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7/27/2019 Discourse in Israel During the Death of the Peace Process. by Jack McGinn (University of Edinburgh)
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DiscourseinIsraelDuringtheDeathofthePeaceProcess:An
InvestigationintoanIsraeliOrientalisminNewsMediaand
Academia
Abstract
ThisstudylooksintothewaysthattheIsraelimediaandacademiaportray
boththePalestiniansandthepeaceprocessinthepost-Osloyears,withaview
toascertainingtheprevalentIsraeliattitudestowardsthePalestinians,taking
theyearsfrom2000through2005asasample.Theseyearsareimportantin
assessingthepoliticalzeitgeistastheymarktheclosingeraoftheOslopeace
process,punctuatedbytheCampDavidtalksandthesecondPalestinian
intifada.TheresearchaimstolookathowIsraelinarrativesregardingtheir
neighboursareanexpressionofcertaintrendswithinIsraelisociety,coupled
withthereportingofpoliticaldevelopments.Itisprimarilylookingathowthe
citizensofIsraelseeboththePalestiniansandthenatureoftheIsrael-
Palestineconflict,andassuchthestudydoesnotdelveintothenarrativesthatcomefromotherWesternpro-IsraelicommentatorsorfromtheJewish
Diaspora.Thefocusonanation,andmorespecificallycertainvoiceswithin
thatnation,isinordertoinvestigatethenarrativesthatdominatewithinthe
societyandconflictinquestion.
1. Thebackgroundandcontext102. AnexplorationandanalysisoftheNewsMedia163. AstudyofAcademia274. TheHypothesis34
7/27/2019 Discourse in Israel During the Death of the Peace Process. by Jack McGinn (University of Edinburgh)
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Thedevelopmentandmaintenanceofeveryculturerequiretheexistenceofanother
differentandcompetingalterego.Theconstructionofidentity...involves
establishingoppositesandotherswhoseactualityisalwayssubjecttothecontinuousinterpretationandre-interpretationoftheirdifferencesfromus.
1
- EdwardW.Said
TheIsraeli-Palestinianconflicthasbeenframedinmanydifferentwaysbyscholarsand
journaliststryingtolocateacommonthread,acohesiveunderstandingoftheprotagonists
motivesandactions.Chronologicallywecansummarisethevariousstagesoftheconflictin
uncontestedcategoricalterms,thoughdecisionsonwheretostartandwhattoemphasize
remainproblematic.Howevertheattempttoimposecommongrandnarratives,sequentialmeta-storieswhichexplainthedesiresandaimsofthepartiesinvolvedintermsoftheir
fulfilmentofpre-ordainedroles,hascharacterisedmuchofthecoverage.Thisisatempting
andperhapsinevitableparadigmforreportersandcommentatorstosuccumbto,butsuch
anapproachleadstoaframedviewoftheconflict,withnuancesthatruncontrarytothe
practitionersestablishednarrativeignoredordownplayed.Ourchoiceoflanguageshapes
themeaningandinterpretationofourwords,anditissurelyimpossibletohaveinherently
neutraldialogueregardingtheseissues.
Ifwecanacceptthistruism;thatdialogueisinherentlyloadedwithmeaningandsubtext,
andthatitcoloursthewayweimaginetheconflictandinformsourdecisionmaking,wecanattempttorecognisethenarratives,theircharacterandstructure.Somenarrativesmaybe
souncontroversialtheybarelyregister,aswiththecommonly-acceptednotionthattheholy
sitesintheregionareofgreatimportancetothethreemainmonotheisticreligions,orthat
Israelissomewhatuniquepoliticallyandmilitarilyamongitsneighbours.Somearemore
brazenandcontentious,aswiththedepictionofthePalestiniansastheirrationalenemy,a
narrativethatisasubjectofthisstudy.Thoughthecarefulreaderisjustassurelyinformed
byherownbiasandprejudice,andthusanun-neutraldescriptionoftheviewsofothersis
notfeasible,itcanbeinformativetoexplorethewaysinwhichcommentatorspainta
pictureoftheconflict.Allartispropaganda,butitatleastlacksapretenceofobjectivity;
1EdwardW.Said,Orientalism(London:Penguin,2003),p.332.
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theartisttakesprideinexhibitingherpersonalvisionofthematerialworld.Media
commentaryandacademicscholarship,onthecontrary,attempttolocatetruthandrelay
thefacts,withovertdisplaysofpreconceptionsorbiastheultimatejournalistic
transgression.
However,ithasbeenarguedthatthisnewprofessionalism;thedemandforimpartialityin
reporting,hasledamorefirmlyentrenchedworldviewinthatitsetstheboundariesfor
acceptabledebatetowhatcanbegleanedfromprofessionalsources,suchasgovernment
statementsandtheviewpointsofthosewithpower.Dissentisencouragedaslongas[it]
remain[s]faithfullywithinthesystemofpresuppositionsandprinciplesthatconstitutean
eliteconsensus,asystemsopowerfulastobeinternalisedlargelywithoutawareness.2
Assumptionswhichfittheconventionalnarrativeareinternalised,andthusdeviationfrom
thesebasicunderlyingassumptionsisonlyacceptedwithinthenarrowframeworkof
conventionalcommonknowledge;DanielHallinssphereoflegitimatecontroversy.3The
mediacanthusbecomeself-regulating,providingacoherentspectrumofideasaboutthe
perceivedissues,allofwhichfitroughlyintoaparadigmsharedby(supposedly)all.Nevertheless,themediaisacomplexinstitution,andanalysisisfurthercomplicatedwhen
takingintoaccountregionaldifferences,andthefunctioningofthemediainnational
contexts.Thismaybedowntoeconomicconsiderations,aswiththelimitedpossibilitiesfor
thirdworldmediaoutlets,oritmaybeduetosocietalpeculiaritiesthemselves.Thusitis
importanttodistinguishbetweenthevariouswaysmassmediacanfunction,andrecognise
thatnooneanalysiswillholdtrueforallmediaoutletsthatweencounter.
Parameters
InthisstudyIwillbefocusingontheIsraelimedia,specificallyduringtheyears2000-2003asacasestudy,andwithaspotlightonthepeaceprocessandIsraeliinteractionswiththe
Palestinians.Firstly,myparametersfortheresearchareasfollows:
1. TherawmaterialwillbetakenfromIsraelinewsmediaandinabroadersenseofficialIsraeligovernmentpublicannouncements,withthetwohaving
someobviousoverlaps.
2. Thesourcesinquestionwillbeonline,specificallyYnet,JerusalemPostOnline,andHaaretzOnline.EachareEnglishlanguageandhaveonline
archivesfortheperiodinquestion.
3. Inordertofocustheresearch,certainimportantincidentsfromtheperiodwillbeselected,andrelatednewsarticleswillbecomparedtoseeifsomeformofIsraelinarrativecanbeidentified.
4. InordertoprovidecontextIwillemployarticlesfromtheinternationalpress(BBC,Reuters,etc)soastocompare,howeverthesearenotthefocusofthe
2EdwardS.HermanandNoamChomsky,ManufacturingConsent:ThePoliticalEconomyoftheMassMedia
(London:Vintage,1994),p.302.3ThisspheresurroundstheSphereofConsensus,theregionencompassingsocialobjectsnotregardedby
journalistsandmostofsocietyascontroversial.OutsideLegitimateControversyhowever,comesthe
SphereofDeviance,therealmofviewssimplyoutsidetheboundariesofacceptablethought,deemedbyjournalistsandsocietyspolitical mainstreamasunworthyofbeingheard.DanielC.Hallin,TheUncensored
War:TheMediaandVietnam(London:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1989),p.116.
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studyandsoshallonlybeusedtoindicatewhatdifferences,ifany,theIsraeli
narrativehaswithinternationalsources.Whetherweacceptthe
internationalsourcesasamorebalancedorfairaccountisaseparate
question.
5. AfurthersourcewillcomefrompublishedacademicarticlesfromjournalswithinIsrael,orbyIsraelis.
Thereasonsfortheseparametersareprimarilytodowiththeeaseofaccessand
understandingtheyallowforbothmyselfandthereader.AsIwillbelookingnuancesof
languageIhavefocusedonlyonEnglishpieceswherepossible,ratherthanallowinganyof
themeaningtobelostthroughinepttranslation.
ThepurposeofthisdissertationistoascertaintheprevalentIsraeliattitudestowardsthe
Palestinians,takingtheyearsfrom2000through2005asmysample.Theseyearsare
importantinassessingthepoliticalzeitgeistastheymarktheclosingeraoftheOslopeace
process,punctuatedbytheCampDavidtalksandthesecondPalestinianintifada.MyresearchaimstolookathowIsraelinarrativesregardingtheirneighboursareanexpression
ofcertaintrendswithinIsraelisociety,coupledwiththereportingofpoliticaldevelopments.
TheresearchisprimarilylookingathowthecitizensofIsraelseeboththePalestiniansand
thenatureoftheIsrael-Palestineconflict,andassuchIamnotlookingatwhatother
Westernpro-IsraelicommentatorsorotherDiasporaJewshaveexpressed.Myfocusona
nation,andmorespecificallycertainvoiceswithinthatnation,mayseemoverlyexclusive
andarbitrary.Thereasonsformychoiceoffocusarerelatedtothenatureofthesociety
andconflictinquestion.
Israelis,havingconstructedastrongandwellpublicisednationalidentity,seethemselvesandtheirstateasculturally,ethnically,andpoliticallydistinct.TobeknownastheJewish
State,aculturalhomogeneityhastohavebeenencouragedtosomedegree,andindeed
theIsraelisourceofnationalprideandpatriotismismoretangibleandidentifiablethanthe
vaguenotionsoflibertyorequalitythatunderpinothernationalisms.TheIDFisa
peoplesarmyinwhichallIsraeliJews(otherthanultra-Orthodox)areexpectedtoserve,
contributingtoaheightenedawarenessandevenreverenceofthemilitary.Israelsnational
dogmaevenhasaspecificterm,definitehistory,andsetofprinciples,characteristicslacking
ineventhefamouslystrongAmericanpatriotism.Zionismcanbecalledthedefining
ideologyofIsrael,anditbindsIsraelsdefenders,includingalargemajorityofitspopulation,
together,constructingforthemacommonhistoryandnarrativeforthefuture.ItisforthisreasonthattheviewsofIsraelisliving,andparticipating,inthestatewhichespousesand
promotesthissetofdoctrinesareofsuchimportanceinidentifyingtheframeworkthey
havehelpedtocreate.Itisjustifiedtofocusonlyonanationalpopulationbecausethey
themselveshavesoughttoemphasisethatparadigm,beitasusversusthemor
participantsintheZionistproject.IsraelslargeJewishimmigrantpopulation,itsshort
history(asamodernnationstate),anditspoliticalidiosyncrasyastheJewishStateall
contributetothis.ThusthefocusofthisshallbetheIsraeliperspectiveandnarrative;that
oftheparticipantsthemselves,asopposedtotheirsympathisers,allies,orenemies.
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PossibleShortcomings
Naturally,eventhoughImaintainthatadominantframeworkwithinwhichthecompeting
Israelinarrativesmayfunctioncanbeascertained,theevidenceusedheretoidentifyitis
unfortunatelynarrowandnotfullyrepresentative.Duetolinguistic,technological,and
spaceconstraints,Ihaveelectedtofocusontheonline(Englishlanguage,ortranslatedfrom
Hebrew)printmedia,andacademicsourcessurroundingthis,whichofcourseleavesout
televisionmedia,theHebrew-onlypress,sourcesunavailableonline(whicharethankfully
lessfrequentnowthanonlyafewyearsago),andotherrepresentationsofIsraeli
consciousnesswhichyourhumbleresearcherhasbeenunabletoaddress.Thereader
shouldbearthisinmindwhenassessingmyconclusions.
Theanalysiswillbedividedintofourchapters,followedbymyconclusions.Thechapters
andtheirindividualpurposesareasfollows:
1. Thebackgroundandcontextinordertochronologicallygroundmyresearch,provideabasichistoryasprovesrelevant,andtopredictany
problemsthatmayoccur.
