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DiscourseinIsraelDuringtheDeathofthePeaceProcess:An

InvestigationintoanIsraeliOrientalisminNewsMediaand

Academia

Abstract

ThisstudylooksintothewaysthattheIsraelimediaandacademiaportray

boththePalestiniansandthepeaceprocessinthepost-Osloyears,withaview

toascertainingtheprevalentIsraeliattitudestowardsthePalestinians,taking

theyearsfrom2000through2005asasample.Theseyearsareimportantin

assessingthepoliticalzeitgeistastheymarktheclosingeraoftheOslopeace

process,punctuatedbytheCampDavidtalksandthesecondPalestinian

intifada.TheresearchaimstolookathowIsraelinarrativesregardingtheir

neighboursareanexpressionofcertaintrendswithinIsraelisociety,coupled

withthereportingofpoliticaldevelopments.Itisprimarilylookingathowthe

citizensofIsraelseeboththePalestiniansandthenatureoftheIsrael-

Palestineconflict,andassuchthestudydoesnotdelveintothenarrativesthatcomefromotherWesternpro-IsraelicommentatorsorfromtheJewish

Diaspora.Thefocusonanation,andmorespecificallycertainvoiceswithin

thatnation,isinordertoinvestigatethenarrativesthatdominatewithinthe

societyandconflictinquestion.

1. Thebackgroundandcontext102. AnexplorationandanalysisoftheNewsMedia163. AstudyofAcademia274. TheHypothesis34

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2

Thedevelopmentandmaintenanceofeveryculturerequiretheexistenceofanother

differentandcompetingalterego.Theconstructionofidentity...involves

establishingoppositesandotherswhoseactualityisalwayssubjecttothecontinuousinterpretationandre-interpretationoftheirdifferencesfromus.

1

- EdwardW.Said

TheIsraeli-Palestinianconflicthasbeenframedinmanydifferentwaysbyscholarsand

journaliststryingtolocateacommonthread,acohesiveunderstandingoftheprotagonists

motivesandactions.Chronologicallywecansummarisethevariousstagesoftheconflictin

uncontestedcategoricalterms,thoughdecisionsonwheretostartandwhattoemphasize

remainproblematic.Howevertheattempttoimposecommongrandnarratives,sequentialmeta-storieswhichexplainthedesiresandaimsofthepartiesinvolvedintermsoftheir

fulfilmentofpre-ordainedroles,hascharacterisedmuchofthecoverage.Thisisatempting

andperhapsinevitableparadigmforreportersandcommentatorstosuccumbto,butsuch

anapproachleadstoaframedviewoftheconflict,withnuancesthatruncontrarytothe

practitionersestablishednarrativeignoredordownplayed.Ourchoiceoflanguageshapes

themeaningandinterpretationofourwords,anditissurelyimpossibletohaveinherently

neutraldialogueregardingtheseissues.

Ifwecanacceptthistruism;thatdialogueisinherentlyloadedwithmeaningandsubtext,

andthatitcoloursthewayweimaginetheconflictandinformsourdecisionmaking,wecanattempttorecognisethenarratives,theircharacterandstructure.Somenarrativesmaybe

souncontroversialtheybarelyregister,aswiththecommonly-acceptednotionthattheholy

sitesintheregionareofgreatimportancetothethreemainmonotheisticreligions,orthat

Israelissomewhatuniquepoliticallyandmilitarilyamongitsneighbours.Somearemore

brazenandcontentious,aswiththedepictionofthePalestiniansastheirrationalenemy,a

narrativethatisasubjectofthisstudy.Thoughthecarefulreaderisjustassurelyinformed

byherownbiasandprejudice,andthusanun-neutraldescriptionoftheviewsofothersis

notfeasible,itcanbeinformativetoexplorethewaysinwhichcommentatorspainta

pictureoftheconflict.Allartispropaganda,butitatleastlacksapretenceofobjectivity;

1EdwardW.Said,Orientalism(London:Penguin,2003),p.332.

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theartisttakesprideinexhibitingherpersonalvisionofthematerialworld.Media

commentaryandacademicscholarship,onthecontrary,attempttolocatetruthandrelay

thefacts,withovertdisplaysofpreconceptionsorbiastheultimatejournalistic

transgression.

However,ithasbeenarguedthatthisnewprofessionalism;thedemandforimpartialityin

reporting,hasledamorefirmlyentrenchedworldviewinthatitsetstheboundariesfor

acceptabledebatetowhatcanbegleanedfromprofessionalsources,suchasgovernment

statementsandtheviewpointsofthosewithpower.Dissentisencouragedaslongas[it]

remain[s]faithfullywithinthesystemofpresuppositionsandprinciplesthatconstitutean

eliteconsensus,asystemsopowerfulastobeinternalisedlargelywithoutawareness.2

Assumptionswhichfittheconventionalnarrativeareinternalised,andthusdeviationfrom

thesebasicunderlyingassumptionsisonlyacceptedwithinthenarrowframeworkof

conventionalcommonknowledge;DanielHallinssphereoflegitimatecontroversy.3The

mediacanthusbecomeself-regulating,providingacoherentspectrumofideasaboutthe

perceivedissues,allofwhichfitroughlyintoaparadigmsharedby(supposedly)all.Nevertheless,themediaisacomplexinstitution,andanalysisisfurthercomplicatedwhen

takingintoaccountregionaldifferences,andthefunctioningofthemediainnational

contexts.Thismaybedowntoeconomicconsiderations,aswiththelimitedpossibilitiesfor

thirdworldmediaoutlets,oritmaybeduetosocietalpeculiaritiesthemselves.Thusitis

importanttodistinguishbetweenthevariouswaysmassmediacanfunction,andrecognise

thatnooneanalysiswillholdtrueforallmediaoutletsthatweencounter.

