I

CULTIVATION OF SPHAGNUM IN

NORTHEAST FRIESLAND

IDEAS, METHODS AND EXPERCIENCES FOR SPHAGNUM FARMING

II

ACADEMIC CONSULTANCY TRAINING

COURSE CODE: YMC-60809

APRIL 2016

CULTIVATION OF SPHAGNUM IN NORTHEAST FRIESLAND

PROJECT NO. 1636

BETTER WETTER

COMMISSIONER RIANNE VOS, KENNISWERKPLAATS NOORDOOST FRIESLAND

ACADEMIC CONSULTANCY TEAM:

MANAGER TARIC SCHRADER

SECRETARY SILVIA DE LA ROSA MONTELONGO

CONTROLLER ROY TOEVANK

MEMBER MAGDALENA KULISCH

MEMBER SJOERD POSTMA

MEMBER SVEN VERWEIJ

Adapted image on the cover is taken by Erik Bethlehem, licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

(https://www.flickr.com/photos/erikbethlehem/23498321669)

III

SUMMARY

Water management is a vital part of preserving the decaying peat layers in Northeast Friesland. These peat

layers are subsiding due to manual water drainage to facilitate agriculture. By elevating the water table, peat

layers will have less oxic conditions and the subsiding will be brought to a halt. To make this water

management solution more appealing to potential farmers, the provincial government has commissioned this

study to look at the possibilities of cultivating crops that can handle very high water tables. One of the more

interesting crops is peat moss (Sphagnum). This study focuses on the ecological value of Sphagnum, cultivation

and harvesting methods, including a map that displays potential locations for cultivation, and finally potential

product applications. A defining characteristic of Sphagnum is its ability to wet and acidify its own ecosystem;

this creates suitable habitats for a wide variety of rare plants and animal species. All of these factors add up to

Sphagnum’s ecological value. Sphagnum grows well in low nutrient environments, but some experiments

suggest that it can be grown on nutrient rich soils like in Northeast Friesland too. It has also the power to fixate

large amounts of atmospheric carbon, which could help to damp the increase of CO2 in atmosphere.

The project evaluates the possibilities of cultivating Sphagnum, which is based on previous experiments and

restoration projects of bog areas. It has been shown that it is possible to cultivate Sphagnum in conditioned

areas for and with an efficient water management. Additionally, the provided harvesting method by multiple

year rotational scheme, has been previously studied. Most of the harvesting will be done manually. If

implemented, these methods will minimise the negative impact on wildlife living in this ecosystem and on peat

moss regeneration, which takes around 3 to 5 years to recover after harvesting. The created and included

suitability map at parcel level (most prominent parameters are soil type, groundwater table, land use and

nature areas) also displays sufficient potential locations for Sphagnum cultivation. A fair variety of product

applications already exist for Sphagnum, of which some are already on the market. Some of the potential uses

of Sphagnum include its use as growing substrate for both agriculture and horticulture, terrarium filling,

sanitary items, environmental control, food preservation, decorative material or even medicine. Although a full

market research is required to properly assess the viability of growing Sphagnum for commercial purposes, we

are overall optimistic about the prospect and opportunities of growing Sphagnum for agricultural purposes.

IV

SAMENVATTING

Waterbeheer is van groot belang voor het behouden van veenbodems in noordoost Fryslân. Deze veenbodems

oxideren door het lage grondwaterpeil, omdat deze gebieden gedraineerd worden ten behoeve van de

landbouw, met als resultaat een verdere daling van de bodem. Door het grondwaterpeil op maaiveld te

brengen, is het mogelijk om de bodemdaling te stoppen. Dit heeft echter negatieve gevolgen voor de

landbouw, omdat de opbrengsten dalen. Om deze peilverhoging aanvaardbaarder te maken voor Friese

boeren heeft de provincie Fryslân dit onderzoek opgezet om alternatieve verdienmodellen te onderzoeken.

Een van de opties is het verbouwen van veenmos (Sphagnum). Deze studie richt zich op de mogelijkheden

voor het verbouwen en oogsten van Sphagnum inclusief een kaart waarop potentiële percelen te zien zijn in

noordoost Fryslân, de ecologische waarden van Sphagnum en als laatste nog de mogelijke producten die

gemaakt zouden kunnen worden van het verbouwde Sphagnum. Een interessante eigenschap van Sphagnum

is dat de plant zijn eigen ecosysteem creëert door de zuurgraad en het vochtigheidsgehalte van zijn omgeving

aan te passen. Hierdoor creëert Sphagnum een ideale leefomgeving voor een variëteit aan andere zeldzame

plant- en diersoorten. Dit zijn allemaal factoren die bijdragen aan de ecologische waarde van het verbouwen

van Sphagnum. Sphagnum groeit het best in een nutriëntarme bodem, maar recent onderzoek toont ook aan

dat de plant kan groeien op nutriënt rijke bodems, zoals in Fryslân het geval is. Sphagnum is ook in staat om

grote hoeveelheden CO2 op te slaan, wat zou kunnen bijdragen aan de wereldwijde klimaatverandering.

Met dit project onderzoeken we of het mogelijk is Sphagnum te verbouwen. Hiervoor baseren we ons op

eerdere onderzoeken en projecten die gericht zijn op het behouden van veenmoerassen. Uit deze resultaten is

gebleken dat het mogelijk is om Sphagnum te verbouwen in een gecontroleerd (waterbeheer-) systeem en dit

te gebruiken voor watermanagement. Ook wordt een teeltschema beschreven, met een meerjarige rotatie,

gebaseerd op een eerder onderzoek. Om het effect op het ecosysteem zo klein mogelijk te houden is het beter

om handmatig te oogsten, waarbij Sphagnum 3 tot 5 jaar de kans krijgt om aan te groeien. De kaart met

potentiële percelen waar Sphagnum verbouwd kan worden, geeft meerdere geschikte locaties aan. Deze kaart

is gebaseerd op een reeks relevante parameters waaronder: bodemsoort, grondwaterpeil, landgebruik en de

nabijheid van natuurgebieden. Een ruim assortiment aan Sphagnum producten is al te koop of wordt nog

ontwikkeld. Sphagnum kan bijvoorbeeld gebruikt worden als substraat voor het groeien van planten, maar ook

voor terrariumvulling, hygiëneproducten, waterzuiveringsproducten, levensmiddelingconservering, decoratief

materiaal en zelfs medische producten. Er is echter nog wel een volledig marktonderzoek nodig om te

bevestigen hoe rendabel het verbouwen van Sphagnum kan zijn in noordoost Fryslân.

V

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Summary ................................................................................................................................................................ III

Samenvatting ......................................................................................................................................................... IV

Chapter 1: Introduction and background ............................................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2: Peat moss ecology ................................................................................................................................ 3

Ecology of Sphagnum plants ............................................................................................................................... 3

Ecosystem services of peat moss ........................................................................................................................ 3

Nitrogen .............................................................................................................................................................. 6

Chapter 3: Implementation of Sphagnum farming ................................................................................................ 7

Peat moss cultivation design and growth requirements .................................................................................... 7

Harvest methods .............................................................................................................................................. 11

Subsidies ........................................................................................................................................................... 12

Locations ........................................................................................................................................................... 13

Chapter 4: Products .............................................................................................................................................. 16

Functional characteristics ................................................................................................................................. 16

Products ............................................................................................................................................................ 17

Chapter 5: discussion ............................................................................................................................................ 20

Chapter 6: Conclusion & Recommedations .......................................................................................................... 22

Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................ 22

Recommendations ............................................................................................................................................ 22

References ............................................................................................................................................................ 23

Appendix ............................................................................................................................................................... 26

Python script of the model ............................................................................................................................... 26

Extent of the dataset ........................................................................................................................................ 28

DISCLAIMER

This report is produced by students of Wageningen University as part of their MSc-programme. It is not an

official publication of Wageningen University or Wageningen UR and the content herein does not represent

any formal position or representation by Wageningen University.