2. AnexplorationandanalysisoftheNewsMediaCollatingandquotingfromnewspaperarticlesonkeymomentsduringtherunuptotheAl-AqsaIntifada
andincidentsafter.AttitudestoCampDavid,theoutbreakofviolence,and
thebehaviourofthestateapparatuswillbeassessed.Thepurposewillbeto
identifytermsandcomparetheirusageandimplications.Themain
newspaperstudiedwillbeHaaretz,asbeingthegenerallyacceptedmost
liberalmainstreamdaily,itcanprovideuswiththelimitsofdebateonthe
left,orpeacecamp.3. AstudyofAcademiaLookingatacademicjournals,opinionpieces,and
explicitjustificationsforIsraelibehaviour.Wewillattempttolocatethe
debateanddevelopmentofnarrativestowardsthePalestiniansandthe
natureofIsraelitself.
4. TheHypothesisAssessingwhetherthereisanIsraeliOrientalistcomplex.WithreferenceprimarilytoEdwardSaid,wewillseeifacoherentIsraeli
narrativecanbeidentified.Isitasimplestoryofactorsbehavingastheirpre-
ordainedroles,orareeventsandreactionstothemmorerandom?
Thestudyshallthusbebothempirical,insofarastheselimitedcasestudiesmaybeconstruedtoberepresentativeofalargertrend,andanalytical,asthestudyshallbe
assessingtheprevalenceofanIsraeliOrientalismintheoutletsofrelevantthoughtonthe
subject.Furthertothis,itshallbeadvancinganoriginalhypothesisthattiestogetherthe
specificnatureofmodernZionismwiththeconsequentdelineationoflinguisticspacein
Israelidiscourse.
MyprimarysourceswillserveasthefirstportofenquiryintoIsraeliattitudes,with
secondaryliteraturealsoemployedforcomparativeanalysis.Formyownpersonalanalysis
anattemptatamoreholisticapproachwillbemade,andsoIshalllookathowtheoriesof
socialpsychologyandthesecuritizationofthreatscanapply,alongwiththeapplicationofEdwardSaidsOrientalismthesistothisspecificarena.Inkeepingwiththis,anattemptata
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deconstructionoflanguageandmeaningincommentaryonthePalestiniansandthepeace
processwillbemyfocus.
Background
ThetimelineIhavechosentofocusonisimportantforthreereasons:
Itmarkstheculminationofthefirstattemptatdirectnegotiationsbetweentheantagonists
ItisimportantforIsraelasthepeaceprocessbeganasareactiontocontinuedandfocusedPalestinianresistanceandviolence,andmarkeda
changeinofficialIsraelipolicyregardingtheArabenemy,withaconsequent
changeinthepublicnarrative.Thusitwasabreakinthestatusquoan
Israelireactiontonewcircumstancesandprovidesaninterestinghistorical
testcase.
Thepeaceprocess(startingwithMadridin1991andending,temporarilyatleast,withTabain2001)asanexperimentalpolicyprovidedIsraelisonall
sidesofthepoliticalspectrumwithanopportunitytotesttheiropinionsof
thePalestiniansandtheideaofnegotiationitself.Asthisnewchancefor
analysiswasrepresentedthroughtheIsraelipressandotherorgansatthe
time,itiseasyforaresearchertoviewbothrelatedprimarysources,andthe
directwaveofIsraelipublicopinion.Crucially,duringtheSecondIntifada
certainsegmentsofIsraelisocietybegantogainmoreprominencedueto
theirforesightinpredictingdisasterforthepeaceprocess,andthusthe
Israelipressbecamefarmorehomogenousintheirtreatmentofthe
interactionswiththePalestinians.
Itsimportanttonotethatthisisaselectiveandnotnecessarilyrepresentativeperiod,and
thusconclusionswecanmakefromanychangingIsraeliattitudesmaynotbegenerally
applicable,norshouldtheybeseenasdescriptiveoftheoverallIsraelipsycheorthatof
theZionistproject.However,thenarrativepatternsthatcanbegleanedfromtheIsraeli
mediaandwidersocietyinthisperiodmaybeindicativeofawidertrend,andcanhelpus
understandtheIsraeliperceptionofastill-unresolvedconflict.Myterminologyalsofalls
shortinappearingtoascribesomesortofhivemindtoalltheinhabitantsofIsrael
regardingtheseissues,andthuswildlyover-generalising.Ifsuchanimpressionisleftbythe
followingdissertation,mydefenceismydesireforconcisionandlinguisticbrevity.Naturally,Israelisocietyboastsacomplexanddiversemarketofideas,evenamongsolelytheJewish
Zionistsegment.20%ofIsraelspopulationareArabPalestinianIsraelis,andafurther10%
areultra-OrthodoxJews,generallyhostiletoZionism.ThuswhenIspeakofacoherent
ZionistnarrativeinIsraelthesevoices,amongothers,areleftout.WhatmyuseofIsraeli
orZionistnarrativemustbeshorthandfor,then,istheidentifiabledominanttrendsof
thoughtduringourtimeperiod.Thisisalsowhythemassmediaservesastheinitialfocusof
thestudy.Thoughitiselitist,professionalised,andotherwiselimited,itrepresentssome
formoftheprevalentideologicaltrendsthatmanagetosurfaceinIsrael.Henceforth,the
readerwillhopefullyforgivemyunspecificterminologyforthesereasons.Whatconcerns
thisstudyarethepredominanttrendsandthenarrativesgivenprimacybythemedia,academia,theIsraelistate,andthustosomedegreetheIsraelipeople.
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ABriefHistory
Thecontextofthisperiodshouldbeoutlinedfirstly.Unfortunatelyspacepermitsonlya
cursorydiscussionoftheeventsthatleduptothepointatwhichthisstudybegins,soa
degreeofawarenessofIsraelihistoryispresumedofthereader.Forbrevityssake,the
Osloyearsshallreferto1993-2001henceforth,unlessotherwiseindicated.The1987
Palestinianintifada,oruprising,occurredduringthe20thyearofIsraelsoccupationofGaza
andtheWestBank,causedmainlybyperceivedcontinuinginjusticesufferedbythe
PalestiniansunderIsraelstotalitariancontrol.4Relationsbetweenthetwocommunities,
JewishIsraelisandArabPalestinians,wereextremelypoor,withPalestinianopinionbeing
thatwearedesperate...Thereisnopoliticalsolution,...unlesswedo[something]
ourselves,nobodyisgoingtocare.5TheviolencecontinuedupuntiltheMadridConference
of1991whichmarkedthereturnofthePLO(PalestinianLiberationOrganisation)fromtheir
exileinTunis.Duringthesefouryears164Israeliswerekilled,and2162Palestinians.6
Politically,IsraelremaineddominatedbytheLikudParty,whounderMenachemBeginhadcometopowerin1977,breakingcontinuousleftistruleforthefirsttimeinIsraelshistory.
Beginspoliticalrevolution(knownastheMahapakh)wasimportantinintroducinganew
acceptabilityforovertlycolonialistdialogueinIsraeliparlance,Beginhimselfhavinggone
toextraordinarylengthstodehumanisethePalestinians...describ[ing]theminaspeechin
theKnessetasbeastswalkingontwolegs.7Thoughapeaceagreementhadbeensigned
withEgyptin1979,andlaterJordanin1994,thepost-SixDayWarperiodwascharacterised
bycontinuedviolence,withtheYomKippurWarin1973andtheinvasionofLebanonin
1982bothsuccessfuldeploymentsofanincreasinglywellequippedandwelltrainedIDF.
Thustheattempttobuildapeaceprocessthatemergedinthewakeofthebloodyintifada
wasapalpablechangeofdirectioninofficialIsraelipolicy,butyetwasneitherasurprisenoranisolatedinitiative.By1993,whentheOsloAccordsweresignedmarkingtheofficial
commencementofthepeaceprocess,89%ofIsraeliswereinfavourofnegotiations,with
71%thinkingitpossibletoachievepeacewiththeArabs.8Whenforcedtochoosebetween
initiatingpeacetalks,andstrengtheningmilitarycapacity,64%chosepeacetalks,though
thiswasa10%dropfrompreviousyears.9SoasignificantmajorityofIsraelipublicopinion
favouredthisapproachintheearly90s,andyetlessthanadecadelatersupportwastoend,
withanewPalestinianIntifadaandtheelectioninIsraeloftherightwingLikudgovernment
underArielSharon.Thisstudyaimstolookatsomeoftheperceptionsthathelpedtofuel
thischange,andtoassessthesignificanceofunderlyingassumptionsversusperceived
politicaldevelopments.Theimpactofthefailureoftalksandthelackofapartnerforpeacenarrativeswillbeinvestigating.Aboveall,theuseoflanguageandtheshapingof
publicdiscourseisourmostimportantindicatorofshiftingattitudes.
4IsraelShahak,Commentary,MiddleEastInternational(26May,1990),365(1):p.24.5RajaShehadeh,quotedinJerusalemPost(15January,1988).6BTselem,Statistics:FatalitiesintheFirstIntifada,
(http://www.btselem.org/english/statistics/first_Intifada_Tables.asp).Accessedon30March2010.7AmnonKapeliouk,BeginandtheBeasts,NewStatesman,June25,1982.8AsherArian,IsraelandthePeaceProcess:SecurityandPoliticalAttitudesin1993, JCSSMemorandumNo.
39(http://www.inss.org.il/upload/%28FILE%291192437876.pdf),February1993,p.7.Accessedon30March2010.9Ibid.
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Theinternaldevelopmentsduringtheseyearswillbeindividuallyaddressed,butabrieflook
attheinternationalcontextisalsoinstructive.Thebreak-upoftheSovietbloc,anditsfinal
collapsein1991,removedtheprimarypatronofthenearbyArabstates,leadingtowhat
ShlomoAvinericallsthedeglobalizationoftheArab-Israeliconflict,andthustheenhanced
chancesforpeacefulnegotiationasheseesit.10Therewasundoubtedlyachangeinglobal
securityandinternationalrelationstheory,withthebipolarColdWarworldsuddenly
history.TheMadridConference(1991)washeldweeksbeforethedissolutionoftheUSSR,
withastatednewunderstandingofinternationalcommunicationandmediation;aspiritof
goodwillandmutualrespect...thepeaceprocesscanbegintobreakdownthemutual
suspicionsandmistrustthatperpetuatetheconflict.11Howevertensionsintheregion
remainedhigh,withIraqiScudmissileslaunchedintoIsraelwithindaysoftheoutbreakof
theGulfWarinearly1991.Israeldeclinedtorespondinkindnotoutofanewlyfound
pacifism,butbecauseitsmainsponsor,theUS,thoughtitbettertokeepthewaraslimited
aspossible.Nevertheless,internationallytherewasanexpectationandconsensusthat
negotiationsforanendtotheconflict,basedonthelandforpeacedoctrinelaidoutin
UNSCresolutions242and338,wereoverdueandnecessary.
Theinitiationofthepeaceprocesschangedcertainfactsontheground,withthePLOgiven
adegreeofautonomyandself-governmentforthePalestiniansinGazaandtheWestBank.
However,theslowdeathoftheOsloAccordswas,ithasbeenargued,duetothefactthat
theprimaryactorsinthesituationhadnotchangedtheirviews.Thedove,YitzhakRabin,
continuedtoexpandsettlements12andimplementamilitarydivisionoftheWestBank.