Parameters

InthisstudyIwillbefocusingontheIsraelimedia,specificallyduringtheyears2000-2003asacasestudy,andwithaspotlightonthepeaceprocessandIsraeliinteractionswiththe

Palestinians.Firstly,myparametersfortheresearchareasfollows:

1. TherawmaterialwillbetakenfromIsraelinewsmediaandinabroadersenseofficialIsraeligovernmentpublicannouncements,withthetwohaving

someobviousoverlaps.

2. Thesourcesinquestionwillbeonline,specificallyYnet,JerusalemPostOnline,andHaaretzOnline.EachareEnglishlanguageandhaveonline

archivesfortheperiodinquestion.

3. Inordertofocustheresearch,certainimportantincidentsfromtheperiodwillbeselected,andrelatednewsarticleswillbecomparedtoseeifsomeformofIsraelinarrativecanbeidentified.

4. InordertoprovidecontextIwillemployarticlesfromtheinternationalpress(BBC,Reuters,etc)soastocompare,howeverthesearenotthefocusofthe

2EdwardS.HermanandNoamChomsky,ManufacturingConsent:ThePoliticalEconomyoftheMassMedia

(London:Vintage,1994),p.302.3ThisspheresurroundstheSphereofConsensus,theregionencompassingsocialobjectsnotregardedby

journalistsandmostofsocietyascontroversial.OutsideLegitimateControversyhowever,comesthe

SphereofDeviance,therealmofviewssimplyoutsidetheboundariesofacceptablethought,deemedbyjournalistsandsocietyspolitical mainstreamasunworthyofbeingheard.DanielC.Hallin,TheUncensored

War:TheMediaandVietnam(London:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1989),p.116.

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studyandsoshallonlybeusedtoindicatewhatdifferences,ifany,theIsraeli

narrativehaswithinternationalsources.Whetherweacceptthe

internationalsourcesasamorebalancedorfairaccountisaseparate

question.

5. AfurthersourcewillcomefrompublishedacademicarticlesfromjournalswithinIsrael,orbyIsraelis.

Thereasonsfortheseparametersareprimarilytodowiththeeaseofaccessand

understandingtheyallowforbothmyselfandthereader.AsIwillbelookingnuancesof

languageIhavefocusedonlyonEnglishpieceswherepossible,ratherthanallowinganyof

themeaningtobelostthroughinepttranslation.

ThepurposeofthisdissertationistoascertaintheprevalentIsraeliattitudestowardsthe

Palestinians,takingtheyearsfrom2000through2005asmysample.Theseyearsare

importantinassessingthepoliticalzeitgeistastheymarktheclosingeraoftheOslopeace

process,punctuatedbytheCampDavidtalksandthesecondPalestinianintifada.MyresearchaimstolookathowIsraelinarrativesregardingtheirneighboursareanexpression

ofcertaintrendswithinIsraelisociety,coupledwiththereportingofpoliticaldevelopments.

TheresearchisprimarilylookingathowthecitizensofIsraelseeboththePalestiniansand

thenatureoftheIsrael-Palestineconflict,andassuchIamnotlookingatwhatother

Westernpro-IsraelicommentatorsorotherDiasporaJewshaveexpressed.Myfocusona

nation,andmorespecificallycertainvoiceswithinthatnation,mayseemoverlyexclusive

andarbitrary.Thereasonsformychoiceoffocusarerelatedtothenatureofthesociety

andconflictinquestion.

Israelis,havingconstructedastrongandwellpublicisednationalidentity,seethemselvesandtheirstateasculturally,ethnically,andpoliticallydistinct.TobeknownastheJewish

State,aculturalhomogeneityhastohavebeenencouragedtosomedegree,andindeed

theIsraelisourceofnationalprideandpatriotismismoretangibleandidentifiablethanthe

vaguenotionsoflibertyorequalitythatunderpinothernationalisms.TheIDFisa

peoplesarmyinwhichallIsraeliJews(otherthanultra-Orthodox)areexpectedtoserve,

contributingtoaheightenedawarenessandevenreverenceofthemilitary.Israelsnational

dogmaevenhasaspecificterm,definitehistory,andsetofprinciples,characteristicslacking

ineventhefamouslystrongAmericanpatriotism.Zionismcanbecalledthedefining

ideologyofIsrael,anditbindsIsraelsdefenders,includingalargemajorityofitspopulation,

together,constructingforthemacommonhistoryandnarrativeforthefuture.ItisforthisreasonthattheviewsofIsraelisliving,andparticipating,inthestatewhichespousesand

promotesthissetofdoctrinesareofsuchimportanceinidentifyingtheframeworkthey

havehelpedtocreate.Itisjustifiedtofocusonlyonanationalpopulationbecausethey

themselveshavesoughttoemphasisethatparadigm,beitasusversusthemor

participantsintheZionistproject.IsraelslargeJewishimmigrantpopulation,itsshort

history(asamodernnationstate),anditspoliticalidiosyncrasyastheJewishStateall

contributetothis.ThusthefocusofthisshallbetheIsraeliperspectiveandnarrative;that

oftheparticipantsthemselves,asopposedtotheirsympathisers,allies,orenemies.