Copyright © 2016 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form

or by any means, without the prior consent of the authors. Contact: taric.schrader@wur.nl

mailto:taric.schrader@wur.nl

1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

During the past decades the water

management in the North of the

Netherlands has focused on optimising the

landscape for agricultural use. The original

peat landscapes in the Friesland region have

largely been artificially drained to make way

for mostly hay meadows (Figure 1) (Best &

Oosterhaven, 2012). This hay is commonly

used for dairy farming. Almost half of the

6000 farms in Friesland are specialised in

dairy (Venema et al., 2009). This type of

management has some negative

consequences, especially in the context of climate change: desiccated soils have a higher decompositions rate

due to oxic conditions. This leads to further lowering of the surface, making the water management more

complex and thus more expensive. Furthermore, the increased metabolic activity enhances the emission of

greenhouse gases. Recent predictions about possible effects of climate change reveals an enhanced probability

of further desiccation, caused by an expected combination of longer summers and higher temperatures

(Brouns et al., 2015). In a modelling study, it was expected that peat meadow areas in this area within

Friesland can subside up to 5.8-6.7 mm per year (Brouns et al., 2015). Eventually, it is expected that the peat

will disappear completely if the current type of management is maintained (Osinga et al., 2014).

A new and more flexible management of the area is needed to improve the adaptation to environmental

changes. This includes a change of land use towards a system of higher resilience that can cope with extreme

weather events and improves the water availability of the area. With higher water tables, precipitation peaks

during winter and the subsequent increase in water flow can be better managed. One of the main challenges

for this aim will be to develop a plan that incorporates not only the environmental services, but also a plan

that provides income for the province, which is increasingly abandoned by the younger generations. This often

has economic reasons. The implementation of a new land use and product processing has the potential to

create new jobs for the people of the area and for farmers, whose livelihood depends on their direct

environment.

Due to their high water retention and organic

accumulation, peatlands have an important role

in this project. Peatlands are the most efficient

ecosystems at fixating and storing atmospheric

carbon; their conservation and sustainable use

are essential for long term climate change

mitigation and adaptation by fixating carbon

dioxide (Parish et al., 2008). In the past, the

Netherlands were covered with Sphagnum

(Figure 2), while today, there are only a few tiny

patches with living Sphagnum left. To

reintroduce living Sphagnum in the Netherlands,

peat areas can be restored and used for

commercial purposes. Figure 2 Close-up of Sphagnum. Retrieved from https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Sphagnum.fle

xuosum.jpg

Figure 1 Sketch of the current situation in the peat areas of Friesland. Altered

from http://ca.water.usgs.gov/land_subsidence/california-subsidence-cause-

effect.html

2

The plan is to come up with a way of agriculture on very wet soils. This form of agriculture is called

paludiculture. Peat mosses are a very interesting group of species, because they naturally grow under very wet

conditions. Currently, harvested peat and peat moss is mainly used for horticultural purposes. To obtain

economical value from this plant, it is necessary to set up water management plans and cultivation/harvesting

regulations to avoid affecting their water storage capacity and ecosystem damage that could lead to reduction

of biodiversity and high emissions of CO2. Additionally, it is fundamental to investigate the harvestable

quantities and regeneration time of Sphagnum, if potential products derived from this plant are planned to be

produced. For this reason a feasibility study will be performed.

Peat products are already used globally.

In the European Union annually

20,000,000 m3

of peat is used in growing

media, with a yearly turnover of 1.3

billion Euro and creating roughly 11,000

jobs. Most of this peat is taken from peat

bog areas in the Baltic states, Scandinavia

and Canada (Joosten, 1995). The current

situation follows as a result of peat

removal from countries such as Germany,

England and The Netherlands in previous

centuries. Since this business is very

unsustainable and destructive (Figure 3)

an alternative is needed. Different crops

have been grown experimentally on fresh

peat moss as replacement for dried peat

with promising results. The fresh material

performed as well and sometimes even

better than the peat (Krebs et al., 2012).

The overall goal of this project is to outline the ecological value, cultivation and harvesting methods, potential

harvesting locations and potential product applications of Sphagnum to get an early indication of the viability

of cultivating peat moss in combination with water management.

This research is divided into multiple parts. We will look at the ecological value of peat moss areas. Ways of

cultivation and harvesting will be evaluated and we will map suitable locations for peat moss cultivation in

Northeast Friesland. At the end, we will make an inventory of peat moss products existing on the market, as

well as potential product ideas.

Figure 3 Area where peat recently is extracted to use for horticultural purposes.

Retrieved form http://www.geograph.ie/photo/1390460

3

CHAPTER 2: PEAT MOSS ECOLOGY

In this chapter we will research the overall ecology of Sphagnum plants. The habitats of peat moss areas, as

well as other rare species that flourish in this habitat are worth to consider when constructing a Sphagnum

farm. We will also explore the carbon fixation and emission ability of peat lands.

ECOLOGY OF SPHAGNUM PLANTS

Sphagnum is a plant genus consisting of 307 species (Catalogue of Life Partnership, 2016), which are

predominantly present in swampy, nutrient-poor and acidic lands with a relatively large influence of

precipitation. Peat moss has absorbing capabilities, storing twenty times their dry weight in water. At the same

time the dry weight per unit volume is low (Krebs et al., 2012). Peat bog areas represent a high ecological value

with lots of rare plants and can store large amounts of CO2 (Schofield, 1985).

In an ongoing experiment by Ivan Mettrop near Feanwâlden, a mix of three different Sphagnum species is

used; S. palustre, S. squarrosum and S. fimbriatum. If this mix of species proves to thrive under the

experimental setup, it is likely that these species are going to be used in future large-scale cultivation. If the

experiment fails with this mix, pilot studies with other, preferably native, Sphagnum species should be

performed to identify species with necessary characteristics (potential targets are discussed in chapter 3 and

4).

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES OF PEAT MOSS

The term ecosystem service describes supporting, regulating, providing and cultural ecosystem qualities. This

includes ecosystem functions as habitat provision, improving water quality and quantity, support nutrient

cycling, recreation, pollination, reducing greenhouse gas emission, providing fresh air and influencing micro-

and local climate conditions. Peat mosses have many of these qualities, especially high values for biodiversity

conservation, climate regulation, human welfare (Joosten et al., 2015., Kimmel & Mander, 2010; Wichmann et

al., 2012) and a key role in carbon emission and fixation (Kimmel & Mander, 2010). The following sections

elaborate the importance for biodiversity and providing habitats, greenhouse gas emission and carbon

fixation.

BIODIVERSITY AND PROVIDING HABITATS

Peat moss has the capability of changing its environment for its own advantages. Sphagnum plants grow well

on acidic soils, where they have little competition of acidophobic plants. Peat moss can acidify the soil while

keeping conditions very wet, which has a positive feedback loop on its own growth and a negative feedback

loop on e.g. calcareous species of plants. These conditions provide a good habitat for several other plant

species that are adapted to an oligotrophic, wet and acid environment, which is a small niche. Natural peat

landscapes are a valuable habitat for all kinds of specialized organisms. Amongst them are a large number of

soil organisms that are functioning within the complex decomposition-web of peat (Turetsky et al., 2012).

