserve the same.
(ii) Article 30 (i): All minorities whether based on religion or language
shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their
choice.
(iii) Article 30 (ii):The state shall not in granting and to educational
institution discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that it
is under the management of a minority whether based on religion or language.
(iv) To make any law providing for the compulsory acquisition of any property
of any educational institutions established and administrated by minorities, the
state shall ensure that the amount fixed by or determined under such law for
acquisition of such property is such as would not restrict on abrogate the right
guaranteed to them.
(C) Admissions
(i) Article 29 (II) states that no citizen of India can be denied
admission into any educational institution, which is either maintained by the
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state or receiving aid out of state funds oil ground only of religion, race, caste,
language or any of them.
(ii)Article 15 (III) states that to make special provisions for women.
Hence, separate educational institutions for women can be established.
(D) Mother Tongue
For promotion of teaching of mother tongue the Constitution of India has made
some provisions for Hindi language.
Article 350 (A):It shall be endeavour of every state and local
authorities with the state to provide adequate faculties for instruction in the
mother tongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging to
linguistic minority groups : the President may issue directions to any state as he
considers necessary for recurring the facilities.
Article 351: It is to promote the development of Hindi language and
slates that it shall be the duty of the Central Government to promote the
spread of Hindi language in the entire country.
(E) Right to Education
Article 41 of the Constitution provides that "All the citizens have equal right to
education ''. It states. "The state shall, within the limits of its economic capacity
and development, make effective provisions for the right to work, to education
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and to public assistance in cases of employment, old age, sickness and
disablement''.
(F) Weaker Section
Our Constitution has made some special provisions for the weaker sections of
our society viz.
Article 45: The state shall endeavour to provide within a period often
years from the commencement of the Constitution for the free and compulsory
education for all children until they complete the age of 14 years.
Article 46:The state shall promote with special care the educational and
economic interests of weaker sections of the people and, in particular, of the
scheduled caste and scheduled tribes, and shall protect them social injustice
and all forms of exploitations''.
The Supreme Court of India has given the following guidelines to promote
education of the people:
(i) The state can make regulatory measures to promote efficiency
of education.
(ii) Educational institutions of minority groups cannot claim
immunity from general laws such as contract law, labour law
and industrial law etc.
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(iii) The state can take over the management of the institutions of
minority groups in case of irregularity and inefficiency.
(iv) Teachers have the right to approach to the Arbitration Tribunal
in case of any injustice to them by the institution.
After the constitutional provisions the government of India has initiated a
good numbers of programmes, policies, commissions, committees and action
plans for the development of education in India. The reasons of constituting
such programmes have been discussed in the following ways-
5.9 FIVE YEAR PLAN
In order to give concrete shape to the directives of the constitution, the
national Government put into operation four five year plans so far. These plans
aimed at speeding up the economic, social and cultural growth of the country
through a planned management of its human and material resources.The
essential element of the planning are summed up by the Planning Commission
in the draft outline of the first five year plan: ―the problem before the country is
firstly to rectify the disequilibrium in the economy caused by the war and
partition and secondly to initiate the development of certain basic resources so
as to the foundation of more rapid economic growth in the future. The
rehabilitation of displaced persons links up with both these aspects. Further, in
finding solution to these two fold problems, consideration of social justice and
the need for progressive reorientation of the economy along the lines
suggested in this constitution have to be borne in mind‖.
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5.10 TARACHAND COMMITTEE, 1948
The Central Advisory Board of Education at their 14th meeting held in
January, 1948, considered the question of secondary education in the country.
In view of its importance in the educational system in the country the Board
resolved that a Commission be appointed by the Government of India to:
a) Review the present position of Secondary Education in India, and
b) To make recommendations in regard to the various problems related
thereto.
This resolution was endorsed by the All-India Education Conference
convened by the Hon'ble Minister for Education in January 1948. In pursuance
of these recommendations, the Government of India appointed a Committee
under the Chairmanship of Dr. Tara Chand, the then Educational Adviser to the
Government of India. This Committee made some important recommendations
on different aspects of secondary education. The Report of this Committee was
further considered by the Central Advisory Board of Education at its 15th
meeting held at Allahabad in 1949 when it was resolved that the Government
of India be requested to appoint a Commission for Secondary Education to
which thequestions raised by some of the conclusions drawn in the Report be
referred and that it should, in addition to these items, go into the wider
question of the aim, objective and purpose of secondary education and the
relation of Secondary Education to-Basic and University Education. The Board
again at its meeting held in January, 1951 reiterated its conviction that the
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reorganization of secondary education in the country was of such vital
importance that the Government of India should appoint a Commission at an
early date.
5.11 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION COMMISSION (1948-49)
In the meantime in pursuance of the recommendations of the Central
Advisory Board of Education and also of the Inter-University Board, the
Government of India appointed a University Education Commission in 1948
under the Chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan. The Commission which had
to report primarily on University Education in India had necessarily to review
the position of Secondary Education as well and it made certain notable
suggestions. The Commission recommended that the standard of admission to
University courses should correspond to that of the present Intermediate
examination, i.e., after 12 years of the study at School and Intermediate
College. The Commission thought it unfortunate that neither the public nor the
Government had realised the importance of Intermediate colleges in the Indian
educational system, and remarked that "our Secondary Education remains the
weakest link in our educational machinery and needs urgent reforms."
5.12 COMMITTEE ON THE ADMINISTRATION OF PRIMARY
EDUCATION, 1951
It had been observed by the report of the Central Advisory Board of
Education on post –war educational development in India (1944), (popularly
known as Sargent Committee Report) that the state Governments should
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immediately resume all educational powers and that in order to retain local
interests, school boards for smaller areas be set up where some people with
the requisite knowledge, enthusiasm, integrity and standing were available. In
1948 at the 18th meeting of the Central Advisory Board of Education, the
Government of Bihar raised the question of relationships between the State
Governments and local bodies in respect of administration of elementary
education. The Ministry of Education, therefore, appointed this committee in
1951. This committee was mainly constituted to examine, in detail, the present
set up of local administration of education (primary and secondary level) in the
different states, the experiments carried out in some of the states in the
assumption of more powers by the state government in this regard and to
recommend a more or less uniform pattern which may, with a few variations,
be adopted in all the states of India.
5.13 SECONDARY EDUCATION COMMISSION (1952-53)
The Report of the Secondary Education Commission is the most
significant document in the history of the development of secondary education
in India. There had been several committees and commissions on education in
the pre-independence era, and almost all of them made some
recommendations regarding the reform, re-orientation or reconstruction of the
secondary level of education, but none devoted all the pages of their reports
solely to secondary education. The first education commission known as the
Hunter Commission (1882-83) recommended that the high schools should
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have two avenues, one leading to the entrance examination of the university
and the other of a more practical nature intended to fit the youths for
commercial, vocational or non-literary pursuits. Unfortunately, the time was not
so ripe as to appreciate the first visualization of a need for diversified courses
and secondary vocational education. The Calcutta University Commission
(1917) felt that the improvement of secondary education was the first to
recommend the attachment of ―Intermediate‖ classes to the high schools and
the setting up of a Board of Secondary and Intermediate Education to control
high schools and intermediate education. The Hartog Committee in 1929 made
recommendations for more diversified curricula in the schools, and for the first
time emphatically observed that the pay of the teacher should be sufficient to
give him the status which his work demanded and to attract the best pupils to
the teaching profession.
With the independence came the University Education Commission
(1948-49) which realized that ‗Our Secondary Education remains the weakest
link in our educational machinery and needs urgent reforms.‘ It also observed:
‗Our provincial governments are naturally keen on basic education and are
financing schemes for its wide extension, but unfortunately they do not seem to
be equally keen on secondary education which is the real weak spot in our
entire educational machinery. They have not fully realized that the army of
competent teachers needed for the rapid expansion of basic education must be
provided by our secondary schools and intermediate colleges. Further, any
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university reform will remain largely ineffective unless the level of secondary
education is raised so as to furnish the necessary foundation for a sound
university system‘. The Central Advisory Board of Education had earlierrealized
the urgency and, therefore, in its Fourteenth Session (1948) it had
recommended the appointment of a commission ‗to review the position of
secondary education in India and to make recommendations in regard to the
various problems related thereto.‘ The result was the appointment of a
‗Committee‘, and not a ‗Commission‘, by the government of India in 1948. This
Committee composed of 20 members including 12 Directors of Public
Instruction made some recommendations on different aspect of secondary
education. But this was not enough. The Report of the Committee on
Secondary Education in India was considered by the Central Advisory Board of
Education at its 15th Session in 1949, when it was resolved that the
Government of India should be requested to appoint a Commission for
Secondary Education to Which the questions raised by some of the conclusions
made in the report be referred, and that the proposed commission should, in
addition to this go into the wider question of the aim, objectives and purpose of
secondary education. Since nothing happened for some time, the Board in its
16th session (1951) reiterated its conviction that the reorganization of
secondary education was so vital for the country that it should not be delayed.
At last the Government of India set up the Secondary Education Commission in
September, 1952, under the chairmanship of Dr. A. Mudaliar, Vice-Chancellor,
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Madras University. The Secondary Education Commission appointed by the
Government of India in terms of their Resolution No. F. 9-5/52-B-1, dated 23rd
September 1952, having completed its labours, presents the following Report
based on its deliberations.
The Commission was inaugurated on 6 October, 1952. The report was
submitted in June,1953. Among its nine members, two (John Christie, Principal
of Jesus college, Oxford, and Kenneth Rast Williams of U.S.A.) were outside
India. It consists of references and ten appendices. It is well –written document
and compares favorably with similar reports in other countries.
Members of the Commission
1) Dr. A. LakshmanswamiMudaliar,
Vice-Chancellor, Madras University (chairman).
2) Principal John Christie,
Jesus College, Oxford.
3) Dr. Kenneth Rast Williams,
Associate Director, Soutnern Regional Education Board, Atlanta (U.S.A.).
4) Mrs. Hansa Mehta,
Vice-Chencellor, Baroda University.
5) Shri J.A. Taraporevala,
Director of Technical Education, Government of Bombay .
6) Dr. K. L. Shrimali,
Principal, VidyaBhawan Teachers‘ Training College, Udaidur.
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7) Shri M.T. Vyas,
Principal, New Era School, Bombay.
8) Shri K.G. Saiyidain,
Joint Secretary to the Government of India, Ministry of Education (ex-
officio Member).
9) Principal A. N. Basu, Central Institute of Education, Delhi (member-
Secretary).
Dr. S. M. S. Chari, Education Officer, Ministry of Educaion, acted as Assistant
Secretary to the Commission.
Terms of Reference
Under the terms of reference, the Commission was asked:
(a) To enquire into and report on the present position of Secondary
Education in India in all its aspects; and
(b) Suggest measures for its reorganization and improvement with
particular reference to
(i) The aims, organization and content of Secondary Education;
(ii) Its relationship to Primary, Basic and Higher Education;
(iii)The inter-relation of secondary schools of different types; and
(v) Other allied problems:
5.14 NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON WOMEN'S EDUCATION (1958)
The problem of the education of girls and women in our country have
acquired a new significance since the attainment of independence and there is
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an ever increasing realization, both in the minds of the people and the
government, that unless every effort is made to find solution for them, the
rapid progress of the country which is the aspiration of every one will be
seriously impleded. Planners and administrators, both at the centre and in the
states have been discussing these problems with this end in view.
The education panel of the Planning Commission, at its meeting held in
Poona in July, 1957, recommended that ―a suitable Committee should be
appointed to go into the various aspects of the question relating to the nature
of education for girls at the elementary, secondary and adult stages and to
examine whether the present system was helping them to lead a happier and
more useful life‖. This recommendation was placed before the Conference of
the State Education Ministers (held in September 1957) who also agreed that a
special Committee should be appointed to examine the whole question of
women‘s education.
The National Committee on Women‘s Education was accordingly set up
by the Government of India in the Ministry of Education under Government
resolution No. F.34-12/57-B.5 of 19th May, 1958. The members of the
Committee were-
(i) ShrimatiGurgabaiDeshmukh, Chairman, Central Social Welfare Board-
Chairman.
(ii) Kumari S. Mathur, Education Secretary, BanasthaliVidyapith, Rajasthan-
Member.
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(iii) Smt. KulsumSayani, Editor ―Rahber‖, Bombay-Member.
(iv) Shri J.P. Naik, MouniVidyapith, Gargoti, Bombay-Member.
(v) Smt. Zahra Ahmed, Member, Legislative Assembly, Bihar-Member.
(vi) Smt. O.C. Srinivasan, Retired Director of Public Instruction, Madras-
Member
(vii) KumariSarojiniRajan, Assistant Educational Advisor, Minister of
Education-Secretary.
At the special request of the Committee, Dr. PhulrenuGuha, Vice
Chairman, West Bengal State Social Welfare Board, agreed to associate herself
with its work and function as a member.
Term of Reference: The terms of reference of the Committee are as follows-
(i) To suggest special measures to make up the leeway in
women‘s education at the primary and secondary levels.
(ii) To examine the problem of wastage in girls‘ education at these
levels;
(iii) To examine the problem of adult women who have relapsed
into illiteracy or have received inadequate education and who
need continuation education so as to enable them to earn a
living and participate in projects of national reconstruction;
(iv) To survey the nature and extent of material and other facilities
offered by voluntary welfare organizations for the education of
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such women and to recommend steps necessary to enable
them to offer larger educational facilities to them; and
(v) To examine the possibilities and methods of encouraging a
larger number of women to go into vocational trades by
providing suitable vocational training as a part of formal
education or through special courses designed for adult
women.
5.15 COMMITTEE ON RELIGIOUS AND MORAL INSTRUCTION (1959)
The Sri Prakasa Committee Moral/ religious/ spiritual/ character/ value
education that the education system was not able to address effectively was
reiterated time and again. As the issue began to get more and more attention,
the Central Advisory Board of Education appointed a special Indian Policies
Overview on Values Education ‗Committee on Religious and Moral Instruction‘ in
1959 called the ‗Sri Prakasa Committee‘ to study the question of such
instruction in educational institutions. The Committee upheld that instruction on
‗moral and spiritual values‘ in educational institutions is desirable, and specific
provision for doing so is feasible with certain limitations‘.
Recommendations: It suggested modalities for such instruction from
the primary to the university stage – such as morning assembly, community
singing, suitable books for every level, inclusion of stories about lives and
teaching of prophets, saints and religious leaders in the syllabi of language
teaching, , extra-curricular activities, teaching of good manners from traditional
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teachers such as the Muslim Maulvis, and physical education . It recommended
that content may include ‗comparative and sympathetic study of the lives and
teachings of great religious leaders, their ethical systems and philosophies‘ in
the syllabi of languages, showing audio-visuals on art and architecture
connected with religions across the world in the syllabi of Geography etc. Good
manners, virtues of reverence and courtesy, cooperation, social service, true
patriotism, duties they owe to themselves and others, self-sacrifice for the
cause of the country, spirit of sportsmanship are some of the values identified
in its report. It upholds the constitutional provision ‗that religious instruction
given in institutions under any endowment or trust should not be interfered
with even when such institutions are ,helped by the State‘. It strongly states
that moral and spiritual instruction as recommended by the committee is not a
question of ‗conscience‘ but that it is necessary for building the character, and
that it ‗cannot injure the susceptibilities of any religious group‘. Religion and
religious teachings as being the source of morals (and values) was once again
emphasized. The Kothari Commission 1964-66, in its review observes that the
response to the Sri Prakasa committee‘s recommendations from educational
institutions ‗was neither active nor enthusiastic‘.
5.16 COMMITTEE ON EMOTIONAL INTEGRATION (1961)
To consider how the fissiparous tendencies manifesting themselves in
the country can be counteracted, the Ministry of Education constituted a
committee in May, 1961, under the chairmanship of Dr. Sampurnanand to
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examine the role of education in promoting emotional integration in national life
and to suggest suitable programmes in this regard. The members were: Smt.
Indira Gandhi, Prof. T, M. Advani, Prof. HirenMukerjee, Shri M. Henry Samuel,
Prof. M. N. Srinivas, BhaiJodh Singh, Shri A. E. T. Barrow, Shri Asoka Mehta,
Shri A. A. A. Fyzee, Shri K. KuruvilaJacab and Dr. B. S. Haikerwal. The terms of
reference of the Committee were-
(i) to study the role of education in strengthening and promoting the
processes of emotional integration in national life and to examine the
operation of tendencies which come in the way of their development;
and
(ii) in the light of such study, to advise on the positive educational
programmes for youth in general and the students in schools and
colleges in particular to strengthen in them the processes of
emotional integration. The Committee submitted its preliminary
report to the Ministry in November, 1961.
5.17 COMMITTEE ON PLAN PROJECTS: STUDY TEAM FOR SELECTED
EDUCATIONAL SCHEMES (1961) – SHRI B. N. JHA COMMITTEE
This Committee was appointed by the Ministry of Education in 1961 in
pursuance of the recommendation of Shrimali Committee Report. Chairman:
SHRI B. N. JHA. Terms of Reference were-
To examine the aims and objectives of the Institutes established in the
Second Plan (a) To see how far the objectives have been fulfilled; (b) To study
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the importance of the Institutes in relation to the requirements of trained
personnel in rural areas and in other sectors of economy; and (c) To make
recommendations for improvement as may be relevant to the success of the
programmes.
5.18 COMMITTEE ON DIFFERENTIATION ON CURRICULA FOR BOYS
AND GIRLS 1964
Issues, namely sex differences, equality of women, co-education and
differentiation of curricula for sexes, have been hotly debated for several
decades and formed an important part of review made by many expert bodies.
Differentiation of curricula for boys and girls was the main theme of a
committee set up by the National council for Women‘s Education authorized its
Chairman to set up a committee to examine comprehensively the problem of
curricula for girls at all stages of education. The chairman Smt. Raksha Saran,
set up a committee on November 1, 1961, in consultation with the Ministry of
Education. The committee comprises 11 members. Terms of reference were-
(a) To examine the present curricula of school education and to determine
the extent to which they take care of the individual and social needs
of women in the prevailing circumstances of the country.
(b) To suggest necessary reforms without, at the same time, causing an
upheaval in the general pattern of education.
(c) To view of the need of trained women personnel for development
projects under social services, to consider the need for providing
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additional diversified courses of pre-vocational nature, apart from fine
arts and home sciences, at the secondary stage.
(d) To review the content of courses under the group fine arts and home
science and to suggest such modifications as are necessary to enable
women to take up some gainful employment.
(e) To examine the types of suitable occupations for which training should
be given in the polytechnics and junior technical schools that is being
set up for girls.
5.19 INDIAN PARLIAMENTARY AND SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE 1961
The Indian Parliamentary and Scientific Committee was formed in August
1961 with Shri LalBahadur Shastri as its chairman. Its primary objective was to
study and examine the problem of ‗Scientific Education in Schools‘. In 1962, it
formed a study group with Shri P.C. Dasappa M.P. as Chairman. The committee
had several meeting and members of parliament of both the houses took keen
interest in its deliberations. Terms of References were-
(a) To study and examine early in 1962 the problem of Science education in
schools, and
(b) To find out the position of how science courses are organized in our
primary, middle and high/higher secondary schools in relation to policies
and decisions arrived at the centre and states when the Third plan
Commenced.
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5.20 EDUCATION COMMISSION (1964-66)
The Education Commission of 1964-66 was appointed by a resolution of
the government India dated 14th July 1964. The commission was to advise the
government on the National pattern of education and the general principlesand
policies for the development of education at all stages and in all aspects. Prof.
D.S. Kothari, chairman, University Grant Commission was the chairman and Mr.
J.P. Naik, advisor, Ministry of education, was the secretary of the commission.
There were 16 members, 11 Indians and 5 Foreigners in the commission. The
Commission has an international composition. It set up 12 task forces and 7
working groups, interviewed about 9000 men and women distinguished in
public life; educators, scientists, industrialists and scholars in different fields
and others interested in education. It received and scrutinized over 2400
memoranda and notes. The Commission spent about hundred days in visiting
universities, colleges and schools and held discussions with teachers,
educationists, administrators and students. Expenditure amounting to Rs.
14,97,169.18 was incurred on it. The Commission began its task on October 2,
1964 and its reports were issued on 29th June, 1966.
Chairman
Prof. D.S.Kothari, Chairman, University Grants Commission, New Delhi.
Members
1) ShriA.R.Dawood,formamerly Officiating Director, Directorate of Extension
Programmes for Secondary Education, New Delhi.
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2)Mr. H.L. Elvin,Director, Institute of Education, University of London.
3) Shri R.A. Gopalaswami, Director, Institute of Applied Manpower
Research,
New Delhi.
4) Prof. Sadatoshi Ihara, School of Science and Engineering, Waseda
University, Tokyo.
5) V.S. Jha, formerly Director of the Commonwealth Education Liaison
Unit, London.
6)ShriP.N.Kirpal, Educational Adviser and Secretary to the Government of
India, Ministry of Education, New Delhi.
7)Prof. M.V. Mathur, Professor of Economics and Public Administration,
University of Rajasthan, Jaipur(later Vice-Chancelor, Rjasthan University)
8)Dr. B.P.Pal, Director Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
(later on Director-General, and Vice-President, Indian Council of Agricultural
Research and Additional Secretary to the Government of India, Ministry of Food
and Agriculture).
9)Kumari S. Panandikar, Head of the Department of Education, Karnatak
University, Dharwar.
10)Prof. Roger Revelle, Director, Centre for Population Studies, Harvard
School of Public Health, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA.
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11)Dr. K.G Saiyidian, formar Educational Adviser to the Government of
India Director, Asian Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New
Delhi.
12)Dr. T. Sen, Vice-Chancellor, Jadavpur University, Calcutta.
13)Prof. S.A. Shumovsky, Director, Methological Division, Ministry of
Higher and Special Secondary Education, RSFSR, and Professor of Physics,
Moscow University, Moscow.
14)M. Jean Thomas, Inspector-General of Education, France and
formerly Assistant Director-General of UNESCO,Paris.
Member-Secretary
Shri J.P. Naik, Head of the Department of Educational Planning, Administration
and Finance, Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Poona.
Associate-Secretary
Mr. J.F. McDougall, Assistant Director, Department of School and Higher
Education, UNESCO, Paris. Terms of Reference were-
The Commission had to advise Government on the national pattern of
education and on the general principles and policies for the development of
education at all stages and in all its aspects. It need not, however, examine the
problems of medical or legal education, but such aspects of these problems as
are necessary forits comprehensive enquiry may be looked into.
Task Forces
1) Task Force on School Education.
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2) Task Force on Higher Education
3) Task Force on Technical Education
4) Task Force on Agricultural Education
5) Task Force on Adult Education
6) Task Force on Science Education and Research
7) Task Force on Teacher Training and Teachers‘ Status
8) Task Force on Student Welfare
9) Task Force on New Techniques and Methods
10) Task Force on Manpower
11) Task Force on Educational Administration
12) Task Force on Educational Finance.
Working Groups:
1) Working Group on Women‘s Education.
2) Working Group on the Education of Backward Classes.
3) Working Group on School Buildings.
4) Working Group on School Community Relations.
5) Working Group on Statistics.
6) Working Group on Pre-primary Education.
7) Working Group on School Curriculum.
The report of the Education Commission (1964-66), chaired by Prof. D.S.
Kothari, is possibly the last education policy-related document of the Nehruvian
era. The very timing of the decision to constitute the Commission lent a special
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significance and critical perspective to the report. This was the time when the
emerging democratic society had gained the initial experience of five year
developmental planning. This was also the time when the agenda of ushering in
a scientific age was looked upon as a means to transform the traditional society
into a modern one by way of alleviating poverty, minimizing inequalities and
institutionalizing democratic and forward looking education.
At the same time, the immediate backdrop of the Commission was
provided by a historic food crisis that called for questioning the very notion of
agricultural productivity and role of science and technology in rural
development. The policy makers were also engaged in a public debate on
various models of development. Issues relating to land reforms, co-operatives,
foreign aid, federal structure of Indian polity, religious and linguistic identities,
and status of women, caste conflicts and the medium of education were
sources of major tensions. These dilemmas and challenges faced by the nation
were reflected in the Terms of Reference as well as in the composition of the
Commission. This is also the first Commission in the post –Independence India
to be assigned the task of recommending a national system of education from
pre-primary stage to professional and higher education. The Causes of
Constituting the Commission were as follows-
Firstly, India attained Independence from the British in 1947 and after
this it was hoped that the traditional system of education would undergo a
great change. But, in spite of a number of committees and commissions on
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education, much change could not be achieved. Very naturally, a
comprehensive policy was needed. Hence, in 1964-66 the Education
Commission was appointed.
Secondly, in the post independent period, a good deal of expansion
took place in the field of education, but all this was at the expense of quality.
Thirdly, the commission was appointed to bring home to the people
that they should also have a share in the reconstruction of the country through
education, the government of course shouldering the main responsibility.
Moreover, there is an explosion of knowledge, particularly in science and
technology. The appointment of a commission was consequently felt to meet
this challenge.
Fourthly, in the past, several commission and committees examined
sectors and specific aspects of education. The new commission was to survey
the entire field of educational development as the various parts of the
educational system strongly interact with and influence one another. Education
needs to be considered as a whole and not in fragments. Hence this
commission was constituted.
Fifthly, the system of education could not be strengthened without
eliciting the co-education of teachers. The teacher community had hitherto
been altogether neglected. All these years, the teachers had been subjected to
great economic hardships. A positive approach to the problems of the teacher
was, therefore, badly needed.