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PossibleShortcomings

Naturally,eventhoughImaintainthatadominantframeworkwithinwhichthecompeting

Israelinarrativesmayfunctioncanbeascertained,theevidenceusedheretoidentifyitis

unfortunatelynarrowandnotfullyrepresentative.Duetolinguistic,technological,and

spaceconstraints,Ihaveelectedtofocusontheonline(Englishlanguage,ortranslatedfrom

Hebrew)printmedia,andacademicsourcessurroundingthis,whichofcourseleavesout

televisionmedia,theHebrew-onlypress,sourcesunavailableonline(whicharethankfully

lessfrequentnowthanonlyafewyearsago),andotherrepresentationsofIsraeli

consciousnesswhichyourhumbleresearcherhasbeenunabletoaddress.Thereader

shouldbearthisinmindwhenassessingmyconclusions.

Theanalysiswillbedividedintofourchapters,followedbymyconclusions.Thechapters

andtheirindividualpurposesareasfollows:

1. Thebackgroundandcontextinordertochronologicallygroundmyresearch,provideabasichistoryasprovesrelevant,andtopredictany

problemsthatmayoccur.

2. AnexplorationandanalysisoftheNewsMediaCollatingandquotingfromnewspaperarticlesonkeymomentsduringtherunuptotheAl-AqsaIntifada

andincidentsafter.AttitudestoCampDavid,theoutbreakofviolence,and

thebehaviourofthestateapparatuswillbeassessed.Thepurposewillbeto

identifytermsandcomparetheirusageandimplications.Themain

newspaperstudiedwillbeHaaretz,asbeingthegenerallyacceptedmost

liberalmainstreamdaily,itcanprovideuswiththelimitsofdebateonthe

left,orpeacecamp.3. AstudyofAcademiaLookingatacademicjournals,opinionpieces,and

explicitjustificationsforIsraelibehaviour.Wewillattempttolocatethe

debateanddevelopmentofnarrativestowardsthePalestiniansandthe

natureofIsraelitself.

4. TheHypothesisAssessingwhetherthereisanIsraeliOrientalistcomplex.WithreferenceprimarilytoEdwardSaid,wewillseeifacoherentIsraeli

narrativecanbeidentified.Isitasimplestoryofactorsbehavingastheirpre-

ordainedroles,orareeventsandreactionstothemmorerandom?

Thestudyshallthusbebothempirical,insofarastheselimitedcasestudiesmaybeconstruedtoberepresentativeofalargertrend,andanalytical,asthestudyshallbe

assessingtheprevalenceofanIsraeliOrientalismintheoutletsofrelevantthoughtonthe

subject.Furthertothis,itshallbeadvancinganoriginalhypothesisthattiestogetherthe

specificnatureofmodernZionismwiththeconsequentdelineationoflinguisticspacein

Israelidiscourse.

MyprimarysourceswillserveasthefirstportofenquiryintoIsraeliattitudes,with

secondaryliteraturealsoemployedforcomparativeanalysis.Formyownpersonalanalysis

anattemptatamoreholisticapproachwillbemade,andsoIshalllookathowtheoriesof

socialpsychologyandthesecuritizationofthreatscanapply,alongwiththeapplicationofEdwardSaidsOrientalismthesistothisspecificarena.Inkeepingwiththis,anattemptata

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deconstructionoflanguageandmeaningincommentaryonthePalestiniansandthepeace

processwillbemyfocus.

Background

ThetimelineIhavechosentofocusonisimportantforthreereasons:

Itmarkstheculminationofthefirstattemptatdirectnegotiationsbetweentheantagonists

ItisimportantforIsraelasthepeaceprocessbeganasareactiontocontinuedandfocusedPalestinianresistanceandviolence,andmarkeda

changeinofficialIsraelipolicyregardingtheArabenemy,withaconsequent

changeinthepublicnarrative.Thusitwasabreakinthestatusquoan

Israelireactiontonewcircumstancesandprovidesaninterestinghistorical

testcase.

Thepeaceprocess(startingwithMadridin1991andending,temporarilyatleast,withTabain2001)asanexperimentalpolicyprovidedIsraelisonall

sidesofthepoliticalspectrumwithanopportunitytotesttheiropinionsof

thePalestiniansandtheideaofnegotiationitself.Asthisnewchancefor

analysiswasrepresentedthroughtheIsraelipressandotherorgansatthe

time,itiseasyforaresearchertoviewbothrelatedprimarysources,andthe

directwaveofIsraelipublicopinion.Crucially,duringtheSecondIntifada

certainsegmentsofIsraelisocietybegantogainmoreprominencedueto

theirforesightinpredictingdisasterforthepeaceprocess,andthusthe

Israelipressbecamefarmorehomogenousintheirtreatmentofthe

interactionswiththePalestinians.