Many plants grow naturally in peatlands, amongst them are beak-sedge (Rhynchospora), cotton grasses

(Eriophorum) and cross-leaved heath (Erica tetralix) (Wichmann et al., 2012). Plants of commercial value that

grow well on peat moss are cloudberries (Rubus chamaemorus) and cranberries (Vaccinium macrocarpon)

(Rochefort, 2000). A rare representative on peatlands is the genus of sundew (Drosera). With the decline of

suitable habitats in Europe, the plants became a threatened species. The cultivation of peat moss would create

potential new habitats. How valuable a commercially used peat moss area can be for conservation is not easy

to determine. So far only a few studies evaluated data that give information about the contribution of

4

Sphagnum farms to conservation issues. From the existing information it can be concluded that the valence

depends to a large extent on the management of the area, the rotation periods and harvest methods.

A three year study by Muster et al.

(2015) was carried out on a cultivation

site in northwest Germany to

determine the conservation value,

defined as: rarity, IUCN Red List status,

disturbance tolerance and peatland

association. As bio indicators served the

diverse groups of spiders and

harvestmen (Figure 4). The outcome of

the study showed that after three years

the value of conservation is almost as

high as in the semi-natural peat moss

control site. The communities were

changing from mostly general early

succession species to more specialized

species of later succession states. The

commonly used rotation system for

peat moss cultivation is three to five years. To ensure the establishment of late succession species long

rotation periods are needed.

Besides the rotation period, other factors have a major influence on the species assemblage. One is the

specific cultivated Sphagnum species, as some species seem to facilitate biodiversity more than other species.

A Sphagnum species that is recommendable in order to enhance the diversity of a site is the slow growing S.

papillosum. An even more fundamental factor is the colonization condition. Especially during the starting

period the species assemblage will depend mainly on the species that are migrating from surrounding areas. At

later stages, when more species have established the management of the area will play an important role. A

checkerboard arrangement with different succession states is recommendable to facilitate a fast colonization

of freshly harvested plots. When not all plots are harvested at the same time the populations will be less

affected and the connectivity between the plots ensures a high recolonization rate (Muster et al., 2015).

Further organisms that might benefit from cultivation sites are rare myxomycetes, mammals and birds

(Wichmann et al. 2012). For many bird species as lapwing, common snipe, curlew and golden plover to name

some, peatlands are suitable breeding habitats. The regular disturbances in cultivated areas will probably

lessen the value as nesting places for birds. To encourage them to accept the area as breeding habitat the

management has to be adapted to this goal. Again, long harvest periods are recommendable to minimize the

disruptions and enhance the amount of insects that are important as a food source. The harvesting should not

be done during the spring and summer months, when birds are breeding and raising their chicks. The

checkerboard/mosaic rotational harvesting would also for birds be the best management solution, mostly

because it provides more insects (Joosten et al., 2015). The disadvantage of harvesting in winter is that this will

only remove a minimum of the nutrients from the area, while harvesting fresh peat moss material in summer

can remove a high nutrient amount and thereby create more suitable conditions for habitat specialists

(Joosten et al 2015.). So, for harvesting period there is a trade-off between meadow bird welfare and nutrient

removal. Many rare plants, animals and fungi bog species are adapted to nutrient poor conditions. Due to

nutrient enrichment by (artificial) fertilisation, these nutrient poor conditions can hardly be found on sites of

former agricultural use.

Figure 4 Harvestmen (Species: Leiobunum rotundum) on peat moss. Retrieved

from http://www.bryoecol.mtu.edu/chapters_2011/8Arthropods_Harvestmen.pdf

5

In comparison, cultivation sites have some disadvantages that are detracting them from becoming as diverse

as (semi-)natural peatlands:

Cultivated landscapes are more homogeneous, partly because of the absence of plant diversity which

provide vertical structures and partly because the natural microhabitats of dry hummocks and wet

hollows are missing.

More anthropogenic disturbances, especially through harvesting.

No accumulation of dead plant material and creation of peat bogs occurs.

Even though these disadvantages could hamper the colonisation of rare species, peat cultivation sites are a

suitable habitat for many peat associated species and can function as stepping stones for dispersal, enhance

the habitat diversity on landscape scale and function as a refuge for habitat specialists (Muster et al., 2015).

CARBON FIXATION AND REDUCING EMISSIONS

In terms of CO2, peatlands can be both an opportunity to store carbon and a source of emission. When moss

and peat are able to grow they can take up and store large amounts of carbon up to 720 kg ha-1

yr-1

(Belyea

and Malmer, 2004). When desiccation occurs, soil mineralisation emits high levels of carbon dioxide. For the

Netherlands, non-irrigated peat soils can emit 2 824 kg C ha-1

year-1

and rewetting this area can reduce the

emission by 14% (Best & Jacobs, 1997). In a similar study, Moore & Knowles (1989) reported an increase in

average emission from 1 460 kg C ha-1

year-1

to 29 200 kg C ha-1

year-1

between flooded and dry (water level 70

cm below the surface). The emission rate depends on various factors, e.g. climatic conditions, peat type, soil

temperature, degree of decomposition and water table level. Higher soil temperatures support the

mineralisation and therefore the CO2 emission (Oleszczuk et al., 2008). Depending on the climate, dry peatland

subside from some millimetres up to several centimetres per year (Joosten et al., 2015). Regarding the

expected increase of temperature due to climate change, these rates will probably increase in the future. The

subsidence of the surface of commercially used sites results in the need for deeper ditches to keep the area

dry. This increases the oxidation of the soil and therefore enhances the metabolic processes, which speeds up

the subsiding of the surface. Again, to keep the land dry deeper ditches are needed and the process is

restarted. The phenomenon is called “the vicious cycle of peatland utilization”. Due to this, water management

with dykes, ditches, pumps, etc. becomes more costly and the flood risk will increase (Joosten et al., 2015).

If not harvested, peat accumulation is contributing highly to long-term soil carbon fixation (Turetsky et al.,

2012). Paludiculture allows the peat bog to persist and even support its own growth. When cultivated the

carbon exported through harvesting, the NECB (net ecosystem carbon balances) and GWP (global warming

potential) balances are near neutral. In order to achieve a low carbon emission a year round high water table is

required (Beyer & Höper, 2015). When a proper paludiculture is established, the biggest gain is probably not in

carbon fixation, but in the big reduction of emissions. However, both carbon fixation and reduction of

emissions add up to carbon credits.

About 2% of the emitted carbon from peatlands comes from methane. This seems low in comparison, but the

GWP of methane is up to 34 times the one of carbon dioxide. The total amount varies between 4 and 500 mg

Cm / day, depending on the status of the peatland (Harpenslager et al., 2015). Increasing temperature, a high

water table and little vegetation are factors that enhance the emission from peat soils (van Winden et al.,

2012). The result of a greenhouse emission study on three experimental sites showed almost no methane

fluxes when the water table is low and up to 24.2 CH4-C m

−2 / year when sites were inundated. Flooding the

area and harvesting Sphagnum therefore increases the methane production and can lead to an overall slightly

positive GWP of the peatland (Beyer and Höper, 2015).

6

In contrast to CO2 and CH4 the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide (N2O) does not seems to play an important role

for the GWP of peatlands. The emission under inundated circumstances are only little higher and the fluxes are

generally low (Beyer and Höper, 2015).