13
Overallthenumberofsettlersincreasedbyatleast65%duringtheOsloyears,an
unprecedented14growth,whichledtoabeliefthatIsrael(orthePLO,inmanyoftheir
obligations)hadactedcontrarytothetruespirit,ifnottheletter,oftheAccords.The
continuingfailureofthepeaceprocesswasfeltonbothsidesofthedivide,withviolencepermeatingthe90sandmakingamockeryofthehighmindeddeclarationsofajustand
lastingpeace.TherewereattacksbydissidentPalestiniansandIsraelis,andofficially-
sanctionedviolenceseemedunperturbedbyanysupposedlimitationsthatOslohadcalled
for.In1995,ahard-lineIsraeliassassinatedPrimeMinisterRabin,andafteraspateof
Hamassuicideattacksin1996,LikudsBenjaminNetanyahunarrowlybeatShimonPeresof
theLaborPartyforthepostofPrimeMinister.DisillusionmentwiththeAccordsmadeitself
clearinIsraelipublicopinion,withsupportforreturningoccupiedlandsinexchangefor
peacehoveringonlyaround12-38%in1996,andstayingmoreorlessconstantfortherest
oftheOsloperiod.15
10ShlomoAvineri,Israelandtheendofthecoldwar:theshadowhasfaded,BrookingsReview(Spring1993),
Vol.11:p.1.11UnitedStatesandSovietUnion,LetterOfInvitationTotheMadridPeaceConference,
(http://www.miftah.org/Display.cfm?DocId=430&CategoryId=10),1991.Accessedon30March2010.12IsraelMovestoExpandSettlements/Palestinianscondemndecision,AssociatedPress,(26January1995).
13DiannaCahn,RabinWantsSeparationintheWestBank,TheDailyGazette,(30November1994).
14CamilleMansour,IsraelsColonialImpasse, JournalofPalestineStudies(Summer2001),Vol.30,No.4:p.
86.15
InstituteforNationalSecurityStudies,IsraeliOpinionRegardingPeacewiththePalestinians,(http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/ispopal_87to07.html),2005-2007.Accessed
on29March2010.
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Theculminationoftheprocessitself,whichbythispointwasanattempttorescuewhat
manywerearguingwerehollowandfailedpeaceefforts,cameinJuly2000whenUS
PresidentBillClintoncalledasummitinCampDavid,Maryland,tohammeroutthefinal
statusnegotiationsthatOslohadstipulated.PrimeMinisterEhudBarakandPalestinian
AuthorityChairmanYasserArafatbothfaceddomesticoppositionandgrowingfrustration
withthelackofprogress,especiallyasprogresstowardsanynascentPalestinianstatewas
minimal.Themeetingendedinfailure,andmonthslaterthefragilepeaceprocesscollapsed,
withtheAl-AqsaintifadasparkedbyIsraeliPrimeMinisterArielSharonsphysicalassertion
ofIsraelicontroloftheTempleMount.ThisSecondIntifadaprovedfarmoreviolentand
bloodythanthefirst,withthedeathtollestimatedatover5500Palestiniansand1000
Israelis.16IthardenedpopularIsraeliattitudestowardsthePalestinians,withthePeace
CamplosingsupportinIsraelandascivilandpoliticalforce.Thisrenewalofviolencehas
continued,withnoofficialendeverdeclaredfortheAl-AqsaIntifada.Thelatteryears,
fromJuly2000andClintonsCampDavidtalksonwardsthroughthebeginningofthe
Intifadaarewherethisstudycommences.
Inthenextchapter,wherekeymomentsinthepost-Osloyearswillbediscussedwiththe
aidofnewsmediaarticles,itwillbepossibletoshedmorelightontheprecisetrendsin
Israelieliteandpublicopinion.ThequestiontoconsideriswhetheradiscernableIsraeli
narrative,eitherfactuallybasedorotherwise,informedtheparametersofdiscourseand
thusthepublicperceptionsoftheirArabneighboursandthepeaceprocessitself.Thiswill
beexploredthroughareadingofperiodnewspaperarticlesinconjunctionwithacritical
lookatthecorrespondingeventsandthedialogueemployedtoexplainthem.
AStudyoftheNewsMedia
Israelsmedia,likeitssocietyatlarge,isdiverseandlargelyfree.Itis,ofcourse,structured
invariousways,andsothenewsoutletsIwillbefocusingoncomefromdifferentsections
ofthebroaderIsraelinewsmedia.
TheNatureoftheIsraeliMedia
Haaretz,witharelativelysmalldailycirculationof72000,isaninfluentialIsraelipapercateringtothepoliticalandeconomicelites,aswellasothersectionsoftheIsraeli
intelligentsia.AsIsraelsliberalbeacon,itisseentoserveasbothpublicforumand
chronicleofareligiousandpoliticalmovementthathas,forgoodorill,transformedaregion
andconsumedtheworld.17GideonLevy,perhapsIsraelspremierleftwingjournalist,has
saidinworkingatHaaretzheislessconstrainedinhispunditrythanmostcolumnistsare
intheUnitedStatesandEuropeForthesereasonsitservesasanexcellentmedium
16BTselem,StatisticsFatalities,2008,(http://www.btselem.org/English/Statistics/Casualties.asp).
Accessedon11/4/10.17StephenGlain,Haaretz,IsraelsLiberalBeacon, TheNation,
(http://www.thenation.com/doc/20070924/glain/3),6September2006,p.3.
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throughwhichtoinvestigatetheprevalentIsraeliliberalopinion,unrestrictedbystate
censorshiporovertpoliticalrepressionwithinthesociety.
However,theargumentthatLevy,NoamChomsky,andotheractivistshavemadeisthat
paperslikeHaaretzandmuchoftheIsraelimediahaveagreatdegreeofself-censorship,a
non-hierarchicalformofmediafilteringthatresultsfromworkingwithintheIsraeli
consensus.Levy,aHaaretzjournalist,arguesthattheIsraelimediasself-censorship
comesfromadesiretopleasethereadership,whichentailsaprocessofdehumanising
anddemonisingthePalestinians...[and]reallyhidingtheoccupation.18Heclaimsthatthe
Palestiniansideofthestoryisheavilytwisted,andessentiallyobfuscatedbytheIsraeli
Zionistnarrativethatmostofthepopularpresspromulgates.Thusthecensorship,Levy
claims,isnotimposedbythegovernmentandcarriedoutattheirbehest,butisatheresult
ofatacitconsensusinIsraelisocietythatnewspapersmustworkwithiniftheyareto
maintainareadership.SoIsraelisarenotexposedatalltothePalestiniannarrative,
maintainsLevy,andforexamplenobodymakestheconnectionbetweenterrorand
occupation.FormostIsraelisthereisterrorbecausethePalestinianswereborntokill,notbecausethereisanoccupation.Sothosegoals[ofsolidifyinganIsraelinarrativeconsistent
withthemoreextremeelementsofZionism]wereachievedmainlybytheIsraelimedia.19
ThatHaaretzreportinghasbeenfound,contrarytoitsadversarialimage,toconsistently
reportfromtheIsraeliside,withamorefrequentpro-Israelislantthanotherwise,20isa
partialtestamenttothis,butthefocusofthisinvestigationistoassessifandhowitforms
partofanoverlyingframeworktolimitdiscoursebydelineatingtheboundariesof
reasonabledebate.Ashasbeenshown,particularlybyNeilKressel21,attemptstoassess
biasinthemediaandtoconductimageversusrealityinvestigationsoftenrelyonwildly
varyingandsubjectivecriteriaofwhattheidealisedunbiasedmediashouldbe,andassuch
Iwilltrynottoventureintodiscussionsofthemisrepresentationoffacts.Rather,Iwillbe,subjectively,assessingthedialogueandtermsusedtoframetheconflictandtheOther.
ToprovideamorecompleteimageIwillberelying,toalesserdegree,ontheJerusalem
Post,anEnglishlanguage-onlydailythatcatersmainlytoexpatsandnon-Hebrewspeakers,
withasmallbutalsoinfluentialreadershipinsideIsrael.Generallyregardedastotherightof
Haaretzpolitically,andwithinthecentreofmainstreamIsraelipolitics22,itespousesamore
prevalentIsraeliviewpointinitsopinionpiecesandeditorials.
Haaretz
WeshallfirstaddressHaaretzscoverageofseveralimportanteventsinthepeaceprocessyears,inordertoassessthevalidityofLevysaccusations.TheCampDavidpeacetalksin
July2000areprobablythekeyturningpointinourperiodofstudy,withthefailureof
negotiationsleadingtoPalestinianfrustrationandasecondintifada.Haaretzreportedin
18GideonLevy,ininterviewwiththeauthor,2010(IncludedinAppendix).
19Ibid.
20MattViser,Attemptedobjectivity:AnanalysisoftheNewYorkTimesandHa'aretzandtheirportrayalsof
thePalestinian-Israeliconflict, TheHarvardInternationalJournalofPress/Politics (2003),Vol.8,No.4:pp.
114-120.21NeilJ.Kressel,BiasedJudgementsofMediaBias:ACaseStudyoftheArab-IsraeliDispute, Political
Psychology(June1987),Vol.8,No.2,pp.211-227.22BBCNews,ThePressinIsrael, BBCNews(http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4969714.stm),
08/05/2006.Accessed24/04/2010.
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detailonthenegotiationsthemselvesandtheaftermath,witharangeofopinionpieces
frombothhawksanddoves.InstudyingasampleofHaaretzarticlesfromtheperiod,and
inordertoassesstheclaimsmadebyLevyandothersthattheIsraeliliberalpressisself-
censoringanddepictsPalestiniansinanOrientalist,colonialistmanner,thestudyshall
endeavourtolocateinstancesofgroupinginthemediadialoguewherePalestiniansare
collectivelydescribedasamonolithic,alien,andfundamentallyirrationalentityinshort,
anOther.Naturally,attemptstoascertainthemeaningsof,orintentionsbehind,wordsare
subjective,andusesoflanguageindifferentcontextswillsuggestdifferentthingsto
differentreaders.Nevertheless,whatMr.Levyisasserting,andIaminvestigating,isthat
theparameterswithinwhichIsraelijournalistsmustworkaredefinableandnarrow,with
someexceptions.Thereforetheintentionsbehindtheuseofcertainlanguagewhen
describingthePalestiniansarenotthesubjectofinvestigation,butrathertheevidencethat
thislanguageprovidesofacertainframeworkinthemedia;anIsraeliZionistnarrative.
Forinstance,duringtheCampDavidpeacetalksthenegotiationswereaimedatcreatinga
viablePalestinianstate,withthebordersbasedontheinternationallyagreedGreenLine,aceasefireborderwhichmarkedIsraelsterritorybeforethe1967war.Theland,oratleast
theamountofland,onwhichaPalestinianstatewastobecreatedhadthusbeenpre-
determined,whatwasnecessarywasmerelytonegotiatetheexactbordersandcharacter
ofthestate.Themajority(55%)ofIsraelipublicopinionacknowledgedthatJudeaand
Samaria(theWestBank)shouldnotbepartofIsrael,astheywerenotIsraeliterritory.23
However,intheIsraelimedia,almostwithoutexception,thenegotiationswherebyIsrael
wouldrelinquishitsholdonoccupiedterritorywerecharacterisedasIsraeliconcessions,as
ifpartsofIsraelwerebeingconcededforpeace.DanMargalit,writingbeforetheeventual
failureofthetalks,proclaimsthat[IsraeliPrimeMinisterEhud]Barakhasgivenhisconsent
atCampDavidtofar-reachingconcessions,whilethebestcourseofactionfor[PalestinianAuthorityChairmanYasser]Arafatistostudytheseconcessionsand,especially,toweighthe
alternative.Barakhasalreadyannouncedthathisflexibilitywilldisappearifheisnotgiven
anaffirmativereply.24DanielSobelmanechoesthisformulationafterthetalkshadended,
eulogisingthatBarakhaddaredtoofferPresidentYasserArafatadealwithfarmore
concessionsthancouldbereasonablyexpected.25Theimplicitmessage,articulatedbythese
moderatedovesinIsraelsliberalbeacon,isthatIsraelismakingpainfulconcessionsby
followinginternationallaw,onlytobemetbyArabrejectionism(thisismisnowalmost
exclusivelyassociatedwiththePalestiniansinmoderninternationalrelationsdiscourse)and
irrationality.Ofcourse,concessionswouldandaremadeonbothsidesinnegotiations,
otherwisethetalksarereallyadictat.However,ifPalestiniansweretoacceptlessthanthefullamountofterritoryfortheirstateaffordedthembyinternationallawandtheglobal
consensus,itisdifficulttoseehowthiswouldbeanIsraeli,ratherthanaPalestinian
concession.Similarly,beforetalkshadstarted,MosheArenswritinginHaaretzwarnedof
theimplicationsofthefarreachingconcessionsthatBarakwasabouttomake,aghast
thatheseemedtobewillingtocedealmostallofJudeaandSamaria,includingtheJordan
23PublicOpinionResearchofIsrael,IsraeliOpinionRegardingPeacewiththePalestinians,
(http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/ispopal_87to07.html),September2003.