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5.21 COMMITTEE OF MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT ON EDUCATION
(1967)
The Committee of Members of Parliament on Education was constituted
by the Government of India on 5th April, 1967, with the following objectives:
(1) To consider the Report of the Education Commission; (2) To prepare the
draft of a Statement on the National Policy on Education for the consideration
of the government of India; and (3) To identify a programme for immediate
action. In view of main terms of reference and their urgency, the Committee
did not think it necessary, at this stage, to examine all the recommendations of
the Education Commission. The Committee scrutinized only its major
recommendations along with the comments of the State Governments and
others thereon.
5.22 NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION (1968)
In the post-independence period, a major concern of the Government of
India and of the States has been to give increasing attention to education as a
factor vital to national progress and security. Problems of educational
reconstruction were reviewed by several commissions and committees, notably
the University Education Commission (1948-49) and the Secondary Education
Commission (1952-53). Some steps to implement the recommendations of
these Commissions were taken; and with the passing of the Resolution on
Scientific Policy under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, the development of
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science, technology and scientific research received special emphasis. Toward
the end of the third Five Year Plan, a need was felt to hold a comprehensive
review of the educational system with a view to initiating a fresh and more
determined effort at educational reconstruction; and the Education Commission
(1964-66) was appointed to advise Government on " the national pattern of
education and on the general principles and policies for the development of
education at all stages and in all aspects." The Report of the Education
Commission has since been widely discussed and commented upon.
Government is happy to note that a consensus on the national policy on
education has emerged in the course of these discussions.
The Government of India is convinced that a radical reconstruction of
education on the broad lines recommended by the education commission is
essential for economic and cultural development of the country, for national
integration and for realizing the ideal of a socialistic pattern of society. This will
involve a transformation of the system to relate it more closely to life of the
people; a continuous effort to expand educational opportunity; a sustained and
intensive effort to raise the quality of education at all stages; an emphasis on
the development of science and technology; and the cultivation of moral and
social values. The educational system must produce young men and women of
character and ability committed to national service and development. Only then
will education be able to play its vital role in promoting national progress,
creating a sense of common citizenship and culture, and strengthening the
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national integration. This is necessary if the country is to attain its rightful place
in the comity of nations in conformity with its great cultural heritage and its
unique potentialities.
A National Policy on Education was first adopted in 1968, immediately
after the release of the report of Indian Education Commission in 1966. In
pursuance of the desire by the Kothari Commission (1964-66) the Government
of India in 1968 announced some important principles for the onward march of
education in the country.
The National Policy of Education 1968 is based on the recommendations
of the Commission of 1964-66. The Commission recommended that the
Government of India should issue a statement on the National Policy on
Education which should provide guidance to the state Governments and the
local authorities in preparing and implementing educational plans. In 1967 the
Govt. of India constituted a committee of Members of parliament on Education
to prepare the draft of a statement on the National Policy of Education. The
Committee brought together the leading members of almost all the political
parties in the country and prepared a draft which was considered by the Central
Advisory Board of Education. A general consensus on the National Policy on
Education emerged in the course of the Board‘s deliberations.
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5.23 CURRICULUM COMMITTEE OF HIGHER SECONDARY
EDUCATION AND ITS VOCATIONALISATION 1976
The NCERT circulated a draft document on the vocationalisation of
secondary education in April 1976, setting out a model for implementing the
scheme. This was followed by a national conference in June 1976 attended by a
number of Vice-Chancellors, Education secretaries and DPI‘s of States,
representatives of Boards of Secondary Education and Ministries concerned with
Education, Health, Agriculture, Labour and industries etc. besides a number of
other distinguished educationists. The issues were thoroughly discussed and
ultimately the curriculum Committee initially set up the Ministry of Education
and later enlarged and supported by the NCERT was entrusted to finalize the
document. The curriculum committee again met on September 1, 1977 and
after careful consideration finalized its recommendations.
5.24 REVIEW COMMITTEE ON THE CURRICULUM FOR THE TEN-YEAR
SCHOOL 1977
The Review Committee on the Curriculum for the Ten Year School was
appointed by Government of India, under the Chairmanship of Shri I.J. Patel.
The Committee was appointed to develop a new scheme in view of the new
dimension of work based education in relation to national development, to
review stage wise and subject wise objectives identified in National Council of
Educational Research and Training document "The Curriculum for the Ten Year
School", to scrutinize National Council of Educational Research and Training
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syllabus and text books, review the present scheme of studies and the time
allocated for various subjects.
Socially Useful Productive Work
The provision of properly skilled teachers for the implementation of the
programme of Socially Useful Productive Work is of the utmost importance. In
order to give this area of work its proper place in the school programme it is
recommended that:
(i) Professional status of teachers of Socially Useful Productive Work
should be the same as that of other teachers;
(ii) There should be provision for part time employment of skilled
personnel for different activities;
(iii) There should be cells for Socially Useful Productive Work in the State
Departments of Education and the State Institutes for development
programmes of in-service training;
(iv) The course content of Socially Useful Productive Work for Teacher
Training Colleges should be produced by National Council of Educational
Research and Training in collaboration with such other institutes which have
included manual labour in their regular programmes.
5.25 WORKING GROUP ON VOCATIONALISATION OF EDUCATION
1977
The Ministry of Education and Social Welfare (Department of Education)
set up, in consultation with the Planning Commission a working group on
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Vocationalisation of Education under the Chairmanship of Shri P. Sabanayagam
in 1977. The terms of reference of the committee were to review the
developments in the field, formulate concrete proposals indicating financial
implications and structural arrangements and to apportion areas of
responsibility among the centre, States and voluntary agencies. In the first
meeting of the working group held on 24th October 1977, two sub-groups were
constituted viz.:
(i) Vocationalisation of Education - Rural Areas
(ii) Vocationalisation of Education - Non Rural Areas.
5.26 SECONDARY EDUCATION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
VOCATIONALISATION 1978
National Review Committee on Higher Secondary Education was
appointed by the Government of India, on 10th October 1977 under the
Chairmanship of Dr. Malcolm S. Adiseshaiah, Vice-Chancellor, University of
Madras on +2 stage of school education with special reference to
vocationalisation of education, to review the National Council of Educational
Research and Training document "Higher Secondary Education and its
Vocationalisation", to study the syllabi and courses of the Central Board of
Secondary Education with special reference to a few selected vocations and to
recommend a plan of action for introduction of vocationalisation at the
secondary/higher secondary stage. The Committee's report "LEARNING TO
DO" was submitted on 28th February 1978.
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5.27 DRAFT NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION 1979
In 1979 the Draft Policy on Education were prepared to modify and
design the curriculum for teacher education at Primary and Secondary level,
because in this stage of education the teacher needs to pay more attention to
the students. The curriculum of teacher education at the elementary and
secondary stages will be suitably changed in order to enable teachers to play
their proper role in reforming education. Pedagogical and professional
preparation for teachers in higher education should also be provided for.
Facilities for in-service training will be expanded. Centres for developing
curricular materials and teaching aids will be established especially for the
benefit of teachers in rural areas and for both formal and non-formal systems
of education.
5.28 NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION (1986)
Since the nation's independence in 1947, the Indian government
sponsored a variety of programmes to address the problems of illiteracy in both
rural and urban India. Maulana AbulKalam Azad, India's first Minister of
Education, envisaged strong central government control over education
throughout the country, with a uniform educational system. The Union
government established the University Education Commission (1948–1949) and
the Secondary Education Commission (1952–1953) to develop proposals to
modernize India's education system. The Resolution on Scientific Policy was
adopted by the government of India's first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.
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The Nehru government sponsored the development of high-quality scientific
education institutions such as the Indian Institutes of Technology. In 1961, the
Union government formed the National Council of Educational Research and
Training (NCERT) as an autonomous organization that would advise both the
Union and state governments on formulating and implementing education
policies.
Based on the report and recommendations of the Education Commission
(1964–1966), the government of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi announced the
first National Policy on Education in 1968, which called for a "radical
restructuring" and equalize educational opportunities in order to achieve
national integration and greater cultural and economic development. The policy
called for fulfilling compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14, as
stipulated by the Constitution of India, and the better training and qualification
of teachers. The policy called for focus on learning of regional languages,
outlining the "three language formula" to be implemented in secondary
education - the instruction of the English language, the official language of the
state where the school was based, and Hindi, the national language. Language
education was seen as essential to reduce the gulf between
the intelligentsia and the masses. Although the decision to adopt Hindi as the
national language had proven controversial, the policy called for use and
learning of Hindi to be encouraged uniformly to promote a common language
for all Indians. The policy also encouraged the teaching of the ancient Sanskrit
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language, which was considered an essential part of India's culture and
heritage. The NPE of 1968 called for education spending to increase to six
percent of the national income.
Having announced that a new policy was in development in January,
1985, the government of Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi introduced a new National
Policy on Education in May, 1986. The new policy called for "special emphasis
on the removal of disparities and to equalize educational opportunity,"
especially for Indian women, Scheduled Tribes (ST) and the Scheduled
Caste (SC) communities. To achieve these, the policy called for expanding
scholarships, adult education, recruiting more teachers from the SCs, incentives
for poor families to send their children to school regularly, development of new
institutions and providing housing and services. The NPE called for a "child-
centred approach" in primary education, and launched "Operation Blackboard"
to improve primary schools nationwide. The policy expanded the Open
University system with the Indira Gandhi National Open University, which had
been created in 1985. The policy also called for the creation of the "rural
university" model, based on the philosophy of Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi,
to promote economic and social development at the grassroots level in rural
India robin.
5.29 OPERATION BLACKBOARD 1987
The scheme of Operation Blackboard was launched in 1987 in pursuance
of NPE-POA, to provide minimum essential facilities to all primary schools in the
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country.External evaluation of the scheme has indicated that lack of training of
teachers in using the teaching material, specification of a large number of
uniform facilities to be provided without modification according to local needs
and lack of provision for breakage of equipment have been some of the draws
of implementation of the scheme.
In order to operationalise the Revised Policy Formulations, the modified OB will
contain the following three sub schemes:
i) Continuation of ongoing OB to cover all the remaining primary schools
especially those in SC/ST areas;
ii) Expanding the scope of OB to provide three teachers and three rooms
to primary schools wherever enrolment warrants them; and
iii) Expanding OB to upper primary schools to provide (a) at least one
room for each class/section (b) a Headmaster-cum-office room, (c) separate
toilet facilities for girls and boys, (d) essential teaching learning equipment
including a library, (e) at least one teacher for each class/section and (f) a
contingency grant for replenishment of items, consumable and minor repairs,
etc.
5.30 SHIKSHA KARMI PROJECT (SKP) 1987
Education attainments in Rajasthan have been among the lowest in India
even till the 1990s. During the period 1991–2001, however, there has been a
substantial improvement in the literacy, which was over 75 per cent. Despite
such improvements, the enrolment rate in the state was as low as 60 per cent.
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The proportionate share of girls in total enrolment in the pre-primary and
primary level education has been as low as 36.8 per cent even in 1995-96.
Another fact is the high drop-out rate of girl children. Several measures have
been implemented in recent years to improve formal education system, and/or
to facilitate access to education. Among these, the Government of Rajasthan
initiated two ambitious and innovative education programmes—the Shiksha
Karmi Project (SKP) in 1987 and The Lok Jumbish project (LJP) in 1992. These
projects have developed novel responses to deep-rooted problems of education
and have transformed the delivery of education in the state. Both Shiksha
Karmi and the Lok Jumbish were initiated as micro-level initiatives and later
integrated into state-wide strategies to meet the educational needs of deprived
rural communities. Some of the objectives of the SKP were to achieve the
following:
Universalization of primary education in remote, socio-economically
backward villages in those blocks of Rajasthan where the existing
primary schools have been dysfunctional.
A qualitative improvement of primary education in such villages by
adapting the form and content of education to local needs and
conditions.
Improvement in enrolment of all boys and girls in the age group 6-14
years.
Building of a level of learning equivalent to the norms of Class V.
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The Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP) literally means ‗education worker‘ and
aims to transform dysfunctional schools into more efficient ones through the
provision of quality education with the help of locally available youth albeit with
lower qualification. The programme was formulated on the basis of a successful
project of a non-government organisation (NGO) called the Social Work and
Research Centre (SWRC) at Tilonia in Rajasthan. During a pilot project in 1984-
86, SWRC ran three experimental primary schools using local teachers and
providing continual in-service training. The curriculum and textbook design
related directly to life in a rural environment, and the education outcomes were
impressive. When the project was evaluated, these schools compared very
favourably with government primary schools.
5.31 SCHEME OF VOCATIONALISATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
AT + 2 LEVEL
The Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Vocationalisation of Secondary
Education provides for diversification of educational opportunities so as to
enhance individual employability, reduce the mismatch between demand and
supply of skilled manpower and provides an alternative for those pursuing
higher education. The Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Vocationalisation of
Secondary Education at + 2 level is being implemented since 1988. The revised
scheme is in operation since 1992-93. The Scheme provides for financial
assistance to the States to set up administrative structure, area vocational
surveys, preparation of curriculum, text book, work book curriculum guides,
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training manual, teacher training programme, strengthening technical support
system for research and development, training and evaluation etc. It also
provides financial assistance to NGOs and voluntary organizations towards
implementation of specific innovative projects for conducting short-term
courses.
The Scheme, so far, has created infrastructure of 21000 sections in 9619
schools and creating a capacity of about 10 lakh students at + 2 level. The
grants released so far since the inception of the scheme is Rs. 765 crore. Based
on the recommendations of various Committees/Review Groups, the existing
Scheme is being revised. Besides the above mentioned programmes and
scheme; there are some other centrally sponsored schemes were launched to
effect radical qualitative changes in the secondary school system in India. They
are-
National Population Education Project, 1980
Computer Literacy and Studies in Schools, 1984-88
English Language Teaching Institutes, 1986
Indian Culture, Arts and Value Education, 1987
Revised Educational Technology Scheme, 1987
Scheme for Improvement of science education, 1987-88
Reorganization of Teacher Education, 1988
Environmental Orientation to School Education, 1988-89
Centrally Sponsored Scheme for vocational Education, 1988-89
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Centrally scheme for Yoga Education
School Computer Programme Everywhere (SCOPE)
Scheme of Navodaya Vidyalayas
5.32 ANDHRA PRADESH PRIMARY EDUCATION PROJECT (APPEP)
To address the shortfall in the provision of schools in the state of Andhra
Pradesh, the APPEP Phase-I was carried out from 1984 to 1988. APPEP Phase II
was agreed to between the Government of India (GoI), and DFID in 1989 and
was implemented through to 1993. The overall objective of APPEP-II was to
achieve quality improvement by the year 2000 in teacher competence and
classroom practice to contribute to attaining universal primary education.
Specifically the programme focused on comprehensive training for large
numbers of primary school teachers, Mandal resource persons, teacher trainers
and local school inspectors. Despite the implementation of similar projects
under Operation Blackboard and Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, this was considered
an ambitious plan and a tremendous task for the Department of Education to
achieve.
Physical development consisted of the design and construction of 3393
classrooms covering 23 districts. In particular designs were to provide adequate
space per child, light and ventilation, blackboard and storage provision together
with display facilities. Additional facilities were also required to enable a school
to function as a Teacher Centre (TC). In line with this strategy one school per
mandal was proposed to be upgraded as a fully equipped TC and
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additional/new classrooms provided where needed most. 1104 teacher centres
were established in this period. The building programme was executed by PRED
at district level using conventional technologies and specifications.
The APPEP II programme was one of the biggest school resource and
building programmes ever undertaken in India and the DFID regularly
monitored its progress. The APPEP Review Mission in 1993 drew attention to
many positive aspects of progress and proposed that a team of consultants be
appointed to formulate a proposal to develop an integrated approach to
primary education provision in the state.
The engineering sector with financial assistance and guidance from DFID
ESG responded by conducting a research programme into the multitude of
alliterative construction techniques on offer all over India using experts and
consultants to evaluate the various options available. The research findings
were presented and discussed at a workshop during November 1993.
The areas identified (as a part of research findings) where savings were to be
made were:
Locally available materials-
a) Construction techniques b) Design c) Community Participation
Also a nation-wide survey of the various options available the technologies were
short-listed to be tried using the following criteria:
Durability
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Availability of materials and skills
Energy consumption
Cost
Acceptability
Maintenance requirements
5.33 NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION (1992)
The National Policy on Education (NPE) was adopted by Parliament in
May 1986. A committee was set up under the chairmanship of Acharya
Ramamurti in May 1990 to review NPE and to make recommendations for its
modifications. That Committee submitted its report in December 1990. At the
request of the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) a committee was set
up in July 1991 under the chairmanship of Shri N. Janardhana Reddy, Chief
Minister of Andhra Pradesh, to consider modifications in NPE taking into
consideration the report of the Ramamurti Committee and other relevant
developments having a bearing on the Policy, and to make recommendations
regarding modifications to be made in the NPE. This Committee submitted its
report in January 1992. The report of the Committee was considered by the
CABE in its meeting held on 5-6 May, 1992.
5.34 DISTRICT PRIMARY EDUCATION PROGRAMME (DPEP) 1993
The 1990s is a decade that marks a new phase of developments in
education in general and primary education in particular in India. International
assistance for primary education has been the most significant development, as
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external assistance was not sought even for other levels of education for a long
time by the government of India. Rather for the first time, primary education
sector was opened to external assistance. Starting with World Bank assistance
for primary education in ten districts in Uttar Pradesh and that of UNICEF in
Bihar, a plethora of international aid organisations are seen today in India
working on primary education system. In order to ensure better co-ordination
from the point of view of the government of India and governments of various
states in India on the one hand, and various international aid organisations on
the other, the government of India has launched a programme of District
Primary Education Programme (DPEP), as a broad overall umbrella of
international aid programmes in primary education in the country. Again, to
evaluate the effectiveness of the New Education Policy 1986, a committee was
appointed by the Govt of India in 1990. A review of NPE, 1986 was conducted
during 1990 – 1992. The programme of Action, 1992 stressed the need of
development of education in backward districts. Accordingly, the Government of
India formulated the ―District Primary Education Programe‖ (DPEP) scheme in
1993. In December 1993 the Cabinet accorded its approval for the scheme in
principle: in January 1994 the full Planning Commission approved DPEP as a
centrally sponsored scheme. DPEP is an effort to decentralize educational
planning at the district level. It is planned in such a way that it suits the
educational needs and demands of the district concerned. Initially district
projects were prepared in 44 districts in eight states: Assam, Haryana,
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Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Gradually it was followed in 273 districts spreads over 18 states.
Objectives of DPEP scheme:
To provide access to all children of primary education (Class I to IV/V)
To reduce dropout rates to less than 10 percent
To increase learning achievement at primary level by 25 percent
To reduce gender gaps and differences in Social group to less than 5
percent.
5.35 UP BASIC EDUCATION PROJECT (UPBEP)
One-sixth of the world's population is in India and one-sixth of Indians
live in Uttar Pradesh (UP). With 160 million people, it is not only themost
populous Indian state but also one of the poorest. Despite its rich natural and
human resources, 42 percent of UP's rural population is below the poverty line.
UP also has a female literacy rate of 25.3 percent which is well below the
national average of 39.2 percent (Census, 1991).The low literacy rates are
further compounded by enormous inequalities in terms of region, urban and
rural population, gender and social groups such as scheduled castes (SC),
scheduled tribes (ST) and minorities. The keysector issues in UP are: (i)
inadequate access to primary school and disparate enrollment especially for
girls, SC and ST children, working children and children with disabilities; (ii) low
efficiency resulting in low retention and high drop-out and repetition rates; (iii)
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poor learning outcomes resulting in dismally low achievement rates in
mathematics and language; (iv) inadequate pedagogical support; and (v) weak
management. To address this social and educational backwardness, the
Government of Uttar Pradesh (GOUP) has implemented several large-scale
operations with the assistance of the Bank. The UP Basic Education Project
(UPBEP), approved in FY93, was designed to expand access to primary
school(especially of socially disadvantaged groups), improve student learning
and enhance GOUP's capacity to manage elementary education in
17educationally disadvantaged districts. The Second District Primary Education
Project (DPEP II), with similar objectives, was approved in FY97and covers 18
additional disadvantaged districts. Finally, to address the upsurge of enrollment
growths in UPBEP districts resulting in unacceptably large classes and acute
shortage of teachers and classrooms, UPBEP II was approved in FY98. The
Objectives were-
To assist GOUP in its efforts towards building capacity for ensuring that
all 6-10 year old children in 42 districts of the state, especially from socially
disadvantaged groups, complete a five-year primary education cycle of
appropriate quality. This project will contribute to further increasing the
geographical scope of the Bank-assisted UPBEP I and II and DPEP II in the
context of the current GOUP's reform.
The proposed project will have the following three
components:(i)Expanding access to and increasing retention levels in primary
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education, especially for children from disadvantaged groups. This project
component includes the following activities to be financed under the proposed
credit: appointment of para-teachers in new schools and classrooms;
construction and rehabilitation of schools and classrooms and provision of
toilets and water facilities; introduction of double shifts; provision of AS
facilities; provision of interventions specifically designed to address the
educational needs of different focus groups (girls, SC and ST children, working
children and children with disabilities); implementation of a school-health
program; and mobilizing and strengthening community organizations,
particularly VECs, and carrying out awareness campaigns. In addition, this
component includes the filling of teacher vacancies (tobe fully financed by the
state's budget) and redeployment of teachers in project districts.(ii) Improving
quality of classroom processes and enhancing learning achievement levels in
primary education. This project component includes the following activities to
be financed under the proposed credit: instituting a holistic pedagogical
renewal approach for comprehensive and continuous support for teacher
development and supervision; providing in-service training and school-based
support to teachers; developing and supplying improved and more child-friendly
textbooks and supplementary instructional materials and providing funds for
teachers to acquire and/or develop TLMs; providing book banks; and improving
procedures for assessment of children's learning, both internal, carried out by
teachers, and external, carried out by the district and state authorities.(iii)
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Improving state, district and sub-district level capacity to manage primary
education. This component includes the following activities to be financed
under the proposed credit: strengthening the current state project office;
strengthening and integrating existing state and district resource institutions in
project implementation; strengthening district project management structures;
fostering the involvement of qualified NGOs in project implementation; and
building state and district capacity for monitoring, research and evaluation.
Public Disclosure
5.36 JUMBISH PROJECT (LJP), AND TEACHER EDUCATION
The Lok Jumbish(People‘s Movement) programme is a joint initiative
developed by the Government of Rajasthan in cooperation with local NGOs. The
programme, which has been underway since 1992, is functioning in 13 districts
of Rajasthan. It aims at providing elementary education by mobilizing the
community and soliciting its involvement in the running of local schools. Lok
Jumbish (LJ) – Education for All - is a movement started in 1989 aimed at
ensuring education for all in the Indian state of Rajasthan through mobilization
of the community. The three major focal points of LJ are:
universal access to primary education
universal retention of children up to 14 years of age
a substantial improvement in the quality of education to enable all
children to achieve essential levels of learning
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The activities of LJ have been in the villages and schools. They include
environment building, the formation of village level bodies and the
improvement of school facilities and of the teaching-learning process in the
schools.
In-service training of teachers has been given paramount importance to
improve the quality of primary education. Major emphasis in this training is on
sensitization, pedagogical skill development, insight into competency based
learning/evaluation and gender equity. LJ also focuses on making teachers
accountable and involves the community in achieving this. There have been
cases of community groups formed with the LJ who exert pressure on the
Teachers to come to school regularly.
The community is involved in analyzing educational situations in the
village. This enables the community to understand the existing educational
situations especially of girls as well as the nature of support required in the
village in terms of new schools, upgrading existing primary schools, and
starting non-formal centers.
Gender participation in this is an important element of the strategy because
women's development is necessary for achieving primary education for all.
5.37 MAHILA SAMAKHYA(MS)
The Mahila Samakhya (MS) programme was launched by the
Government of India to enhance the female participation in education especially
in the backward areas in each and every district of the country. The scheme
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would be applicable only in those identified Educationally Backward Blocks
(EBBs) where, as per census data of 2001, the rural female literacy is below the
national average and gender gap in literacy is more than the national average.
Among these blocks, schools may be set up in areas with: concentration of
tribal population, with low female literacy and/or a large number of girls out of
school; concentration of SC, OBC and minority populations, with low female
literacy and/ or a large number of girls out of school; areas with low female
literacy; or areas with a large number of small, scattered habitations that do
not qualify for a school. The criteria for eligible EBB will be the same as in the
NPEGEL scheme of SSA. The main goal of the programme was to gender
disparities still persist in rural areas and among disadvantaged communities.
Looking at enrolment trends, there remain significant gaps in the enrolment of
girls at the elementary level as compared to boys, especially at the upper
primary levels.
5.38 SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN 2001 (SSA)
As a follow up to the NPE, a number of programmes were initiated in
India with a view to achieving UEE. These efforts were intensified in the 1980s
and 1990s through several interventions such as Operation Blackboard (OBB),
the Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP), the Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project
(APPEP), the Bihar Education Project (BEP), the UP Basic Education Project
(UPBEP), Mahila Samakhya (MS), the Lok Jumbish Project (LJP), and Teacher
Education, which put in place a decentralized system of teacher support
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through District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) and the District
Primary Education Programme (DPEP). The latest is the SSA, a centrally-
sponsored scheme implemented in partnership with state governments for the
UEE across the country. Due to these initiatives, over the years there has been
significant spatial and numerical expansion of elementary schools in the
country. Today, access and enrolment at the primary stage of education have
reached very close to universal levels. The number of out-of-school children at
the elementary level has reduced significantly. The gender gap in elementary
education has narrowed and the percentage of enrolled children belonging to
scheduled castes and tribes has increased successively. Despite this, the goal of
universal elementary education is yet to be achieved in the country. There
remains the unfinished agenda of universal education at the upper primary
stage. The number of children —particularly those from disadvantaged groups
and weaker sections — who drop out of school before completing upper
primary education remains high. The quality of learning achievement is not
always entirely satisfactory even in the case of children who complete
elementary education. The Objectives of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan are-
All children in school, Education Guarantee Centre, Alternate School, ―-
to-School camp by 2003;
All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007.