NITROGEN

Sphagnum is adapted to an environment of low nutrients, therefore also to low nitrogen and phosphorous

conditions (Van Der Heijden et al., 2000). Naturally peat bogs are ombrotrophic, which means they are

supplied by the small amount of nutrients that enter the system with rainfall. Therefore the little nitrogen that

would be available under unfertilized circumstances is used efficiently by the peatland communities (Kivimäki

et al., 2013). In this case, the low lying area also receives both ground and surface water. In contrast to

vascular plants, peat mosses do not take up nutrients from the soil via roots. They assimilate essential

components from the surrounding medium mainly through the surface of their leaves (Gunnarsson & Rydin,

2000; Kivimäki et al., 2013). This makes the atmospheric deposition to a major source of nitrogen. An amount

of 1 mg / m2 / year seems to be the saturation value for Sphagnum species. A higher input results in the

leaching of Magnesium, Calcium and other cations (Aerts et al., 1992). Because of this, and the high

concentration in soils through fertilization, it is fundamentally important to know how peat moss can grow on

fertilized soils and what long term effects can be expected.

Multiple studies have been carried out (comp. Aerts et al., 1992; Bragazza et al., 2004; Kivimäki et al., 2013;

Gunnarsson & Rydin, 2000; Heijden et al., 2000) to investigate to what extent a higher nutrient content,

especially nitrogen (N) is affecting the growth of peat moss and its ability to fixate carbon. The results vary,

suggesting that not all influencing and interacting factors are fully determined at this point. The tendency goes

towards an increase in productivity of Sphagnum mosses at an intermediate nitrogen level. The nitrogen is

accumulating in the plant tissue. When the level becomes too high the productivity is decreasing again and the

Sphagnum plants respond with a decrease in longitudinal growth (Kivimäki et al., 2013; Gunnarsson & Rydin,

2000). How much nitrogen can be tolerated, is depending on the interplay of abiotic factors, like the

temperature, the amount of water and the availability of other components. Bragazza et al. (2004) defined the

critical nitrogen amount for peatlands as the status of nutritional imbalance. For Sphagnum species a N:P ratio

between 10-14 is recommended (Gunnarsson & Rydin, 2000; Heijden et al., 2000). A high nitrogen content

within the plant (> 15 mg / g dry weight) in combination with a high N:P ratio (> 16) affect the Sphagnum

plants, decreasing photosynthesis rate and fresh weight (Van Der Heijden et al., 2000). The ability of

Sphagnum to fixate CO2 is as well affected by this. Several studies concluded that a high amount of nitrogen

leads to a decreasing carbon accumulation (Kivimäki et al., 2013; Heijden et al., 2000). There might even be the

possibility that the carbon that is emitted as CO2 by decompensation exceeds the amount of fixated CO2 by the

peat moss. (Aerts et al., 1992; Gunnarsson & Rydin, 2000).

7

CHAPTER 3: IMPLEMENTATION OF SPHAGNUM FARMING

PEAT MOSS CULTIVATION DESIGN AND GROWTH REQUIREMENTS

Sphagnum growth is mainly influenced by its own intrinsic properties depending on the species, its

interactions with other plant species as well as the water levels (Pouliot et al., 2015). First of all, all the

conditions of the site need to be identified to plan resources and time required for cultivation operations.

Information required previously includes hydrologic environment, chemical aspects, existing vegetation,

surrounding landscape, topography, and identification of the donor plant material (Chirino et al., 2006).

CULTIVATION SITE PREPARATION

After the identification of field conditions, preparation of the cultivation site starts with the removal of surface

crust that could impede diaspore germination. A fresh surface is needed to allow a better contact between the

introduced material (diaspores) and the damp soil substrate. To reduce evapotranspiration and plant

competition it is important to remove the existing vegetation in the area (Chirino et al., 2006).

After crust removal, fields have to

be adapted to stop the drainage

and provide the desired wet

conditions, while evading

extensive flooding. Field

adaptation starts with blocking of

ditches and levelling crowned

fields (Figure 5) (Rochefort et al.,

2003).

An important aspect to consider,

especially during the first year

after basin creation, is the control

of water table near the surface by

irrigation. This will enhance

Sphagnum growth and reduce

competition of undesirable species (Pouliot et al., 2015). Shallow basins raise the water table and provide

water availability (Rochefort et al., 2003). Water retention in basins is higher in flat topographic areas, which

can help during dry summers. Moreover, cultivating Sphagnum in peat block-cut trenches benefits the

development of moss carpets in dry periods and avoids negative effects during the wet seasons (Campeau et

al., 2004). This is especially important because flooding events can harm the establishment of newly

introduced Sphagnum mosses (Rochefort & Lode, 2006).

Rochefort (2001) improved Sphagnum growth by maintaining water availability. This is done by pumping water

into a ditch to keep Sphagnum basins humid for at least three growing seasons. This system of irrigation

through open ditches around culture basins is an efficient water management option also mentioned by

Gaudig et al. (2013).

Figure 5 Site preparation (Krebs, 2014)

8

INTRODUCING OF SPHAGNUM MOSS

To create a Sphagnum peatland, plant fragments such as diaspores should be collected from other bog areas.

These Sphagnum moss fragments are capable of regenerating into new individuals (Rochefort et al., 2003).

Regeneration of plant fragments depends highly on the method used for collecting; manually collected

Sphagnum fragments have a better establishment than the ones collected mechanically with the aid of a

rototiller (as they cope with stress) (Boudreau & Rochefort, 1999). Regarding the bogs used for the starting

plant material collection, it is important to mention that only the upper 10 cm should be harvested in order to

minimize disturbances to its regenerative potential (Rochefort et al., 2003). Spreading Sphagnum fragments of

5 to 10 cm long leads to a better establishment as they increase in length and cover more efficiently than small

fragments (Gaudig et al., 2013).

Collected fragments are spread on

large surfaces in a short period of

time using a lateral manure spreader

(Figure 6); to have a better coverage

and Sphagnum establishment, it is

recommended to spread a thin and

even layer (1-3 cm) of this material

instead of spreading high quantities

(Rochefort et al., 2003). The

recommended ratio of introduction

is 1:10, which is 1 m2 of diaspores

from donor places, spread over a

surface of 10 m2

(Rochefort et al.,

2013; Pouliot et al., 2015).

Another way of introducing Sphagnum is by

using BeadaMoss® (Figure 7) from the company

Micropropagation Services. These are beads

with a Sphagnum plant, of which several species

are available, inside a cover with life sustaining

gel. According to the company they can be

sowed very easily by hand or machinery and will

start growing with a survival rate of 69% if the

right conditions are met. Projects where they

used it are: Moors for the Future

(http://moorsforthefuture.org.uk/), where large

peat lands (blanket bogs) in England are

restored and in the Province North-Holland with

the project of the peat restoration around

Ilperveld (Riet, van de, et al., 2013). A good

overview of the project in England can be found

in Carroll et al. (2009).

Figure 6 Diaspore spreading (Rochefort & Lode, 2006)

Figure 7 The BeadaMoss® beads that are used in some peat restoration

projects to introduce Sphagnum (retrieved from:

http://www.beadamoss.co.uk/page19.html)

9

POTENTIAL SPHAGNUM SPECIES

Apart from the species used in the ongoing experiment, based on previous experiments, we can suggest the

following species for cultivation (Table 1)

Table 1 Potential Sphagnum species

Sphagnum species

Characteristics Reference

S. fuscum High regeneration capacity. Acutifolia genus (favourable in Sphagnum farming). Very resilient to drought and resistant to periods of shallow inundation. Optimum to recolonize bare peat substrates.