Accessedon29March2010.24DanMargalit,Noleaderwillofferabetterdeal, Haaretz,24/07/2000.
25DanielSobelman,IsraelofferedPAhalfofOldCity, Haaretz,22/09/2000.
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12
Valley,toArafat...[andwas]readytogiveupIsraelicontrol.26Arens,ofcourse,considers
suchdefeatistdiplomacyasakintosurrender,butifwelookobjectivelyatthesituation,as
farasinternationallawwillallow,thisseemsanobviousmischaracterisation.Returningland
wonillegallythroughwarisonlyseenasaconcessionbyaroguestate,whoconsidersthat
thelandshouldhavebeentheirsanyway.Internationally,werecognisethatreturningland
thatwasgainedoutsidetheboundariesofglobalpoliticalnormsisanexpectedand
necessarymovefortheaggressortotake;anobligationontheoccupier.TalkofIndia
maintainingcontrolofBangladeshafter1971,ortheUSannexingIraqtoitscontrolafter
2003,wouldhavebeenjustifiablyregardedasbreachesoftherulesofstates,asmilitary
conquestisnolongerconsideredajustwaytoacquireterritory.ImplicitinArens
indignation,thelikeofwhichwascommonplaceinthemediaatthistime,istheassumption
thatJudea,Samaria,andGalilee,inotherwordsBiblicalEretz(Greater)Israel,aredefacto
tosovereignterritoryofthemodernStateofIsrael.Thisformsanimportantpartofthe
modernZionistnarrative,anddoesntevennecessarilystemfromJudaismandareligious
beliefinthegiftfromGod,butratherasecularconvictionintheJewishnationalhistoryof
theregion;theargumentthatwehavelivedhereformorethan2000years.Ifsuchaclaimistakenaspre-existingfact,asIargueitiswithintheboundariesofZionistdiscourse,then
torelinquishanyofthelandisindeedapainfulconcession.IndeedtheOsloPeaceProcess,
instipulatingthatneitherpartywas,byenteringintotheAgreement,tobedeemedtohave
renouncedorwaivedanyofitsexistingrights,claimsorpositions27infactsignalleda
mostcrucialconcessionbythePalestiniansastheyhadgrantedalegitimacytoanIsraeli
claimonlandthatwasnear-unanimouslyregardedasPalestinian;thebroadlyaffirmed
claimofthePalestinianstotheoccupiedterritories[hadbeen]putonaparwiththebroadly
deniedtitleofIsraeltothem.28ThusalinguisticnuancealreadyprevalentintheIsraeli
discourseacquiredlegallegitimacy;theterritorieswerenowdisputedratherthan
occupied.ThisterminologyremainsastapleinIsraelieditorialisingabouttheterritories,withaliberal/conservativeconsensusespeciallyapparentinthepost-CampDavid
years.293031
Anobjectivereadingofthenegotiationsordiplomaticrecordisnotwhatwould
proveanynefariousIsraelischeming,suchconspiratorialbehaviourisrelativelymarginal.
Theimportanceofthedialoguesurroundingtheseissuesisthatitenablesdiscussionwhere
nonewouldexistotherwise,andcurtailsthepossibilityofevenconceptualisinganopposing
narrative.WouldgenerousIsraeliconcessionsbeatopicfordebate,muchlessaseemingly
self-evidentreality,iftheywerenotcreatedasthestartingpointfordiscussion?Othersmay
debateastowhyArafatrejectedtheofferatCampDavid,butimportantlytheIsraelipress
wasunitedinthecharacterisationofthenegotiationsashistoricconcessionsontheIsraeli
side,whereitbecameclearthatthePalestinianscouldnotreallybenegotiatedwithiftheywererefusesuchgenerousoffers.Thisisquiteliterallythelimitsofdebatethatwefind,
26MosheArens,HeadingforaCrashLanding,Haaretz,11/07/2000.
27Israeli-PalestinianInterimAgreementontheWestBankandGazaStrip (WashingtonDC:28September
1995),ArticleXXXI.28NormanG.Finkelstein,ImageandRealityoftheIsrael-PalestineConflict (London:Verso,2003),pp.172-173.
29Disputedthatis,thatIsraelhasalegitimateclaimovertosovereigntyovertheselands -Caroline
Glick,WithoutPrejudice,JerusalemPost,23/01/2004.30Weshouldhaveanawarenessofthelexiconandtheproperterminologyisdisputedterritories-Yoel
Marcus,TheHorseisoutoftheStable,Haaretz,06/06/2003.31Settlersdescribedasknowingthattheirpresenceindisputedterritorywascontroversial-DrorNissan,
GiveUsaHug,Ynet,09/03/05.
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andsuchlimitsappearnarrowgiventheexistenceofthePalestinianperspective,evenas
reportedbytheBritishpress.32
Moretelling,asfarasthelimitsofdiscoursego,istheattitudetonegotiatingitself.Arens,in
thesamearticle,mocksthenotionofcreatinganagreementwiththePalestinians,stating
thatthereisampleproofthatwhateveragreementisachievedatCampDavidwillonlybe
away-stationforfurtherPalestinianclaimsagainstIsrael,thatanythingachievedwill
merelybeaninterimagreement,andnomore,andthatthenotionthatIsraelcan
negotiatewiththePalestiniansisadangerousillusion.33InArenslanguageisafearnot
justofthePalestinianenemy,butofconcedingtoevenhavenegotiationsoverseenbyan
impartialarbiter,inthiscasetheUnitedStates.Hemakesitclear:
Summitmeetings,thatinevitablymovetheUnitedStatesfromapositionof
supportingitsIsraeliallytooneofarbitratorintheIsraeli-Palestinianconflict,donot
serveIsrael'sbestinterests.34
Israelsbestinterests,asalways,aredefinedbythebeholder.Hereweseethatthevery
ideaofhavingnegotiationsonanequalfootingisharmfultoIsrael,thatitsomehowisin
itselfaconcessiontodeigntospeakwithPalestiniansasequals,andthatthisisprimarily
becausethePalestiniansthemselvesareinherentlyuntrustworthy.Thiscouldperhapsbe
seenasthemorehawkishviewwithintheIsraelimedia.Weshallnowaddresstheargument
ofthedoves.
ZeevSchiff,aveteranHaaretzjournalist,wroteaninterestingpost-CampDavidarticle
wherehereminiscedaboutfellowIsraelimilitarist-turned-dove,YehoshafatHarkabi.Schiff
andHarkabipre-supposethenecessityofequal-footednegotiations,thoughtheymaintainthatIsraelmustexercisetheutmostcaution,asthePalestinianshaveviolatedevery
agreement,andweshouldnothaveanyfaithinthem.35Schiffisreliablycomfortable
withdescribingthePalestiniansasamonolithtobeoutwittedorfoiled,mentioningArab
hatredofJudaism,butalsoexpressingpityforthePalestinians,lamentingthatitwasvery
depressingtoseethePalestiniansreturntosquareone.36Thelanguageofcompromises
andconcessionsisemphasised,againmarkingakeystapleofIsraelidialogueregarding
CampDavidandnegotiationsingeneralthatbothsides,beingostensiblyequalpartners
forpeace,needtomakesacrificesandallowancestoachieveasettlement.Whilstonthe
faceofitthisareasonableandself-evidentstatement,itignoresthatthePalestinianshave
nolandorpossessionswhichtheycanconcede,andtheIsraelisarenotbeingaskedtoconcedeanyoftheirsovereignterritory.Thus,thoughnegotiationistheappropriate
nomenclature,theaccompanyingconcessionandcompromisewouldonlyfollowifboth
partnershadsomethingtooffer,andthusequalstanding.Thisparadigmwasdutifullykept
tobyboththeliberalopinionpiecesandnewsreporting,whereBarakandShlomoBen-
32ThecoverageofPalestinianscheeringtheirleader'srefusaltoyieldtoIsraelidemandsthathedropthe
PalestinianclaimofsovereigntyovereastJerusalemwasnotrefutedoraddressedbyIsraelimedia,merely
ignored.ClintonUpbeatafterCampDavid,BBCNews
(http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/853350.stm),27July2000.Accessed22/03/10.33Arens,HeadingforaCrashLanding.
34
Ibid.35ZeevSchiff,OnMakingPeaceDespitetheRisks, Haaretz,04/08/2000.
36Ibid.
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14
Amis(IsraeliChiefNegotiator)effortswerereportedascompromiseasopposedtothe
Palestinian,orsometimesmerelyArafats,intractableanddisappointing
stubbornness,withPalestiniansinsistingontheirpositionsandwhenfacedwithIsraeli
leeway,makingitplainthatthiswasnotenough.37Againthefactualrecordofthe
negotiationsthemselvesisbothhardtoascertainandunnecessarytoourstudy,whatis
instructiveisthefaithfulnesstotheIsraelinarrativeofnegotiationsingeneralbothsides
areequallyobligedtomakeconcessions,andyetthePalestinianside,asistheirnature,
continuetobeuntrustworthyandintransigent.
TheJerusalemPost
IntheJerusalemPosttheeditorialpagesespousesimilarconventions,withBaraksCamp
Davidoffer(whichwasentirelyverbal,withnowrittenrecordofitsavewhatwasputinthe
retrospectivesofthenegotiators,yearslater)describedas,variously,extremelygenerous,
themaximumconcessions,andtheendoftheroad.TheemphasisisonIsraelshonest
attemptstogoasfarashumanlypossibleinordertomakepeace,andArafatsrefusaleitherunrealisticperceptionsoranunwillingnesstomakepeacewithIsraelunderanyterms.
38
ThereluctantconclusionisthattheresultoftheCampDavidsummitisthatneitheraleft-
wingnorright-winggovernmentwillbecapableofachievingpeacewiththePalestiniansin
theforeseeablefuture.39Thisisagainpredicatedonanofferofwhichthedetailswere
neverreleasedtothepress,whereonlyBaraksteamandUSnegotiatorDennisRoss
assertedthattheofferwasthebestthatcouldpossiblybemade,andwhereeventhepost-
negotiationsstatedofferfellsignificantlyshortofthebasicrequirementsofinternational
law.TheIsraelimedia,fromrighttoleft,concludedthatthedefiniteproofhadfinallybeen
unearthed;itwasnowclearthatArafatwouldneveragreetopeace,andthatheandthe
Palestinianscouldnotbetrustedaspartnersforanythingothercontinuedwar.
Astoananalysisofpost-peaceprocessevents,
Onesadlycomestotheconclusionthathatredoftheother-irrational,unreasoning
andcompletelyunjustified-liesattherootoftheviolence.Andsuchhatreddoes
notrespondtotherationalquestionofWhy?Forinourmostdangerousworld,
theirirrationalanswertothequestionofWhy?isBecause!40
Whereastheauthorreasons,incontrast,that;
IthinkthatthereislittlethatcanbedonebyIsraeltoanswerthe"Why?"question.
Misplacedsympathieswiththeplightofourenemies,illusorydreamsandfalse
cease-firesandmeetings,havealllednowhere.Weneedtoprotectourselvesandsit
tightandwaitforachangeinthemindsetofourenemies.41
37AlufBennandYossiVerter,Summitfails;PMsaysdreamofpeacestilllives, Haaretz,26/07/2000.
38Editorial,BestChanceforPeace,JerusalemPost,03/08/2000.
39
Ibid.40BerelWein,Why?JerusalemPost,05/10/2001.
41Ibid.