All children complete eight years of elementary schooling by 2010.
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Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on
education for life.
Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and
at elementary education level by 2010.
Universal retention by 2010.
5.39 NATIONAL PROGRAMME FOR EDUCATION OF GIRLS AT
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 2003 (NPEGEL)
The National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level
(NPEGEL), is a focused intervention of Government of India, to reach the
―Hardest to Reach‖ girls, especially those not in school. Launched in July 2003,
it is an important component of SSA, which provides additional support for
enhancing girl‘s education over and above the investments for girl‘s education
through normal SSA interventions. The programme provides for development
of a ―model school‖ in every cluster with more intense community mobilization
and supervision of girls enrolment in schools. Gender sensitisation of teachers,
development of gender-sensitive learning materials, and provision of need-
based incentives like escorts, stationery, workbooks and uniforms are some of
the endeavours under the programme.
5.40 CENTRALLY SPONSORED SCHEME “INCENTIVES TO GIRLS FOR
SECONDARY EDUCATION
The Finance Minister in his budget announcement 2006-07 (Para-38-
Credit of funds under Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas) has inter-alia stated
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as under: - ―The initial results of the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya Scheme
launched in 2004 are encouraging. 1,000 new residential schools for girls from
SC, ST, OBC and Minority communities will be opened in 2006-07. ―I have
provided Rs.128 crore, and I have agreed to provide an additional sum of
Rs.172 crore during the year. I propose to provide a further Incentive to the girl
child who passes the VIII Standard Examination and enrolls in secondary
school. A sum of Rs.3, 000 will be deposited in her name, and she would be
entitled to withdraw it on reaching 18 years of age.‖
The above announcement has been made to promote the girl child‘s
enrolment of 14-18 years age group at secondary stage, who passes class VIII
and subsequently drops out for various socio-economic reasons. The proposed
scheme is further intended to retain such girl child up to class XII. In the year
2004-05, the dropout rates of girls from classes I-VIII was about 50.8%. For
classes I-X the dropout rate of girls was about 64 % in the same year. Hence,
only 36% of the country‘s girl students could be retained up to class-X. This is
the combined result of several socio economic factors, but a major contributor
is no doubt the inability of the parents to afford the cost of education of girl
child. The Objective were-
To establish an enabling environment to reduce the drop outs and to promote
the enrolment of girl child belonging to SC/ST communities in secondary
schools and ensure their retention up to the 18 years of age.
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5.41 RIGHT TO EDUCATION ACT 2009 (RTE)
The milestone step has been taken up by the government of India in the
field of education i.e. Right to Education Act, 2009. The RTE has been
introduced to directly counter the problems of illiteracy, poor quality
infrastructure and learning level in the elementary education sector. However,
the road to the RTE Act has not been easy. The exercise of consulting all
stakeholders including the states and taking them on board has been time-
consuming. The main provisions in the RTE Act include the responsibilities of
appropriate government and local authorities towards establishing
neighbourhood schools; sharing of financial and other responsibilities between
the central and state governments; prohibition of capitation fee and screening
procedure for admission; prohibition of detention, expulsion and corporal
punishment; specification of norms and standards for schools including those
related to the infrastructure and teachers; laying down of teacher qualifications
and their duties; prohibition of deployment of teachers for non-educational
purposes; and ensuring that curriculum and evaluation is in accordance with
the Constitution of India and as per child-centred principles and values.
Children with disabilities and those belonging to minority communities are also
covered under the Act. As per the RTE Act, 2009, every child has the right to
full-time elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal
school that satisfies certain essential norms and standards. The need to address
inadequacies in retention, residual access, particularly of un-reached children,
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and the questions of quality are the most compelling reasons for the addition of
Article 21A in the Constitution of India. As has already been stated, even prior
to the RTE, the GoI‘s efforts were towards universalisation of elementary
education in the country. The SSA was the most prominent among all efforts
initiated by the GoI before 2010 and was approved by the union cabinet in
November 2000 as a centrally-sponsored scheme. The goals of the SSA are (a)
enrolment of all children in schools, Education Guarantee Scheme (EGS)
centres, alternate schools, ‗back-to-school‘ camps, (b) retention of all children
till the upper primary stage, (c) bridging of gender and social category gaps in
enrolment, retention and learning, and (d) ensuring significant enhancement in
the learning achievement levels of children at the primary and upper primary
stages.
5.42 RASHTRIYA MADHYAMIK SHIKSHA ABHIYAN (RMSA) 2009
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) 2009is a Programme of
the Government of India, implemented in partnership with the State
Governments with the main objective to make secondary education a good
quality available, accessible and affordable to all young persons. The scheme
seeks to enhance enrolment in classes IX and X by providing a secondary
school within a reasonable distance of every habitation, to improve quality of
education imparted at secondary level by ensuring all secondary schools
conform to prescribed/ standard norms, to remove gender, socio-economic and
disability barriers and to achieve universal access to secondary level education
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by 2017, i.e. by the end of the 12th Five Year Plan. RMSA was launched in
2009, funded through national resources (central government + state
government) and now has tied up for external funding by Development
Partners (DP) – World Bank‘s International Development Association (IDA),
United Kingdom‘s – Department of International Development (DFID) and
European Union (EU). As part of the agreement for external aid from the DPs
which came into effect in November, 2012, the Joint Review Mission (JRM) is to
be conducted every six months in the months of January and July each year.
The January Mission undertakes States visits, while the July mission is a desk
review. The field visits to the selected States/UTs implementing RMSA will be
by a Joint team of nominees of both the GOI and the DPs, after which there will
be discussions on the findings of the State visits followed by report writing and
wrap up in which the Education Secretaries/SPDs of the States will also be
participating.
5.43 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION OF THE DISABLED AT SECONDARY
STAGE (IEDSS)
The Scheme of Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage
(IEDSS) has been launched from the year 2009-10. This Scheme replaces the
earlier scheme of Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) and would
provide assistance for the inclusive education of the disabled children in classes
IX-XII. The main aim of the programme is to enable all students with
disabilities, after completing eight years of elementary schooling, to pursue
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further four years of secondary schooling in an inclusive and enabling
environment. The Objectives are-
The scheme covers all children studying at secondary stage in
Government, local body and Government-aided schools, with one or more
disabilities as defined under the Persons with Disabilities Act (1995) and the
National Trust Act (1999) in the class IX to XII, namely blindness, low vision,
leprosy cured, hearing impairment, locomotor disabilities, mental retardation,
mental illness, autism and cerebral palsy, and may eventually cover speech
impairment, learning disabilities, etc. Girls with disabilities receive special focus
to help them gain access to secondary schools, as also to information and
guidance for their developing potential. Setting up of Model inclusive schools in
every State is envisaged.
5.44 SCHEME FOR INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT IN MINORITY
INSTITUTES (IDMI)
IDMI has been operationalised to augment Infrastructure in Private
Aided/Unaided Minority Schools/Institutions in order to enhance quality of
education to minority children. The salient features of IDMI scheme are:-
i. The scheme would facilitate education of minorities by augmenting and
strengthening school infrastructure in Minority Institutions in order to
expand facilities for formal education to children of minority communities.
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ii. The scheme will cover the entire country but, preference will be given to
minority institutions (private aided/unaided schools) located in districts,
blocks and towns having a minority population above 20%.
iii. The scheme will inter alia encourage educational facilities for girls, children
with special needs and those who are most deprived educationally amongst
minorities.
iv. The scheme will fund infrastructure development of private aided/unaided
minority institutions to the extent of 75% and subject to a maximum of Rs.
50 lakhs per institution for strengthening of educational infrastructure and
physical facilities in the existing school including (i) additional classrooms,
(ii) science / computer lab rooms, (iii) library rooms, (iv) toilets, (v)
drinking water facilities and (vi) hostel buildings for children especially for
girls.
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SECCTION-II
IMPLEMENTATION OF RECOMMENDATIONS OF VARIOUS
COMMISSIONS AND COMMITTEES WITH REGARDS TO SCHOOL
EDUCATION IN INDIA
As it has been discussed earlier that the task before independence
India was to remove all infirmities of the inherited educational system and
transform it into a social force geared to socio-economic transformation of the
Indian society and relate education to live, needs and aspiration of the society.
Within such conceptual framework, education was conceived as being
intertwined with the developmental process as one of its importance
components. It took some time to clearly outline the directive principles of state
policy (Article no 45) of our constitutions which reads:
“The state shall endeavor to provide, within a period of 10 years from
the commencement of this constitution, for free and compulsory education for
all children until they complete the age of 14 years”.
Social reformers and Indian national leaders had realized long before
independence the value of education as one of most powerful instruments for
socio-economic development and modernization of our society. While struggling
for independence form colonial rule, they tried to expand educational facilities
in the country. When the colonial government prepared post war educational
development in 1944. (Sargent report 1944), it was criticized on the ground
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that it took a long period of 40 years to universalize elementary education for
children upto the age of 14 years. This concern for rapid expansion of
education in the country found expression in the constitution.
The constitution of India-the character of India‟s Freedom is a unique
and rare blue print of our democracy. As it embodies India‟s full self-expression
and mirrors the hopes and aspirations of people, it is natural that education
should find an honoured place in this document. After implementation of the
constitution, its ideals and aims are reflected in all the commissions and
committees made for the development of the education. After independence
this constitution has become the milestone to be achieved through the various
policies, documents, commissions and committees.
After independence another action of a great significance in the field
of education taken by the Government of India was the appointment of the
University Education Commission in December 1948, under the chairmanship of
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, an eminent scholar and former Vice-Chancellor of
Banaras Hindu University, who later on became the President of India. The
report of the Commission is a unique document of great importance as it has
guided the development of university education in India till the formation of the
National Policy on Education, 1968. The second most significant document in
the history of the development of education is the Report of Secondary
Education Commission 1952-53. In 1966, an important event in the history of
education in India took place. This was the publication of the report of the
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Education Commission 1964-66., popularly known as the Kothari Commission.
The report went into all aspects of education and at all levels and suggested a
blue print of educational reforms to be carried out during the coming twenty
years. The report appropriately subtitled Education and National
Development begins with these words, „The destiny of India is now being
shaped in our classrooms.
The Commission recommended that the Government of India should
issue a statement on the National Policy on Education which should provide
guidelines to the State Governments and the local authorities in preparing and
implementing educational plans in their areas. Therefore, in 1967, the
Government of India constituted the Committee of members of Parliament on
Education to prepare the draft of a statement on the National policy on
Education. Dr. Triguna Sen, the Union Education Minister was the chairman of
the Committee which included 29 leading members of all the different political
parties in the parties in the country.
In this way a good number of commissions and committees have been
constituted in different times. But unfortunately recommendations given by all
these commissions and committees have not been implemented in toto because
of numbers of reasons. In the following sections the implementations of
Commissions and Committees recommendation on school education have been
discussed.
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5.45 IMPLEMENTATION OF TARA CHAND COMMITTEE (1948)
Tara Chand Committee (1948) recommended secondary schools should
be multilateral and the teaching of Hindi and English should be compulsory at
the secondary stage. It gave emphasis on the pay and condition of service of
teachers. The recommendations of the committee were not completely
implemented.
5.46 IMPLEMENTATION OFUNIVERSITY EDUCATION COMMISSION
(1948-49)
University Education Commission (1948-49) considered that the
secondary education was really the weakest link in our educational machinery
and thus needed urgent reform. It gave importance on the establishment of
well-equipped and well-staffed intermediate colleges in each province. It
emphasized that admission to the university should be after intermediate
examination, not matriculation. But the recommendations of the commission
were not sincerely implemented.
5.47 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SECONDARY EDUCATION
COMMISSION 1952-53
The Secondary Education Commission 1952-53 recommended various
bold and far-sighted measures like establishment of multipurpose schools,
improvement of teaching and school libraries. Training of teachers, introduction
of crafts in middle schools and conversion of high schools into higher secondary
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schools by increasing the duration of secondary stage by one year to give a
new orientation to secondary education as a whole. As a result of these
recommendations, the secondary education in various states began to take a
new shape. The Chairman of the Central Advisory Board of Education appointed
a Special Implementation Committee in 1953 to carry on the various schemes
that were started with the help of the Central Government. The Government of
India had accepted most of the recommendations of the Mudaliar Commission.
It had decided to do away with the diverse patterns of education in India and
establish a uniform structure for the whole country. It had been pointed out
that the recommendations of the previous Commissions have not been given
effect to largely because the necessary financial resources could not be made
available either by the state or by the Centre. It is an irony of fate that the
recommendations of this Commission also met the same fate. The Secondary
Education Commission did not give sufficient thought to the financial aspect of
the various reforms. Diversification of courses and vocationalisation was
proposed to commence at the end of class VIII. This was criticized as early
pushing and was not acceptable to the middle class which constitutes the most
forceful opinion group. The scheme of multipurpose higher secondary schools
proposed by it was not put into practice with vigor and commitment.
The report fails to make a powerful impact on education in India:
a) The secondary education commission observed as regards financial aid
to secondary Education. “It has been pointed out that the
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recommendations of the previous commissions have not been given
effect to largely because the necessary financial resources could not be
made available either by the state or by the centre”. It is an irony of fate
that the recommendations of this commission have also met the same
fate. The secondary Education Commission did not give sufficient
thought to the financial aspect of the various reforms.
b) The Secondary Education Commission did not suggest any short term
and long term plans for the implementation of its recommendations.
c) Regarding agricultural education in secondary schools the commission
observed, “The need, therefore, to educate the youth of the country to a
proper appreciation of the role that agriculture plays in the national
economy must be stressed in all states should provide much greater
opportunities for agricultural education in rural schools, so that more
students may take it and adopt it as a vocation.” Thus it is evident that
the commission was fully aware of the importance of agricultural
education but it did not suggest concrete measures for introducing it.
The Commission thought it fit only to append a note on Agricultural
Education in the U.S.A. by Dr. K.R. Williams. This note should have been
thoroughly examined in the light of the situation existing in India.
d) The Commission‟s important recommendations on the new
Organizational Pattern of Secondary Education are:
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(i) The Middle or Senior Basic or Junior Secondary Stage of three
years; and
(ii) The higher secondary stage of four years.
It may be seen from these recommendations that the commission did
not state in clear and unambiguous language what the total duration of the
school course would be. This created a lot of confusion.
e) The financial implications of the upgrading of a large number of high
schools into higher secondary pattern in every state were not worked
out.
f) The commission suggested that the minimum qualifications required for
teaching in the last two years of the higher secondary school were and
MA degree or first class BA degree with a degree in teaching. An
adequate number of qualified Post Graduate teachers are not available in
certain subject.
g) The introduction of core subject like-crafts and general science in the
curriculum of the higher secondary school has created further difficulties
regarding staff requirement.
h) The serious difficulties in the process of implementing the
recommendations of establishing multipurpose school could not be
forcing with the result that out of 22581 higher secondary schools in
1963-64, there were only 2000 multipurpose schools. Thus we find that
our schools remain as bookish and stereotype as at the time of
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recommendations of the secondary education commission. One may
aptly put this question: what has been the impact of the secondary
education commission? The answer is quite obvious. We are where we
were fifteen years ago.
i) The multipurpose school have benefited neither the school live us nor
seekers of higher education.
j) A close scrutiny of the implementation of the recommendations of the
commission reveals that the quantitative expansion of secondary
education has not been simultaneously accompanied by an expansion in
the facilities that are necessary for the imparting of this education to a
large number of the students population. Our zeal for implementing the
recommendation has lead to a dilution of standards at the institutional
level.
k) The commission did not give a clear cut path of vocationalized education
adequately. In no way our education has facilitated the task of finding
suitable man-power for various sectors of development of industries and
other services.
l) The commission did not suggest methods of coordination between
growth of economy, man-power needs, employment opportunities and
the output of secondary schools.
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The Reasons for Unsatisfactory Implementation
The reasons for the unsatisfactory implementation in most of the states
regarding the reorganization of secondary schools may be states as under:
(a) There is a variety of school patterns in the country. The primary or junior
basic stage covers a period of four years in some states and five years in
others. There is a variation in the high school stage from two to four
years. The age of admission to class I is 5 plus in some states and 6 plus
in the others and this has increased the confusion all the more. It is felt
that the mere addition of one year to the school course is not helpful in
evolving a common pattern of school education as envisaged by the
secondary education commission.
(b) The pattern of the school course which existed in Delhi seems to have
greatly influenced the reorganization elsewhere. According to this
pattern n elementary (or primary plus middle school) course should be of
eight years and a higher secondary course of three years. In states,
where school education is generally covered by a period of ten years
followed by a University course of four years for the first degree, this
reorganization meant in effect either the transfer of one year from the
college to the secondary school so that the high school became a higher
secondary school, or the separation of one year from the university
course to form a pre-university class. In other states where the total
period of school and college education required for the first degree is
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generally 15 years (eleven years in school and four years in college) the
reform implied the reduction of one year in the 15 years school and
college education. This happened because these states were not
prepared to extend the duration of the school course from eleven years
to twelve. Madras tried to compress its old 11 years school course into a
ten years course for the purpose of bringing it s school system into the
recognized pattern, but when it was about to reach its goal, it went back
to its old pattern of 11 years of school education.
(c) From the very beginning the old Bombay state (now Maharashtra and
Gujarat) did not agree with the proposed pattern of reorganization and
made no attempt to change its system of secondary education. In Uttar
Pradesh which has the system of intermediate colleges it is claimed that
its intermediate course is followed by a two-year university course, Uttar
Pradesh may also be regarded as a state which has not accepted the
new pattern.
(d) While undertaking the reforms the financial implications of the upgrading
of a large number of schools in every state to the higher secondary
pattern were not worked out. Even with Central aid the states that
accepted the pattern could convert not more than a certain number of
schools into higher secondary institutions.
(e) The selection of high schools for conversion into higher secondary
schools was to be governed by strict and carefully defined conditions.
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The commission‟s report stated that only those schools would develop
into efficient higher secondary institutions which satisfied definite criteria
prescribed regarding accommodation, equipment, qualifications of the
staff, salaries and grades and adequate finances, and that such
conditions have to be fulfilled scrupulously before the schools were
recognized as higher secondary schools. The establishment of higher
secondary schools in certain areas unfortunately became a matter of
prestige for the people concerned. Social and political pressures were
sometimes used for getting the necessary recognition for their
institutions. This resulted in the upgrading of a number of schools which
did not satisfy the minimum criteria regarding accommodation,
equipment, qualifications of staff etc., and though the conversion has
been effected it has not led to any marked improvement in the quality of
education imparted in the institutions.
(f) A successful reorganization implied that teachers with higher
qualifications should be made available for the teaching of the upgraded
courses, at least in the additional year of the higher secondary stage.
The commission‟s report suggested that the minimum qualifications
required for teaching in the last two years of the higher secondary
school were an M.A. degree or a first class B.A degree with a degree in
teaching. An adequate number of qualified post graduates, however,
were not available for the few courses. Moreover, the introduction of
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core subjects like crafts and general science in the curriculum of the
higher secondary school created further difficulties regarding staff
requirement. On account of the mediocre quality of the teaching
personnel the standards of the higher secondary school have not been
adequately raised and the reputation of the new organizational pattern
has suffered as a consequence.
(g) In view if the fact that it was not possible to convert all the high schools
into higher secondary schools in the near future, the pre-university
course was introduced as a transitional experiment. But the pre-
university course has come to be regarded as an institution which could
continue for an indefinite time, particularly with the expansion in
secondary education that has taken place during the last few years
resulting in the establishment of a large number of new high schools all
over the country. The one year pre-university course has not served the
purpose as it is a course of only seven to eight months. It takes several
months to the students out of this short period for adjusting themselves
to the new conditions, for adapting themselves to the methods of
instruction different from what they have been accustomed to in schools,
and (in the case of the majority of students) to a new medium of
instruction, which is English. The pre-university year has thus become an
ineffective period of study.
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5.48 IMPLEMENTATION OF KOTHARI COMMISSION 1964-66
Professor D.S. Kothari submitted the report of the Education
Commission, titled „Education and National Development’ Minister of
Education, to the, Government of India, on June, 29, 1966. Perhaps the most
significant feature of the report was its “emphasis on the social process of
education, on the need to use it as a tool for the realization of national
aspirations or for meeting national challenges”. It rejected as „native belief‟ the
view that “all education is necessarily good, both for the individual and for
society and that it will necessarily lead to progress”. “Quantitatively”, it stated,
“Education can be organized to promote social justice or retard it. History
shows numerous instances where small social groups and elites have used
education as a prerogative of their rule and as a tool for maintaining their
hegemony and perpetuating the values upon which it rested. On the other
hand, there are cases in which a social and cultural revolution has been brought
about in a system where equality of opportunity is provided and education is
deliberately used to developed more and more potential talent and to harness it
to the solution of the national problems. It further stated: “judged from this
point of view, it becomes evident that the present system of education,
designed to meet the needs of an imperial administration within the limitations
set by a feudal and traditional society, will need radical changes if it is to meet
the purposes of a modern democratic and socialistic society. Principal
Recommendations of the Education Commission, 1964-66 Are-
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A. Education and National Objectives
Education and National Development: The most important and urgent
reform needed in education is to related it to the life, needs and aspirations of
the people and thereby make it a powerful instrument of social, economic and
cultural transformation necessary for realisation of the national goal. For this
purpose the following five-fold programme has been suggested;
(a) Relating education to productivity;
(b) Strengthening social and national integration through educational
programmes;
(c) Consolidation of democracy through education;
(d) Modernisation of society through awakening of curiosity,
development of attitudes and values and building up certain essential skills.
(a) Education and productivity
The following programmes are needed to relate productivity to education:
(i) Science education should be an integral part of school education and
ultimately become a part of all courses at University stage;
(ii) Work experience to become an integral part of all education;
(iii) Every effort should be made to orient work experience to technology
and industrialisation and the application of science to productive processes,
including agriculture; and
(iii) Vocationalisation of secondary education and agricultural and
technical education to be emphasised.
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(b) Social and national integration
The following steps have been suggested to strengthen national
consciousness and unity:
(i) Adoption of a common school system of public education as the
national goal and its effective implementation in a phased programme spread
over 20 years.
(ii) Organisation of social and national service programmes concurrently
with academic studies in schools and colleges and to make them obligatory for
all students at all stages;
(iii) Participation in programmes of community development and national
reconstruction should be an integral part of all education from the primary to
the undergraduate stage;
(iv) Continuance of N.C.C. on its present basis till the end of the Fourth
Five Year Plan;
(v) Development of an appropriate language policy for the education
system;
(vi) Adoption of regional language as the medium of instructions;
(vii) Energetic action for production of books and literature, particularly
scientific and technical, in regional languages. This should be the responsibility
of universities assisted by U.G.C.
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(viii) Continuance of the use of English as the medium of instructions in
the All-India institutions. The eventual adoption of Hindi to be considered in
due course subject to certain safeguards;
(ix) Regional languages to be made language of administration for the
regions concerned at the earliest possible time.
(x) Continuation of the promotion of the teaching and study of English
right from the stage. Special attention to be given to the study of Russian;
(xi) English language to serve as a link-language in higher education for
academic work and intellectual inter-communication. Hindi to serve as the link
language of the majority of our people and also adoption of all measures for
the spread of Hindi in non-Hindi areas;
(xii) Combining two modern Indian languages at the B.A and M.A level;
and
(xiii) Promotion of national consciousness through the promotion of
understanding and re-evaluation of our cultural heritage and the creation of a
strong driving faith in the future towards which we aspire.
(c) Education for Democracy
The following Programme has been suggested for consolidation of democracy:
(i) Provision of free and compulsory education of good quality for all
children up to the age of 14 years as envisaged in Art. 45 of the Constitution;
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(ii) Promotion of programmes of adult education aiming not only at
liquidation of illiteracy, but also at raising the civic and vocational efficiency and
general cultural level of the citizens;
(iii) Training of efficient leadership at all levels by expanding secondary
and higher education and providing equal opportunities for all children of merit
and promise, irrespective of economic status, caste, religion, sex or place of
residence;
(iv) Development of a scientific mind and outlook, tolerance, concern
for public interest and public service, self -discipline, self reliance,
initiative and a positive attitude to work.
(d) Social Moral and Spiritual Values
The education system should emphasise the development of
fundamental social, moral and spiritual values. From this point of view the
Centre and State Governments should adopt measures to introduce education
in moral, social and spiritual values in all institutions under their(or local
authority) control on the lines recommended by the University Education
Commission and the Committee on Religious and Moral Instruction.
(e) Education and Modernisation
The following has been suggested in this regard:
(i) Awakening of curiosity, the development of proper interest, attitudes
and values and the building up of such essential skills as independent study and
capacity to think and judge for oneself; and
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(ii) Creation of an intelligentsia of adequate size and competence.
B. The educational system: Structure and Standard
(1) Stages in Education and their Inter-relationship
In this regard the following has been suggested:
(i) The new educational system should consist of (a) one to three years
of pre-school education; (b) a primary stage of 7 to 8 years divided into lower
primary stage of 4 to 5years and a higher primary stage of 3 or 2 years; (c) a
lower secondary stage of 3 or 2years ; (d) a higher secondary stage of two
years of vocational education (e) a higher education stage having a course of 3
years or more for the first degree and followed by course for the second or
research degree of varying durations;
(ii) Age of admission to Class 1 ordinarily not to be less than 6
(iii) First public examination to come at the end of 10 years of schooling;
(iv) Secondary schools should be of two types -high schools providing a
ten-year course and higher secondary schools providing a course of 11 to 12
years.