Itsimportanttonotethatthisisaselectiveandnotnecessarilyrepresentativeperiod,and

thusconclusionswecanmakefromanychangingIsraeliattitudesmaynotbegenerally

applicable,norshouldtheybeseenasdescriptiveoftheoverallIsraelipsycheorthatof

theZionistproject.However,thenarrativepatternsthatcanbegleanedfromtheIsraeli

mediaandwidersocietyinthisperiodmaybeindicativeofawidertrend,andcanhelpus

understandtheIsraeliperceptionofastill-unresolvedconflict.Myterminologyalsofalls

shortinappearingtoascribesomesortofhivemindtoalltheinhabitantsofIsrael

regardingtheseissues,andthuswildlyover-generalising.Ifsuchanimpressionisleftbythe

followingdissertation,mydefenceismydesireforconcisionandlinguisticbrevity.Naturally,Israelisocietyboastsacomplexanddiversemarketofideas,evenamongsolelytheJewish

Zionistsegment.20%ofIsraelspopulationareArabPalestinianIsraelis,andafurther10%

areultra-OrthodoxJews,generallyhostiletoZionism.ThuswhenIspeakofacoherent

ZionistnarrativeinIsraelthesevoices,amongothers,areleftout.WhatmyuseofIsraeli

orZionistnarrativemustbeshorthandfor,then,istheidentifiabledominanttrendsof

thoughtduringourtimeperiod.Thisisalsowhythemassmediaservesastheinitialfocusof

thestudy.Thoughitiselitist,professionalised,andotherwiselimited,itrepresentssome

formoftheprevalentideologicaltrendsthatmanagetosurfaceinIsrael.Henceforth,the

readerwillhopefullyforgivemyunspecificterminologyforthesereasons.Whatconcerns

thisstudyarethepredominanttrendsandthenarrativesgivenprimacybythemedia,academia,theIsraelistate,andthustosomedegreetheIsraelipeople.

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ABriefHistory

Thecontextofthisperiodshouldbeoutlinedfirstly.Unfortunatelyspacepermitsonlya

cursorydiscussionoftheeventsthatleduptothepointatwhichthisstudybegins,soa

degreeofawarenessofIsraelihistoryispresumedofthereader.Forbrevityssake,the

Osloyearsshallreferto1993-2001henceforth,unlessotherwiseindicated.The1987

Palestinianintifada,oruprising,occurredduringthe20thyearofIsraelsoccupationofGaza

andtheWestBank,causedmainlybyperceivedcontinuinginjusticesufferedbythe

PalestiniansunderIsraelstotalitariancontrol.4Relationsbetweenthetwocommunities,

JewishIsraelisandArabPalestinians,wereextremelypoor,withPalestinianopinionbeing

thatwearedesperate...Thereisnopoliticalsolution,...unlesswedo[something]

ourselves,nobodyisgoingtocare.5TheviolencecontinuedupuntiltheMadridConference

of1991whichmarkedthereturnofthePLO(PalestinianLiberationOrganisation)fromtheir

exileinTunis.Duringthesefouryears164Israeliswerekilled,and2162Palestinians.6

Politically,IsraelremaineddominatedbytheLikudParty,whounderMenachemBeginhadcometopowerin1977,breakingcontinuousleftistruleforthefirsttimeinIsraelshistory.

Beginspoliticalrevolution(knownastheMahapakh)wasimportantinintroducinganew

acceptabilityforovertlycolonialistdialogueinIsraeliparlance,Beginhimselfhavinggone

toextraordinarylengthstodehumanisethePalestinians...describ[ing]theminaspeechin

theKnessetasbeastswalkingontwolegs.7Thoughapeaceagreementhadbeensigned

withEgyptin1979,andlaterJordanin1994,thepost-SixDayWarperiodwascharacterised

bycontinuedviolence,withtheYomKippurWarin1973andtheinvasionofLebanonin

1982bothsuccessfuldeploymentsofanincreasinglywellequippedandwelltrainedIDF.

Thustheattempttobuildapeaceprocessthatemergedinthewakeofthebloodyintifada

wasapalpablechangeofdirectioninofficialIsraelipolicy,butyetwasneitherasurprisenoranisolatedinitiative.By1993,whentheOsloAccordsweresignedmarkingtheofficial

commencementofthepeaceprocess,89%ofIsraeliswereinfavourofnegotiations,with

71%thinkingitpossibletoachievepeacewiththeArabs.8Whenforcedtochoosebetween

initiatingpeacetalks,andstrengtheningmilitarycapacity,64%chosepeacetalks,though

thiswasa10%dropfrompreviousyears.9SoasignificantmajorityofIsraelipublicopinion

favouredthisapproachintheearly90s,andyetlessthanadecadelatersupportwastoend,

withanewPalestinianIntifadaandtheelectioninIsraeloftherightwingLikudgovernment

underArielSharon.Thisstudyaimstolookatsomeoftheperceptionsthathelpedtofuel

thischange,andtoassessthesignificanceofunderlyingassumptionsversusperceived

politicaldevelopments.Theimpactofthefailureoftalksandthelackofapartnerforpeacenarrativeswillbeinvestigating.Aboveall,theuseoflanguageandtheshapingof

publicdiscourseisourmostimportantindicatorofshiftingattitudes.