Chirino et al., 2006 Rochefort & Lode, 2006

S. rubellum High regeneration capacity. Acutifolia genus (favourable in Sphagnum farming). Optimum to recolonize bare peat substrates.

Chirino et al., 2006 Rochefort & Lode, 2006

S. angustifolium High regeneration capacity. Chirino et al., 2006 S. papillosum High productivity, used previously in Germany. High

biodiversity. Gaudig et al., 2014 Muster et al., 2015

S. palustre Higher productivity than S. papillosum, used previously in Germany. Very promising for Sphagnum farming.

Gaudig et al., 2014

Instead of cultivating one single species, it has been mentioned that cultivation of a mixture of Sphagnum

species can have an effect on their establishment either by competition or facilitation (Rydin, 1993). Successful

establishment of moss carpet does not depend on the number of species; it depends on the presence of

certain species (Chirino et al., 2006).

DIASPORE PROTECTION AND GROWTH ENHANCEMENT

Previous experiments use straw mulch as

a protective layer during establishment

phase to a density of 3 000 kg ha-1

; this

straw mulch reduces water tension and

daytime temperature, and increases the

relative humidity at the surface (Rochefort

et al., 2003). It is cheap and simply applied

with a straw spreader (Figure 8). It is

recommended to also introduce the moss

Polytrichum strictum, a nurse plant

commonly used for bog restoration,

aiming a favourable microclimate for

Sphagnum establishment and growth

(Boudreau & Rochefort, 1999; Groeneveld

& Rochefort 2005). It is also suggested to

fertilize with phosphorus (15 g m-2

) to

optimize the establishment of nursing bog

plants such as P. strictum (Rochefort et al.,

2003; Graf, 2012).

Figure 8 Straw mulch application ( Krebs, 2014)

10

According to Malmer and colleagues (2003) Sphagnum growth can be enhanced by the presence of certain

vascular plants that create an adequate microclimate as they provide physical supports, stabilize the water

table and soil surface. One suitable plant is the ericaceous shrubs or Eriophorum species. However there is still

more knowledge needed to use these plants effectively, as they could be invasive and increase evaporation in

the site (Rochefort & Lode, 2006).

CULTIVATION THREADS

Some of the cultivation threats that could be present are: insufficient water availability, expansion of parasitic

fungi and some vascular plants. Regarding fungal infections, fungicide applications have been used in

greenhouse experiments without affecting Sphagnum growth (Landry et al., 2011). Talking about harmful

vascular plants, it is important to keep high water levels to avoid their proliferation

REWETTING

An optimal hydrological regime is important to establish Sphagnum vegetation, nutrient cycling and

enhancement of energy capture rates of wetlands (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000).

Peat extraction leads to alteration on essential soil properties such as hydrology; this special property cannot

only be restored by rewetting; additional techniques compiled by Graf et al., 2012 are described as follows:

Retaining surface water and elevating

groundwater levels by blocking drainage

ditches.

Construction of wastewater wetlands by

building depressions

Using retention basins (

11

HARVEST METHODS

Sustainable harvesting of Sphagnum is highly dependent on its growth rate. This growth rate depends on

climatic variables such as water availability, temperature or light (Diaz and Silva, 2012). To ensure moss

regeneration, the same authors suggest harvesting no more than 12 cm of the top layer. Other factors should

be also taken into account. If all Sphagnum is harvested, its regeneration rate is very low or zero. This creates

space for other invasive species to grow (Tapia, 2008).

Previous reports show that Sphagnum regeneration is aided by reseeding after harvesting instead of leaving a

bare peat surface (Whinam and Buxton, 1996). In order to decrease the harvesting impacts on peatlands,

Whinam and Buxton suggest the following steps:

Restrict harvesting only to sites where Sphagnum grows vigorously and where the water table does

not fluctuate considerably.

Natural shelter (shadow) should be maintained to provide protection from desiccation and frost.

Reseeding to aid the regeneration time and rapid restoration of Sphagnum cover. Leaving 30% moss

cover actively growing close to the water table enhances rapid regrowth.

Avoid the use of machinery that could cause rutting on bog surfaces. As a result of heavy machinery

use, small drains could be formed.

The remaining Sphagnum of harvested sites should be in close contact with the watertable in order to

enhance regeneration and avoid desiccation or ponding.

To minimize weed formation that could compete with Sphagnum, low rates of fertiliser should be

applied.

A considerable amount of time should be given to allow the harvested sites to regenerate.

Another protocol based on the previous steps by Whinam and Buxton and the Chilean Association of

Sphagnum Producers for the sustainable use of Sphagnum is the following (Tapia, 2008):

Patch harvesting, dividing the field in small plots and harvest plot by plot. Let the harvested section

grow enough for the next harvesting period.

Leave intact Sphagnum sites. It is important to protect spore producing plants for sexual

reproduction.

Disperse spores over harvested patches.

Sow and flatten harvested zones, this will allow water availability in all sites, not only in low zones.

Delay harvested zones between 3 and 5 years to allow Sphagnum regeneration before harvesting

again. Avoid transit in these areas to prevent peat moss damage.

Avoid using heavy machinery that could lead to irreversible damage of Sphagnum. Facilitating

drainage could stop its growth.

12

In the case of New Zealand, harvesting is commonly

done by hand, clearing the covering vegetation with a

scrub cutter and rake (Whinam & Buxton, 1997). After

harvesting, the moss is deposited in nylon wool bales

(Figure 10) which are dragged by hand, using tramways,

motorcycles or bulldozers (Whinam & Buxton, 1997).

From the experiments carried out in Germany

productivities ranged from 3.6 t dry mass (DM) ha-1

yr-1

to 6.9 t DM ha-1

yr-1

at locations with high water levels;

these results belong to S. papillosum after an initial

establishment of 3.5 years. For S. palustre the

productivities varied between 3.4 t DM ha-1

yr-1

and 6.8

t dry mass DM ha-1

yr-1

after an initial establishment of

one year. That indicates that S. palustre is more

productive than S. papillosum (Gaudig et al., 2014).

According to the same source, regeneration of moss plants was 15% after six months, 80% after one year and

100% after two years. However, these numbers may vary with species composition and climatic conditions.

Farming Sphagnum biomass is already economically profitable for niche markets, such as soilless media

market, with high revenues, but more research is recommended to upscale the production(Gaudig et al. 2014).

SUBSIDIES

To compensate landowners for loss of income if the water table in their parcels is raised and to support

landowners that are actively contributing to nature conservation on their parcels, the Province of Friesland has

subsidies available. In 2015, farmers with lands within designated meadow bird landscapes could get a subsidy

of €1981.43 per hectare per year if they flooded the land for five months, starting from the 15th of February

(Provincie Fryslan, 2016). This management is mostly focused on the four well-known Dutch meadow birds

(black-tailed godwit (Limosa limosa), northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), oystercatcher (Haematopus

ostralegus) & redshank (Tringa totanus)), but a positive effect on other grassland animals also expected. To be

able to apply for subsidies, farmers have to comply with certain conditions set by the Province. These

conditions might constrain for example harvesting period, to not disturb local wildlife. The focus of the

Province with these subsidies is on wildlife, but in Sphagnum farming there has to be some balance point

where farmers are able to harvest and get revenue, while still keeping the animal welfare in mind. Comparing

the subsidies with the average net income of dairy farmers of €2000 per hectare (Venema, 2009), farmers

would actually make more money combining peat moss cultivation with nature conservation. Of course, these

subsidies will not be the answer to the problem for the whole of Friesland, or even other parts of the

Netherlands. In 2015, the total budget for the rewetting of meadow bird areas was roughly €350.000

(Provincie Fryslan, 2016), enough for roughly 175 hectares. However, these subsidies can ‘ease the pain’ for

farmers that have a loss of income, especially in the transition phase between these two different forms of

agriculture.