(v) New Higher Secondary course beginning in Class XI and XII to
provide specialised subjects; and
(vi) Transfer of the Pre-University course from the Universities and
affiliated colleges to secondary schools by 1975-76 and the duration of the
course to be lengthened to two years by 1985-86. The University Grants
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Commission should be responsible for affecting the transfer of all pre-university
or intermediate work from university and affiliated colleges to schools.
(2) Reorganisation of the University stage
The following has been recommended in this respect:
(i) Duration of the first degree should not be less than three years and
the duration of the second degree to be 2 to 3 years;
(ii) Some universities should start graduate schools with 3 years Master
Degree courses in certain subjects; and
(iii) Three year special courses for the first degree which begin at the
end of the first year of the present 3 year degree courses should be started in
selected subjects and in selected institutions.
(3) Utilisation of Facilities
The following methods have been suggested to make full utilisation of
available facilities:
(i) Instruction days in the year to be increased to about 39 weeks for
schools and 35weeks for colleges and pre-primary schools; and
(ii) Standard calendar in the worked out by the Ministry of Education and
the University Grants Commission in consultation with State Governments and
Universities respectively.
C. Teacher Status
The Commission has emphasised that the most urgent need was to
upgrade the remuneration of teacher substantially, particularly at the school
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stages, and recommended that the Government of India should lay dawn for
the school stage, minimum scales of pay for teachers and assist the States and
Union Territories-to adopt equivalent or higher scales to suit their conditions.
Scales of pay of schools teachers belonging to the same category but working
under different managements such as Government, Local bodies or private
managements should be the same.
D. Teacher Education
The Professional preparedness of teachers being crucial for the
qualitative improvement of education, the Commission has urged that this
should be treated as a key-area in educational development and adequate
financial provisions should be made for it. It further recommended:
(i) In order to make the professional preparation of teachers effective,
teacher education must be brought into the mainstream of the academic life of
the Universities. On the one hand, and of the school life and educational
development, on the other;
(ii) The quality of the programme of teacher education should be
improved;
(iii) New professional courses should be developed to orientate
headmasters, teachers, educators and educational administrators to their
special field of work;
(iv) The post -graduate courses in education should be flexible and be
planned to promote an academic and scientific study of education and to
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prepare personnel for special fields of education, requiring special knowledge
and initiation, and
(v) Improvement of teacher education institutions and expansion of
training facilities should be undertaken.
E. Towards Equalisation of educational Opportunity
Observing that every attempt should be made to equalise educational
opportunities or at least to reduce some of the most glaring inequalities which
now exist, the Commission has stressed the need for the following
programmes:
(i) The development of a common school system of public education in
which no fees would be charged, where access to good schools will be open to
all children on the basis of merit, and where the standard maintained would be
high enough to make the average parent feel no need to send his child to an
independent institution;
(ii) The development of adequate programmes of student-service at all
stages which will include free supply of books and writing materials at the
primary stage, the provision of book banks and textbooks, libraries in all
institutions of secondary and higher education, the provision of transport, day
study centres or hostels, and the institution of guidance facilities and health
services;
(iii) The development of a large programme of scholarships at all stages
and in all sectors combined with a programme of placement and maintenance
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of quality institutions, to ensure that the brighter children at least will have
access to good education and that their further education will not be
handicapped on economic grounds.
(iv) Special encouragement to the education of girls and the backward
classes;
(v) The reduction of imbalances in educational development between the
different parts of the country -districts and States; and
(vi) The development of a comparatively small but effective programme
for the education of the handicapped children.
F. School Education Curriculum
(1) Essentials of Curricular Improvement
For the improvement and upgrading of school curricula. The following
measures have been suggested.
(i) Essential of Curricular Improvement of school curricula research
should be undertaken by University Departments of Education, Training
Colleges, State Institutes of Education and Boards of School Education ;
Revision of curricula should be based on such research; (c) Basic to the success
of any attempt at curriculum improvement is the preparation of text books and
teaching-learning materials; and (d) the orientation of teachers to the revised
curricula through in-service be achieved through seminars and refresher
courses;
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(ii) Schools should be given the freedom to devise and experiment with
new curricula suited to their needs. A lead should be given in the matter of
training colleges and universities through their experimental schools;
(iii) Advanced curricula should be prepared by State Board of School
Education in all subjects and introduced in phased manner in schools which
fulfil certain conditions of Staff and facilities;
(iv) The formation of Subject Teachers Associations for the different
schools subjects will help to stimulate experimentation and in upgrading of
curricula.
(2) Study of Languages
The following has been suggested for the study of languages at school
stage:
(i) The language study at the school stage needs review and a new
policy requires to be formulated particularly in view of the fact that English has
been mostly used as an associated official language of the country for an
indefinite period;
(ii) The modification of the language formula should be guided by the
following principles:
(a) Hindi as the official language of the Union enjoys an importance next
only to that mother tongue.
(b) A workable knowledge of English will continue to be an asset to
students.
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(c) The proficiency gained in a language depends as much upon the
types of teachers and facilities as upon the length of time in which it is learned.
(d) The most suitable stage for learning these languages is the lower
secondary ( Classes VIII-X)
(e) The introduction of the additional language should be staggered.
(f) Hindi or English should be introduced at a point where there is
greatest motivation and need.
(g) At no stage should the learning of four languages be made
compulsory.
(3) Three Languages Formula: The modified Three Language
Formula should include the following:
(i) The mother tongue or the regional languages;
(ii) The official language of the Union or the associate official language
of the Union so long as it exist; and
(iii) A modern Indian or Foreign Language not covered under (a) and (b)
and other than that used as the medium of instruction.
J.P. Naik, who had served as Member Secretary of the Education
Commission and had played a leading role in preparing its report, published The
Education Commission and After in 1982. The book written in 1979, examined
the Report of the Education Commission and the steps taken give effect to its
recommendations during the preceding 12 years. Malcom S. Adiseshiah, in his
foreword to the book, described it as an “extraordinary work which is as
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illuminating for its in formativeness as for the deep perception it exhibits of the
meshing process of educational, economic and political decision making.” The
process of discussion of the report after its submission to the Minister of
Education, its consideration by committee of members of Parliament and,
finally, the drafting of the resolution issued by the Government of India on the
report of the Education Commission, which was the first statement on the
National Policy on Education, described in the book is highly instructive. It also
illustrates the seriousness with which issues of education are deliberated and
decisions taken. The statement on the National Policy on Education issued in
1968 is described by Naik as “far from satisfactory, mainly because of the
political and economic circumstances of the period and the violent eruption of
the language controversy. “It should not be forgotten”, he states, “that it was
finalized by a weak Central Government, which was more anxious to avoid
controversies than to bring about radical educational changes”. As it has stated
above that the Education Commission had covered every aspect of education in
its recommendations. But, all the recommendations were not implemented
properly because of certain reasons. It is worthwhile to mention here is that the
Commission itself was not against a selective implementation. Of course the
main issue was, not the principle of selective approach which had became
inevitable, but the specific recommendations to be selected because, depending
on the nature of this selection, the whole objective of the commission would be
gained or destroyed. But a selection approach was come from different
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circumstances. There are some important recommendations provided by the
Education Commission which were attracted wide attention, these are as
follows-
a) National system of Education: A question was raised whether all our
pre-occupation with the national system of education was not a mere hangover
of the past, whether the concept was still valid in the post independence
period, and if so how precisely would a national system of education be
defined.
b) Relating education to the past and future: The Education
Commission had observed that Indian education will have to be related both to
the past and the future of the country. This raised a discussion on several
difficult problems relating to Indian tradition and national development.
c) Medium of Instruction at the university stage: The commission had
underplayed the language issue but it did say that the regional languages
should become the media of instruction at the university stage in a period of 10
years.
d) Non-formal education: The commission was one of the first in the
world to point out the severe limitations of an exclusive dependence on the
formal system of full-time education and to emphasize the need for non-formal
education which can be pursued on a part time or own-time basis. It also
highlighted the need to move form a single point to a multi-point entry system.
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e) Education for the people: Report of the commission did succeed in
inviting the attention of the country to the massive problem of the education of
our people. This is but right because it is the only commission after 1882 to
deal with elementary education and the only commission ever to deal with adult
education.
f) Pattern of school and college classes: The idea that the country
should adopt a common pattern of 10+2+3 was first put forward by the
Calcutta University Commission (1917-19). Since then, every commission had
toyed with the idea. It was also highlighted by the Education Commission,
although at a lower of priority.
g) Teacher’s salary: Revisions of teacher salaries has been a continual
programme since 1947. It, however, goes without saying that perhaps the
maximum in the field have been made in the period following the report of the
Education Commission.
i) Common School system: The Commission had drawn pointed attention
to the segregation that now takes place between the education of the children
of the upper and middle classes who generally attend private, fee charging and
good quality institution and children of the poor who can only avail themselves
of the publicly supported, free but poor quality institution conducted by
government and local bodies. Its proposal to do away with desegregation
through the adaption of a common school system has created a debate on
future of public and special school in the country.
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Besides the above recommendations the commission had also provided
some recommendations which were attract the less attention of the public.
These recommendations are-
i) Making work experience and social or national service and integral
part of education at all stages.
ii) Emphasis on science education and research.
iii) Vocationalisation of secondary education,
iv) Cultivation of moral and social values or character formation,
v) Promoting decentralization, diversification, elasticity and dynamism in
the education system,
vi) General education and professional preparation of teachers,
vii) Integrating the different stages of education for qualitative
improvement,
viii) Creating a nationwide movement for improvement of standard,
including institutional planning,
ix) Creating a climate of sustained hard work,
x) Identification and development of talent, scholarships,
xi) Improvement of curricula teaching and learning materials, and
method of teaching and evaluation,
xii) Development of pre-school education
xiii) Education of girls, Scheduled caste and scheduled tribes,
xiv) Reduction of regional imbalances and
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xv) Increase of educational expenditure from 3% in 1965-66to 6% in
1985-86.
The report received wide attention and aroused great hopes. Though the
Education Commission had recommended a good number of suggestions for
the developments of education all most in all levels, but these
recommendations were least implemented directly in our country. Basically, the
Education Commission (1964-66) was appointed to advise Government on “the
national pattern of education and on the general principles and policies for the
development of education at all stages and in all aspects." The Report of the
Education Commission has since been widely discussed and commented upon.
Government is happy to note that a consensus on the National Policy on
Education (1968) has emerged in the course of these discussions.
5.49 IMPLEMENTATION OF NATIONAL EDUCATION POLICY 1968
Since the adoption of the 1968 policy on Education, there had been
considerable expansion in educational facilities all over the country at all levels.
However, the general formulation incorporated in the 1968 policy did not get
translated into detailed study of implementation. As result problems of access,
quality, quantity, utility and financial outlay, accumulated over the years,
assumed such massive proportions that they must be tackled with the utmost
urgency. Accordingly, Shri Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister, announced in
January 1985, that a New Education Policy would be formulated in the country.
A status paper, „Challenge of Education – A policy perspective‟ was issued by
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the Ministry of Education, Government of India in which comprehensive
appraisal of the existing system of education was made. There was a country
wide debate on educational reforms in the country. Finally the New National
Policy on Education, 1986 was approved by the parliament in May 1986.
5.50 IMPLEMENTATION OF NATIONAL EDUCATION POLICY 1979&
1986
Twenty one years after becoming independent, the nation had its first
National Policy on Education in 1968. After eleven years, in 1979, a Draft
national Policy on education was printed and circulated by the Central
Government (DOE 1979). After sixteen years of this attempt, in 1985, the
Central Government brought out the “Challenge of Education” document and
got it widely circulated so as to get suggestions for formulating a new Policy. In
1986, a new National Policy on Education (NPE 1986) was formulated. In 1990,
the Central government got the Policy of 1986 reviewed by a Committee
chaired by Acharya Ramamurti. Before the Policy could be modified in lines of
the recommendations of this Committee, there was a change in the Central
Government. In 1992, The Central Advisory Board of Education appointed
Committee chaired by N. Janardan Reddy reviewed the recommendations of
Acharya Ramamurti Committee. In 1992, based on the recommendations of this
Committee, the Central Government brought out a modified version of NPE
1986. During the period 1986-1992, the Central Government brought out a few
Programme of Action documents. It has been more than seventeen years since
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the modified NPE Policy document was published. During these seventeen
years, a plethora of changes have taken place. Early childhood care and
education has replaced elementary education in the article 45 of the Directive
principles of the Constitution. The NPE 1986 had stated that “The
implementation of the various parameters of the New Policy must be reviewed
every five years. Appraisals at short intervals will also be made to ascertain the
progress of implementation and the trends emerging from time to time. Hence,
in view of vast changes in education scenario since 1992, it may be appropriate
for the Central Government to take necessary steps for formulating a new
policy on education. Some of the issues that the new policy may need to
consider may be as follows:
A few strategies mentioned in the National Policy on Education as
modified in 1992 are yet to be implemented. Some of the strategies which may
need to be reviewed are : (a) Common educational structure, (b) Inclusion of
+2 as part of school education (In 2010, many States have +2 as part of higher
education and teachers teaching these classes need not have a B. Ed. degree
and the concerned State government approved general class size is more than
100), (c) Checking of substandard institutions and substandard programmes,
(d) Spending six per cent of national income for education; (e) Operationalising
State advisory boards of education, (f) Providing training for educational
planners, administrators and heads of institutions (Existing provision is
adequate), (g) Making systematic assessment of performance of teachers (
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Existing provision is inadequate), (h) Creating Indian Education Service, (i)
Appraising performance of institutions ( NAAC gradation does not give
assessment of performance of each of the Departments of the University or of a
college and does not assess classroom teaching performance of teachers and
school education is not covered by NAAC), (j) Making Payment of adequate
salary to teachers and banning part time appointment in regular posts and
enforcing teacher accountability, (k) De-linking of degrees from jobs, (l) Making
network arrangements; (m) Operationalising national examination reform
framework, (n) Operationalising Councils of Higher Education, (o) Increasing
flexibility in the combination of courses, (p) Establishing National Evaluation
Organisation, etc..
A few new issues that may be considered while formulating a new NPE
may be (a) Establishing world class universities ( It may take many years to get
world recognition), (b) In view of proliferation of shadow education at a cost
making private coaching by regular teachers punishable, (c) Bringing all
educational programmes for SC & ST under one umbrella, (c) Making initial
teacher training and study for first degree in medical education free and
introducing grant in aid system for private institutions, (d) Utilising non
teachers instead of regular teachers in coaching classes being run under
government schemes, (e) Banning open university and other distance education
and self-financed programmes and coaching programmes utilise teachers in
service, (f) Ensuring regular inspection of teaching; (g) Making provision for
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special coaching facilities for first generation learners, (h) Having teaching
competency test included in existing NET and SETs, (i) Considering the
situation arising out of large scale increase in opportunities of self-initiated
learning and private coaching, making university and board examinations open
for all irrespective of previous formal qualifications, (j) Cancelling holidays in
lieu of teaching days lost due to strikes and late admissions and providing
proportionate benefit to the concerned teachers, (k) Making month wise time
tables to give scope for flexibility in curricula and teaching techniques, (l)
Making extension work included as part of duty of all categories of teachers,
(m) Ensuring maintenance of record for daily activities for all categories of
teachers, (n) Ensuring payment of salaries to teachers by cheques as condition
for recognition, (o) Making it mandatory for institution to assess their
programmes of the previous academic session and make it available for public
use by placing these in their web sites, (p) Abolishing statutory bodies like
AICTE, NCTE, UGC etc. or changing nature of their functioning by modifying
concerned Acts, etc.
A few issues related to school education which may be considered are:
(a) Modifying the National Council for Teacher Education Act so as to make it
applicable to all States and the Union Territories and making it compulsory for
all the members of the General Council and Regional Committees to have
experience in school teaching in addition to a M. Ed. or M. A. (Education)
degree, (b) Considering the sub standard programmes in preparation of teacher
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educators, instituting teacher educator selection tests at national and state level
( a large number of M. Ed. degree holders have been produced by universities-
government and private without bothering for NCTE norms), (c) Modifying
existing Central Government scheme -Establishing institutions instead of giving
grants to States run institutions as per Central Government Schemes ( Large
numbers of IASEs, CTEs and DIETs being funded by the Central Government
scheme do not maintain adequate staff and material resources and in many
cases there have been large scale wastage of human and material resources),
(d) Making provision for special initial teacher training for teaching gifted
children in schools such as Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas, and providing better
salary to such teachers, (e) Making qualifications for a Lecturer in Education
specified by the UGC and by the NCTE same, (f) Instead of extending duration
of B. Ed. programme from one year to two years, providing increased duration
to existing B. Ed. programmes by making institutions and departments of
education offering such programmes function without long holidays and giving
faculty members proportionate leave salary benefits, as found in case of
Regional Institutes of Education of NCERT, (g) Developing and notifying
standards for various types of school teachers and teacher educators, (h)
Developing and notifying standards for teacher trainees for various types of
initial teacher training programmes, (i) Making school teaching for a specific
period mandatory for all faculty members involved in teacher training
programmes, (j) Making provision for induction programmes for beginning
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teachers with provision for selection and training of mentors for training new
teachers, (k) Making provision for National level and State level school teacher
and teacher educator selection tests and making such tests open for persons
with or without formal teacher training qualifications or M. Ed. or M.
A.(Education) degrees (There have been instances of Professors of Education in
Central Universities and NCERT and Principals of Government Training Colleges
of many States having no B. Ed. or M. Ed. degrees), (l) Allowing States, having
high proportion of untrained teachers, especially NE States, to go for alternative
mode of initial teacher training- teacher training through schools as found in
case of the UK and the USA, (m) Modifying EGS & AES to have regular teachers
instead of para teachers, (n) Making child labour punishable and abolishing
schools for child labour, (o) Converting all Anganwadis to preschool centres and
making preschool teaching part of elementary school initial teacher training
programmes, and (p) Bringing all types of teacher training under higher
education.
In order to formulate NPE 1986, in 1985, the Central Government had
brought out the „Challenge of Education‟ document that highlighted pros and
con of various strategies proposed for improving education. There is perhaps
necessity for developing such a publication in 2010 that may generate effective
dialogue over various issues and provide inputs for formulating a new NPE.
The Parliament of India discussed and adopted the “National Policy on
Education, 1986‟ in its budget session of 1986. During the course of the debate
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the Minister of Human Resource Development promised to preset the
programme of Action for implementation of the policy in the monsoon session
of the parliament. Immediately thereafter twenty three Task Forces were
constituted and each was assigned a specific subject of the policy. Each Task
Force had eminent educationists, experts and senior representatives of the
Central and several State Governments. One Task Force dealt with Secondary
Education and Navodaya Vidyalayas. It outlined the parameters, priorities and
strategies of programme implementation relating to secondary education.
The Task Force was requested to examine the present situation relating to
Secondary Education and „to elaborate the implications of the specific
statements contained in the NPE.‟ It was also expected to project the actions
that would be necessary and indicate the broad financial implications....‟ Such
detailed exercises had not been undertaken earlier; and that is one of the
major reasons for the non-implementation of the earlier policies with rigour.
The Reports of the Task Forces were ready by July, 1986. These
reports were discussed at length in a series of meetings convened by the
Ministry of Human Resource Development. The POA, 1986 was discussed in a
meeting of the Secretaries of the Education Departments of the several State
and Union Territory Governments. The CABE attended by the Education
Ministers of the state & UT Governments considered it on 1st and 2nd August,
1986.
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5.51 MAJOR INITIATIVES TAKEN FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF
REVISED NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION 1992
Programme of Action – POA (1992)
The POA for the revised NPE was evolved by constituting twenty-two
Task Forces on the following dimensions of education.
a) Education for Women‟s equally.
b) Education of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other
Backward Sections.
c) Minorities Education.
d) Education of the Handicapped.
e) Adult and Continuing Education.
f) Early Childhood Care and Education.
g) Elementary Education.
h) Secondary Education.
i) Navodaya Vidyalaya.
j) Vocational Education.
k) Higher Education. Open Education.
l) Delinking Degrees from Jobs and Manpower Planning
m) Rural Universities and Institutions.
n) Technical and Management.
o) Research and Development.
p) The Cultural Perspective.
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q) Development of Languages.
r) Media and Education Technology.
s) Sports, Physical Education and Yoga.
t) Evaluation Process and Examination Reforms.
5.52 UNIVERSALISATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
Since the formulation of the NPE (1992), following major programmes
have been initiative for achieving the objectives of Universalisation of
Elementary.
(i) District Primary Education Projection (DPEP).
(ii) Sarve Shiksha Abhiyan
(iii) National programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education
(NPNSPE) or Mid-day Meals.
(iv) Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative and Innovative
Education.
(v) National Programme of Education of Girls at Elementary Stage
(NPEGL) Scheme
(vi) Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya Scheme.
(vii) Prthmik Shiksha Kosh.
5.53 IMPLEMENTATION OF SSA
Regarding SSA programme it has been launched in 2001 and it has
been adopted in all the states of the country. At the initial stage it was guided
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that the implementation of SSA programme would be universal in the country
and the financial assistance will be in the following ways.
a) The assistance under the programme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan will be
on 85.15 sharing arrangement during the IX Plan, 75:25 sharing
arrangement during the X Plan and 50:50 sharing thereafter between
the Central Government and State Governments. Commitments
regarding sharing of costs would be taken from State governments in
writing.
b) The State Governments will have to maintain their level of investment in
elementary education. The contribution as State share for SSA will be
over and above this investment.
c) The Government of India would release funds to the State
Governments/Union Territories only and instalments (except first) would
only be released after the previous instalments of Central Government
and State share has been transferred to the State Implementation
Society.
d) The support for teacher salary appointed under the SSA programme
could be shared between the central government and the State
government in a ratio of 85:15 during the IX Plan, 75:25 during the X
Plan and 50:50 thereafter.
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e) All legal agreements regarding externally assisted projects will continue
to apply unless specific modifications have been agreed to, in
consultation with foreign funding agencies.
f) Existing schemes of elementary education of the Department (except
National Bal Bhawan and NCTE ) will coverage after the IX Plan. The
National Programme for Nutritional Support to Primary Education (Mid-
day-Meal) would remain a distinct intervention with food grains and
specified transportation costs being met by the Centre and the cost of
cooked meals being met by the State Government.
g) District Education Plans would inter-alia, clearly show the funds/resource
available for various components under schemes like JRY, PMRY,
Sunshchit Rozgar Yojana, Area fund of MPs/MLAs,, State Plan, foreign
funding and resources generated in the NGO sector.
h) All funds to be used for up-gradation, maintenance, repair of schools and
Teaching Learning equipment and local management to be transferred to
VECs/School Management Committees/Gram Panchayat/or any other
village/School level arrangement for decentralisation adopted by that
particular State/UT. The village/school-based body may make a
resolution regarding the best way of procurement.
i) Other schemes like distribution of scholarships and uniforms will
continue to be funded under the State Plan. They will not be funded
under the SSA programme.
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5.54 IMPLEMENTATION OF RIGHT TO EDUCATION ACT 2009
After enacting the RTE Act, 2009, the state governments have taken
steps for implementing the same. All state and union territory governments
have issued the RTE Rules, or adopted the Central RTE Rules, except for Goa
and Karnataka, which are yet to notify the state RTE rules. Several states have
issued instructions/notifications for (a) banning capitation fees, corporal
punishment, detention and expulsion, and private tuition by school teachers;
(b) specifying working days/instructional hours; and (c) constituting the SCPCR
or Right to Education Protection Authority (REPA). The central government has
also taken several steps for implementation of the RTE Act. The National
Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) and the NCERT have been notified as the
academic authorities under Sections 23(1) and 29(1) of the RTE Act
respectively. The NAC has been constituted under Section 33(1) of the Act. The
NCTE has laid down the minimum qualifications for a person to be eligible for
appointment as a teacher in schools. The main challenges under the RTE Act
include bringing out-of-school children into the schools, filling up the large
vacancy of teacher posts, training of untrained teachers, and bad herence by
schools to the norms and standards specified in the Schedule of the RTE Act.
The central government, along with the state governments, is taking several
steps for addressing these issues, including resource allocation for meeting the
infrastructural and manpower gaps as per the revised SSA norms.
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5.55 IMPLEMENTATION OF RASHTRIYA MADHYAMIK SHIKSHA
ABHIYAN (RMSA) 2009
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) is a Programme of the
Government of India, implemented in partnership with the State Governments
with the main objective to make secondary education a good quality available,
accessible and affordable to all young persons. The scheme seeks to enhance
enrolment in classes IX and X by providing a secondary school within a
reasonable distance of every habitation, to improve quality of education
imparted at secondary level by ensuring all secondary schools conform to
prescribed/ standard norms, to remove gender, socio-economic and disability
barriers and to achieve universal access to secondary level education by 2017,
i.e. by the end of the 12th Five Year Plan. RMSA was launched in 2009, funded
through national resources (central government + state government) and now
has tied up for external funding by Development Partners (DP) – World Bank‟s
International Development Association (IDA), United Kingdom‟s – Department
of International Development (DFID) and European Union (EU). As part of the
agreement for external aid from the DPs which came into effect in November,
2012, the Joint Review Mission (JRM) is to be conducted every six months in
the months of January and July each year. The January Mission undertakes
States visits, while the July mission is a desk review. The field visits to the
selected States/UTs implementing RMSA will be by a Joint team of nominees of
both the GoI and the DPs, after which there will be discussions on the findings
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of the State visits followed by report writing and wrap up in which the
Education Secretaries/SPDs of the States will also be participating.