4IsraelShahak,Commentary,MiddleEastInternational(26May,1990),365(1):p.24.5RajaShehadeh,quotedinJerusalemPost(15January,1988).6BTselem,Statistics:FatalitiesintheFirstIntifada,

(http://www.btselem.org/english/statistics/first_Intifada_Tables.asp).Accessedon30March2010.7AmnonKapeliouk,BeginandtheBeasts,NewStatesman,June25,1982.8AsherArian,IsraelandthePeaceProcess:SecurityandPoliticalAttitudesin1993, JCSSMemorandumNo.

39(http://www.inss.org.il/upload/%28FILE%291192437876.pdf),February1993,p.7.Accessedon30March2010.9Ibid.

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Theinternaldevelopmentsduringtheseyearswillbeindividuallyaddressed,butabrieflook

attheinternationalcontextisalsoinstructive.Thebreak-upoftheSovietbloc,anditsfinal

collapsein1991,removedtheprimarypatronofthenearbyArabstates,leadingtowhat

ShlomoAvinericallsthedeglobalizationoftheArab-Israeliconflict,andthustheenhanced

chancesforpeacefulnegotiationasheseesit.10Therewasundoubtedlyachangeinglobal

securityandinternationalrelationstheory,withthebipolarColdWarworldsuddenly

history.TheMadridConference(1991)washeldweeksbeforethedissolutionoftheUSSR,

withastatednewunderstandingofinternationalcommunicationandmediation;aspiritof

goodwillandmutualrespect...thepeaceprocesscanbegintobreakdownthemutual

suspicionsandmistrustthatperpetuatetheconflict.11Howevertensionsintheregion

remainedhigh,withIraqiScudmissileslaunchedintoIsraelwithindaysoftheoutbreakof

theGulfWarinearly1991.Israeldeclinedtorespondinkindnotoutofanewlyfound

pacifism,butbecauseitsmainsponsor,theUS,thoughtitbettertokeepthewaraslimited

aspossible.Nevertheless,internationallytherewasanexpectationandconsensusthat

negotiationsforanendtotheconflict,basedonthelandforpeacedoctrinelaidoutin

UNSCresolutions242and338,wereoverdueandnecessary.

Theinitiationofthepeaceprocesschangedcertainfactsontheground,withthePLOgiven

adegreeofautonomyandself-governmentforthePalestiniansinGazaandtheWestBank.

However,theslowdeathoftheOsloAccordswas,ithasbeenargued,duetothefactthat

theprimaryactorsinthesituationhadnotchangedtheirviews.Thedove,YitzhakRabin,

continuedtoexpandsettlements12andimplementamilitarydivisionoftheWestBank.

13

Overallthenumberofsettlersincreasedbyatleast65%duringtheOsloyears,an

unprecedented14growth,whichledtoabeliefthatIsrael(orthePLO,inmanyoftheir

obligations)hadactedcontrarytothetruespirit,ifnottheletter,oftheAccords.The

continuingfailureofthepeaceprocesswasfeltonbothsidesofthedivide,withviolencepermeatingthe90sandmakingamockeryofthehighmindeddeclarationsofajustand

lastingpeace.TherewereattacksbydissidentPalestiniansandIsraelis,andofficially-

sanctionedviolenceseemedunperturbedbyanysupposedlimitationsthatOslohadcalled

for.In1995,ahard-lineIsraeliassassinatedPrimeMinisterRabin,andafteraspateof

Hamassuicideattacksin1996,LikudsBenjaminNetanyahunarrowlybeatShimonPeresof

theLaborPartyforthepostofPrimeMinister.DisillusionmentwiththeAccordsmadeitself

clearinIsraelipublicopinion,withsupportforreturningoccupiedlandsinexchangefor

peacehoveringonlyaround12-38%in1996,andstayingmoreorlessconstantfortherest

oftheOsloperiod.15

10ShlomoAvineri,Israelandtheendofthecoldwar:theshadowhasfaded,BrookingsReview(Spring1993),

Vol.11:p.1.11UnitedStatesandSovietUnion,LetterOfInvitationTotheMadridPeaceConference,

(http://www.miftah.org/Display.cfm?DocId=430&CategoryId=10),1991.Accessedon30March2010.12IsraelMovestoExpandSettlements/Palestinianscondemndecision,AssociatedPress,(26January1995).

13DiannaCahn,RabinWantsSeparationintheWestBank,TheDailyGazette,(30November1994).

14CamilleMansour,IsraelsColonialImpasse, JournalofPalestineStudies(Summer2001),Vol.30,No.4:p.

86.15

InstituteforNationalSecurityStudies,IsraeliOpinionRegardingPeacewiththePalestinians,(http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/ispopal_87to07.html),2005-2007.Accessed

on29March2010.