Figure 10 Sphagnum moss in nylon wool bales after harvesting (The

Encyclopaedia of New Zealand)

13

LOCATIONS

To determine potential locations for cultivating Sphagnum in Northeast Friesland, we have decided to look at

parcel level. We chose this, because this is the most useful when implementing the cultivation on a short term.

This will result in a map that can be used by policy makers, farmers, residents and other stakeholders as an

objective criterion to have a clear view on which field is potentially interesting. We think a global overview will

not give policymakers a practical tool to make a proper decision. With this approach, we hope to have created

something that fits more to their demands.

We defined fields that are close to an existing nature area, with grassland as land use, a texture of peat or

peat/sandy and a groundwater table of class I or II (see Table 2 for explanation of the different classes) as

suitable for cultivation of peat moss on short term. Within these suitable fields, we made a distinction

between fields that are within an area that is planned to be nature conservation area, or already is a nature

conservation area, and between fields with different ground water tables. This is based on that we think that

these fields are most suited for short term implementation of the project.

Table 2 Groundwater tables (GWT) and their levels

Groundwater Table (GWT) Average highest groundwater level Average lowest groundwater level

I 140 -

As input for the project we used the datasets listed below:

Natuurmeting Op Kaart 2014:

This dataset included both the Ecological Main Structure (Ecologische Hoofdstructuur, EHS) areas that

already exist and those which are planned.

http://www.nationaalgeoregister.nl/geonetwork/srv/dut/search#|bcc8ed51-0660-4937-b874-

d3b590e1ea3a

Grondsoortenkaart 2006:

This dataset included the textures of the soil.

http://www.wageningenur.nl/nl/show/Grondsoortenkaart.htm

TOP10NL Terrein:

From this dataset we took the parcel boundaries and the landuse.

https://www.pdok.nl/nl/producten/pdok-downloads/basis-registratie-topografie/topnl/topnl-

actueel/top10nl

Grondwatertrappenkaart 1:50.000 (Steur en Heijink, 1991)

This dataset includes the groundwater tables.

http://www.wageningenur.nl/nl/Expertises-

Dienstverlening/Onderzoeksinstituten/Alterra/Faciliteiten-Producten/Software-en-

modellen/Grondwaterdynamiek/Overzicht-methoden.htm

http://www.nationaalgeoregister.nl/geonetwork/srv/dut/search#|bcc8ed51-0660-4937-b874-d3b590e1ea3ahttp://www.nationaalgeoregister.nl/geonetwork/srv/dut/search#|bcc8ed51-0660-4937-b874-d3b590e1ea3ahttp://www.wageningenur.nl/nl/show/Grondsoortenkaart.htmhttps://www.pdok.nl/nl/producten/pdok-downloads/basis-registratie-topografie/topnl/topnl-actueel/top10nlhttps://www.pdok.nl/nl/producten/pdok-downloads/basis-registratie-topografie/topnl/topnl-actueel/top10nlhttp://www.wageningenur.nl/nl/Expertises-Dienstverlening/Onderzoeksinstituten/Alterra/Faciliteiten-Producten/Software-en-modellen/Grondwaterdynamiek/Overzicht-methoden.htmhttp://www.wageningenur.nl/nl/Expertises-Dienstverlening/Onderzoeksinstituten/Alterra/Faciliteiten-Producten/Software-en-modellen/Grondwaterdynamiek/Overzicht-methoden.htmhttp://www.wageningenur.nl/nl/Expertises-Dienstverlening/Onderzoeksinstituten/Alterra/Faciliteiten-Producten/Software-en-modellen/Grondwaterdynamiek/Overzicht-methoden.htm

14

In ESRI’s ArcMap 10.3.1 we pre-processed the data and created the model to look for the suitable parcels.

More details on the extent are in the appendix.

With the model, we first selected the existing nature conservation areas and created an outside buffer around

it of 100 meters. This arbitrary boundary was chosen, because it is not too small (we still have sufficient

parcels), but still falls in a close range within nature conservation areas. We then selected in the buffer parcels

that had the correct texture (peat or peat/sandy) and landuse (grassland). Since Carroll et al. (2009) state that

very wet conditions enhance the production, we erased parts of the parcels that had a too low groundwater

table (everything above II) and added to the parcels which groundwater tables are in the field and whether it

was planned to be part of the EHS. We assumed that for groundwater tables above II, too much extra water

would be needed to flood the parcel. For groundwater tables I and II, the difference between the current state

and the flooded state would be much smaller and much easier to achieve. With these extra added data we

classified the parcels in different categories. This resulted in the suitability map that can be seen on next page

(Figure 11).

The map shows which parcels are suitable for the cultivation of peat moss. However, this is mainly based on

factors we think are important, because there is no standard protocol in doing this type of research. There are

maybe other ways of assessing the suitability, but we think this is the best way of doing this on a short term of

implementing the cultivation. Also the quality of the data that we used as input is important for the quality of

the resulted map. For example, the Grondwaterkaart is supposed to be used at a scale of 1:50.000, but the

map with the potential fields for Sphagnum is at a higher detail level, so this has to be taken into account. If

the Grondwaterkaart would be zoomed in too much, a higher resolution than the supposed 1:50.000 could be

assumed, because it is vector data. The EHS data that is used is from 2014 and since then, there has been a

policy change where the EHS-structure was changed into Natuurnetwerk Nederland, so the nature areas could

also be outdated at some locations. Still we think that the locations of the EHS would largely overlap to

Natuurnetwerk Nederland, as the qualifications for important nature conservation sites are expected to not

have changed a lot. To conclude, we think this map is appropriate to have first insights where potential fields

are located, but for the implementation of peat moss at such a parcel more (field) data is needed to have a

better understanding of the suitability at a higher detail level.

The printed map (Figure 11) is only for visualisation purposes, not all suitable fields are visible, so for the

complete dataset we refer to the included zip folder with the geodatabase, model, shapefile and KML file. An

interactive visualisation of the data is available through the following link:

https://www.google.com/maps/d/edit?mid=zU_0_T5Ho5M0.k8k8g0MXFc0c&usp=sharing

If this link does not work anymore, it is possible to recreate the map. To do this, upload the attached KML file

from the zip folder through Google Maps, Google Earth or other map reproducing programs.

Figure 11 Next page: Map with the visualization of the GIS model outcome

https://www.google.com/maps/d/edit?mid=zU_0_T5Ho5M0.k8k8g0MXFc0c&usp=sharing

15

16

CHAPTER 4: PRODUCTS

FUNCTONAL CHARACTERISTICS

Sufficient practical applications are essential in the process of making money out of cultivating Sphagnum.

Fortunately, Sphagnum possesses several interesting properties that could lead to potential products or that

are already being utilized in a wide variety of products. One of the most defining characteristics of Sphagnum

is its water retention capability. Sphagnum can retain up to 20 times its own weight in water, which can be

utilized in a wide variety of ways. Sphagnum also shows potential in holding air and a variety of organic

substances.