5.56 IMPLEMENTATION OF OTHER CENTRAL SPONSORED SCHEME
Again some of the centrally sponsored schemes for school education
such as- DPEP, KBV, NV,Non-Formal Education, Mahila Samakhya, Bihar
Education Project (BEP),Minimum Levels of Learning (MLLs),Vocationalisation of
Secondary Education, Improvement of Science Education in Schools, Computer
Education in Schools, National Population Education Project (NPEP),Integrated
Education for the Disabled Children, etc. have been implemented and running
in different states and districts successfully of the country.
Besides, the above mentioned Commissions and Committees, there are
some others commissions and committees which recommended valuable
suggestions for the growth and development of school education and its
various others aspects. However, all the recommendations and suggestions
were not fully implemented just after the programmes. But there are some
programmes initiated by the state as well as central government, whose
recommendations if no directly but indirectly some of their recommendations
and suggestions were implemented soon after the programmes. Again, some of
the programmes are still continuing and whose impacts are being observed day
by day.
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SECTION-III
IMPACT OF VARIOUS COMMISSIONS AND COMMITTEES WITH
REGARD TO SCHOOL EDUCATION IN INDIA
Since independence it has been observed that a good number of
commissions and committees have been constituted in different periods to
promote the school education in India. And each and every commissions and
committees have made their every possible endeavor to extend most
acceptable recommendations for the growth and development of school
education in India. However, because of certain reasons all the
recommendations have not been fully functionalized in different stages of
development in overall education in general and school education in particular.
But, some of the recommendations were aptly functionalized; and as a result
growth and development of education in general and school education in
particular have been observed from the very beginning. In the present section
the researcher has attempted to show the impact of those recommendations
and suggestions made by various commissions and committees regarding the
school education by showing the chronological growth and development of
school education in India. However, the impact of those recommendations may
be observed from the developmental trends occurred just after the
implementations of the recommendations of the particular committees and
commissions.
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During the first decade preceding the attainment of independence,
efforts were made to prepare a plan of educational development for the whole
country, both at the official and non-official levels. It was in 1938 that the
Indian National Congress appointed a National Planning Committee under the
chairmanship of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru to prepare a comprehensive plan of
national development. Educational planning was taken up by two sub-
committees, one for General education and other for Technical Education and
Development Research. Unfortunately, the struggle for political freedom did not
allow any time to the chairman and other members of the committee to do
justice to the work. The result was a sketchy document. This, however,
remained the first unofficial effort to relate educational development to the
overall socio-economic development of the country.
On the official side, the Central Advisory Board of Education prepared
the post war plan of educational development (1944), popularly known as the
Sargent Report. Much spade work had gone before it. The Board, ever since its
revival in 1935, had been engaged in critically examining different aspects of
Indian education and suggesting measures for their reconstruction. By 1943,
the Government of India was required o prepare plans of post war
development. In the field of education, as a part of the overall plan, the Board
was required to prepare a plan for education. The Board made good use of the
several reports it had prepared so far, and consolidated all its findings in the
form of a comprehensive Post-war Plan of Educational Development (1944). Its
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objects was to create, in India, in a period of not less than forty years, the
same standard of education attainments as had already been admitted in
England. It planned to provide pre-primary education covering one child out of
every 21 in the age group 3-6; primary 6-14; secondary education, both
academic and technical, to the extent of one child selected out of every 5 who
completed the junior primary school; and higher education to one students out
of every 15 who completed secondary education. Though attempts were made
to assess the cost of plan, no measures were taken to relate the proposals to
the man-power needs or to the overall plan of socio-economic development.
5.57 IMPACT OF CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION AFTER
In January 1950, the country adopted a constitution which lay down,
among other things, the divisions of responsibilities and duties relating to
Education between the centre and the states, ours being a quasi federal
constitution. The seventh and eight schedules are of special importance to us.
The seventh schedule lists out the division of responsibilities in all matters
including ‗Education‘. The eighth schedule lists out the languages recognized by
the constitution.
Education is now in the concurrent list. It was originally a state subject
(entry 11 of list II in the list of state functions). With the 42nd constitutional
amendment act of 1976, this entry in list II was deleted and ‗Education‘ was
placed in the concurrent list as entry 25.
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5.58 PROGRESS OF SCHOOL EDUCATION JUST AFTER
INDEPENDENCE
The pattern of the general education system before independence
comprised the school system and the college/university level of studies. The
school system had classes I to X leading to Matriculation or Secondary school
Certificate examination. The primary sections in school were and are, generally
from class I to IV, upper primary or middle school from class V to VIII and high
school/secondary classes IX and X. There could be variation as between states
on the dividing lying between primary and upper primary, say Class I to V
(instead of I to IV) and VI to VIII (instead of V to VIII). But the total numbers
of school years remain 10 years. At the time of independence, there was a two
year course, called intermediate at college level, i.e., after matriculation and
before the Bachelor of Arts/Science (BA, B.Sc which was also of two years
duration), the intermediate course was a bridge between school education and
the university. So the whole education system up to graduation was a 10+2+2
system. The intermediate course was later abolished and instead of that we
now have what is called ‗plus 2‘ which is really the Higher Secondary classes of
Eleven and twelve which belong to the school system. At the university level,
the first degree can be obtained only after a minimum period of study of three
years, leading to post graduation of two years duration. In some universities,
M.Phil is a one year prerequisite for registration for a Doctorate Degree.
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In 1946-47, the number of primary schools was 1,72,000, with 13 million
students and the total expenditure was Rs. 15.48 crores. There were 17,258
secondary schools and the number of students 3.6 million, with expenditure at
Rs.17.9 crores. There were less than 20 universities and these had a student
strength of 16,000,297 Arts and Science Colleges, had 96,000 students; there
were 199 Intermediate College. Expenditure on universities was Rs.2.03 crores,
and on colleges Rs.3.53 crores. There were 16 engineering colleges and 82
other professional colleges. The number of students in professional colleges
was 71,897, expenditure being 2.75 crores.
5.59 IMPACT OF UNIVERSITY EDUCATION COMMISSION 1948 AND
AFTER
Though the University Education Commission was constituted in 1948
and which had recommended few suggestions for the development of school
education also; but these were not implemented properly. So it is observed that
the suggestions of this commission had no any impact on school education so
far. Here after the Central government and state governments have been
endeavoring to give a concrete shape to various programmes under the Five
Year Plans. After independence The first four years of independence witnessed
great educational expansion on a year to year budgetary planning till the birth
of the National Planning Commission in 1951, the year of launching the First
Five Year Plans that form the content of this Section provide a graphic
description of the successive educational programmes planned during 1951-56,
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1956-61 and 1969-74. In the years from 1966 to 1969 the general economic
conditions in the country were very difficult. The country had to divert her
energies to fight drought and near famine and their aftermath. This resulted in
the reduction of long-term planning to three short annual plans.
The achievements of the three Five Year Plans and three annual Plans in
the field of education have been very significant. There has been expansion at
all level of education. The enrolment in classes‘ I-V increased from 19.1 million
in 1950-51 to 55.5 million in 1968-69; in classes VI-VIII from 3.1 to 12.3
million; in classes IX-XI from 1.2 million to 6.6 million. The total educational
expenditure from all sources is estimated to have increased from Rs. 1,144
million in 1950-51 to Rs. 8,500 million in 1968-69. During these years, many
educational problems were overcome. And yet, fresh challenges face us.
The overall progress of education with respect to the number of
institutions, pupils and the expenditure incurred by the government could be
seen from the following table:
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Table 5.1 Progress of school education during the period of
Planning
Item 1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1973-74
A. Number of Institutions
(1) Primary 209,671 330399 404,418 429,888
(2) Middle 13,596 49,663 88,567 97,356
(3) Secondary 7,288 17,257 35,773 40,127
B. Enrolment by Stages (in’000)
(1) Primary 18,678 33,631 59,252 63,193
(2) Middle 3,330 7,480 13,399 14,689
(3) Secondary 1,481 3,463 7,167 7,475
C. Government Expenditure (Rs. In crores
Total 71 234 846 1,311
Plan 20 90 115 225
Non-Plan 51 144 731 1,086
Source: Draft Five Year Plan (1978-83), P.226.
The above figures indicate the gradual upward trend in the number of
institutions and students and the amount spent by the government. The
number of institutions since 1950-51 has increased from 2.31 lakhs to 5.72
lakhs in 1973-74. Their number grew up to 6.07 lakhs in 1976-77. Similarly, the
number of student at every level is surging forward. From about 2.4 corers in
1950-51 their number swelled up to 8.8 corers in 1973-74 and 9.86 corers in
1976-77. It may further rise up to 11.41 corers at the end of 1978-79. There
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has been an increase in governmental spending on education from mere Rs. 71
corers in 1950-51 to 1311 corers in 1973-74. Since then the expenditure is
constantly on increase.
As regards the progress of secondary education during the periods; it is
found that the number of schools has increased from 7,288 in 1950-51 to
44,579 in 1977-78. Similarly, the number of students and teachers has
increased from 12.2 lakhs and 1.27 lakhs to 8.75 million and 7.95 lakhs
respectively. Though these figure on their face value appear to be quite
impressive, yet viewed in the context of the magnitude of the problems of
imparting secondary education to the millions of our children, pale into
insignificance. In order to improve the quality of secondary education, the
Kothari Commission suggested among other things nationwide programme of
school improvement, strengthening of the District Educational officers and the
State Institutes of Education, establishment of state Board of school education
and state evaluation organizations in all the state and the development of
educational programme by the central government in the centrally sponsored
sector with a view to improve the standard of education at the secondary level.
5.60 IMPACT SECONDARY EDUCATION COMMISSION 1952-53
The mass scale provision of elementary education and an increasing
aspiration for secondary education during the post independence period has
resulted in the tremendous growth of secondary education in India. One of the
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most important events that have taken place in the realm of secondary
education during the post-independence era, is the appointment of the
Secondary Education Commission in 1952. Some of the significant reforms that
have been carried out in the wake of the recommendations of the Secondary
Education Commission with the object of making the secondary education self
contained and complete stage upto the age of 17 could be summarized as
below:
(i) enriching the content of secondary education by adding one more
class to the high school and making it higher secondary course of 11 years‘
duration and providing in selected Higher Secondary Schools a diversified
system of education in which students could offer, in addition to a common
core of studies, a group of three subjects from any one of seven, namely,
Humanities, Sciences, technology, Commerce, Agriculture, Fine Arts and Home
Science.
(ii) Provision of facilities for improvement in teaching science, opening of
libraries, introduction of crafts in middle schools and training of teachers, etc.
(iii) The establishment of the All-India Council of Secondary Education to
advise the central and state Governments.
(iv) The compulsory study of languages at the secondary stages.
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(v) The implementation of a long range programme of examination
reform aiming at a closer integration of educational objectives, learning
processes and methods of evaluation.
(vi) The establishment of the Extension Services Projects in selected
training colleges to carry out a programme of in-service teacher preparation in
all the subjects of the secondary school curriculum.
The Central Board of secondary Education has since been set up for
conducting a common all-India higher secondary examination. It will cater to
the needs of children of Union Government employees and will make its
services available to any secondary school in or outside India wishing to
prepare candidates for its examinations.
The Third Five Year Plan made a provision for a large-scale conversion of
high schools into higher secondary schools. But in certain States this
programme was not implemented successfully. There have been difficulties due
to the shortage of staff, lack of equipment and other materials.
Two major tendencies have been discernible at the secondary stage
since 1950, viz. - a gradual transition of traditional pattern of bookish
education into a vocational one and attempts to make secondarily education a
self contained stage. A large number of courses have been provided for at this
stage catering to the needs of vocational technical training encouraged by a
tremendous demand for skilled and semi-skilled man power created in the
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context of the development and construction activities going on in the country.
This has helped in the diversification and vocationalisation of secondary
education to some extent. The Education Commission has also recommended a
rapid vocationalisation of secondary education so as to provide enrolment in
vocational courses to 20 per cent of the total enrolment at the lower secondary
stage and 50 per cent at the higher secondary stage. This might, apart from
changing the out moded pattern of education, lead to making the secondary
stage a self-contained one in itself and related more and more to the needs of
the life of the individual as well as of the community.
In the light of the recommendations of the Education Commission,
efforts were made during the fourth and fifth Plans to see how far these diverse
courses could be offered in the same institutions and to what extent they
required the setting up of specialized institutions. A greater stress was also laid
on science education. Science teachers are now being encouraged to take
correspondence courses and to attend summer schools in order to improve
their knowledge of the subject and skill to teach. Attempts are also being made
to upgrade high schools into higher secondary schools in at least those States
which have already made significant progress in this direction. The government
aims at strengthening the multi-purpose schools and encouraging research on
various problems of secondary education. Efforts are being made to reorient
secondary education and diverse a system to prevent the current rush to the
universities and, at the same time, give to the secondary schools leavers a
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training which has an employment value and would make them productive
workers when they go out into the world.
5.61 PROGRESS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
The secondary Education Commission recommended various bold and
far-sighted measures like establishment of multi-purpose schools, improvement
of teaching and schools libraries. Training of teacher, introduction of crafts in
middle schools and conversion of high schools into higher secondary schools by
increasing the duration of secondary stage by one year to give a new
orientation to secondary education as a whole. As a result of these
recommendations, the secondary education in various states began to take a
new shape. The Chairman of the Central Advisory Board of Education appointed
a Special Implementation Committee in 1953 to carry on the various schemes
that were started with the help of the Central Government.
The main schemes consisted of the following:
(1) The establishment of multipurpose schools by the introduction of
diversified subjects in the school curriculum;
(2) Improvement of teaching in existing schools- particularly for teaching
science, social studies and of crafts-at the rate of Rs. 15,000 per
school;
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(3) Improvement of school libraries at the rate of Rs. 2,500 per library if
the library belongs to an ordinary school; and at the rate of Rs. 5,000
if it belongs to a multipurpose school;
(4) Introduction of crafts in middle schools at the rate of Rs. 3,000 non-
recuring and Rs. 4,500 recurring per school;
(5) Training of teachers- particularly for crafts and practical subjects –
at the rate of Rs. 60,000 non-recurring and Rs. 20,000 recurring per
school for practical subjects.
On the basis of the principles laid down above, financial assistance has
been given for the various schemes and as such during the Five-Year Plans
liberal grants were given to various states for the purpose. All these efforts of
the Government of India have helped in expanding the secondary education in
the country. This progress is evident in the number of secondary schools as
well as in the number of students receiving education therein and also in the
quantum of public expenditure.
In the year 1950-51 the number of pupils in the secondary schools was
12.2 lakhs, which became 18.8 lakhs in 1955-56, 28.9 lakhs in 1960-61, 50.4
lakhs in 1965-66 and 87.0 lakhs at the end of the 1978. At present, of the total
population in the age group of 14-17 in the country, 20.2% is studying in
secondary schools from class IX to XII. Similarly the number of secondary
schools has increased from 7,288 in 1950-51 to 44,579 in 1977-78 showing
about six fold increases. This number of schools does not include about 2.5
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thousand multipurpose schools. The number of teachers engaged at the
secondary stage has increased from 1.27 lakhs in 1950-51 to 7.95 lakhs in
1977-78 showing about seven fold increase during a little more than a quarter
of a country.
As the expansion of elementary education is bound to lead to the
expansion of secondary education, the expenditure on the latter has also
increased as a result of such expansion. For instance, the total expenditure
during the four five year plans was Rs.366.6 crores, while in the fifth and sixth
Five Plans the total outlays have been Rs. 250 crores and Rs. 300 Crores
respectively. The anticipated expenditure during the Fifth Plan however, had
been Rs. 156 crores. But one thing that has to be marked here is the relative
lowering percentage of outlay from 19.5 in the Fifth Plan to 15.00 in the Sixth
Plan. This is precisely because of the increased importance being attached to
elementary education in the Sixth Plan.
The figures speak of a steady growth of secondary education. But by this
we should not conclude that the growth is rapid enough, for a vast sub-
continent like India where only a small minority of boys and girls get the
opportunity of secondary schooling. In fact the problem of expansion is
stupendous and requires an all-round effort to solve the same.
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5.62 IMPACT OF 10+2+3 STRUCTURE
The Education Commission had suggested a uniform (10+2+3) pattern
of 15 years‘ duration leading to the first degree (10 years of high school and 2
years of higher secondary education +3 years of the first degree course). The
National Policy on Education had also recommended in 1968 a structural
change in the formal secondary education in the country by adopting the
10+2+3 structure. This would mean that school education would compromise
elementary, secondary and higher secondary stages of 12 years‘ duration. This
new structure has been adopted in Andhra, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Jammu
&Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland,
Orissa, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, U.P, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh and
rest of the Union Territories. The States of Haryana and Punjab had adopted it
by the end of 1980. The states of Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh have agreed to
adopt it in principle, but no final dates have yet been determined. The Union
Education Ministry had appointed two Committees in 1977 to review the Higher
Secondary education with special reference to vocationalisation. The former
Committee under the chairmanship of Dr. Iswarbhai J. Patel, Vice-Chancellor of
Gujarat University, laid stress on the need for the all-round development of the
child‘s personality, while the second Committee under the chairmanship of Dr.
Malcolm S. Adi-Sheshiah, Vice Chancellor of Madras University took a
comprehensive view of several important issues like giving work a central place
in education and learning, course- pattern for both general as well as vocational
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education curriculum and text books and nature of vocational courses, etc. both
the Committees emphasized introduction of socially useful productive work as
an integral part of the curriculum both at secondary and higher secondary
levels. These objectives are not being achieved in the implementation of the
Sixth Five Year Plan.
5.63 ALL INDIA COUNCIL FOR SECONDARY EDUCATION
In pursuance of the policy to implement the recommendations of the
Secondary Education Commission, the All India Council for Secondary Education
was set up in August 1955. Its main functions are to review from time to time
the progress of secondary education throughout the country and to serve as an
expert as an expert body to advise the State and Central Governments on the
improvement and expansion of secondary education in all its phases.
The secondary education in this country is faced with the problem of
text-books. In most of the cases, the text books used are entirely unsatisfactory
and of a low standard both with regard to the quality of the contents and also
the standard of printing and set up. In order to do away with these defects by
undertaking research and giving guidance to the state in the production of the
right type of text-books, the Central Bureau has helped some State
governments in the formulation of syllabus and examination of the contents of
the text-books and rendered advice on the choice of illustrations and other
matters relating to printing and get-up etc.
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The Secondary Education Commission had recommended establishment
of a Bureau of Educational and Vocational Guidance in every state in view of
the special needs of the students of the secondary schools. Consequently, this
Bureau was established in October 1954. Since the establishment of the Central
Bureau, the states of Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh have set
up states Bureaux of guidance. Besides, some private educational organizations
in the states of Punjab, U.P., Bombay, Madras and Mysore etc. have also
established guidance units. Other states are also following suit.
Besides the above mentioned major schemes, that have either been
implemented or are being implemented, there are others such as promotion of
Gandhian Teachings and Way of Life in Secondary Schools, research on the
various aspects of secondary education, assistance to voluntary educational
organizations and formulations of a suitable syllabus for the multipurpose and
higher secondary school. But most of the schemes were in experimental stage.
5.64 IMPACT OF KOTHARI COMMISSION 1964-66
The Kothari Commission or Education Commission 1964-66 in India was
a landmark steps towards the development of education system in the country.
This commission had covered almost all aspects and levels of education and
extended every possible suggestion for the development. The impact of the
Education Commission may be observed from the growth and development of
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primary education institutions, middle schools and the enrollments in various
classes.
General Observations
The period of twelve years between 1965-66 and 1977-78 falls naturally
within three sub-periods:
(1) The three annual plan years (1966-68)
(2) The Fourth Five -Year Plan (1969-74) and
(3) The truncated Fifth Plan which consisted of four years only (1974-78)
As compared with the earlier period of fifteen years (1950-51 to 1965-
66) or the first three Five -Year Plans, the post-Commission period of twelve
years (1965-66 to 1977-78) shows several interesting variations and common
features such as:
Expansion of educational facilities at all stages was the principal feature
of the first three Plans. In also continued to be the dominating feature of
the post-Commission period in spite of its plea for according higher
priority to programmes of transformation and qualitative improvement.
The development of secondary and university education (with special
emphasis on agricultural, technical and medical education) was accorded
high priority in the educational development in the first three Plans. This
priority continued to dominate the scene even in the post-Commission
period, in spite of the lip-service paid to mass education.
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The goal of universalizing elementary education for children in the age-
group 6-14 is being pursued since 1950-51. As may be readily seen, the
progress was comparatively easy in the first three Plans when we were
working at lower levels of enrolment and costs were comparatively low.
In the post-Commission period, the problem has become more difficult
because of rising costs and because we are now working at higher levels
of enrolments where further progress becomes exponentially difficult.
The tensions within the education system remained under reasonable
control in the first two Plans (1950-51 to 1961-62). But since the third
plan, they have come to the surface and have assumed an increasingly
acute form which has led, during the past seventeen years, to continued
disturbances in the system, especially at the university stage. This has
made the task of educational reconstruction more difficult and
complicated.
The successful implementation of programmes of educational
development needs two essential conditions: (1) a strong political
authority to make and implement decisions, as well as favorable social
and economic conditions; and (2) large investment of financial
resources. As stated earlier, both these factors were more favorable in
the first three Plans when we really spent our time in dealing with less
important issues. In the post-Commission period, we have tried and are
still trying to face up to some of our fundamental problems which need a
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far stronger investment of funds. Unfortunately, we do not have even
the same political, economic and social support that we had in the first
two or three Plans.
The overall picture of educational developments between 1965-66 and
1977-78 is therefore one of a growing gap between the big challenges which
are becoming increasingly complex and our attempts to deal with them which
are proving to be increasingly inadequate. With these few broad observations,
let us survey quickly the major developments in the different sectors of
education, from the pre-school stage to the university stage.
5.65 PROGRESS IN PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION
Pre-school education has been a comparatively neglected sector of
education. The education Commission (1964-66) was the first to discuss the
issue and support the idea that the state should accept a limited responsibility
for pre-school education, especially among the underprivileged groups. But this
is one of those recommendations with which everyone agrees and no one does
anything special about. Hence pre-school education has development, both
before and after 1965-66, in response to market forces rather than to planned
action. The principal demand for it has come from the urban upper and middle
classes for whom it has become either a prestige symbol or a necessity
(because of women working outside home). The data to Table 5.2 show its
progress during the period under review.
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Table 5.2 Pre-school Education (1965-66 to 1977-78)
1965-66 1975-76 1977-78
1. No. of pre-school 3,235 5,658 7,050
2. No. of teachers 6,832 9,951 11,021
3. No. of pupils 262,073 569,296 734,757
4. Expenditure (Rs. In million) Direct only) 11.4 33.0 41.0
The officially published statistics (Table 5.2) of the Ministry of Education
do not include the data about unrecognized pre-schools (the most numerous
categories) and also about Balwadis, conducted by the Department of Social
Welfare. Even if due allowance is made for all such inadequacies, pre-school
education was available to only about one million children or to about 2 per
cent of the total population in the age-group 3-6 in 1971. The position has not
altered materially since then; and the target suggested by the Commission that
we should provide pre-school education to five per cent of the children by
1985-86 in still a far cry.
5.66 PROGRESS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
Article 45 of the Constitution provided that free and compulsory
education should be provided for all children till they complete the age of 14
years. Since independence, they had been trying to reach the goal, and our
principal method of achieving it is twofold (1) they were trying to establish
primary and middle schools in all areas so that an elementary school becomes
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available to every child within easy distance from home; and (2) they were
trying to enroll every child in school so that the total enrolments in the age-
group 6-11 (to allow for over-age and under-age children admitted to these
classes) and those in classes VI-VIII would be about 90 per cent of the children
in the age-group 11-14. This is of course a purely statistical approach which is
unsatisfactory because it ignores the qualitative aspects altogether. But that is
all what they had been doing. Table 5.3 shows the number of primary and
middle schools during the period under review.
Table 5.3 Primary and middle schools (1950-51 to 1977-78)
Year Number of Primary schools Number of Middle schools
1950-51 209,671 13,596
1965-66 391,064 75,798
1975-76 454,270 106,571
1977-78 462,567 110,036
The needs of additional primary and middle schools were ascertained
through specially conducted Educational Surveys in 1957, 1965, and 1973. A
quick survey for the same purpose was also attempted during 1979. The rough
estimate was that they had need about 600,000 primary schools and about
200,000 middle schools to reach the goal of universal education. The rate of
establishment of new schools has obviously slackened in the post-Commission
period. But in spite of the long distance they had yet to travel, it is not beyond
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them, if they make the effort, to reach the target in a period of five years or so
from now. But the Sixth Five -Year Plan has fought shy of the target and one is
one quite sure whether they will reach it even by 1985-86. The date relating to
enrolments in classes I-V or children in the age-group 6-11 are given in table
000.
Table 5.4 Primary and middle schools (1950-51 to 1977-78)
Enrolment in Classes I-V (in millions)
Boys Girls Total
1950-51 13.77 (60.6) 5.39 (24.8) 19.16 (43.1)
1965-66 32.18 (96.3) 18.29 (56.5) 50.47 (76.7)
1975-76 40.65 (100.4) 25.01 (66.1) 65.66 (83.8)
1977-78 40.54 (97.4) 24.52 (62.6) 65.06 (80.5)
Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentages to the total
population in the age-group 6-11
It will be seen that between 150-51 and 1965-66, enrolments in class‘s
I-V increased at an average of two million per year. In spite of all the talk and
debates on the subject since the Report of the Commission, the enrolments at
this stage have increased only by about 1.6 million a year, a level of
performance which is even lower than that between 1950-51 and 1965-66. We
have run very hard indeed not even to keep where we are, but to fall a little
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behind. The position of enrolments in classes VI-VIII is also somewhat similar.
This is given in Table 000.