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Theculminationoftheprocessitself,whichbythispointwasanattempttorescuewhat

manywerearguingwerehollowandfailedpeaceefforts,cameinJuly2000whenUS

PresidentBillClintoncalledasummitinCampDavid,Maryland,tohammeroutthefinal

statusnegotiationsthatOslohadstipulated.PrimeMinisterEhudBarakandPalestinian

AuthorityChairmanYasserArafatbothfaceddomesticoppositionandgrowingfrustration

withthelackofprogress,especiallyasprogresstowardsanynascentPalestinianstatewas

minimal.Themeetingendedinfailure,andmonthslaterthefragilepeaceprocesscollapsed,

withtheAl-AqsaintifadasparkedbyIsraeliPrimeMinisterArielSharonsphysicalassertion

ofIsraelicontroloftheTempleMount.ThisSecondIntifadaprovedfarmoreviolentand

bloodythanthefirst,withthedeathtollestimatedatover5500Palestiniansand1000

Israelis.16IthardenedpopularIsraeliattitudestowardsthePalestinians,withthePeace

CamplosingsupportinIsraelandascivilandpoliticalforce.Thisrenewalofviolencehas

continued,withnoofficialendeverdeclaredfortheAl-AqsaIntifada.Thelatteryears,

fromJuly2000andClintonsCampDavidtalksonwardsthroughthebeginningofthe

Intifadaarewherethisstudycommences.

Inthenextchapter,wherekeymomentsinthepost-Osloyearswillbediscussedwiththe

aidofnewsmediaarticles,itwillbepossibletoshedmorelightontheprecisetrendsin

Israelieliteandpublicopinion.ThequestiontoconsideriswhetheradiscernableIsraeli

narrative,eitherfactuallybasedorotherwise,informedtheparametersofdiscourseand

thusthepublicperceptionsoftheirArabneighboursandthepeaceprocessitself.Thiswill

beexploredthroughareadingofperiodnewspaperarticlesinconjunctionwithacritical

lookatthecorrespondingeventsandthedialogueemployedtoexplainthem.

AStudyoftheNewsMedia

Israelsmedia,likeitssocietyatlarge,isdiverseandlargelyfree.Itis,ofcourse,structured

invariousways,andsothenewsoutletsIwillbefocusingoncomefromdifferentsections

ofthebroaderIsraelinewsmedia.

TheNatureoftheIsraeliMedia

Haaretz,witharelativelysmalldailycirculationof72000,isaninfluentialIsraelipapercateringtothepoliticalandeconomicelites,aswellasothersectionsoftheIsraeli

intelligentsia.AsIsraelsliberalbeacon,itisseentoserveasbothpublicforumand

chronicleofareligiousandpoliticalmovementthathas,forgoodorill,transformedaregion

andconsumedtheworld.17GideonLevy,perhapsIsraelspremierleftwingjournalist,has

saidinworkingatHaaretzheislessconstrainedinhispunditrythanmostcolumnistsare

intheUnitedStatesandEuropeForthesereasonsitservesasanexcellentmedium

16BTselem,StatisticsFatalities,2008,(http://www.btselem.org/English/Statistics/Casualties.asp).

Accessedon11/4/10.17StephenGlain,Haaretz,IsraelsLiberalBeacon, TheNation,

(http://www.thenation.com/doc/20070924/glain/3),6September2006,p.3.

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throughwhichtoinvestigatetheprevalentIsraeliliberalopinion,unrestrictedbystate

censorshiporovertpoliticalrepressionwithinthesociety.

However,theargumentthatLevy,NoamChomsky,andotheractivistshavemadeisthat

paperslikeHaaretzandmuchoftheIsraelimediahaveagreatdegreeofself-censorship,a

non-hierarchicalformofmediafilteringthatresultsfromworkingwithintheIsraeli

consensus.Levy,aHaaretzjournalist,arguesthattheIsraelimediasself-censorship

comesfromadesiretopleasethereadership,whichentailsaprocessofdehumanising

anddemonisingthePalestinians...[and]reallyhidingtheoccupation.18Heclaimsthatthe

Palestiniansideofthestoryisheavilytwisted,andessentiallyobfuscatedbytheIsraeli

Zionistnarrativethatmostofthepopularpresspromulgates.Thusthecensorship,Levy

claims,isnotimposedbythegovernmentandcarriedoutattheirbehest,butisatheresult

ofatacitconsensusinIsraelisocietythatnewspapersmustworkwithiniftheyareto

maintainareadership.SoIsraelisarenotexposedatalltothePalestiniannarrative,

maintainsLevy,andforexamplenobodymakestheconnectionbetweenterrorand

occupation.FormostIsraelisthereisterrorbecausethePalestinianswereborntokill,notbecausethereisanoccupation.Sothosegoals[ofsolidifyinganIsraelinarrativeconsistent

withthemoreextremeelementsofZionism]wereachievedmainlybytheIsraelimedia.19

ThatHaaretzreportinghasbeenfound,contrarytoitsadversarialimage,toconsistently

reportfromtheIsraeliside,withamorefrequentpro-Israelislantthanotherwise,20isa

partialtestamenttothis,butthefocusofthisinvestigationistoassessifandhowitforms

partofanoverlyingframeworktolimitdiscoursebydelineatingtheboundariesof

reasonabledebate.Ashasbeenshown,particularlybyNeilKressel21,attemptstoassess

biasinthemediaandtoconductimageversusrealityinvestigationsoftenrelyonwildly

varyingandsubjectivecriteriaofwhattheidealisedunbiasedmediashouldbe,andassuch

Iwilltrynottoventureintodiscussionsofthemisrepresentationoffacts.Rather,Iwillbe,subjectively,assessingthedialogueandtermsusedtoframetheconflictandtheOther.