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15
WhatshouldbemadeclearisthatadisparitydoesexistbetweenIsraelipublicopinionand
thelimitsofdiscourseinthemedia.PublicopinioninIsraeltendstobemoredovishonkey
issues,andyet,especiallyduringourperiodofstudy,supportforrightwingrejectionist
partiesandrepressivepoliciescontinuedtogrow.Furthermore,thoseinIsraelwhodo
opposefurthersettlementconstruction,andevensupportamajorwithdrawal,tendtothink
thattheirpositionisthatofasmallminority.60%ofIsraelissupportdismantlingmostof
thesettlementsaspartofapeaceagreement,whileonlyhalfthatthinkthatsucha
positionisthemainstreaminIsraelisociety.42TheliberalIsraelimedia,alongwithother
avenuesofopiniondisseminationinIsrael,managetoperpetuateanarrativewhichstates
thatthepeaceindustryanddraft-evadersaretheproblem,andprimarilythat
evidently,thereisnopartner.43Thisnarrativeisthearenainwhichcognitivediscourse
canfunction,itdefineshowIsraeliscanspeakaboutthemselvesandthePalestinians,and
yetitdoesnotnecessarilyrepresenttheopinionofthemajorityofIsrael.However,itis
there,itistheonlydiscussionIsraelisseeandactivelyparticipatein,andsoitdefineshow
thesocietyfunctions.
Academia
Certainly,WesternacademiahasbeenrepletewithorientalistexplanationsfortheArab
worldanditsinteractionswiththeWest,withtheclassicmoderntextbeingRaphaelPatais
TheArabMind(1976).Anattempttounderstand,ordescribe,thecharacteristicsofArab
culturethatputitatoddswiththeWesthasbeenattheforefrontofacademicdialogueon
theIsraeli-Palestinianconflict.Muchashasbeenshownwiththenewsmediaindealingwith
theArabs,WesternandIsraeliacademicshaveruminatedinhighlyideologicaltermsabout
themodernArabmind,[talkingof]itsallegedpropensitytoviolence,itscultureofshame,thehistoricaloverdeterminationofIslam,itspoliticalsemantics,itsdegenerationvis--vis
JudaismandChristianity.44Israeliacademia,muchlikethemedia,islargelyfreefrom
governmentcontrolandcensorship,andcanboastofagloballyrenownedandwellfunded
baseofuniversitiesandacademicthinktanks.Itis,however,ofmarginalinfluenceand
publicpresencecomparedtothemedia,andthuscontributeslesstotheformationand
justificationofanIsraelinationalidentity.Inwhatwecangarnerfromtheacademic
influenceuponsocietalnarratives,itisbesttofocusonthedevelopmentsinthe1990sand
2000s,theriseofandbacklashagainsttheNewHistorians,andthegrowingimportanceof
IsraeliacademicdiscourseintheEnglishspeakingworld.Naturallyacademiaasasubjectof
studyisbothnarrowerthanthemedia,inthatitisspecialisedandisolatedfrompublicconsumption,andbroader,asthevariousdisciplinesconcernedwithoursubjectofstudy;
politics,anthropology,sociology,psychology,literature,andhistory,allowforagreater
rangeofperspectivesandcomparisonswhenassessinganIsraeliOrientalism.Again,
unfortunately,thisstudywillhavetolimititselftoafewscatteredandisolatedexamples
fromeach.
42AlvinRichman,IsraelisPublicSupportforDismantlingMostSettlementshasrisentoaFive-YearHigh,
WorldPublicOpinion,
(http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/articles/brmiddleeastnafricara/659.php?nid=&id=&pnt=659&lb),
15/04/2010.Accessed21/04/2010.43AriShavit,Left,Right,Left,Haaretz,17/09/2009.
44EdwardW.Said,Culture&Imperialism (London:Vintage,1994),p.314.
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16
DebateswithinZionism
TheacademicdebateregardingthePalestinians,theconflict,andthequestionofIsraeli
identityitselfcametobedefinedbytherisetoprominenceinthelate1980s,uponopening
ofnewarchivalmaterialrelatingtoIsraelsinception,oftheNewHistorians,suchasBenny
Morris,AviShlaim,andIlanPapp,andsubsequentlytheirtraditionalistopponents,
primarilyEfraimKarsh,DanSchueftan,andArnonSofer.ThedebateoverZionismitself
formedapartofthis,butthelineshavenotbeenclearlydelineated,withNewHistorian
andrevisionistBennyMorrisanythingbutaPost-Zionist.Insummary,theargumentofthe
NewHistorianswasthatmuchofIsraelihistoriographywasflawed,anditservedtocreate
anartificialnationalstoryandidentityfriendlytotheinterestsofthemoreextreme
elementsofexpansionistZionism.Thisconceptwassufficientlyradicaltotransformthe
landscapeofIsraeliacademiafromthelate1980suntilrecently,withthetraditionaldefence
ofZionismasinstrumentalandnecessaryforthesurvivaloftheJewishpeoplehavingre-
assertingitsdominanceinthewakeofsupposedPalestinianintransigence.Inaddition,alargepartofradicalsecularism,asignificantforceinIsraelisociety,hasbeenenvelopedin
theJabotinskytraditionofZionismthathasbecomemainstream;theunderstandingthat
thesovereignstateneedonlynominallytobefoundedonJudaism,andthatIsraelisreally
justculturallyJewishratherthanreligiously,asitnolongercanbepurelyethnicallyso.As
such,radicalcritiquesoftheZionistnarrativecanoftenremainwithintheoverarching
doctrinethatZionism,forallitsflaws,isacrucialdefiningpartofIsraeli,andevenpan-
Jewish,identity.BennyMorrisperfectlycapturesthemoderncritical-defenceofZionism,
positingthat
ThewholeZionistprojectisapocalyptic.Itexistswithinhostilesurroundingsandinacertainsenseitsexistenceisunreasonable...[butit]wasnotamistake.Thedesireto
establishaJewishstateherewasalegitimateone,apositiveone.Butgiventhe
characterofIslamandgiventhecharacteroftheArabnation,itwasamistaketo
thinkthatitwouldbepossibletoestablishatranquilstateherethatlivesinharmony
withitssurroundings.45
ThecharacteroftheArabnationremainsinthenewdiscourse,especiallywiththeself
describedleft-wingMorris,whogoesontoexplainthedeepercausesofArabterrorism;
namely
aworldwhosevaluesaredifferent.Aworldinwhichhumanlifedoesn'thavethe
samevalueasitdoesintheWest,inwhichfreedom,democracy,opennessand
creativityarealien...Arabtribalculture[is]barbarian,...averysicksociety[which]
hastobecontained.46
MorrisrejectstheideathatIsraelisocietyandscholarshipexhibitOrientalistand
functionallyracisttraitstowardstheArabs,chargingthatonthecontrary,Arabintolerance
45
BennyMorris,ininterviewwithAriShavit,SurvivaloftheFittest?AnInterviewwithBennyMorris,Haaretz,10/01/04.46Ibid.
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17
oftheJewishStateisaxenophobic,Muslimrejectionoftheotherwhichhasexisted
throughoutMuslimhistory.47
Akeydiscussionamongthehistoriansistheeventsof1948,thebirthofIsraeland
ZionismsfoundingmythasIlanPappcallsit.Thedebate,again,isprimarilyamongIsraeli
historiansandconcernsitselfwithwhathappenedinIsraelsfoundingWarof
Independence,howtherefugeeproblemcametobe,andtheArabwaraims,whichby
extensionoftenbecomesadiscussionoftheArabcharacter.Thedebateiskeytotheentire
Zionistnarrative,with1948beingIsraelstriumphantWarofIndependence,whileforArab
PalestiniansitmarkstheNakbatheCatastrophe.Thus,thedebatecutstothecoreof
Israelsimageofitself.48ThenewfindingspublishedinMorriss,Papps,andShlaims
bookshadaprofoundeffectonthenascentpeaceprocess,anddialoguewithinIsrael.No
longercouldthetraditionalnarrativesimplyignoreissueslikethePalestinianrefugee
problem,andindeedthenewaffirmationofaPalestiniannarrativeledtodemandsfor
recognitionoftheplightoftherefugeesatCampDavidandnegotiationssince.Instead,a
new,morehardlineapproachwastaken,onewhichconfrontedthePalestiniannarrativeinorderthatitbemadecompatible,evencomplementary,withtheZionistunderstanding.
Morrishimself,especiallyduringtheearly2000s,wastospearheadthiseffort,arguingthat
pre-NewHistorianZionismdisclaimedthelegacyofthePalestinians,basicallyfearingthat
admissionofsuchclaimswouldbeattheexpenseofZionismitself,whereasinrealityboth
haddegreesofmorallegitimacy,49thoughheseekstojustifyZionistbrutalityonly,
presumablyomittingPalestinianviolencefromhismorallegitimacycaveat.
ForEdwardSaid,themostdemoralisingaspectoftheZionist-Palestinianconflictisthe
almosttotaloppositionbetweenmainstreamIsraeliandPalestinianpointsofview...There
simplyisnocommonground,nopossibleareaforgenuinereconciliation.50
Itseemsthat,evenwithagenuinelynewapproachasexemplifiedbyProfessorMorris,thesongremains
thesame:ZionistdiscoursehasalwaysstipulatedthattheveryexistenceofPalestinians,no
matterhowconfinedordisempowered,constitutesaracialandreligiousthreattoIsraels
security.51ThePalestiniansmustbeeitherdeniedordestroyed,theyareatonceZionisms
existentialenemy,andacauseofitsunifyingdynamic.
Translation
AquestionofsimplenomenclaturealsoarisesinacademicdiscussionofthePalestinian
question,sometimeswithregardtotranslationissues,andsometimesregardingspecificwordchoices.AnexcellentdiscussionofbothcanbefoundinYonatanMendelsworkon
ZionismandtheArabiclanguage,wherehedeconstructstheacceptedterminologyusedto
describetheconflictskeyevents,includingterminologyusedbybothsides.Mendelargues
47BennyMorris,indiscussionwithAndrewWhitehead,NoCommonGround:JosephMassadandBenny
MorrisdiscusstheMiddleEast,HistoryWorkshopJournal,(Spring2002),No.54,pp.205-216,p.213.48AviShlaim,WhenHistoriansMatter,ProspectMagazine,
(http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/2008/06/whenhistoriansmatter/),29June2008,Issue147.Accessedon
24/04/2010.49Morris,indiscussionwithWhitehead,NoCommonGround,p.211.
50
EdwardW.Said,PalestiniansUnderSiege:PuttingPalestineontheMap,LondonReviewofBooks(14December2000),Vol.22,No.24:pp.9-14,p.14.51Ibid,p.12.
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18
that,intranslation,someofthemostbasiclanguagewecanusetotalkabouttheconflict
hasbecomeinfusedwithapoliticalagenda;thattheword'smeaningisbeingre-filledwith
Israeli-Jewishpoliticalcontent,contextandunderstanding,whichisso'natural'andobvious
thatitneednotevenbeexplained.52Hegivestheexampleofintifada,theaccepted
terminologyinIsrael,theArabWorld,andtheWest(evidencedbymyownprevioususeof
it)todescribethePalestinianarmeduprisingsin1987and2000.InaHebrew-language
piecebyBaruchKimmerling,thewordhitkomemutisusedinreferencetothePalestinian
riots.TheHebrewiscorrectinthatittranslatesdirectlytoanuprising,buthaspositive
connotationsasanactofresistanceorheroism.AsaHebrewterm,thewordissorarely
usedinHebrewlanguageliteraturetodescribetheactionsofthePalestiniansthattodoso
wouldbenearincomprehensible,inthatcontext.Rather,theArabicwordintifadaisleft
untranslatedinbothHebrewandEnglishscholarship,andhascome,especiallyinIsrael,to
denoterioters,terrorism,Molotovcocktails,stonethrowing,burningtires,bloodand
clashes...asanunexplainedexpressionitmaintainsratherintimidating,demonicand
violentconnotations.53However,wereonetocheckanArabic-Hebrewdictionary,itwould
showthatthetwotermsaredirecttranslationsofeachother.MendelbelievestheuseoftheuntranslatedArabicintifadatobeaconsciouschoiceonthepartofIsraelischolarship
andthemedia;
loyaltytotheword'smeaningisseentobekeptduetotheuseofthisauthentic
version,andsimultaneouslytheword'sgenuinemeaningisemptiedduetothelack
ofappropriatetranslation...[thustheArabic],whichisbasicallyaresponsiveand
defensiveconcept,cameouttobeatleastintheIsraeliJewishconceptan
offensiveandviolentnotion,asdistanceaspossiblefromitsreactivenatureand
fromIsraeliongoingoccupation.54
IntifadacanthenbeusedtodescribeallsortsofnegativebehaviourinIsrael,muchasthe,
whenstrictlydefined,innocuous,termfundamentalisthasbecomeinEnglish.Whenan
IsraeliArabmemberoftheKnesset(IsraelsParliament),MuhammadBarakeispokeofhis
respectfortheintifada,meaningresistanceintheWestBanktocontinuationof
occupation,hewasroundlyvilifiedandinvestigatedforviolationofIncitementtoTerrorism
laws.55AsimilarcaseexistswiththewordShahid,meaningwitnessinArabicbutprimarily
usedbyMuslimstodepictmartyrs.Theconnotationsonceagainsuggestthosewhodiein
thenameofamoralcause,muchliketheoriginalEnglishmeaningofmartyr.Mendelalso
addressestheIsraeliuseofthewordinpublicdiscourse;
IsraeliOrientalistsandmediaperceivethisconceptofshahidorshahadaasaliento
Israeli/Jewishsociety,anddefinitelyinhuman.Theideaofvaluingone'sdeathover
one'slifeisseenasakindofbackwardIslamicconceptonlyconfirmingwhat'we'
already'know'aboutIslam,MuslimsandPalestinians.56
52YonatanMendel,WhatsinaWord?OnIsraeliTranslationsofIntifada,Shahid,Hudna,andIslamic
Movements,CambridgeLiteraryReview(2010)Issue3,(Forthcoming).53Ibid.