Table 5.5 Enrolments in Classes (1950-51 to 1977-78)
Enrolment in Classes VI-VIII (in millions)
Boys Girls Total
1950-51 2.59 (20.6) 0.53 (4.6) 3.12 (12.9)
1965-66 7.68 (44.2) 2.85 (17.0) 10.53 (30.8)
1975-76 10.99 (48.6) 5.03 (23.9) 16.02 (36.7)
1977-78 12.19 (48.6) 5.96 (24.4) 18.15 (36.5)
Note: Figures in parentheses show the percentages to the population in
the age-group 11-14.
In contrast with the position at the primary stage, the enrolments in
classes VI-VIII in the post-Commission period (1966-78) are slightly larger than
those in the first three Plans. But the journey they had yet to complete is very
long; and what is worse, the additional enrolments in these classes in some
areas are not even keeping pace with the growth of population. One must also
note that this game of enrolments does not always tell the truth. Bogus and
inflated enrolments have become a routine and these unfortunately are the
highest in the backward States. It is obvious however those mere targets of
enrolments in Classes I-VIII do not tell whole story. The following related facts
also deserve to be noted:
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The rate of drop-outs is very high: out of every 100 children enrolled in
class I only about 50 reach class V and only about 25 reach class VIII.
These rates have remained almost constant since 1950.
The expenditure on elementary education increased from Rs. 2,130 million
(or 34 per cent of total educational expenditure) in 1965-66 to Rs. 7,873
million (or 37 per cent of the total) in 1975-76. The very large increase in
absolute figures in due mainly to rise in prices and upgrading of salaries of
teachers. But it is also evident that the low priority accorded to elementary
education in 1965-66 (or as a matter of fact throughout the post-
independence period) continues unchanged to this day.
The qualitative aspects of the problem show marked deterioration. In many
schools, the teachers‘ salaries constitute about 98 per cent of the total
expenditure. The condition of the school plant has deteriorated; and even
academic achievements of students show a trend towards decline.
The revised enrolment target for the Sixth Plan shows that it will not be
possible to make elementary education universal even at the end of the
Seventh Plan, i.e. 1989-90.
In 1965-66, the total estimated population of children in the age-group
6-14 was 90 million, of whom 61 million were enrolled and 29 million were not
attending. In 1977-78, the total population of children in the age-group 6-14 is
expected to be 131.50 million, of whom 83.21 million are enrolled and 48.29
million are not attending. In other words, the children out of school even in
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1977-78 are more numerous than those in 1965-66, showing that, as a country,
our additional enrolments at the elementary stage in the post-Commission
period are not keeping pace even with the growth of population! If the
increases in costs and deterioration in standards are also taken into account, it
is obvious that the task of reaching the goal of universal elementary education
has become more difficult in 1977-78 than it was in 1965-66. The crisis of non-
performance in elementary education which has persisted throughout the post-
independence period has only deepened over the past 12 years.
5.67 PROGRESS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION
With these introductory observations, let us see the main developments
in general secondary education during the period under review.
(1) Institutions: The number of general secondary schools
increased from 7,288 in 1950-51 to 27,477 in 1965-66, to 43,054 in 1975-76
and to 45,489 in 1977-78. The Education Commission made several
recommendations regarding control over the unplanned expansion in the post-
Commission period is larger than that prior to 1965-66. During the recent years,
however, the State Governments have been unwilling, on financial grounds, to
give permission to start new secondary schools. This has slowed down
expansion to some extent.
(2) Enrolments: Enrolments in general secondary educations in
classes IX-XI/XII (and corresponding to age-group 14-17/18) have also shown
a rapid increase in keeping with the earlier policies of providing access to all
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students who desire to join secondary schools – policies which have continued
to dominate the scene in spite of suggestions of the Commission to the
contrary. The details are given in Table 000.It will be noticed that there is no
marked difference in the expansion of enrolments in secondary level institution
in the fifteen years before the Education Commission and the twelve Years after
it.
Table 5.6Enrolments in Classes IX-XI/XII (1950-51 to 1977-78)
Enrolment in Classes IX-XI/XII (in millions)
Boys Girls Total
1950-51 1.62 (8.7) 0.2 (1.8) 1.22 (5.3)
1965-66 3.87 (24.3) 1.17 (7.17) 5.04 (16.2)
1975-76 5.34 (25.6) 2.08 (10.5) 7.42 (18.3)
1977-78 6.50 (29.0) 2.65 (12.8) 9.15 (20.2)
Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentages to population in the
Corresponding age-group.
There is of course a sharp increase in the period between 1975-76 and
1977-78, due mainly to the adoption of the new pattern; and this represents
more an adjustment than a real increase. The obvious implication and its
restriction have had no major impact on the overall enrolment situation in
secondary education which continues to be more or less what it was before
1965-66.
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(3) Expenditure: The expenditure on secondary education increased
from Rs. 1,377 million in 1965-66 (or 22.2 per cent of the total expenditure) to
Rs. 4,936 million (or 23.5 per cent of the total expenditure) which implies that
its overall priority also did not change to any significant extent.
(4) Vocational secondary education: Coming to the provision of
vocational education at the secondary stage, one finds that the progress has
been disappointing. Owing to the failure to promote industry in a big way, there
were no increasing opportunities for employment at the middle level in
industry. Opportunities for employment in other sectors also did not show any
rapid increase. On the whole, the employment profile remained in a low key so
that vocational secondary education also showed a recession. Table 9.7 shows
the position of vocational secondary education between 1965-66 and 1975-76.
Table 5.7Vocational Secondary education (1965-66 to 1975-76)
1965-66 1975-76
1. No. of Secondary vocational schools 2,775 2,496
2. Enrolments in above (Rs. Million) 293,444 224,210
3. Expenditure on above (Rs. Million 76,611 134,252
4. Proportion of this expenditure to total educational
expenditure
1.2 0.6
A word of explanation is needed. Owing to a change in the classification
system of educational statistics adopted during this period, the figures for
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1975-76 are not strictly comparable to those of 1965-66. For example,
polytechnics which were shown as vocational education at secondary level in
1965-66 are now classified as vocational education of the collegiate standard.
But even after due allowance is made for these changes, it is still found that the
increase in secondary vocational education between 1965-66 and 175-76 is
marginal. At any rate, there is hardly any increase in the proportion of students
at the secondary stage diverted to the vocational courses. This is of course a
sad comment on all the debate on vocationalisation secondary education that
has gone on in the country during the past 12 years.
How does the overall situation in secondary education in 1977-78
compare with that in 1965-66 and what difference did the Report of the
Education Commission make to this overall situation? Perhaps the main
contribution of the Education Commission to secondary education was to undo
the damage which had been done by the concept of the multipurpose
secondary schools adopted after the Report of the Secondary Education
Commission (1952). Under this programme, secondary education was
―streamed‖ into Arts, Science, Engineering, Agriculture, etc. and a student was
called upon to decide his future career at the end of class VIII or the age of 12
or 13. Dr. D.S. Kothari said that was as bad as child-marriage. All this has now
ceased to be and this attempt at a premature specialization has come to an
end. On the positive side, the adoption of the new pattern of 10 + 2 + 3 + has
strengthened secondary education, especially where classes XI-XII have been
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added to schools. These have definitely been changes for the better. The basic
issues however remain mostly unsolved. Secondary education in India has
suffered from a number of weaknesses: a rapid and uncontrolled expansions
(more than 50 per cent of the secondary schools have small enrolments of less
than 250); poor standards; lack of diversification (i.e., more than 90 per cent of
the students take up only the academic courses leading to the university);
absence of terminal vocational courses on an adequate scale; and above all,
lack of relevance. The Report of the Commission did not make any meaningful
dent on these issues to which the educational planner of tomorrow will have to
address himself.
5.68 IMPACT OF NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION 1968
The National Policy of 1968 marked a significant step in the history of
education in post independence of India. It aimed to promote national
progress, a sense o common citizenship and culture, and to strengthen national
integration, it laid stress on the need for a radical reconstruction of the
education system, to improve its quality at all stages, and gave, much greater
attention to science and technology.
Since the adoption of the 1968 Policy, there has been considerable
expansion in educational facilities all over the country at all levels. More than 90
percent of the country‘s rural habitations now have schooling facilities within a
radius of one kilometer. There has been sizeable augmentation of facilities of
the other stages also. The government of India accordingly resolves to promote
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the development of education in the country in accordance with the following
principles:
(i) Free and compulsory Education for all children upto the age of 14;
(ii) Status, Employment and Education of Teachers;
(iii) Development of languages: (a) Regional languages, (b) three
language formula;
(iv) Equalization of Educational Opportunity: Strenuous efforts should
be made to equalize educational opportunity;
(v) Identification of Talent;
(vi) Work-Experience and National Services;
(vii) Science, Education and Research;
(viii) Education for Agriculture and Industry;
(ix) Production of Books;
(x) Examination; and
(xi) Secondary, university, part-time, correspondence courses, spread
of literacy and Adult Education etc.
Perhaps the most notable development has been the acceptance of a
common structure of education throughout the country and the introduction of
the 10+2+3 system by most states. The higher secondary stages of two years
are being located in schools and colleges or both according to local conditions.
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5.69 IMPACT OF NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL POLICY 1986
The NPE was adopted by Parliament in 1966 and its implementation
commenced soon thereafter. Universalisation of elementary education,
equalization of educational opportunities, women‘s education and development,
vocationalisation of school education, consolidation of higher education,
modernization of technical education, improvement of quality content and
process of education at all levels are themes of national endeavor in the field of
education as envisaged in NPE.
5.70 IMPACT ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
In elementary education, the focus shifted from enrolment, per se, to
retention and achievement – a shift which reflects the renewed concern for
improving efficiency of investment and for monitoring programmes in terms of
outcomes rather than in terms of inputs such as coverage and expenditure
alone. The focus also shifted from exclusive concern with schooling to a holistic
perception which stressed the need of providing alternative system of education
of comparable quality to working children and girls whom the schools cannot
reach.
5.71 IMPACT ON UNIVERSALISATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
(UEE)
Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) is a constitutional
mandate. Article 45 of the Constitution stipulates, as a Directive Principle of
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State Policy, that ‗the State shall endeavor to provide, within a period of ten
years from the commencement of this Constitution for free and compulsory
education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.‘
Indeed, over the years, the Centre and the States have made considerable
investments in promoting elementary education. Facilities in elementary
education have grown from about 2.34 lakh to 7.05 lakh schools, enrolment
from 22.28 million to 132.4 million children (Table 5.8) and outreach of primary
education facilities to over 94 per cent of the rural population within 1 km
walking distance of their houses. Over the last five years in pursuant of the
NPE, effort has been made to focus attention on the quality of educational
being provided by this vast and possibly the largest, educational network of the
world. Several schemes have been launched to improve retentions and reduce
disparities; provide basic minimum facilities to schools; open non-formal
education centres for part-time education of school dropouts and working
children; lay down Minimum Levels of Learning (MLLs); decentralize educational
management and involve the community in the running of schools. Most of
these schemes are ambitious in target and scope, and require sustained efforts
and considerable resource support to make an impact.
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Table 5.8 Expansion of Elementary Education since 1950-51
1950-51 1990-91
Number of primary schools 2.20 lakh 5.59 lakh
Number of middle schools 0.14 lakh 1.46 lakh
Enrolment in classes I to V 19.15 million 99.1 million
of boys 13.77 million 58.1 million
of boys 5.38 million 41.0 million
Enrolment in classes VI to VIII 3.13 million 33.3 million
of boys 2.59 million 20.9 million
of girls 0.54 million 12.4 million
Enrolment in classes I to VIII 22.28 million 132.4 million
of boys 16.36 million 79.0 million
of girls 5.92 million 53.4 million
5.72 IMPACT OF OPERATION BLACKBOARD
The Scheme of Operation Blackboard, started in 1987-88 to bring about
substantial improvement in facilities in primary schools with the aim of
improving retention, has three interdependent components, namely:
(i) Proving of a building comprising at least two reasonably large all-
weather rooms with a deep verandah and separate toilet facilities
for boys and girls;
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(ii) At least two teachers in every school, as far as possible one of
them a woman; and
(iii) Provision of essential teaching learning material including
blackboards, maps, charts, toys and equipment for work
experience. Funds for construction of school building are provided
mainly from rural development schemes. Funds for the other two
components are provided by Department of Education, Ministry of
primary schools in all the blocks/municipal areas in the country in
a phased manner.
In the period 1987-88 to 1990-91, the scheme was implemented in 69
per cent of the blocks in the country comprising 64 per cent primary schools.
An assistance of Rs. 523.41 crore was released by the Department of
Education. Of this Rs. 150.09 crore was released in 1990.01. There was a
provision of Rs. 100 crore for Opeation Blackboard during 1991-92. The scheme
would continue during the Eighth Plan till completion.
In order to move towards a position where every class has a class room
and a teacher, it has been proposed to expand Operation Blackboard during the
Eighth Plan to provide a third teacher and a third class room to every primary
school where enrolment warrants it. Central assistance will be provided for the
third teacher, while State Government will be expected to find resources for the
construction of class rooms from the Jawahar Rozgar Yojna and State Plan
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budgets. Data on achievements under Operation Blackboard till 1991-92 is
presented in Table 5.9.
Table 5.9 Operation Blackboard- Achievements
1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92
Amount spent (Rs. in crores) 110.61 135.73 126.98 150.09 168.44
Amount committed by States for
school buildings (Rs. in crores)
300.00 340.00 64.60 140.00 140.00
No. of States/UTs covered 27 22 22 25 15
No. of Blocks covered 1703 1795 578 343 1000
No. of schools covered (in lakhs) 1.13 1.40 0.52 0.39 0.76
% of primary schools covered 21.00% 26.40% 9.90% 7.35% 9.22%
Post of primary teachers sanctioned 36891 36327 5274 14379 22032
5.73 IMPACT OF NON-FORMAL EDUCATION
The role of non-formal part-time education in providing education to
working children, and children in habitations without schools has been
recognized since the education Commission of 1964-66. During 1979-80, the
scheme of Non-Formal Education (NFE) was introduced as an alternative
strategy to impart education to children, who for various reasons cannot attend
formal schools. The NPE envisaged a large and systematic programme of NFE
to achieve UEE. The scheme was revised in its content and emphasis in 1987-
88. Although its focus is on the ten educationally backward States, namely,
Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya
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Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, it has been
extended to cover urban slums, hilly, tribal & desert areas and areas with
concentration of working children in the other States as well. Financial
responsibility is borne by the Central and State Governments in the ratio of
50:50 for general (co-educational) and 90:10 for girls NFE centres. Assistance
to the extent of 100 per cent is provided to voluntary agencies for running NFE
centres and for experimental and innovative projects.
The (revised) NFE scheme has been visualized as child-centred,
environment-oriented, flexible system to meet the educational needs of the
comparatively deprived geographical areas and socio-economic sections of
society. Other features of the scheme are its organisational flexibility, relevance
of curriculum, diversity in learning activities to relate them to the learner‘s
needs and decentralized management. The programme is being implemented
on a project basis, generally co-terminus with the community development
Block comprising about 100 NFE Centres.
Particulars of achievements under the programme during the year 1991-
92 (anticipated by 31.3-1992) are given in Table 5.10.
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Table 5.10 Non-Formal Education -Achievements
1991-92
1 Amount spent (Rs. in crores) 50.00
2 NFE Centres brought to function (in lakhs) cumulative. 2.72
3 No. of exclusive girl centres sanctioned (cumulative). 81,607
4 No. of voluntary organisations approved for NFE programme (cumulative). 419
5 NFE Cetres brought to function by voluntary agencies (cumulative). 27,342
Estimated enrolment (in lakhs) 68.00
No. of experimental innovative projects approved (cumulative). 49
No. of District Resource Units 19
No. of States/UTs. Covered. 18
During the year 1991-92, action was initiated to improve the technical
aspect of the scheme. The NCERT and voluntary agencies have been involved
in the development of teaching and learning materials of a standard quality in
conformity with MLLs designed to suit learner‘s needs.
A project has been sanctioned to the NCERT for the development of
training module and in being implemented in the States. Multi-level training
personnel have been made available to provide technical and administrative
support to NFE field functionaries.
5.74 IMPACT OF MAHILA SAMAKHYA SCHEME
In pursuance of para 4.2 of the NPE, Mahila Samakhya was launched in
April, 1989. This programme seeks to mobilize rural women for education
through Mahila Sangas in each of the villages concerned. This is a Central
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Sector scheme where 100 per cent financial assistance is provided to Mahila
Samakhya Societies in Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat, set up under the
chairmanship of the concerned State Education Secretary. As an Indo-Dutch
programme it receives 100 per cent assistance from the Government of the
Netherlands.
Essentially, the programme revolves around Mahila Sanghas where
women are mobilised around issues like access to health, education, water,
information about development programmes, general information about their
immediate environment, and above all, issues related to their personality and
self-image in society.
Mahila Samakhya is currently operational in 1,500 villages in 10districts.
It is proposed to expand the programme to 20 districts in the three States and
3 districts of Andhra Pradesh in a phased manner in Eighth Plan period.
5.75 IMPACT OF BIHAR EDUCATION PROJECT
The Bihar Education Project (BEP) has been conceived as a societal
mission for bringing about fundamental change in the basic mission for bringing
about fundamental change in the basic education system and through it the
overall socio-cultural situation.
The BEP will cover all components of basic education and will be expanded
in a phased manner to cover 20 districts over a period of five years. The outlay
will be Rs. 360 crore of which the UNICEF will contribute Rs. 180 crore,
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Government of India Rs. 120 crore and Government of Bihar Rs. 60 crore. A
simultaneous process of mobilization and micro-planning characterizes the
project. The most important characteristic of the BEP management is a mission
made which pre-supposes a time-bound scheme of things in which specific
responsibility is attached to institutions, agencies, or individuals. Accordingly,
the management of the project has been vested in a state-level autonomous
registered body namely ‗Bihar Shiksha Pariyojana Parishad‘ (BSPP) which has
been constituted having two bodies-a Council with the Chief Minister as
Chairman, and an Executive Committee with State Education Secretary as its
Chairman. Representation of Teachers, NGOs Government of India and
institutions of national stature
5.76 IMPACT OF SHIKSHA KARMI PROJECT
The Shiksha Karmi Project is being implemented since 1987 in Rajasthan
with assistance from the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA).
Its aim is UPE in selected remote and socio-economically backward villages of
the State.
The project identifies teacher absenteeism as a major obstacle in
achieving the objective of universalisation. It accordingly, envisages substitution
of the primary school teacher in single teacher schools by a team of two locally
resident educational workers called ‗Shiksha Karsmis‘. To ensure appointment
of local persons, educational qualification prescribed for teachers are not
insisted upon in the selection of Shiksha Karmis. But they are provided training
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and academic support on a sustained and intensive basis to enable them to
function efficiently as teachers. The existing primary school when run by
Shiksha Karmis is called a ‗Day Centre‘. Besides, each Shiksha Karmi also runs a
‗Prehar Pathshala‘ (Night Centre) for children who cannot attend the day
Centre. The project also lays emphasis on recruitment of female Shiksha Karmis
and establishment of Mahila Shiksha Karmi Training Centres in order to prepare
local women to function as Shiksha Karmis.
As of 31st December, 1991, the project was being implemented in 359
villages of 33 block units in 30 blocks of 17 districts in the State. The number of
Shiksha Karmis was 750 and amongst them, they were looking after 359 Day
Centres and 706 Prehar Pathshalas with a total enrolment of 35,795.
An independent study of the Shiksha Karmi Project was done in the
second half of 1990. The study revealed that the achievement levels of the
children in Shiksha Karmi Schools compared favorably with the children in the
Panchayat Samiti schools.
5.77 IMPACT OF MINIMUM LEVELS OF LEARNING (MLLS)
The strategy of MLLs seeks to improve learning acquisition in schools by
focusing attention on what is happening in the classroom, and bringing the
principles of equity to bear upon it.
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Table 5.11 Growth of Recognized Educational Institutions and
Enrolment since 1951-91
Year Hig/Hr. Secondary Schools, Inter/Pre Degree Jr. Colleges Enrolment in Lakhs
Boys Girls Total
1950-51 7416 13 2 15
1960-61 17329 27 7 34
1970-71 37051 57 19 76
1980-81 51624 84 35 119
1990-91 78619 140 69 209
5.78 IMPACT OF VOCATIONALISATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
Keeping in view the priorities accorded to vocationalisation of education
in the NPE-86, the Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Vocationalisation of
Secondary Education was started in February, 1988. The main objectives of the
scheme are to provide diversification of educational opportunities so as to
enhance individual‘s employability, reduce the mismatch between demand and
supply of skilled manpower, and provide an alternative avenue for those
pursing higher education.
The selection of vocational courses is made on the basis of area
vocational surveys, registration in the Employment Exchanges, and a general
assessment of manpower needs made under District Developmental Plans. This
ensures, to some extent, that students are trained in those occupational areas
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wherein self or wage employment opportunities are assured. On-the-job
training is an integral part of the curricula. The remaining time is allocated to
the study of language and general foundation course. Under the scheme, a
Joint Council of Vocational Education (JCVE) has been set up at the national
level, with counterpart bodies at the State level, for laying down policy
guidelines, planning and coordination of vocational programmes conducted by
different agencies/organisations. The JCVE has as its members representatives
from various Ministries/Departments, members of Parliament, State
Governments, voluntary organisations, experts in vocational education and all-
India professional bodies. Union Education Minister is its Chairman. A Standing
Committee of the JCVE has also been set up under the Chairmanship of the
Union Education Secretary to ensure that the tasks laid down by JCVE are
effectively performed.
The scheme is presently being implemented in 27 States/UTs. Up to the
end of the Seventh Plan 7888 Vocational sections had been approved with an
enrolment capacity of 3.9 lakh students in classes XI and XII together. During
1990-91 an additional 1128 sections were approved. During 1991-92 it was
proposed to sanction another 1400 vocational sections. Thus by the end of 191-
92 facilities would have been created for 5.85 lakh students in the vocational
stream. The estimated enrolment during 1991-92 at +2 level was 66.05 lakh.
This would mean a diversion of about 8.7 per cent to the vocational stream.
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The actual enrolment is however likely to be less as optimum utilisation of
facilities created may not be achieved.
5.79 IMPROVEMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION IS SCHOOLS
In order to improve the quality of science education and promote
scientific temper, as envisaged in NPE, a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of
Improvement of Science Education in Schools was started during the last
quarter of 1987-88. Under this Scheme, financial assistance is provided to
States/Union Territories for provision of science kits to upper primary schools;
up gradation and strengthening of science laboratories in secondary and higher
secondary schools up to a desired standard; up gradation of libraries in
secondary and higher secondary schools; setting up of District Resource
Centres for science education, development of instructional materials; and
training of Science and Mathematics teachers. The scheme also provides for
assistance to voluntary organizations active in the field of science education for
undertaking innovative projects and resource support activities in science
education.
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Table 5.12 Educational Technology - Achievements
1987-
88
1988-89 1989-
90
1990-91 1991-
92
Total (as
on
12.12.91)
Amount Spent (Rs in crore) 14.14 16.20 16.50 14.57 3.15 64.56
No. of States covered (Cumulative) 13 29 31 32 32
No. of TV sets distributed 10049 12049 2799 6232 - 31129
No. of Radio cum Cassette Players
distributed
37562 67735 49963 72883 3115 231228
Continuing Schemes
1. Amount released to CIET (Rs. in
crores)
5.28 3.10 3.146 2.37 2.00 15.89
2. Amount Released to SIETs (Rs. in
Crores) (6 INSAT States A.P., Bihar,
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Orissa and U.P.)
1.40 1.53 2.20 0.44
Plan
0.63 6.65
3. Amount released to ET Cells (Rs in
crores)
0.22 0.26 0.54
Non
0.45
Plan
- 1.02
4. Amount released to States/UTs. For
TVs/RCCPs (Rs in crores)
7.15 11.19 10.60 11.66 0.33 40.93
5. Development of Software for RCCPs
(Rs. in crores)
- - - 0.10 0.19 0.29
The actual achievements up to 1990-91 and the anticipated achievements
during 1991-92 are given in Table 6.7.
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5.80 IMPACT ON COMPUTER EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS
A pilot project on Computer Literacy and studies in Schools (CLASS) was
initiated in 1984-85 in 248 selected secondary/higher secondary schools jointly
by the Department of Electronics and the Department of Education to acquaint
students and teachers with the range of computer applications and its potential
as a learning medium. In pursuance of the objectives laid down in the NPE, an
expanded programme was prepared in 1987-88 to cover 13,000 higher
secondary schools all over the country. However, due to paucity of funds and
other administrative reasons, the proposal to cover 13,000 schools was not
finalized. In the Table 5.13, a summary of achievements under CLASS Project is
presented.
Table 5.13 Class Project - Achievements
5.81 IMPACT ON NATIONAL POPULATION EDUCATION PROJECT
The National Population Education Project (NPEP) was launched in April
1980 with the main objective of institutionalizing population education into the
formal and non-formal education system. The programme activities have been
1987-
88
1988-
89
1989-
90
1990-
91
1991-
92
Total
(anticipated)
Amount spent Rs. in crore 5.39 5.98 6.00 5.86 6.00 29.23
No. of States assisted 30 31 32 - - 32
No. of schools covered 1949 2327 2598 - - 2.598
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developed in collaboration with the United Nations Fund (UNPFA) and UNESCO
and also with the active involvement of the Ministry of Health and Family
welfare. The NCERT provides technical assistance. The Ministry of Human
Resource Development has decided to extend the NPEP into the Eighth Five
Year Plan. Population Education aims at making young students aware of the
inter-relationship between population, development and the quality of life. It
further seeks to develop in them a rational attitude and responsible behaviour
towards population issue and to foster in them positive value orientation so that
they may take informed decisions which, in turn, would promote the small
family norm. The project is currently being implemented in twenty-nine States
and Union Territories.