ToprovideamorecompleteimageIwillberelying,toalesserdegree,ontheJerusalem

Post,anEnglishlanguage-onlydailythatcatersmainlytoexpatsandnon-Hebrewspeakers,

withasmallbutalsoinfluentialreadershipinsideIsrael.Generallyregardedastotherightof

Haaretzpolitically,andwithinthecentreofmainstreamIsraelipolitics22,itespousesamore

prevalentIsraeliviewpointinitsopinionpiecesandeditorials.

Haaretz

WeshallfirstaddressHaaretzscoverageofseveralimportanteventsinthepeaceprocessyears,inordertoassessthevalidityofLevysaccusations.TheCampDavidpeacetalksin

July2000areprobablythekeyturningpointinourperiodofstudy,withthefailureof

negotiationsleadingtoPalestinianfrustrationandasecondintifada.Haaretzreportedin

18GideonLevy,ininterviewwiththeauthor,2010(IncludedinAppendix).

19Ibid.

20MattViser,Attemptedobjectivity:AnanalysisoftheNewYorkTimesandHa'aretzandtheirportrayalsof

thePalestinian-Israeliconflict, TheHarvardInternationalJournalofPress/Politics (2003),Vol.8,No.4:pp.

114-120.21NeilJ.Kressel,BiasedJudgementsofMediaBias:ACaseStudyoftheArab-IsraeliDispute, Political

Psychology(June1987),Vol.8,No.2,pp.211-227.22BBCNews,ThePressinIsrael, BBCNews(http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4969714.stm),

08/05/2006.Accessed24/04/2010.

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detailonthenegotiationsthemselvesandtheaftermath,witharangeofopinionpieces

frombothhawksanddoves.InstudyingasampleofHaaretzarticlesfromtheperiod,and

inordertoassesstheclaimsmadebyLevyandothersthattheIsraeliliberalpressisself-

censoringanddepictsPalestiniansinanOrientalist,colonialistmanner,thestudyshall

endeavourtolocateinstancesofgroupinginthemediadialoguewherePalestiniansare

collectivelydescribedasamonolithic,alien,andfundamentallyirrationalentityinshort,

anOther.Naturally,attemptstoascertainthemeaningsof,orintentionsbehind,wordsare

subjective,andusesoflanguageindifferentcontextswillsuggestdifferentthingsto

differentreaders.Nevertheless,whatMr.Levyisasserting,andIaminvestigating,isthat

theparameterswithinwhichIsraelijournalistsmustworkaredefinableandnarrow,with

someexceptions.Thereforetheintentionsbehindtheuseofcertainlanguagewhen

describingthePalestiniansarenotthesubjectofinvestigation,butrathertheevidencethat

thislanguageprovidesofacertainframeworkinthemedia;anIsraeliZionistnarrative.

Forinstance,duringtheCampDavidpeacetalksthenegotiationswereaimedatcreatinga

viablePalestinianstate,withthebordersbasedontheinternationallyagreedGreenLine,aceasefireborderwhichmarkedIsraelsterritorybeforethe1967war.Theland,oratleast

theamountofland,onwhichaPalestinianstatewastobecreatedhadthusbeenpre-

determined,whatwasnecessarywasmerelytonegotiatetheexactbordersandcharacter

ofthestate.Themajority(55%)ofIsraelipublicopinionacknowledgedthatJudeaand

Samaria(theWestBank)shouldnotbepartofIsrael,astheywerenotIsraeliterritory.23

However,intheIsraelimedia,almostwithoutexception,thenegotiationswherebyIsrael

wouldrelinquishitsholdonoccupiedterritorywerecharacterisedasIsraeliconcessions,as

ifpartsofIsraelwerebeingconcededforpeace.DanMargalit,writingbeforetheeventual

failureofthetalks,proclaimsthat[IsraeliPrimeMinisterEhud]Barakhasgivenhisconsent

atCampDavidtofar-reachingconcessions,whilethebestcourseofactionfor[PalestinianAuthorityChairmanYasser]Arafatistostudytheseconcessionsand,especially,toweighthe

alternative.Barakhasalreadyannouncedthathisflexibilitywilldisappearifheisnotgiven

anaffirmativereply.24DanielSobelmanechoesthisformulationafterthetalkshadended,

eulogisingthatBarakhaddaredtoofferPresidentYasserArafatadealwithfarmore

concessionsthancouldbereasonablyexpected.25Theimplicitmessage,articulatedbythese

moderatedovesinIsraelsliberalbeacon,isthatIsraelismakingpainfulconcessionsby

followinginternationallaw,onlytobemetbyArabrejectionism(thisismisnowalmost

exclusivelyassociatedwiththePalestiniansinmoderninternationalrelationsdiscourse)and

irrationality.Ofcourse,concessionswouldandaremadeonbothsidesinnegotiations,

otherwisethetalksarereallyadictat.However,ifPalestiniansweretoacceptlessthanthefullamountofterritoryfortheirstateaffordedthembyinternationallawandtheglobal

consensus,itisdifficulttoseehowthiswouldbeanIsraeli,ratherthanaPalestinian

concession.Similarly,beforetalkshadstarted,MosheArenswritinginHaaretzwarnedof

theimplicationsofthefarreachingconcessionsthatBarakwasabouttomake,aghast

thatheseemedtobewillingtocedealmostallofJudeaandSamaria,includingtheJordan

23PublicOpinionResearchofIsrael,IsraeliOpinionRegardingPeacewiththePalestinians,

(http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/ispopal_87to07.html),September2003.