54Ibid.
55Barakei(Hadash)addedtothelitanyofstatementsthatportrayradicalIsraeliArableadersasafifth
column...[heandotherArabMKs]mustbeheldaccountableforsupportingattacksagainstIsraelEditorial,BarakeisIntifada,JerusalemPost,6/11/2000.56Mendel,WhatsinaWord?
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Prof.YoavGelberfromHaifaUniversitysummarisedthesenationaldivides:
thereareculturaldifferencesbetweentheChristiancultureofconfession,andthe
Jewishself-accusationculture,andthe'everyoneshouldbeblamedbutme'
Palestinian-Arabculture[Therearedifferences]betweenaculturewhichplacesthe
sacrednessoflifeinthecentre[Judaism]andaculturethatencouragessuicidesand
shahids[Islam]57
ThetermissufficientlyknowntobeevenusedasathreatintheIsraelipress,aswhen
formerHaaretzeditorMattiGolannotedthatYasserArafatrecentlysaidhislife'sdreamis
tobecomeashahid.Perhapsit'stimeweseriouslyexploredthepossibilityofmakinghis
dreamcometrue.58Suchcasualincitementtotargetedassassinationofthemanwhois
ostensiblytheonlypeacepartneravailableisshockingtoWesternobservers,butasthe
practicewasandisroutinelycarriedoutagainstoppositionleadersintheterritories,and
wastriedmanytimesonArafathimself,ithasbecomebothalegitimatenotioninIsraelidiscourseandacommontacticinpractice.IncidentallyGolandoesntpresumethatsucha
movewouldchangemuchontheenemyside;theanimal-likePalestinianleaderswillbe
preoccupiedwithfightingovertheinheritance.59
Dehumanisationisemployedthroughthedifferentiationofconceptassociatedwithus;
IsraeliJews,suchasself-criticism,openness,andrationality,asopposedtothepolar
oppositeswhicharedulyassociatedwiththem,theArabs,notablyself-righteousness,
fanaticism,andirrationality,fromwhichallothermorespecificallegations,suchasanti-
Semitismandapropensitytoviolence,follow.
Hypothesis
TheLimitsofLanguage
Thediscourseevidentinthisperiodisinterrelatedtothenewlinguisticdeviceswehave
seenthroughouttheworld,andnotjusttheWest,intheWaronTerror.ThisWarona
propernounhasservedasadefiningshibbolethforhowweengageinsecuritydiscourse
today,withtheconceptofSecuritization,popularisedbytheCopenhagenSchoolof
internationalrelations,arguingthatsecurityisaspeech-act;asocialconstructionwhereby
issuesarebroughtintobeingasasecuritysituationbysuccessfullyrepresenting[them]assuch.
60ThisWittgensteinianapproach,wheretheuseoflanguagecreatesmeaninginitself,
isrelevantespeciallyinthatitallows,inthewordsoftheCopenhagentheorists,forthe
castingofissuesasanexistentialthreat;anissueofsupremepriority,thusbylabellingit
assecurityanagentclaimsaneedforandarighttotreatitbyextraordinarymeans,taking
57YoavGelber,History,Memory,Propaganda:TheHistoricalDisciplineinIsraelandintheWorld(TelAviv:Tel
AvivUniversityPress,2007),p.15.58MattiGolan,WhyShouldtheLeftSaveArafat?JerusalemPost,23/10/2003.
59
Ibid.60MichaelC.Williams,Words,Images,Enemies:SecuritizationandInternationalPolitics, International
StudiesQuarterly(Dec.,2003),Vol.47,No.4:p.513.
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politicalissuesandliftingthemabovepolitics.61Frequently,repressiveIsraeliactions
againstthePalestiniansintheOccupiedTerritorieshavebeen,evenifcondemnedas
disproportionate,justifiedundertheguiseofsecurity.SecurityconcernshavebeenIsraels
carteblancheforincreasinglydestructiveretributionandcollectivepunishmentofthe
Palestinianpopulation,with4182peoplelefthomelessinthefouryearsfollowingthelatest
intifada(2001-2004)simplyduetopunishmenthousedemolitions.62
Intheresearchsofar,IcontendthatwehaveseenevidenceofaspecifictypeofIsraeli
Orientalism,wherethemediaandacademiaaretoalargedegreecomplicitincreatinga
monochromespectrumthroughwhichthePalestinianArabsareviewed.ThePalestinians,as
thedesignatedOther,andenemy,areportrayedinawaythatconformstoagreatdegree
withthenarrativethatnegatestheirownstory;thatofexpansionistZionism.Iproposethat
thisparticularportrayalisbornlessoutofthetypicalWesternfascinationwith,andpityfor,
theEasthistorically,andmoreduetothepeculiaritiesofthatdefiningcharacteristicand
ideologyofIsrael;Zionism.IsraeliOrientalismisreactionary,andnotapriorjustificationfor
imperialistadventurismaswas,andis,theOrientalismofsectionsoftheWesternelite.
SaidsOrientalism
First,IshalloutlinethescopeofOrientalism,howitrelatestomystudy,andhowwhatwe
haveidentifiedinIsraeliprintmediaandacademiadiffersfromEdwardSaidsclassic
concept.
In19thCenturyEurope,Orientalismequatedtoasetofidiomsandlinguistictruths.Said,in
hisseminal1978workOrientalism,investigatesthenatureoflanguageinorderto
ascertainhowitcanframeourunderstandingofthephysical.Wittgensteinproposedthatlanguagedidnotdescribetheworldinthesensethatitwasauniversalcategorisingdevice,
butratherthatlanguagecreatedmeaningitself,thatthemeaningofawordisitsuseinthe
language.63Nietzschedismissedthetruthoflanguageasnoughtbut
amobilearmyofmetaphors,metonyms,andanthropomorphismsinshort,asum
ofhumanrelations,whichhavebeenenhanced,transposed,andembellished
poeticallyandrhetorically,andwhichafterlonguseseemfirm,canonical,and
obligatorytoapeople:truthsareillusionsaboutwhichonehasforgottenthatthisis
whattheyare.64
WeneednotfullyembraceWittgensteinandNietzschesdismissaloflanguageasan
objectivelabeller,assuchanotionismerelyimportantinordertohighlightthesubjectivity
andlatencyoflanguage,especiallywhenbeingusedtodescribeanotionallyeffablesetof
facts,suchasthenatureoftheOrientandOrientals,orthecharacterofthecollective
61BarryBuzan,OleWver,JaapdeWilde, Security:ANewFrameworkforAnalysis(Boulder,CO:Lynne
Reinner,1998),p.26.62BTselem,StatisticsHouseDemolitionsasPunishment,2005,
(http://www.btselem.org/English/Punitive_Demolitions/Statistics.asp).Accessedon11/4/10.63
LudwigWittgenstein,PhilosophicalInvestigations(Oxford:BasilBlackwell,1953),p.43.64FriedrichNietzsche,OnTruthandLieinanExtra-MoralSense,inThePortableNietzsche ,editorand
translatorWalterKaufmann(NewYork:VikingPress,1954),p.46.
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Palestinianpsyche.ThusSaidarguesthat,infact,theseidiomsandtruthsthatWestern
OrientalistsemployedtodescribetheEasternotherdidnotnecessarilyrefereventothe
realOrient(whethersuchathingastherealOrientexistsisanothermatter),butinstead
thefieldthathadbeenconstructedsurroundingtheword.Europeansdiscourseaboutthe
Orientwasdeterminedbytheconfinesofthelanguagethathadbeenusedtodescribeit.
TheconceptionofOrientalsaseffeminate,weak,unenlightened,curiousintheir
backwardness,andessentiallyatoddswiththedivinelysanctionedWesterncivilisation,was
notjustaconclusiondrawnafterstudyandargument,onanequalstandingwithpossible
otherconclusions.ThesetruthsabouttheOrient,bothspecificandevenatthelevelthat
suggesteditwaspossibletoformulatetruthsaboutthisOther,werepre-suppositionsin
Orientalistdiscourse,theyshapedthediscussionthatcouldbehad.AsOrientalismwas
prevalenttoagreatdegreeinEurope,Saidsuggests,andindeedwastheonlyframeworkin
whichEuropeanscouldconceptualisethisOrient;theonlylanguagethatwasavailableto
them,thediscoursesurroundingtheOrientthatemergedwasnecessarilyareflectionof
theseimperialistandself-congratulatingtruths.Saidgoessofarastosaythatthe
existenceofthefieldofOrientalism,inbeingasystemoftruths(asNietzschehaddefinedthem),meantthateveryEuropean,inwhathecouldsayabouttheOrient,was
consequentlyaracist,animperialist,andalmosttotallyethnocentric.65
Orientalismwascruciallyalsoaprofession,andascanbeseeninIsraelwherestudyofand
commentaryontheArabsisanalmostexclusivelyJewishIsraelipursuit,theisolationofthe
Orientalfromthedebatecreatesamorelatentandcaricaturedimage.
Orientalismasapracticetoday
Howthen,isOrientalismutilised?InthesectionofhisbookoutliningOrientalismsWorldliness,SaididentifiesRudyardKiplingsWhiteManasaspecificandpowerful
ideologicalnotion.BeingaWhiteMan,especiallyinthecolonies,involvedcertainsortsof
behaviourandwasaformofauthoritybeforewhichnon-whites,andevenwhites
themselves,wereexpectedtobend.66TheOthernessalsoservedtocreateanUs-ness,a
commonbondandidentityconstructedprimarilyfromthedoctrineoftheWhiteManinthe
colonies,andhowthebehaviourexpectedofhimwasaresultofhisinnatedifferenceswith,
andsuperiorityto,thenatives.
Wecanseethisinbasicpsychology,andespeciallyinself-categorizationtheory,where
peoplerepresent,defineandidentifythemselvesonthebasisofgroupmembership.Thedelineationofinandoutgroupsisvitallyimportanttoformandmaintainsocialidentity.
Individualslooktoothergroups(outgroups)tounderstandwhattheirgroup(ingroup)is
not,thenaturaltendencybeingtodeemyourowngroupasmorepositivethantheother.
Furthermore,individualstrytoalignthemselvesascloselyaspossible(intermsoftheir
behaviourandattitudes)totheirconceptualprototypeofthetypicalin-groupmember.67
Suchanidentitycanbeextremelypowerful,andwhencombinedwiththedehumanisation
65Said,Orientalism,p.204.
66
Ibid,p.227.67ScottTindaleetal.,GroupProcessesandtheHolocaust,in UnderstandingGenocide:TheSocialPsychology
oftheHolocaust,ed.LeonardNewmanandRalphErber(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2002),p.146.