5.82 IMPACT ON INTEGRATED EDUCATION FOR THE DISABLED
CHILDREN
It has been established scientifically that children with mild handicaps
make better progress academically and psychologically if they study in common
schools alongside normal children. The Scheme of Integrated Education for
Disabled Children provides 100 per cent financial assistance to State
Governments, Union Territory administrations and voluntary organisations for
creating necessary facilities in the schools. Admissible items of expenditure are
books and stationery allowance, transport allowance, uniform allowance,
readers allowance (for blind children), escort allowance for orthopedically
handicapped children with lower extremity disabilities, equipment allowance
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and wherever necessary, hostel charges. Besides, the scheme also provides for
meeting the cost of salary and incentives for teachers, setting up of resource
rooms, carrying out assessment of disabled children, training of teachers,
removal of architectural barriers in schools, development and production of
special instructional materials for disabled children, etc. Assistance is also given,
through the UGC, to selected universities and institutions for running training
courses in special education for teachers of the handicapped children. Training
facilities are also provided by the NCERT and the four Regional Colleges of
Education.
The scheme is at present being implemented in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka,
Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Daman & Diu, Delhi and A & N
Islands.
There is one UNICEF assisted Project of Integrated Education for
Disabled (PIED) which envisages development of context-specific strategies for
education of Children with disabilities in general schools. Assistance is give to
the States/Union Territories implementing this project also for meeting the
expenditure on account of various facilities provided to disabled children. One
block each in the States of Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Mizoram,
Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu and the Municipal Corporations of
Delhi and Baroda are covered under this project.
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About 28,000 children spread over 6000 schools are presently receiving benefits
under this scheme. A much large number are receiving indirect benefit through
special teachers and other learning material.
5.83 MORE REPORTS, MORE CONFUSION AND EDUCATION SUFFERS
It will be of interest to note that since Independence about one hundred
Committees and Commissions have been appointed by the Government of India
to investigate into the malaise afflicting the education system in the country.
Remedial measures have also been identified but the desired results are still
elusive. In this context, an editorial of The Hindustan Times dated May 25,1992
has made very pertinent observations.
‗Frequent changes in education policy do not make a sound education
system. While the comprehensive education reforms suggested by the
Radhakrishna and Kothari Commissions remain largely unimplemented,
frequent review exercises continue. The National Front Government showed
undue haste in rejecting the 1986 National Policy on Education (NPE) even
without giving it a proper trial and appointed a committee to review the NPE.
The Narasimha Rao Government was equally keen to review the review
undertaken by the Ramamurti Committee. The 16-member committee headed
by the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, Mr N. Janardhana Reddy, has broadly
endorsed the basic thrust of the NPE and recommended only minor changes.
Thus it has taken full six years for the Government to realize that the 1986
policy on education is basically sound. The result of frequent changes and
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reviews is the inevitable drift. As a result of such tinkering with education even
modest schemes like the universalisation of primary education have failed to
yield the desired result. Now the target of achieving universalisation of primary
education by 1995 has once again been extended by five years. The malaise
afflicting the education system has been diagnosed more or less accurately.
Even the corrective measures have been identified by various committees from
time to time. What is indeed missing is the necessary political will to make the
system viable and meaningful.‘
5.84 IMPACT ON PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION
Public expenditure on Education as a proportion of GNP, over the years,
has been as indicated in Table 5.14 which shows that while it has increased, as
of 1986-87, it feel far short of 6%.
Table 5.14Share of Education in GNP (%)
1950-51 1.2
1960-61 2.5
1970-71 3.1
1984-85* 3.7
1985-86** 4.0
1986-87@ 3.9
Budget expenditure (actual).
Budget expenditure (Revised Estimates).
@ Budget expenditure (Budget Estimates).
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The Central Statistical organization has recently released the quick
estimates of National Income (GNP) for the year 1988-89 which has been
placed at Rs. 3,06,822 crores at current prices on the basis of which the plan
and non-plan budget of Education Departments at the Centre and the States as
a percentage of national income comes to 4.2 % for the year 1989-90.
India ranks 115th in the world in terms of investment in Education as a
percentage of GNP. Amongst the countries with a population of 10 crores and
above, India is at the very bottom, barring Bangladesh. That India‘s educational
expenditure as a proportion of GNP compares very unfavorably vis-à-vis
worldwide expenditure on Education is brought out by Table 5.14.
The need of the hour is to implement the recommendations of the
Ramamurti Committee Report on raising resources for education. World public
expenditureon education as a percentage of GNP increased during the mid
period 1970 as the consequence of in-crease in both developed and developing
countries, but in the 1980s it slipped back to the level of early 1970s mainly as
the result of a decrease in developed countries.
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Table 5.15 Share of Education in Five Year Plan Outlays/Expenditures
(%)
Plans Share of Education in Total Plan
Outlays/Expenditure (%)
First Five Year Plan 7.86
Second Five Year Plan 5.83
Third Five Year Plan 6.87
Annual Five Year Plan 4.86
Fourth Five Year Plan 5.04
Fifth Five Year Plan 3.27
Sixth Five Year Plan 2.70
Seventh Five Year Plan 3.55
5.85 DECLINING SHARE OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
The share of Elementary Education has come down from the level of
56% in First Plan to 29% in the Seventh Plan. The share of secondary
Education has remained somewhat stable with marginal difference – between
13% and 18%.
5.86 HIGH DROP-OUT RATES AND NEED FOR MORE RETENTION
A large percentage of children drop out in the early stages of primary
education with 46.97% of them dropping out by class V. At the middle Level,
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about 62% of the children who began education at class I drop out before
reaching class VII. This percentage is 67% in the case of girls at the middle
stage. Similarly, the children of SC/ST communities drop out at a faster rate
than those of the non-SC/ST communities. The dimension of regional disparities
is also reflected in State-wise analysis of dropout at both the primary and
middle school levels.
Table 5.16 Dropout Rates 1987-88
Sl
No
State/UT. Class I-V Class I-VIII
Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Andhra Pradesh 52.42 58.52 55.03 67.77 77.01 71.68
2 Arunachal Pradesh 58.75 58.43 58.63 75.20 75.91 75.44
3 Assam 51.59 59.47 55.01 70.91 74.45 72.44
4 Bihar 63.88 68.93 65.63 76.77 84.19 79.08
5 Goa 2.19 8.78 5.33 20.69 27.63 23.95
6 Gujarat 38.06 46.87 41.92 56.30 67.69 61.67
7 Haryana 24.35 31.61 27.32 33.01 48.22 38.62
8 Himachal Pradesh 28.06 29.32 28.63 16.92 34.42 24.68
9 Jammu & Kashmir 28.08 41.45 33.44 46.63 58.51 51.25
10 Karnatka 43.28 57.36 50.16 61.04 72.07 66.10
11 Kerela -5.12 -3.62 -4.39 -15.97 15.00 15.49
12 Madhya Pradesh 36.64 48.04 41.04 49.88 66.65 55.78
13 Maharashtra 34.69 45.71 39.82 53.07 68.01 59.87
14 Meghalaya 31.43 33.40 32.35 66.42 61.61 64.22
15 Mizoram 37.28 38.72 37.98 45.35 42.49 43.98
16 Nagaland 37.22 33.43 35.45 58.15 55.13 56.90
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17 Orissa 4.05 37.32 38.97 60.28 71.25 64.86
18 Punjab 36.81 37.81 37.27 59.69 67.26 63.23
19 Rajasthan 53.12 60.75 52.25 62.81 76.82 66.35
20 Sikkim 60.19 58.50 59.86 63.83 60.11 62.51
21 Tamilnadu 19.44 24.46 21.78 44.08 53.14 48.22
22 Tripura 59.14 58.02 58.65 73.95 75.96 74.83
23 Uttar Pradesh 47.84 47.24 47.65 49.88 63.34 54.20
24 West Bengal 62.35 65.76 63.81 74.32 75.91 75.41
25 A&N Islands 18.60 22.74 20.54 38.35 39.59 36.31
26 Chandigarh -21.00 24.41 4.78 5.54 13.01 8.94
27 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 29.37 45.58 36.14 63.98 70.52 66.81
28 Daman & Diu 2.24 8.82 5.34 21.03 27.97 23.95
29 Delhi 14.40 25.40 19.76 9.64 24.20 16.73
30 Lakshadweep -2.96 11.38 4.02 40.96 56.82 48.45
31 Pondicherry 11.55 0.83 -5.59 3.11 31.52 16.29
32 Manipur 71.35 72.04 71.67 76.58 87.86 77.90
Total 43.35 49.42 46.97 58.80 67.55 62.29
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Table 5.17 Intra-Sectoral Resource Allocation for Education in
the Five Year Plans (Centre and States)
(Figures in crores of rupees) – (Figures in brackets are in %)
EXPENDITURE OUTLAY
1st Plan 2nd
Plan
3rd Plan Plan
Holiday
4th Plan 5th Plan 6th Plan 7th Plan
Elementary
*
85 (56) 95 (35) 201 (34) 75(24) 239(30) 317(50) 906(36) 1830(29)
Secondary
**
20 (13) 51 (19) 103 (18) 53(16) 140 (18) 156 (17) 398 (16) 1000 (16)
University 14(9) 48 (18) 87(15) 77(24) 195 (25) 205 (22) 486 (19) 750 (12)
Other
General
14 (9) 30 (10) 73(12) 37(11) 106(14) 127(14) 457(18) 2121(33)
Total
General
133(87) 224(82) 464(79) 241(75) 680 (87) 805 (88) 2247(89) 5710(89)
Technical 20(13) 49(18) 125(21) 81(25) 106(13) 107(12) 278(11) 682(11)
Grand
Total
153(100
)
273
(100)
589
(100)
322
(100)
786
(100)
912
(100)
2524
(100)
6383
(100)
% to total
plan outlay
7.86 5.83 6.87 4.86 5.04 3.27 2.59 3.55
* includes pre-school education
** includes teacher education, social education (youth serv * Draft)
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5.87 UNIVERSALISATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
Since the formulation of the NPE (1992), following major programmes
have been initiative for achieving the objectives of Universalisation of
Elementary.
1. District Primary Education Projection (DPEP).
2. Sarve Shiksha Abhiyan
3. National programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education
(NPNSPE) or Mid-day Meals.
4. Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative and Innovative Education.
5. National Programme of Education of Girls at Elementary Stage (NPEGL)
Scheme
6. Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya Scheme.
7. Prthmik Shiksha Kosh.
5.88 IMPACT OFDISTRICT PRIMARY EDUCATION PROGRAMME
(DPEP)
The District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) launched in 1993 is a
Centrally Sponsored Scheme for holistic development of primary education
covering Classes I to V. The three major objectives of the DPEP are to (i)
reduce drop-out rates to less than 10 per cent, (ii) reduce disparities among
gender and social group in the areas of enrolment, learning achievement, etc.
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To less than 5 per cent and (iii) improve the level of learning achievement
compared to the baseline surveys.
The Programme components include construction of classrooms and new
schools, opening of Alternative Schooling Centres, appointment of new teacher,
setting up early childhood education centres, strengthening of state councils of
Educational Research and Training (SCERTs)/District Institutes of Educational
Training (DIETs), setting up of Block Resource Centres/Cluster Resource
Centres, teacher training development of teaching-learning material, special
interventions for education of girls, SC/ST, working children, etc. Initiatives for
providing integrated education to is able children and distance education for
teacher training have also been incorporated in the DPEP Scheme.
Additionality Factor of DPEP – DPEP is based on the Principle of
‗additionality‘ and is structured to fill in the existing gaps by providing inputs
over and above the provisions made under Central and State Sector Schemes
for primary education.
District Selection Criteria – (a) Educationally backward districts with
female literacy below the national average, and (b) Districts where Total
Literacy Campaigns (TLCs) have been successful leading to enhanced demand
for elementary education.
Funding of the Project – DPEP is an externally aided project. 85 per
cent of the project cost is met by the Government of India and the remaining
15 per cent is shared by the concerned State Government. The Government of
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India share is resourced through external assistance. External assistance of
about Rs. 6938.00 crore, comprising Rs. 5137.00 crore as credit from IDA and
Rs. 1801.00 crore as grant from BC/DFID/UNI CEF/Netherlands has been tied
up for DPEP till date.
Coverage of DPEP – At present, DPEP is in operation in 9 states
covering 129 districts. DPEP at its peak, was operational in 273 districts in 18
states. However, with the progressive closure of different phases of the
programme, it now exist in 129 districts only.
Monitoring and Evaluation of DPEP – The programme is periodically
reviewed through the mechanism of Hoint Review Missions, Project
Management Information System (PMIS), Educational Management System
(EMIS), programme impact studies, etc. A midterm in-depth reviews of DPEP
Phase-I, II and III states have also been carried out by the Join Review
Missions in 1997-98, 1999-2000 and 2003-04. The review and evaluation
studies of the programme have brought out that the programme has resulted in
significant increase in enrolment, improvement in learning achievement,
reduction in repetition rates/drop-outs with increased community involvement
and improvements in classroom processes.
Allocation of Funds under DPEP – Portion of Budget Estimates,
Revised Estimates and Actual Expenditure for last three years is given as under:
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Table 5.18Allocation of Funds under DPEP (Rs. in crore)
Year BE RE Actual
2000-01 969.00 820.00 856.39
2001-02 1098.00 1198.00 1198.00
2002-03 1380.00 1380.00 1285.03
2003-04 1200.00 800.00 791.19
Expenditure on DPEP – The cumulative expenditure on DPEP up to
February 2004, works out to Rs. 6076.75 crore and the cumulative
reimbursement to Rs. 4807.51 crore. Expenditure incurred during the financial
year 2003-04 is Rs. 847.68 core and reimbursement Rs. 609.57 crore.
5.89 IMPACT OF SARVE SHIKSHA ABHIYAN
The Scheme of Sarve Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) evolved from the
recommendations of the State Education Ministers‘ Conference held in October
1998 to pursue universal elementary education in a mission mode. The scheme
of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan was approved by the Cabinet in its meeting held on
16 November 2000. It was started in 2001.
The assistance under the programme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiya was on an
85:15 sharing arrangement during the Ninth Plan, 75:25 sharing arrangement
during the Tenth Plan, 50:50 sharing thereafter, between the Central
Government and the State Government.
The programme covers the entire country and addresses the needs of
192 million children in 11 lakh existing primary and upper primary schools and
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33 lakh existing teachers would b covered under the scheme. The programme
seeks to open new schools in habitations which do not have schooling facilities
and strengthen existing schools infrastructure through provision of additional
class rooms, toilets, drinking water, maintenance grant and school
improvement grant. Existing schools with inadequate teacher strength would be
provided additional teachers under the programme. The capacity of existing
teacher would be built by extensive training, provision of grant for developing
teaching-learning material and development of academic support structure. SSA
has a special focus on girls and children of weaker sections A number of
initiatives, including free textbooks, target these children under the programme.
SSA also seeks to provide computer education even in rural areas, to bridge the
digital divide.
The approach is community – owned, and the village education plans
prepared in consultation with Panchayati Raj Institutions, will form the basis of
district elementary education plans. The Sarve Shiksha Abhiyan covers the
entire with a special focus on educational needs of girls, Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes and other children in difficult circumstances.
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Goals of SarvaShikshaAbhiyan
All 6-14 age children in school/EGS centre/bridge course by 2003.
All 6-14 age children complete five year primary education by 2007.
All 6-14 age children complete eight years of schooling by 2010.
Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on
education for life;
Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and at
elementary education level by 2010;
Universal retention by 2010.
National Level Mission
The Ministry has also set up national-level mission under the
chairmanship of Prime Minister vide Resolution dated 2-1-2001. During Tenth
Plan, an allocation of Rs. 17,000 crore has been made for SSA. For 2003-04, BE
is Rs. 1951.25 crore, RE is Rs. 2732.32 crore and the final grant is Rs. 2732.32
crore. The total expenditure under SSA for the year 2003-04 was Rs. 3,650
crore.
Monitoring Under SSA
Monitoring under SSA is a three-tiered monitoring at the local community
level, at the state level and the national level. The community, through its
representative institutions like village education committees, has been
entrusted with the primary level of ensuring that the schools are functioning
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effectively. Being local stakeholders, they are best placed to ensure quality
education in the schools.
For assisting the various levels of management in the task of monitoring,
two kinds of information System (EMIS), also known as District Information
System on Education (DISE), under which school-level data is collected every
year with 30 September as the record date. This was first developed in DPEP in
1995 for capturing school-level information from primary sections. Starting from
42 districts, it grew to 273 districts during the peak of DPEP programme. With
the advent of SSA, the system was expanded to the upper primary sections also
and to all districts in the country. The data, as on 30 September 2002, was
received from 459 districts in the 18 DPEP states. It is expected that the data
from 30 September 2003 would become available for all the 600 districts in the
country.
Table 5.19 Approved Annual Plans under SSA during 2002-03
and 2003-04
2002-2003 2003-04
No. of Districts 592 596
Amount Approved under SSA (Rs. in crore) 3411 crore 8547 crore
Amount Approved under DPEP (Rs. in crore) 2291 crore 1253 crore
Total Amount Approved (Rs. in crore) 5702 crore 9600 crore
The second information system developed is the Project Management
Information System (PMIS), in which the emphasis is n recording the progress
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made, towards the implementation of the annual plans, as well as to capture
the quality of the education process. The system has been developed with the
assistance of NIEPA and NCERT, and is a complete monitoring framework for
every tier of management. Several formats have been prescribed at various
levels to assist in monitoring the implementation of the programme at those
levels. Only the abstract useful at the national level is received nationally under
the system.
Seeing the enormity of this task of monitoring, assistance has been
taken from professional institutions, such as IIMs, departments of education of
different universities and the ICSSR. These institutions have been allocated
individual states, the number of institutions allocated to the states depending
on the size of the State and the extent of monitoring required. They not only
carry out the task of supervision and.
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Table 5.20 Physical Items approved in 2002-2003 and 2003-
2004
2002-2003 2003-2004
SSA DPEP Total SSA DPEP Total
No. of schools approved 18.159 1,640 19,699 67,190 57 67,247
No. of teachers sanctioned 25,782 17,108 42,890 2,98,189 5,201 4,03,390
No. of school buildings 8,095 8,849 16,944 40,960 1,586 42,546
Additional classrooms 32,028 7,485 39,523 68,779 3,950 72,729
Toilets 39,699 11,130 50,829 46,272 5,488 51,760
Drinking water 26,805 6,590 33,395 33,161 6,053 41,214
Teacher grant 21,16,514 8,52,445 30,13,959 29,67.053 3,70,798 33,37,851
School grant (No. of schools) 5,61,558 3,07,414 8,68,972 6,33,303 1,46,143 8,29,446
Repair grants (No. of
schools)
5,15,700 0 5,15,700 7,33,000 42,133 7,75,133
Free text books (No. of
children)
31139754 14086909 45226663 4,60
crore
1.21
core
5.81
crore
Monitoring but also act as partners of the states in the implementation of
the programme. The selected institutions make field and send their reports
every quarter. Their quarterly visits to select districts help in assessing the
ground-level realities.
Apart from the above, an independent agency has also been engaged to
monitor the programme from the financial management aspect. The agency
selected is the Institute of Public Auditors of India (IPAI) whose patron is CAG,
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and which consists of personnel formerly working with the Audit and Accounts
Department. They take up six states every year for monitoring the financial
aspects of the programme, such as fund flow, utilisation of funds, propriety of
procurement, etc. this monitoring is apart from the statutory audit of the State
Societies as per law and the audit by CAG of India.
Implementation of SSA in the first two years of the Tenth Plan has seen
significant developments in the field of education sector. There has been a
particular emphasis in these two years to ensure that all out-of- school children
are brought to school through multi-pronged strategies. The focus has been on
improving the existing infrastructure of regular schools as well as on alternate
strategies for mainstreaming children who are left out of the schooling process
due to a number of reasons.
Towards the objective of improving the infrastructure, arrangements
have been made to open more than 80,000 new schools and appointing around
4.5 lakh teachers in the last two years. Further, physical infrastructure has been
sought to be improved through provision of more than 1 lakh additional
classrooms, around 60,000 school buildings, 1 lakh toilets and 75,000 drinking
water facilities. With the objective of improving the quality of teaching and
classroom atmosphere, grants are given to all teachers for developing teaching-
learning materials, 20-day training is expected to be given to all teachers and
free textbooks distributed to all girls and children belonging to Scheduled
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Castes and Scheduled Tribes. In addition, maintenance grant for civil repairs
and a school grant for replacement of equipment is give to all schools.
For children who are difficult to bring to school, SSA has relied on the
Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative and Innovative Education to bring
these children to school. In the last two years approvals have been given for
getting 1.42 crore children to school.
As a result of all these interventions, the number of out-of-school children
has come down from 3.5 crore in 2001 to 2.3 crore in the beginning of 2003-
04.
5.90 EDUCATION GUARANTEE SCHEME AND ALTERNATIVE AND
INNOVATIVE EDUCATION
The Education Guarantee Scheme (EGS) and Alternative and Innovative
Education (AIE) component of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is operationally
proactive and proactive and provides avenues to children in the age group of 6-
14 years. This component was designed to cover those children who are
habitants of remotely located inaccessible habitations, never been to school,
dropouts or could not continue/complete their elementary education because of
one or the other reason.
EGS & AIE is, therefore, a vital component of SSA for achieving Universalisation
of Elementary Education (UEE). It has the following broad strategies:
Setting up of EGS schools in school-less habitations.
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Interventions for mainstreaming of ‗out-of-school‘ children through
bridge courses (residential as well as non-residential), back to school
camps, etc.
Strategies for specific groups of children, who need flexible and
innovative interventions to meet their requirements of elementary
education.
FGS & AIE programme also envisages centres for street and a state on
this component is 75:25 respectively. In case of support to voluntary agencies
(VAs), Central Government bears 100 per cent cost (within the overall cost
ceiling). The EGS & AIE, being a part of SSA, has no separate budget provision
and expenditure on the scheme is incurred from overall budget provision of
SSA.
The scheme is largely implemented and monitored by state-level
societies set up for SSA by the State/UT Governments, which have powers to
appraise and approve proposals running either through state agencies or
voluntary sector.
The Department of Elementary Education and Literacy Persuaded the
State Governments to constitute state-level GIACs as per the framework of SSA
and a Hand Book for EGS/AIE, in order to encourage the participation of NGOs.
The GIACs have already been constituted in 22 states. The States of Bihar,
Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh have processed 289,272 and 425 proposals
respectively from NGOs.
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In order to enhance state capacities for implementation of the EGS/AIE
scheme in SSA, one national and three regional-level workshops to strengthen
the capacity of implementers at state as well as district-level were organized. A
three-day national-level workshop was organized in Kolkata in April 2003 and
2004 and three regional workshop workshops were organized in Pune,
Allahabad and Kolkata.
The Department of Elementary Education and Literacy regularly monitors
the implementation of EGS/AIE component in the States through convening
quarterly meetings of Alternative Schooling Coordinators of the State SSA
programmes regularly, wherein state-wise progress is reviewed, interstate
experiences and good practices are shared and the issues concerning the
programme are deliberated upon for better execution.
5.91 NATIONAL PROGRAMME OF NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT TO
PRIMARY EDUCATION
A nation-wide programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education
(popularly called Mid-day Meals Scheme or MDM) was launched on 15 August
1995, with the objectives to give a boost to UPE and simultaneously impacting
on the nutritional status of students in primary classes studying in government,
local body and government-aided schools. During the current year, the
programme has also been expanded to children of EGS centres which are being
opened in the school-less habitations.
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The programme aims to provide wholesome cooked/processed food
through local bodies/authorities such as Panchayats and Nagar Palikas who are
expected to develop institutional arrangement has not taken place, food grains
(wheat/rice) at the rate of 3kg per month are distributed to the targeted
children, subject to a minimum attendance of 80 percent. The programme was
expanded in a phased manner and has seen all-India coverage during 1997-98
except for Lakshadweep, which runs its own programme. The Central Support
under this programme is to provide food grains free of cost to children through
the Food Corporation of India. The cost is being reimbursed at BPL rate. The
year-wise details of children targeted for coverage and quantity of food grains
allocated and lifted by state agencies and expenditure incurred is given below.
Recently, the Hon‘ble Supreme Court in its order dated 29 November
2001 directed that under the Scheme, cooked meals be provided in a time
bound manner by those States/UTs that do not have such a programme. As a
result, cooked meals are now being served in a number of States.
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Table 5.21 National Programme Of Nutritional Support To
Primary Education
Year No. of Children Quantity of foodgrains Expenditure incurred
Allocated Lifted
1995-96 3.34 713223 536016 441.21
1996-97 5.57 1585388 1112489 800.00
1997-98 9.10 2567372 1810164 1017.38
1998-99 9.79 2706274 1147917 1600.15
1999-2000 9.90 2767251 1401765 1500.00
2000-01 10.54 2480692 1517816 1300.00
2001-02 10.35 2862475 2076764 1030.27
2002-03 10.25 2826248 901756 952.44
(up to Sept. 2002)
5.92 IMPACT ON NATIONAL PROGRAMME FOR EDUCATION OF GIRLS
AT ELEMENTARYLEVEL (NPEGEL) SCHEME
In July, 2003, Government of India approved a new programme called
‗National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level‘ (NPEGEL) as an
amendment to the existing scheme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) for
providing additional support for education of underprivileged/disadvantaged
girls at the elementary level. The scheme is implemented in Educationally
Backward Blocks (EBBs) where the level of female literacy is below, and the
gender gap is above the national average in blocks of districts which are not
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covered under EBBs but have at least 5 per cent SC/ST population and where
SC/St female literacy is below 10 per cent, also in select urban slums.