Sphagnum may also have a series of hygienic or medical application due to its ability to suppress a variety of

microbes. It mainly owns this characteristic to its acidifying properties. The active compound sphagnan

(Stalheim, 2009) is able to suppress the growth of several bacteria and fungi by acidifying the surrounding

environment. However, some acidophilic bacteria were still able to grow in the presence of sphagnan. The

acidifying properties are mainly obtained through its cation-exchanging capabilities. This ability in itself might

also have potential uses outside of simply acidifying compound or killing microbes.

Besides its antimicrobial functioning, a series of other medicinal benefits might also be obtained from

Sphagnum based products. A wide variety of compounds was discovered in Sphagnum, some of which are

known to have medicinal applications (Black et al., 1955). Table 3 summarizes these active compounds and

their functions. Alpha-amyrin is known to have analgesic effects (Aragao, 2008). Taraxerol and Lupeol are

known to have anti-inflammatory properties (Yao 2013, Saleem 2009). Besides being anti-microbial and anti-

inflammatory, Lupeol is also known to have chemo-preventive and even anti-tumor properties (Saleem 2009).

Beta-sitostanol, beta-sitosterol, and Brassicasterol are known to lower LDL-cholesterol and potentially prevent

prostate swelling in middle-aged men (Christiansen 2001, Kamal-Eldin 2009). Beta-sitosterol was also shown to

potentially prevent or slow down the formation of baldness (Upadhyay 2012). These compounds are however

all present in relatively low concentrations, and some don’t appear in all varieties of Sphagnum. Also should be

noted that the main sterol in Sphagnum, Ursolic acid, has no known medicinal properties, other than those

related to its acidifying properties.

Table 3 Various compounds present in Sphagnum and their medical applications

Compound Type Potential medical application References

alpha-amyrin triterpenoid analgesic Aragao, 2008

taraxerol triterpenoid anti-inflammatory Yao 2013, Saleem 2009

lupeol triterpenoid anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-tumor

Yao 2013, Saleem 2009

beta-sitostanol phytosterol LDL-cholesterol lowering, prevention of prostate swelling

Christiansen 2001, Kamal-Eldin 2009

beta-sitosterol phytosterol LDL-cholesterol lowering, prevention of prostate swelling

Christiansen 2001, Kamal-Eldin 2009, Upadhyay 2012

brassicasterol phytosterol LDL-cholesterol lowering, prevention of prostate swelling, baldness prevention

Christiansen 2001, Kamal-Eldin 2009

ursolic acid triterpenoid no proven medical benefits -

17

PRODUCTS

HORTICULTURAL SUBSTRATE

Probably the currently most wide spread use of fresh Sphagnum is as a

growing medium or additive to standard growing media in specialised

horticulture, most notably in the cultivation of orchids and various

carnivorous plants (Emmel 2008, Oberpaur et al. 2010, Blievernicht et

al. 2012). However, research also shows its potential application as a

more general growing medium (Figure 12) (Emmel 2008, Risto 2012).

What makes Sphagnum a good substrate for plant cultivation is its high

water retention (Heiskanen 1995, Heiskanen 1993), in combination

with its high aeration characteristics. Some sites selling Sphagnum as a

horticultural substrate also praise its ability to inhibit the formation of

fungi and other microbial infections. Its acidifying nature however

makes the substrate less suitable for plant species that do not cope

well under acid conditions. According to Altmann (2008), in the

European Union around 20,000,000 m3 of peat per year are used for the horticulture industry, with profits of

€1.3 billion.

TERRARIUM FILLING

For many of the same reasons that make Sphagnum a good horticultural

substrate, it also functions well as a terrarium filling for amphibians and reptiles

(Figure 13). Due to its high water retention, Sphagnum is able to create a humid

micro climate inside the terrarium. This helps amphibians and reptiles that

originate from the tropics. Once again, the antimicrobial properties are praised

for keeping the animals healthy, as few microbes and fungi are able to grow.

Fresh Sphagnum is also very soft, so this is safer for delicate animals than woody

or rocky substrates. The acidification is less of a problem, as long as the terrarium

and the Sphagnum itself are regularly cleaned.

Figure 12 Flower pot with Sphagnum

substrate retrieved from

http://www.newhousenewhomenewlife.com

/2014/01/caring-for-orchids.html

Figure 13 Terrarium decorated with

Sphagnum, retrieved from

http://www.aquariumlife.com.au/showthr

ead.php/58959-Moss-Terrarium-20cm-

cube-Fairy-theme

18

SUNDEW AND CRANBERRY

Next to cultivating Sphagnum with the intention of creating a product out it, there is also another option for

making growing Sphagnum economically viable. A wide variety of plants grow well on a soil of Sphagnum and

therefore Sphagnum could also be grown with the intention of providing a substrate to other crops. Two

plants with an economical application that grow well on a Sphagnum soil are Cranberries and Sundew

(Rochefort 2000, Greifswald Paludikultur website, 2015). The University of Greifswald in Germany set up a PhD

project aiming to investigate the viability of growing Sundew as an agricultural crop. Unfortunately, no results

have been published about the outcome of this study as of yet. Rochefort et al. (2000) described the prospect

of cultivating cranberries as promising for both ecological preservation and potentially profitable agriculture.

Growing crops on Sphagnum, rather than growing Sphagnum for the plant itself may have several advantages,

including:

Sundew can be used commercially for medicinal application. Due to the drastic species decline, collecting wild plants is threatening the population and is illegal in most countries. Locations where the amount of habitat allows wild collection are Scandinavia, East-Africa and Madagascar. Growing commercially interesting sundew species on cultivated peat moss could ensure a regional supply and become a profitable alternative for farmers (Greifswald Paludikultur, 2015).

Cranberries are already demanded due to their food application. Little further research would be

needed into cultivating this plant, as information on it is already widely available.

By generating income through harvesting and commercial use of these crops, longer harvest periods

for Sphagnum could be considered. This would positively affect the conservation value of the

paludiculture. There would be only little influence from the harvest, because they have to be picked

by hand (Greifswald University, 2015).

DECORATIVE ITEMS

Bagged dried Sphagnum is also sold at various hardware stores for decorative

purposes. It can be used for garden design, flower pieces or as filling for hanging

basket, as shown in (Figure 14). Another use for processed Sphagnum is

biodegradable flower pots. These pots are not only more sustainable than plastic

flower pots, but once the plant grows large enough to be moved to a larger pot, it

can simply be transferred to the new soil while still in the pot, as the roots will

simply grow through it.

SANITARY ITEMS

More recently, the company ‘Johnson & Johnson’ managed to produce an absorbent board, which can be

utilized in a wide variety of ways, including disposable nappies, sanitary towels and germination beds

(Rochefort 2000). Here, both the great absorbing and antimicrobial properties are used to turn Sphagnum into

an eco-friendly biodegradable product that can be cultivated in a sustainable way. A patent for the idea is

owned by the company ‘Johnson & Johnson’ (Brassington, 1985).

Figure 14 Hanging basket with Sphagnum,

retrieved from

http://www.hometalk.com/8616757/rustic-

sphagnum-moss-hanging-planter

19

INSULATION

So far, dried Sphagnum has mainly been described as a makeshift insulation material. Its excellent aeration

characteristics make it a suitable biodegradable insulation material. Current applications do however use the

fossilized peat, rather than the fresh Sphagnum, and further research will have to prove the viability of fresh

Sphagnum for use as insulation material. Fresh sphagnum is known to have better aeration characteristics

than the fossilized variant, which is important for proper insulation. This is however still speculation at this

point, as it is not known if the Sphagnum will not degrade more easily than peat at one point.

WATER PURIFYING

Activated peat fibres have the ability to absorb and encapsulate various compounds.