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thatoftenaccompaniescreatingtheoutgroup,itismucheasiertocoercetheingroupto
commitatrocities.68
ItisthisfacetofOrientalismwhichperhapsappliesbesttotheIsraelisituation.Israels
behaviourtowardsthePalestinians,defendedandreinforcedbythedominantnarratives
promulgatedinIsraelisociety,islessaboutanti-Arabsentimentasafirstcause,andmore
aboutthespecialplaceandauthorityaffordedtoIsraelisifonesubscribestotheideology
ofZionism.Itisanespeciallystrongformofgroupidentity,onemoreovertthanisusually
seen,andonethatiscodifiedandpreachedasastatedoctrine.Evenmoreapparentlythan
withwhiteEuropeancolonialism,forpracticalZionismanotherlinkinthechainbindingus
togetherwasformedwhileanotheroutsiderwasbanished.69Nevertheless,itwouldbe
mistakentosimplyseeZionismasnothingbutanoffshootandregion-specificexpressionof
19thcenturyEuropeancolonialism.Certainlytherewerechauvinisticcharacteristics
inherited,buttheideologyofZionismisfarmoreparticularthanthegeneralexpansionism
calledforintheWhiteMansBurden.Nor,ofcourse,doesZionismitselfevennecessitate
whatwewouldthinkofasimperialism,butratherfacilitatesforthosewhowishtoemployitinthismanner.ItsdifferencesfromtheproductsofEuropeanOrientalismareobviouseven
fromthefactthatJews,alongwithArabMuslims,weresubjectsofOrientalistthoughtin
dealingwiththeSemiticraces.
DanRabinowitzarguesthatOrientalotheringstemsfromthenotionofculturalism:an
active,oftenconsciousattemptbyformalandinformalstateagenciestoestablish
compositenotionsofculture.70ThiswasmanifestedinIsraelbyacertaininterpretation
andappropriationofZionism,athoroughlymodernistideology,wherebythestatesoughtto
createanewsecularandmodernisedidentity.71Thisidentitywasformednotjustatthe
expenseoftheArabpopulationsreasonsforanattachmenttotheland,butwasaconsciousnegationofanyPalestiniannarrativeregardingaconnectiontohistoricPalestine.
ItfurthermorewasnecessarilyinoppositiontotheperpetuationoftheideaoftheJewish
Diaspora;thenotionofJewishcommunitiesintegratingintotheirnativesocietieswhilst
remainingculturallyJewish.TheZionistproject,bothinitsearlylabour-orientated,bi-
nationalcharacter,andinitslatersovereignterritorialidentity,arguedfortheresponsibility
ofJewstomakealiyah(immigrationtoIsrael),thuscreatinganewculturallyJewishidentity
toreplacetheold.Thisnewidentity,tiedupwiththedoctrineofZionism,becamedominant
inthe1930sand40s,andmuchmoresoaftertheestablishmentoftheStateofIsrael.The
solidificationofthisidentity,andthefurtherlinksinthechainbindingustogether,came
withtheencountering,othering,anddispossessingoftheArabPalestinians.RevisionistZionism,associatedwithZeevJabotinsky,emphasisedforcingtheArabpopulationof
PalestinetoacceptasovereignJewishstate,incontrasttothelabourZionismofthe
kibbutzim,themajorityoftheearlyYishuv(theMandatePalestineJewishcommunity).Early
Israelianthropologicaldialoguewaskeytothis,withthelanguageusedrevealingan
interestingreversecorrelation.TraitsthatIsraeliwriterssingleoutasdefiningArabculture
68ChristopherBrowning,OrdinaryMen(London:PenguinGroup,1992),p.73.
69Ibid,p.228.
70DanRabinowitz,OrientalOtheringandNationalIdentity:AReviewofEarlyIsraeliAnthropologicalStudies
ofPalestinians, Identities:GlobalStudiesinCultureandPower(2002),9:pp.305-324,p.306.71YaelZrubavel,RecoveredRoots:CollectiveMemoryandtheMakingofIsraeliNationalTradition(Chicago:
UniversityofChicagoPress,1995),pp.22-35.
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areoftendiametricoppositionsoffeaturesmanyIsraelisseeastypicaloftheirown
identity.72Thiswascertainlytrueinthecreationofanationalidentity,butremainsso
todayintheIsraelianalysisofthePalestiniancharacterandmotivations.
AvenuesofNarrative:TheIsraeliMedia
Ashasbeendemonstrated,boththepopularmediaandtheelitesphereofacademialargely
conformtoapre-existingsocietalconstruct;aZionistframeworkthroughwhichtheconflict
mustbeexplained.Thisidentityconstructionispartbourgeoisnationalismandpartpan-
national...,butisstrengthenedandevenpartiallycreatedbyaconflictandrelationshipwith
acontradictoryidentity.Thisidentity;thatofthePalestiniansasportrayedbythe
ideologicalorgansofIsraelisociety,doesnotexistasanindependentandself-sufficient
concept,itisinsteadanotherofNietzscheslinguistictruths;inthiscaseadefinableother
toserveasthecounterpointtoZionismsus.ThisOrientalismisindeedmorenecessaryand
formativetoitsauthorsthantheEuropeanversionSaidexposed,withitservingtobindand
fortifyanidentityconstructthatisyoungandoftenfragile,heldtogetherbymovableborders,amilitarymachine,andavulnerablestate.TheStateZionismbuilthasbeen
remarkablydiverseinitsstructure,andyetnowmorethanever,unifiedinitsprimary
nationaldiscourse.Itissplitethnically,withtheAshkenazi(European),Sephardic(Spanish
andNorthAfrican),andMizrahi(MiddleEastern)Jews,alongwithsizeableArabandDruze
minorities.CulturallyandlinguisticallyitisasdiverseasanymulticulturalWesternnation,
andtherehasremainedadegreeofnon-homogeneityeveninitslegallydefining
characteristic;Judaism,withonlyavocalminoritycomprisingtheharedi(Ultra-orthodox)
whilstsecularJewsarestillthemajority.FurthermoreitappearsclearthatIsraelismore
complexthanjustaEuropeansettler-colonialstate;akindofMiddleEasternRhodesia.
ThereisagenuineattachmentforJewstotheHolyLand,andcertainlytheHolocaustwasacrucialfactorinspurringtheinternationalcommunitytorecognisetheneedsofself-
determinationfortheJewishYishuv.Thesefactsexist,andarenotmereproductsofthe
webweavedbythediscoursewithinZionism.Nevertheless,initscomplexity,themodern
Zionistdiscoursehasimportantandfundamentalconstructionsregardingitsownnature,
andthatofitsperceivedenemies.Indeed,theveryexistenceofitsenemies,howeverreal
theymaybe,isacrucialpartofthenarrativewithoutwhichitwouldceasetobe.
Thereasonthen,Icontend,forastrikingnationalconsensusinthemidstofadiverseand
unlike-mindedsociety,isthespecialplaceoccupiedbytheArabPalestinianOtherinthe
modernZionistnarrative.Thecharacterisationwhichhasbeenshown;thatoftheArabsasworthlesscreatureswhojustwanttokillJewsandblockIsrael'snobleeffortstocreatea
modernflourishingJewishstate,73iscrucialtoapoliticaldialoguewhichservesthepurpose
ofcontinuingtocreatetheus.Thisdevelopmentcanevenbetraced,asitevolvedwiththe
changingconditionsinIsraelfollowingtheoccupation,andthenthepost-intifadapeace
process.JonathanCookarguesthattheIsraeli,ormodernZionist,consensusregardinga
distinctPalestinianidentity,whichhadpreviouslybeendenied,resultedfromanew
approachtothedemographicthreat,andthepoliticaldemandsoftheOsloperiodand
possiblePalestinianstatehood.Thecharacterisation,aswehaveseenespeciallyinIsraeli
academia,ofPalestiniansonbothsidesoftheGreenLineaspartofsomekindofover-
72Rabinowitz,OrientalOtheringandNationalIdentity,p.307.
73NoamChomsky,ininterviewwiththeauthor,2010(includedinAppendix).
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archingandconspiratorialPalestiniannationalplottodestroytheJewishstate,and
thereforeoftheArabIsraelisasfifth-columnists,beganasaprogrammeofcreatingaweak
andcontrollablePalestinianstateinwhichtoejectthedemographicproblem,andended,
afterCampDavid,asanintellectualframeworkinwhichthePalestiniansarenecessarily
two-faced,incorrigibleterrorist(s)...[andeitherthe]enemy(Hamas),afifthcolumn
(PalestiniansinsideIsrael),[or]asanenemythatcouldpossiblybereinedinundertheright
leadershipandwithenoughUSpressure(Fatah).74
DebateonanIsraeliOrientalism
ThereisadebateonthischaracterisationofIsraeliOrientalism,withsomearguingthat
Israelisareencouragedtoviewallnon-Jews(Goyimisthepejorativetermused
uncriticallybymostHebrewspeakers)asinherentlyanti-Semiticandthereforeanti-
Israeli,75andthusArabsaremerelythefocalpointofmediademonizationthroughaccident
ofgeography.Thereissomemeritinthisargument,butitignoresthespecificcolonial
relationshipthatexistsbetweenparticularlyAshkenaziIsraelisandtheArabworldingeneral,aEuropeanintellectualtraditionofthecivilisersversustheunderdeveloped.
ThoughtheBritish,forinstance,wereprobablyasanti-SemiticandhostiletotheJewsas
muchoftheArabworld,andhadoccupiedthelandofPalestinesince1916,thesame
dynamicdidnotexist.AspecificdivisionaswascreatedbetweenArabandIsraelicouldnot
applyasforcefullytootherplayerswithintheregion,asthestrengthoftheOther
distinctioninthecaseoftheArabsshows.Anotherconsiderationistheclashofreligions,
whichiscertainlyafactor,butshouldnotbeoveremphasized.First,thePalestiniansarenot
now,norhavebeen,overwhelminglyhomogenousintheirreligion,withsizeableChristian
andsecularminorities,alongwiththedominantSunniMuslimmajority.Second,Israeli
societyandamajorityofZionists,asmentionedbefore,definethemselvesassecular.
WhetherZionismisOrientalisttoday,andespeciallyinour2000-2005timeframe,is
contestedasananachronisticcharge.TheterminSaidsusagewasprimarilydirectedat18th
and19thCenturyEuropeanintellectualsandartists,thoughhedidmaintainthatitcontinued
inmodernscholarship,especiallyintheworkofhistorianslikeBernardLewis.Dr.Ilan
DanjouxoftheHebrewUniversityofJerusalemargueshoweverthatIsraelicharacterisation
ofPalestiniansissituationalandnotgeneralised,andthatthenarrativesuggeststhat
wherePalestinianssupportviolence,thisisbecauseitisstrategicallybeneficialortheresult
offrustration,notaculturalnorm.76JournalistYoniMendeldisagrees,positingthat
InasocietywhichgathersaroundthearmyasitsfocalpointandwhichseesJudaism
asanationalidentity,theJewish-militarydiscourseemergesalmostnaturally.
Withinthisdiscourse,whichbecomesthesociety'scommonsense,certain(positive)
behavioursarelinkedtotheJews,andcertain(negative)behavioursarelinkedtothe
Arabs.Givingthemediaasanexample,oneneedstorememberthatwithinIsraeli
commonsense,thethemesofviolence,aggressiveness,propagandaandincitement
74JonathanCook,ininterviewwiththeauthor,2010(IncludedinAppendix).
75
RanHaCohen,Israel,ANewDecade, Antiwar.com,(http://original.antiwar.com/hacohen/2010/04/09/israel-a-new-decade/),10/04/2010.Accessed21/04/2010.76IlanDanjoux,ininterviewwiththeauthor,2010(IncludedinAppendix).
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areArab-oriented,whileself-defence,response,restraintandmoralityareJewish-
Israeli-oriented,andrarelyrepresentArabbehaviourorwaysofthinking.77
MendelreasonsthatthecriticismdirectedtowardsPalestinianbehaviourisrootedinwhat
IsraelisocietyunderstandsaboutPalestinians,andcannotbemerelysituationalasthe
entireapparatusofdiscussionissetuptoportraytheminthatway.Thisisfurthermade
possiblebythefactthatwithintheIsraelisphereswherethisknowledgeisbeingmade,
Arabsarenotallowed,withbarelyanyjobsingovernment,academia,orthemedia,that
relatetotheArabworldortheconflict,assignedtoactualArabcitizensofIsrael.78Thus,the
voiceoftheOrientiscreatedbytheabsenceofanygenuinevoiceofthesubject.