5.93 IMPACT ON KASTURBA GANDHI BALIKA VIDYALAYA SCHEME
An estimated provision of Rs. 1064.80 crore has been kept for the Tenth
Plan. Apart from NPEGEL, a new scheme called Kasturba Gandhi Balika
Vidyalaya (KGBV) was approved for launching during 2004-05 for setting up
750 residential schools with boarding facilities at elementary level for girls
belonging predominantly to the SC,ST, other backward castes (OBC) and
minorities in difficult areas. a provision of Rs. 489 crore has been made for the
Tenth Plan; and Annual Plan allocation for the year 2004-05 is Rs. 100 crore.
525 KGBVs have been approved by the Department of Elementary Education,
involving an Amount of Rs. 123.03 crore for 2004-05.
5.94 IMPACT ON PRATHMIK SHIKSHA KOSH
An education cess of 2 per cent on all direct and indirect Central taxes
has been imposed through the Finance (No. 2) Act, 2004. Soon after he
relevant Bill was introduced in Parliament on July 8, 2004, action was initiated
for the creation of a separate, dedicated, non-lapsable Fund to be named as
Prathmik Shiksha Kosh and maintained by the Ministry of HRD, Department of
Elementary Education and Literacy. The proceeds would be available on a
roolover basis for the schemes of Basic Education and the Mid-day Meal
Scheme. Budget provision for the Mid-day Meal Scheme during 2004-05 was
Rs. 1,675 crore. In addition Rs. 1,232 crore has been provided to the
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States/UTs as Additional Central Assistance (ACA) under State Sector as
earmarked outlay for meeting cooking cost.
Table 5.22 Gross Enrolment Ratios at the Elementary Stage (GER) (in per cent)
Year Primary (I-V) Upper Primary
(VI-VIII)
Elementary
(I-VIII)
Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total
1950-51 60.6 24.8 42.6 20.6 4.6 12.7 46.4 17.7 32.1
1960-61 82.6 41.4 62.4 33.2 11.3 22.5 65.2 30.9 48.7
1970-71 95.5 60.5 75.6 46.5 20.8 33.4 75.5 44.4 61.9
1980-81 95.8 64.1 80.5 54.3 28.6 41.9 82.2 52.1 67.5
1990-91 114.0 85.5 100.1 76.6 47.0 62.1 100.0 70.8 86.0
1991-92 112.8 86.9 100.2 75.1 49.6 61.4 101.2 73.2 87.7
1993-94 90.0 73.1 81.9 62.1 45.4 54.2 80.2 63.7 72.3
1994-95 96.6 78.2 87.7 68.9 50.0 60.0 87.2 68.8 78.4
1995-96 97.1 79.4 88.6 67.8 493.8 59.3 86.9 69.4 78.5
1996-97 97.0 80.1 88.8 65.8 49.2 58.0 85.9 69.4 78.0
1997-98 99.3 82.2 91.1 66.3 49.7 58.5 87.4 70.7 79.4
1998-99* 100.9 82.9 92.1 65.3 49.1 57.6 87.6 70.6 79.4
1999-
2000
104.1 85.2 94.9 67.2 49.7 58.8 90.1 72.0 81.3
2000-01* 104.9 85.9 95.7 66.7 49.9 58.6 90.3 72.4 81.6
2001-02* 105.3 86.9 96.3 67.8 52.1 60.2 90.7 73.6 82.4
2002-03* 97.5 93.1 95.4 65.3 56.2 60.9 85.4 79.3 82.5
Provisional
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Source: Selected Education Statistics 2002-03, Ministry of Human
Resource Development.
Drop-out Rates
Of the estimated population of 205 million in the age group of 6-14 years
on March 1, 2002, nearly 82.5 per cent was enrolled in schools, compared to
82.4 per cent in 2001-02. The retention rate of students at the primary school
stage was about 59 per cent (1992-97).
The rates of drop out decreased from 64.5 per cent in 1960-6 to 39.0
per cent in 2001-02 primary classes. The rate of dropouts which was 78.3 per
cent in 1960-61 came down to 54.6 per cent in 2001-2002 in the Classes I-VIII.
Similarly the rate of dropouts which was 82.5 per cent in 1980-81, decreased to
66.0 per cent in 2001-2002 in the secondary classes, implying an improvement
in retention rates as would be evident from Table 5.23.
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Table 5.23 Dropout rates from Class I to X
1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 1992-93 1999-2000 2001-2002
Classes I-V
Boys 61.7 64.5 56.2 40.1 43.8 38.7 38.4
Girls 70.9 70.9 62.5 46.0 46.7 42.3 39.9
Total 64.9 67.0 58.7 42.6 45.0 40.3 39.0
Classes I-VIII
Boys 75.0 74.6 68.0 59.1 58.2 52.0 52.9
Girls 85.0 83.4 79.4 65.1 65.2 58.0 56.9
Total 78.3 77.9 72.7 60.9 31.1 54.5 54.6
Classes I-X
Boys N.A. N.A. 79.8 67.5 70.0 66.6 64.2
Girls N.A. N.A. 86.6 76.9 77.3 70.6 68.6
Total N.A. N.A. 82.5 71.3 72.9 68.3 66.0
Provisional
The situation cannot be said to be satisfactory. Strenuous efforts are needed
to ensure that the Students once enrolled in the school do not drop out.
Teacher pupil ratio of 1.43 at the primary stage is very high. It leaves very little
scope for individual attention.
Expenditure on Education
The NPE 1986 and as modified in 1992 set a goal of expenditure on
education at 6 percent of the GDP. As against the target, the combined total
expenditure on education by Central and State Government was 3.74 percent of
GDP in 2003 (B.E.)
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Table 5.24 Expenditure on Education in India (1951-52 to 2001-
2002) (In Crore)
Years Total expr.
on education
% trg. (Rev.)
Total expr. on all
sectors (Rev.)
GDP at current
prices (at factor
cost) base year
1993-94
% of Edu.
Exp. To all
sectors Exp.
% of Edu.
Exp. To GDP
1951-51 64.46 814.13 10080 7.92 0.64
1952-53 72.26 857.67 9941 8.43 0.73
1953-54 80.06 908.20 10824 8.82 0.74
1954-55 95.82 973.74 10168 9.84 0.94
1955-56 118.39 1111.26 10332 10.65 1.15
1956-57 132.88 1158.01 12334 11.47 1.08
1957-58 150.26 1614.62 12610 10.61 1.19
1958-59 173.78 1594.36 14106 10.90 1.23
1959-60 207.59 1770.06 14816 11.73 1.40
1960-61 239.56 1997.93 16220 11.99 1.48
1961-62 260.30 2225.40 17116 11.70 1.52
1962-63 278.76 2942.67 18302 9.47 1.52
1963-64 313.93 3488.97 20916 9.00 1.50
1964-65 369.29 3844.91 24436 9.60 1.51
1965-66 432.61 4404.82 25586 9.82 1.69
1966-67 487.83 5100.24 29123 9.56 1.68
1967-68 593.14 5619.77 34225 10.55 1.73
1968-69 649.13 6922.07 36092 9.38 1.80
169-70 960.23 7908.07 39691 9.61 1.92
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1970-71 892.36 8787.12 42222 10.16 2.11
1971-72 1011.07 10610.89 44923 9.53 2.25
1972-73 1150.43 11863.56 49415 9.70 2.33
1973-74 1300.72 12884.48 60560 10.10 2.15
1974-75 1570.67 14625.03 71283 10.74 2.20
1975-76 1849.47 17958.99 75709 10.30 2.44
1976-77 2039.09 20482.83 81381 9.96 2.51
1977-78 2630.60 22666.31 92881 11.61 2.83
1978-79 2994.69 26134.84 99823 11.46 3.00
1979-80 3347.57 30915.39 108927 10.83 3.07
1980-81 3884.20 36398.39 130178 10.67 2.98
1981-82 4435.29 33667.31 152056 13.17 2.92
1982-83 5509.17 43996.18 169525 12.52 3.25
1983-84 6229.53 61889.25 198630 10.07 3.14
1984-85 7455.88 69025.45 222705 10.80 3.35
1985-86 8713.02 67091.41 249547 12.9 3.49
1986-87 9497.13 80454.66 278258 11.78 3.41
1987-88 11798.35 92518.38 315993 12.75 3.73
1988-89 14069.82 107543.75 378491 13.08 3.72
1989-90 17192.50 126045.97 438020 13.64 3.93
1990-91 19615.85 146711.53 510954 13.37 3.84
1991-92 22393.69 170370.38 589086 13.14 3.80
1992-93 25030.30 190327.45 673221 13.15 3.72
1993-94 28279.22 218535.15 781345 12.94 3.62
1994-95 32606.22 251691.92 917058 12.95 3.56
1995-96 38178.09 286194.55 1073271 13.34 3.56
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1996-97 43896.48 329389.92 1243546 13.33 3.53
1997-98 48552.14 380728.45 1390148 12.75 3.49
1998-99 61578.91 439768.11 1598127 14.00 3.85
1999-2000 74816.09 512519.33 1761932 14.60 4.25
2000-2001 82486.43 572160.14 191772 P 14.42 4.30
2001-2002 84179.46 639048.06 2094013 Q 13.17 4.02
(R. E.)
P – Provisional estimates, Q-quick estimates, RE – Revised estimates
Source: 1. National Accounts Statistics published by C.S.O.
2. expenditure on Education. Figure is taken from the publication
titled ‗Analysis of Budgeted on Education‘ published by D/o.
Secondary and Higher Education.
3. Selected Education Statistics (2002-2003).
Adult Education was 0.05% during 1990-91 showing a gradual decrease
of 0.01% in 2000-2001. It improved slightly to 0.02% during 2001-2002. The
percentage expenditure on University and Higher Education to GDP, which was
0.77% in 1990-91 shows a gradual decrease to 0.62% during 1997-98 and rise
to 0.88% in 2000-2001.
The share of expenditure on Elementary Education to total expenditure on all
sectors was 6.19% during 1990-91 and which shows irregular rise and fall and
finally settled at 6.61% during 2001-2002. The share of Secondary and Higher
secondary Education to total expenditure on all sectors was highest in 1999-
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2000 i.e. 4.97% and the lowest (4.09%) during 2001-2002. The share of adult
expenditure in total expenditure on all sectors was the highest in 1990-91
(0.19%) and shows a gradual decreasing trend to 0.05% in 2001-02. The
percentage share of higher education to total expenditure remained between
2.32% to 2.96% in the last decade.
Besides the above discussion the growth and development of school
education in India may be observed in overall basis from the following tables.
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Table 5.25 Development of Enrolment by stages since
independence in school education
year Primary (I-V)
Middle/Upper
Primary (VI-VII)
High/Hr.Sec./Inter/Pre-
Degree (IX-XII)
Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total
1950-51 13.8 5.4 19.2 2.6 0.5 3.1 1.3 0.2 1.5
1955-56 7.1 7.5 24.6 3.8 1 4.8 2.2 0.4 2.6
1960-61 23.6 11.4 35 5.1 1.6 6.7 2.7 0.7 3.4
1965-66 32.2 18.3 50.5 7.7 2.8 10.5 4.4 1.3 5.7
1970-71 35.7 21.3 57 9.4 3.9 13.3 5.7 1.9 7.6
1975-76 40.6 25 65.6 11 5 16 6.5 2.4 8.9
1980-81 45.3 28.5 73.8 13.9 6.8 20.7 7.6 3.4 11
1985-86 52.2 35.2 87.4 17.7 9.6 27.1 11.5 5 16.5
1990-91 57 40.4 97.4 21.5 12.5 34 12.8 6.3 19.1
1991-92 58.6 42.3 100.9 22 13.6 35.6 13.5 6.9 20.4
1992-93 57.9 41.7 99.6 21.2 12.9 34.1 13.6 6.9 20.5
1993-94 55.1 41.9 97 20.6 13.5 34.1 13.2 7.5 20.7
1994-95 60 45.1 105.1 22.1 14.3 36.4 14.2 7.9 22.1
1995-96 60.9 46.2 107.1 22.7 14.8 37.5 14.6 8.3 22.9
1996-97 61.4 46.8 108.2 22.9 15.2 38.1 15.3 8.7 24
1997-98 62.3 48 110.3 23.6 15.9 39.5 16.1 9.3 25.4
1998-99 62.7 48.2 110.9 24 16.3 40.3 17.3 10.5 27.8
1999-00 64.1 49.5 113.6 25.1 17 42.1 17.2 11 28.2
2000-01 64 49.8 113.8 25.3 17.5 42.8 16.9 10.7 27.6
2001-02 63.6 50.3 113.9 26.1 18.7 44.8 18.4 12.1 30.5
2002-03 65.1 57.3 122.4 26.3 20.6 46.9 19.5 13.7 33.2
2003-04 68.4 59.9 128.3 27.3 21.4 48.7 20.3 14.5 35.4
2004-05 70.1 61.5 131.6 28.7 22.9 51.6 20.9 14.8 36.1
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Table 5.26 Growth of recognized Educational Institutions
(School Level) since independence in India
year Primary Upper Primary
High/Hr.Sec./Inter/Pre.Jr.
Coleges
1950-51 209671 13596 7416
1955-56 278135 21730 10838
1960-61 330399 49663 17329
1965-66 391064 75798 27614
1970-71 408378 90621 37051
1975-76 454270 106571 43054
1980-81 494503 118555 51573
1985-86 528872 134846 65837
1990-91 560935 151456 79796
1991-92 566744 155926 82576
1992-93 571248 158498 84608
1993-94 570455 162804 89226
1994-95 586810 168772 94946
1995-96 593410 174145 99274
1996-97 603646 180293 103241
1997-98 619222 185961 107140
1998-99 626737 190166 112438
1999-2000 641695 198004 116820
2000-2001 638738 206269 126047
2001-2002 664041 219626 133492
2002-2003 651382 245274 137207
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Table 5.27 Number of teachers engaged in different types of
schools since independence in India in 000’) yh
Year
Primary Upper Primary
High/Hr.
Secondary/Intermidate
Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total
1950-51 456 82 538 73 13 86 107 20 127
1955-56 574 117 691 132 19 151 155 35 190
1960-61 615 127 742 262 83 345 234 62 296
1965-66 764 180 944 389 139 528 368 111 479
1970-71 835 225 1060 463 175 638 474 155 629
1975-76 955 283 1248 554 224 778 559 200 759
1980-81 1021 342 1363 598 253 851 669 257 926
1985-86 1094 402 1496 663 305 968 793 339 1132
1990-91 1143 473 1616 717 356 1073 917 417 1334
1991-92 152 492 1644 714 365 1079 931 450 1381
1992-93 1137 514 1651 709 376 1085 941 454 1395
1993-94 1110 513 1623 723 406 1124 953 492 1445
1994-95 1157 531 1688 746 410 1156 986 495 1481
1995-96 1176 558 1734 758 424 1182 1030 519 1549
1996-97 1190 566 1756 769 431 1200 1069 544 1613
1997-98 1226 597 1823 640 597 1237 1086 558 1644
1998-99 1246 658 1904 814 464 1278 1168 579 1747
1999-
2000 1236 683 1919 829 469 1298 1142 578 1720
2000-
2001 1221 675 1896 820 506 1326 1184 577 1760
2001-
2002 1213 715 1928 921 547 1468 1157 620 1777
2002-
2003 1167 746 1913 936 645 1581 1221 812 2033
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5.95 IMPACT ON RASHTRIYA MADHYAMIK SHIKSHA ABHIYAN
(RMSA)
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) is a Programme of the
Government of India, implemented in partnership with the State Governments
with the main objective to make secondary education a good quality available,
accessible and affordable to all young persons. The scheme seeks to enhance
enrolment in classes IX and X by providing a secondary school within a
reasonable distance of every habitation, to improve quality of education
imparted at secondary level by ensuring all secondary schools conform to
prescribed/ standard norms, to remove gender, socio-economic and disability
barriers and to achieve universal access to secondary level education by 2017,
i.e. by the end of the 12th Five Year Plan. RMSA was launched in 2009, funded
through national resources (central government + state government) and now
has tied up for external funding by Development Partners (DP) – World Bank‘s
International Development Association (IDA), United Kingdom‘s – Department
of International Development (DFID) and European Union (EU). As part of the
agreement for external aid from the DPs which came into effect in November,
2012, the Joint Review Mission (JRM) is to be conducted every six months in
the months of January and July each year. The January Mission undertakes
States visits, while the July mission is a desk review. The field visits to the
selected States/UTs implementing RMSA will be by a Joint team of nominees of
both the GoI and the DPs, after which there will be discussions on the findings
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of the State visits followed by report writing and wrap up in which the
Education Secretaries/SPDs of the States will also be participating.
5.96 IMPACT OF RIGHT TO EDUCATION
As a follow up to the NPE, a number of programmes were initiated in
India with a view to achieving UEE. These efforts were intensified in the 1980s
and 1990s through several interventions such as Operation Blackboard (OBB),
the Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP), the Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project
(APPEP), the Bihar Education Project (BEP),the UP Basic Education Project
(UPBEP), Mahila Samakhya(MS), the Lok Jumbish Project (LJP), and Teacher
Education, which put in place a decentralized system of teacher support
through District Institutes of Education and Training(DIETs) and the District
Primary Education Programme(DPEP). The latest is the SSA, a centrally-
sponsored scheme implemented in partnership with state governments for the
UEE across the country. Due to these initiatives, over the years there has been
significant spatial and numerical expansion of elementary schools in the
country. Today, access and enrolment at the primary stage of education have
reached very close to universal levels. The number of out-of-school children at
the elementary level has reduced significantly. The gender gapin elementary
education has narrowed and the percentage of enrolled children belonging to
scheduled castes and tribes has increased successively. Despite this, the goal of
universal elementary education is yet to be achieved in the country. There
remains the unfinished agenda of universal education at the upper primary
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stage. The number of children —particularly those from disadvantaged groups
and weaker sections — who drop out of school before completing upper
primary education remains high. The quality of learning achievement is not
always entirely satisfactory even in the case of children who complete
elementary education. With a view to address these issues, the RTE has been
introduced to directly counter the problems of illiteracy, poor quality
infrastructure and learning level in the elementary education sector. However,
the road to the RTE Act has not been easy. The exercise of consulting all
stakeholders including the states and taking them on board has been time-
consuming. The main provisions in the RTE Act include the responsibilities of
appropriate government and local authorities towards establishing
neighborhood schools; sharing of financial and other responsibilities between
the central and state governments; prohibition of capitation fee and screening
procedure for admission; prohibition of detention, expulsion and corporal
punishment; specification of norms and standards for schools including those
related to the infrastructure and teachers; laying down of teacher qualifications
and their duties; prohibition of deployment of teachers for non-educational
purposes; and ensuring that curriculum and evaluation is in accordance with
the Constitution of India and as per child-centred principles and values.
Children with disabilities and those belonging to minority communities are also
covered under the Act.
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As per the RTE Act, 2009, every child has the right to full-time
elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal school
that satisfies certain essential norms and standards. The need to address
inadequacies in retention, residual access, particularly of un-reached children,
and the questions of quality are the most compelling reasons for the addition of
Article 21A in the Constitution of India.
As has already been stated, even prior to the RTE, the GoI‘s efforts were
towards universalisation of elementary education in the country. The SSA was
the most prominent among all efforts initiated by the GoI before 2010 and was
approved by the union cabinet in November 2000 as a centrally-sponsored
scheme. The goals of the SSA are (a) enrolment of all children in schools,
Education Guarantee Scheme (EGS) centres, alternate schools, ‗back-to-school‘
camps, (b) retention of all children till the upper primary stage, (c) bridging of
gender and social category gaps in enrolment, retention and learning, and (d)
ensuring significant enhancement in the learning achievement levels of children
at the primary and upper primary stages. There is little difference between the
objectives of the RTE and those under the SSA. Yet, there are fundamental
variations between the two. While the provisions under the SSA were not part
of the fundamental rights enshrined in the Indian Constitution, the RTE
provisions form an integral part. Under the RTE, ‗free education‘ has been
defined, and it states that no child, other than one who has been admitted by
his or her parents to a school which is not supported by the appropriate
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government, shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which
may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education.
‗Compulsory education‘ casts an obligation on the appropriate government and
local authorities to provide and ensure admission, attendance and completion of
elementary education by all children in the age group of 6–14 years. With this,
India has moved forward to a rights-based framework under the RTE Act that
casts a legal obligation on the central and state governments to implement this
fundamental right. The roadmap for universalizing elementary education is
derived from the definite timeframes mandated in the RTE Act; it prescribes a
timeframe of three years for the establishment of neighborhood schools,
provision of school infrastructure with an all-weather building and basic
facilities, and provision of teachers as per prescribed Pupil–Teacher Ratio (PTR)
(30:1). Further, the RTE Act stipulates that all untrained teachers in the system
must be trained within a period of five years from the date of enforcement of
the Act. The rest of the provisions are required to be implemented with
immediate effect. The RTE Act has had considerable implications for the overall
approach and implementation strategies of the SSA. With the enactment of the
RTE, there was a need to review the interventions under the SSA and align its
norms with the RTE mandate. Today, the SSA is the main implementation
vehicle for the RTE Act, 2009: the Implementation Framework of the SSA has in
fact been revised to coordinate with the provisions of the RTE Act. A
comprehensive monitoring mechanism has also been put in place to ensure
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smooth implementation of the SSA. The major changes in the SSA norms
effected by the executive committee of the SSA in January 2010 are:(a) School
to be established/ensured within the limits of the neighborhood as laid down by
the state government pursuant to the RTE Act;(b) All existing EGS centres that
have been functioning for two years or more to be upgraded to regular schools,
or closed down. No new EGS centres to be sanctioned from 2010–11
onwards;(c) Special training to be carried out for age-appropriate enrolment of
out-of-school and dropout children through residential and non-residential
courses;(d) School infrastructure norms to include libraries, including one-time
grant for books worth `3,000 for primary schools and `10,000 for upper
primary schools;(e) Ceiling on school repairs up to a maximum of 5 per cent of
the existing schools for each district in a particular year, which inhibited the
demand for repairs, removed;(f) School grant to be utilized for play material
and sports equipment, in addition to the existing provision for replacement of
non-functional school equipment another recurring costs such as
consumables;(g) Training norms to include training of resource persons, master
trainers, and Block Resource Centre (BRC) and Cluster Resource Centre (CRC)
coordinators for up to10 days each year at `100 per person per day;(h)
Financial provisions for children with special needs increased from `1,200 to
`3,000 per child per year, provided that at least `1,000 per child will be used
for the engagement of resource teachers;(i) Community mobilization provisions
strengthened by raising the number of training days for community personnel
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from two to six, comprising three-day residential and three-day non-residential
training. Financial limits for training also hiked, from `30 to `100 per day per
person for residential training and `50 per day per person for non-residential
training;(j) Management cost for districts with small annual plan and size
increased from `2 million per district to `4million subject to the overall ceiling
of 6 per cent being maintained at the national level.
5.97 IMPLEMENTING THE RTE ACT
One of the most crucial aspects of the RTE is a strong monitoring
system. The central government has — via notification dated 29 March 2010 —
constituted the National Advisory Council (NAC) under the RTE Act, 2009 (PIB
2010).The RTE Act provides for mechanisms for monitoring its implementation,
including the following. (a) The National Commission for Protection of Child
Rights (NCPCR) and the State Commissions for Protection of Child Rights
(SCPCRs)have been empowered to protect and monitor the rights of children
under the Act; (b) in States where the SCPCR is not constituted, the state
government may constitute an authority to perform the functions of the SCPCR
under the Act; (c) any person with any grievance relating to right of the child
under the Act can make a written complaint to the local authority, which shall
decide the matter within a period of three months; and (d) the School
Management Committee (SMC) constituted under the Act is empowered to
monitor the working of the school. As per the RTE Act, 2009, every school
other than an unaided private school shall constitute an SMC, which will
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perform various functions including preparation of the school development plan.
At least three-fourths of the members of SMCs shall be parents or guardians,
with a proportionate representation of parents and guardians of children
belonging to disadvantaged groups and weaker sections, and 50 per cent of the
members shall be women. The Model Rules prepared by the central
government and circulated to all states and union territories for
adoption/adaption inter alia specify the manner of constituting the SMCs and
the additional functions that they should perform. States and union territories
have undertaken the process of constituting SMCs in schools. The SMC is likely
to take care of local needs and act as a body ensuring checks and balances.
This will also strengthen the efficiency of the scheme at the grassroots level. In
addition to this, 42 independent agencies of national repute have been engaged
on a two-yearly basis to monitor the SSA programme. These Monitoring
Institutions (MIs)submit reports every six months to the central authority. The
half-yearly reports submitted by the MIs are shared with the concerned State
Project Directors of the SSA of states and union territories for appropriate
follow-ups and remedial action. The reports of the MIs are posted on the SSA
website.1 An independent agency, the Institute of Public Auditors of India
(IPAI), has also been appointed for concurrent financial review to cover all the
states and union territories. It submits reports to the Ministry annually which
are further shared with the concerned states and union territories for taking
necessary corrective action. The SSA also conducts third-party evaluation
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through independent agencies for civil work taken up in the states of Andhra
Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
The development of a sound information system is critical for successful
monitoring and implementation of any programme, particularly in social sectors.
The design of the school information system has, therefore, been accorded
priority from the very beginning of the DPEP, as a result of which the District
Information System for Education (DISE)was developed by the National
University of Educational Planning and Administration (NUEPA), New Delhi.
When the SSA was launched in 2001, not only was the cover age extended to
all states and districts of the country, its scope was also expanded to include
the entire elementary level of education including government-aided and
private schools. Today, among various other sources, DISE data are used for
evaluating the progress made so far as well as in framing policy initiatives.
From the above it is revealed that RTE Act has been launched very
recently in the country wide; hence its impact may be observed after few years.
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