The company ‘Earth Care Products’ is the manufacturer and distributer of a line of

products known as ‘Sphag Sorb’ (Figure 15). The company takes fossilised peat from

the Canadian peat bogs, and after adding some additives uses it to clean up oil spills

and various other chemical spills. Although fossilized peat is used here, using fresh

Sphagnum might achieve similar results, as it also shares many of the absorbing

characteristics with its fossilized counterpart. This is however at this point purely

speculative.

PRESERVATIVES

Several biopolymers in Sphagnum were shown to have antimicrobial properties, and may therefore have an

application as preservatives. Stalheim et al. (2009) suggests the use of Sphagnum in the development of

antimicrobial pads or cloths that can inhibit microbial growth and extend the shelf-life of products or surfaces

in the food industry by lowering the pH.

PHARMACEUTICALS

Biologically active antifungal substances can be obtained from Sphagnum. It is reported that a high source of

these substances is provided by S. fuscum compared to other Sphagnum species. It has been found that

antifungal activity is correlated with the content of coumarins in the raw material (Podterob and Zubets,

2002). Besides that, a variety of triterpenoids with known medical benefits have been found in various

concentrations in many of the known Sphagnum varieties (Black et al., 1955). Some of these functions include:

anti-inflammation, anti-sceptic, LDL cholesterol lowering, baldness prevention, prevention of prostate swelling,

and even chemo preventive capabilities. The concentration in which these compounds appear varies greatly

between different Sphagnum species, and further market research and comparison with other species will

have to determine its economic viability.

Figure 15 A Sphag Sorb product by

Earth Care Products, retrieved

from

http://www.earthcareproducts.co

m/Products/PromoSupplies.aspx

20

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION

The choice of the Sphagnum species you cultivate is important, because they vary a lot in plant material

compounds and environmental conditions. Some of these compounds have potential medical benefits when

they are isolated. It is preferable to cultivate species that contain these compounds at high concentrations in

the plant material. The acidification rate, influenced by the compound sphagnan, could influence the choice of

Sphagnum variety. Additionally, absorbing properties can also be a factor to choose certain Sphagnum species

if they are aiming to produce absorbent products, like dishcloths. Although this study indicated a variety of

potential applications for Sphagnum, further study of the various defining properties of Sphagnum could also

reveal new or previously overlooked product applications. Some of the suggested products in this report exist

only as an idea or patent. Further product designing could help turning these ideas into potential new

products. This will increase the overall value of Sphagnum. Another factor to take into account when choosing

the species to cultivate, is the regeneration time. Currently, three species are already chosen to be tested in an

ongoing experimentation site near Feanwâlden. However, we can recommend also other species that have

shown to have high regeneration capacity and high productivity in previous experiments carried out in

Germany and North America. Although ongoing projects are already working on cultivating Sphagnum for

commercial use, further testing is required to properly assess the viability of growing it in Northeast Friesland.

Conditions of the field need to be assessed to carry out specific and required preparations to enhance water

availability to Sphagnum.

The map with the suitable fields for growing Sphagnum shows that there is quite some area favourable for

growing peat moss on short term to do experimental set-ups. The suitable area covers 17 km2 and is mainly

concentrated around Feanwâlden, from this area 13 km2 is placed in fields that are planned to be part of or

already are inside the EHS. This shows that Northeast Friesland has enough suitable places to start with

experimenting on larger scale.

With respect to harvesting, it is currently done by hand. But, if the size of the cultivated area will be too big to

maintain manual labour, the use of machinery could be considered. Motorized transport from the harvesting

site to the transport vehicle might be needed. The consequences of this for conservation matters have to be

determined in the future. One of the main negative impacts on biodiversity is the harvesting of the Sphagnum.

It can be lessened by the application of a suitable management. A three to five year rotational harvesting of

mosaic patches with different successions states are recommended to allow colonization between the

patches. This recommendations match with those for the cultivation of peat moss. Three to five years between

harvesting are necessary to ensure Sphagnum regeneration. The mosaic structure enables the spread of spores

that leads to a faster regeneration. By harvesting no more than 12 cm of the upper layer of Sphagnum, there is

no additional carbon emission from desiccation of bare soils. The remaining plants still provides habitat for the

unique species assemblage that is associated with Sphagnum. To prevent damaging the underlying layers of

Sphagnum, which are required for a faster regeneration, manual harvesting by patches seems to be the

preferred method.

21

Another possible negative environmental aspect that has to be considered when implementing a Sphagnum

farm, is the increase of methane emissions when the land is inundated. According to the literature, the overall

annual carbon emission is low, because of the fixation of carbon as CO2. Also the Global Warming Potential

(GWP) of CO2 emission of drained peatlands exceeds the GWP from methane by inundated land.

Regarding the information about market revenues and the most profitable application, further research is

recommended. This is necessary to estimate if the revenue of the product peat moss is sufficient to provide a

sustainable income for the region. The market research also helps to indicate how much Sphagnum can

actually be sold in the Netherlands or exported elsewhere. This will provide information to see how much

Sphagnum can be cultivated and consequently the required area for cultivation. There is a large potential for

fresh peat moss, as an alternative for the unsustainable excavation of peat bogs. For information about

revenues and the most profitable application further research is recommended. This is necessary to estimate if

the revenue of the product peat moss is sufficient to provide a sustainable income. Further studying of the

various defining properties of Sphagnum could also reveal new, previously overlooked product applications.

22

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS

CONCLUSION

The report focuses on the feasibility of Sphagnum cultivation in the Northeast of Friesland. To review the

problems and opportunities of this as a land use option, we focused on the aspects; peat moss ecology, the

implementation of Sphagnum farming (with the cultivation, potential locations and harvesting methods) and

peat moss products. The given information is a realistic assessment of the current knowledge about Sphagnum

as a plant for cultivation. Within all aspects we found supporting arguments for Sphagnum farming under the

given circumstances. When a rotational harvesting management is used, the cultivation site can enhance the

biodiversity of the landscape. The inundated area is more climate friendly than the drained peatland since the

carbon dioxide emission is largely reduced. Existing information from other peat moss restoration projects and

cultivation sites is available and can be used as historical practical experience for the cultivation and the

harvesting process. This information inquires on required characteristics of the land, donor material,

establishment enhancers, water management and harvesting specifications. A number of applications already

exist for fresh peat moss as a commercial product. An analysis of the area characteristics on parcel level

revealed sites that are suitable for peat moss cultivation based on factors that are relevant for successful

cultivation and for proper water management.

RECOMMENDATIONS

What we recommend:

Do more experiments under natural conditions in Friesland

Make contact with the projects in Noord-Holland and Germany

Conduct a market research for Sphagnum products that already exists or need to be developed

Inquire about interest among farmers for growing Sphagnum.

Analyse field characteristics such as nutrient content, before starting cultivation activities

Consider to farm Sphagnum in combination with other commercially valuable plants (e.g. cattail,

sundew or duckweed) to increase the revenues

Prepare cultivation field by blocking ditches, use overflow outlets as flood prevention

Construct shallow basins or trenches in order to raise the water table.

When necessary, use border and pipe irrigation as an option to maintain water levels

Avoid nutrient water contamination by controlling drainage from agricultural fields and livestock

waste in surrounding areas

Implement Sphagnum cultivation during spring and fall to avoid risks such as drought and plant

desiccation

Use diverse Sphagnum species for previous experimentation and select the best performing

Monitor key species (e.g. sundew and meadow birds) to get data on the conservation value of

Sphagnum farms

23

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