TheviewofIsraelisocietyasinthroetoadeterministicworldview,wherethenationis
raisedbeyondthepolitical,iscorroboratedbythereverenceIsraelishaveforcertain
institutions,mostnotablythearmy(IsraelDefenceForce).Thisisrelatedtotheprimacyof
security,anditsperceiveddemands,inIsraelidiscourse.TheIDFisthemostrespectedand
developedinstitutionoftheIsraelistate,andcertainlyoneofthemostpervasive,withconscriptionforallnon-Arabcitizensover18,exceptforHaredi(Ultra-Orthodox)Jews.The
armyisever-presentinIsraelilife,withthemajorityofthepopulation(allablebodiedmen
andwomenuptoage50,andsometimesolder)effectivelyservingasreservists,creatinga
highlymilitarisedsociety.Thosefewwhodonotconformareostracisedandvilified,with
nationalleft-wingplaywrightShmuelHasfarisayinghewouldrefusetoworkwith[Israeli
actorwhohadnotserved,Itay]Tiranjustlikewithanymurdererorrapist.79Withthe
internalisationofstatedoctrinebyordinaryIsraelis,dissentisremarkablytame,andeven
thatisaverymarginalpursuit.ThisisacknowledgedbythehighrankingluminariesofIsraeli
society,withAirForceCommanderMajorGeneralDanHalutz,speakingaboutmembersof
GushShalom,declaringthatthesepeoplearen'tevenmarginal.TheyareoutsidethemarginsoftheStateofIsrael,whileIfeelthatIamthemoralcompassandconscienceof
thenationofIsrael...ThereisnomoremoralarmythantheIDF.80Halutz,whenaskedhow
hecoulddropabombknowingitwouldkillciviliansandchildren,dismissedthequestionas
notlegitimate,thatIfyouwanttoknowwhatIfeelwhenIreleaseabombIfeelaslight
knockonthewingoftheplanewhenthebombisreleased.Afteraseconditpasses,and
thatsall.81SuchblatantglorificationofviolenceisindeedcondemnedwithinIsrael,though
rarelypunished,butthediscourseissufficientlypulledtowardstherightthatoppositionto
MajorGeneralHalutzsverypresenceintheoccupiedterritoriesisseenasdissentremoved
fromreality,outsidethemarginsofthenationofIsrael.
Itmustbeemphasisedthatthisresearchsaysnothingastothecontraryperceptionsof
PalestinianArabstowardstheIsraelis,manyofwhichareundoubtedlymirroredinthe
attitudesthathavebeenshownhere.Itsaysnothingaboutanypossiblecausalrelationship
thatcouldexistbetweenthetwoidentitiesortheprejudicesthateachcarryregardingeach
77YonatanMendel,OrientalismStillMattersinModernDayIsrael,TheGuardian,
(http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jun/17/israelandthepalestinians),17/06/2008.Accessed
16/04/2010.78Ibid.
79
HaCohen,Israel,ANewDecade.80DanHalutzininterviewwithVeredLevy-Barzilai,TheHighandtheMighty, Haaretz,21/08/2002.
81AviramZino,CivilRightsGroupChallengesHalutz,Ynet,24/07/06.
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other.Mostimportantly,itdoesnotsuggestthatanyoftheattitudesandidentifications
foundwithinthescholarshipandmediacoveragearepositiveornegative,helpfulor
unhelpful.Thoughmyownprejudiceshaveundoubtedlybecomeclearthroughout,itisfar
beyondtheremitofthisstudytodenoteblame,attachsubjectivevalueorcondemnationto
thebehaviourofactors,ortoprescribesolutions.
Summary
Insummarythen,thehypothesisadvancedhereisthatmodernZionism,asahybridof
Jewishnationalism,theologicalprescription,andaconditionalidentity,hasimposedupon
bothIsraelandtheoccupiedPalestiniansapre-determinedidentity,andaresultant
frameworkwithinwhichtheycanoperate.TheconflicthascharacterisedIsraelsincebefore
itsbirth,butmosttangiblysincethestartoftheoccupation,andtheidentityofZionistIsrael
isthusinextricablylinkedwithwhathasalwaysbeenitsobstacletoovercome,theproblem
ofthePalestinians.AsJohnLyndon,directorofagrassrootspeacemovement82intheregion
putsit(speakinginhispersonalcapacity);
Israelconceptualisesitsenemy(Arabsingeneral,andPalestiniansinparticular)as
Theother,intrinsicallydifferentfromthemselvesandlesslikelytoactrationally,
governedinsteadbyemotionsandreligiousideology.Thereisalsoanincreasingly
prevalentbeliefthatArabassurancesandpromisescannotbetrusted,andthatthey
areinsomewaypredisposedtowarddouble-dealinganddishonesty.83
Themediaandacademiaserveasmerecasestudiesofthis,butareinstructiveinsofaras
theyrepresentthedoctrinaltoolsofthedominantideology,andthussettheboundariesfor
debate.No(significant)governmentcensorshiporexternalpressureisimposedinordertocreatetheseboundaries,rathertheyexistasanecessaryfunctionofaclearlydefined
identity,wheretotrespassbeyondthelimitsofwhatthisnarrativeoutlinesistobendand
distorttheidentityitself.ThePalestiniansare,asagrouporOther,madetobethealien
andyetfamiliarenemy.Weknowtheirnature,whichisuntrustworthy,fanaticalintheir
disdainforlifeandthematerialworld,purveyorsofacultureofdeath,andsoon.Weknow
thattheirmotivescoincidewiththeseimplacablefacetsoftheircharacter,andsoour
knowledgewassimplyconfirmedwhenArafatrefusedBaraksgenerousofferatCamp
David,provinghimselftobetheincorrigibleterroristtheyallare.Thesestatementsarenot
bigotry,butcommonlyunderstoodlinguisticconventions,andsoshapethewayIsrael
perceivestheentireconflict.
Conclusions
Israelidiscourseisbynomeanstheproductofatotalitariansystemormindset,andthe
media,thoughconstrainedinsomeways,iscertainlynotPravda.WithinIsrael,dissident
voicesareheardandareevenprominentenoughtoachieveexposuretoaworldwide
audience,asevidencedbymyowncitationofGideonLevy,AmiraHass,AviShlaimand
82
TheOneVoiceMovementisaninternationalmainstreamgrassrootsmovementthataimstoamplifythevoiceofIsraeliandPalestinianmoderates(www.onevoicemovement.org).Accessed23/04/2010.83JohnLyndon,ininterviewwiththeauthor,2010(IncludedinAppendix).
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othersinthisdissertation.NorisHebrewsocietyespeciallycomplianttowardsthe
governmentandstateofficials,withahealthydisrespectforgovernmentauthorityfigures
surpassingthatofmanyWesternnations,andanaveragePrimeMinisterstenurebeing
around2years.WecanmakenomistakethatIsraelisacomparativelyopensociety,and
certainlythemostfreeintheMiddleEast.EvenintheOccupiedTerritories,certainlyunfree
underIsraeliadministration,themostdiligentandreliablehumanrightsorganisationsand
activistsareIsraeli,withBTselemprovidingthebenchmark.Anyconclusionsthatcanbe
drawnfromthisdissertationcouldnotsuggestaparticularlackoffreedomorcoercionof
thoughtinIsrael,atleastcomparedwithitsneighbours.
Whatinsteadcanweconclude?Israel,asaself-avowedlyideologicalnation,hasconstructed
anarrativethatinformsandlimitsdiscourseoncertainkeyissues.TheveryactofIsraels
statehood,itsexistenceandprominence,ispredicatedonaninevitableconflict.Bybeing
partof,byparticipatingintheflourishingofthisyoungnation,theindividualswhich
constituteIsraelisocietyaredefiningforthemselvesasetofboundaries;adelineationof
whatmakesusus,andthuswhatourcorrespondingOtheris.WhatsetsIsraelapartinthisrespectistheclarityofsuchademarcation,theclearlyenunciated,inthepressand
elsewhere,narrativeoftheIsraeliJewsasanationunderthreat,andwithaclearenemy.
Thelinesaredrawnandtheparticipantsencouragedtotakeaside,withbothteams
convenientlynamedanddescribedbythecommentators.
TheconstituentpartsofZionisminitsmodernformarenotjust,asitsproponentsmaintain,
arecognitionofwhatbindstogetherandlinksallJews;alanguage,aculture,aheritage,a
homeland.Itispredicatedonaconflict,onethatappearsintractable.TheIsraeliidentityis
justassurelybuilt,inpart,onanegationofcertainpartsofthePalestinianidentityasitis
onanaffirmationoftheJewishidentity.Foressentiallythetwopeoplessharethesameland,andhavedoneforasignificantperiodoftime.IsraelastheJewishStateisa
challenge,asituationwhichrequiresasecuritizationofthePalestinianthreat,anda
classificationofthePalestiniansasathreat.Theselinguistictruthsarebuiltintothevery
fabricofIsraelanditssociety,tocontradictthemistostepoutsidetheboundariesof
legitimatediscourse.
Thisisnottosuggestthattheconflictismanufacturedoranillusion,itisverymuchareality.
Palestinianterrorismandanti-SemitismwithintheArabworldarenotjustlinguistic
constructs,andsometimessituationsdoamounttoasecuritythreat,andshouldsurelybe
labelledassuch.Tosuggestthatjustourlanguagecanaccountforalltheseperceivedrealitieswouldbesomethinglikeavulgarpost-structuralism,andasthelateEdwardSaid
observed,humanrightsarenotculturalorgrammaticalthings,andwhenviolatedtheyare
asrealasanythingwecanencounter.84Whatisinsteadsuggestedisthatcommentators
mustnecessarilyframetheconflictinacertainway,andthoughthisdependsontheir
personalinclinationsandpersuasions,itisfundamentallydeterminedbytheirenvironment,
bywhatiswithintheirlinguisticandculturalcapacitytosay.Withregardtotheenemy,the
ArabOtherbothwithintheirmidst,intheirdisputedterritories,andacrossfromthemat
theirnegotiatingtables,thelimitsofdescriptivediscoursearelargelypre-determined.An
IsraeliOrientalismissomanifestonlybecauseoftheintimaterelationshiptheJewishState
84EdwardW.Said,HumanismandDemocraticCriticism(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2004),p.136.
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haswithitssupposednemesis.TheidentityofZionismisdefinedbytheidentityofits
opponentsprimarilybecauseitrequirestheirdefeat,orexpulsion,andsothelanguageof
conflictisaninevitabilityinastatethatinstilsthismentalityinitspopulace.
EveryfacetofwhattheIsraelimedia,academia,andtoabasicextentsociety,have
determinedisthePalestiniannatureisconditionedonitsun-Israeliness.ThePalestinians,
especiallyduringthecasestudyofour2000-2005timeperiod,arecharacterisedas
unreliable,violent,morereligious,irrational,inciters,different,andirreconcilableasa
peoplewiththeWesternvaluesthatIsraelischerish.Again,likeSaid,itisnotthe
researchersplacetoassesstheveracityoftheseclaims,oropineonwhethersuchclaims
aboutthecharacterofapeoplecanevenbemade.Suchsubjectivejudgementsareleftfor
thereader.WhatcanbedemonstratedisthatthedialoguewithinIsraelisrepletewiththis
terminology,butmoresothatitisdirectedandformedwithinthecontoursofthismindset;
thatthisisnecessarilyso.AswithSaidsexposureofOrientalismasaprofessional
phenomenonbothhistoricallyandinthepresentday,sotooisthisIsraeliArabistdiscourse
thedomainofacademics,toasmallerdegree,andthemainstreammediatoamuchgreaterdegree.Theyaretheself-appointedinvestigatorsintothenatureoftheOther,theyarethe
instigatorsofthedialogueofdehumanisation.
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Bibliography
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