Accessedon29March2010.24DanMargalit,Noleaderwillofferabetterdeal, Haaretz,24/07/2000.

25DanielSobelman,IsraelofferedPAhalfofOldCity, Haaretz,22/09/2000.

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12

Valley,toArafat...[andwas]readytogiveupIsraelicontrol.26Arens,ofcourse,considers

suchdefeatistdiplomacyasakintosurrender,butifwelookobjectivelyatthesituation,as

farasinternationallawwillallow,thisseemsanobviousmischaracterisation.Returningland

wonillegallythroughwarisonlyseenasaconcessionbyaroguestate,whoconsidersthat

thelandshouldhavebeentheirsanyway.Internationally,werecognisethatreturningland

thatwasgainedoutsidetheboundariesofglobalpoliticalnormsisanexpectedand

necessarymovefortheaggressortotake;anobligationontheoccupier.TalkofIndia

maintainingcontrolofBangladeshafter1971,ortheUSannexingIraqtoitscontrolafter

2003,wouldhavebeenjustifiablyregardedasbreachesoftherulesofstates,asmilitary

conquestisnolongerconsideredajustwaytoacquireterritory.ImplicitinArens

indignation,thelikeofwhichwascommonplaceinthemediaatthistime,istheassumption

thatJudea,Samaria,andGalilee,inotherwordsBiblicalEretz(Greater)Israel,aredefacto

tosovereignterritoryofthemodernStateofIsrael.Thisformsanimportantpartofthe

modernZionistnarrative,anddoesntevennecessarilystemfromJudaismandareligious

beliefinthegiftfromGod,butratherasecularconvictionintheJewishnationalhistoryof

theregion;theargumentthatwehavelivedhereformorethan2000years.Ifsuchaclaimistakenaspre-existingfact,asIargueitiswithintheboundariesofZionistdiscourse,then

torelinquishanyofthelandisindeedapainfulconcession.IndeedtheOsloPeaceProcess,

instipulatingthatneitherpartywas,byenteringintotheAgreement,tobedeemedtohave

renouncedorwaivedanyofitsexistingrights,claimsorpositions27infactsignalleda

mostcrucialconcessionbythePalestiniansastheyhadgrantedalegitimacytoanIsraeli

claimonlandthatwasnear-unanimouslyregardedasPalestinian;thebroadlyaffirmed

claimofthePalestinianstotheoccupiedterritories[hadbeen]putonaparwiththebroadly

deniedtitleofIsraeltothem.28ThusalinguisticnuancealreadyprevalentintheIsraeli

discourseacquiredlegallegitimacy;theterritorieswerenowdisputedratherthan

occupied.ThisterminologyremainsastapleinIsraelieditorialisingabouttheterritories,withaliberal/conservativeconsensusespeciallyapparentinthepost-CampDavid

years.293031

Anobjectivereadingofthenegotiationsordiplomaticrecordisnotwhatwould

proveanynefariousIsraelischeming,suchconspiratorialbehaviourisrelativelymarginal.

Theimportanceofthedialoguesurroundingtheseissuesisthatitenablesdiscussionwhere

nonewouldexistotherwise,andcurtailsthepossibilityofevenconceptualisinganopposing

narrative.WouldgenerousIsraeliconcessionsbeatopicfordebate,muchlessaseemingly

self-evidentreality,iftheywerenotcreatedasthestartingpointfordiscussion?Othersmay

debateastowhyArafatrejectedtheofferatCampDavid,butimportantlytheIsraelipress

wasunitedinthecharacterisationofthenegotiationsashistoricconcessionsontheIsraeli

side,whereitbecameclearthatthePalestinianscouldnotreallybenegotiatedwithiftheywererefusesuchgenerousoffers.Thisisquiteliterallythelimitsofdebatethatwefind,

26MosheArens,HeadingforaCrashLanding,Haaretz,11/07/2000.

27Israeli-PalestinianInterimAgreementontheWestBankandGazaStrip (WashingtonDC:28September

1995),ArticleXXXI.28NormanG.Finkelstein,ImageandRealityoftheIsrael-PalestineConflict (London:Verso,2003),pp.172-173.

29Disputedthatis,thatIsraelhasalegitimateclaimovertosovereigntyovertheselands -Caroline

Glick,WithoutPrejudice,JerusalemPost,23/01/2004.30Weshouldhaveanawarenessofthelexiconandtheproperterminologyisdisputedterritories-Yoel

Marcus,TheHorseisoutoftheStable,Haaretz,06/06/2003.31Settlersdescribedasknowingthattheirpresenceindisputedterritorywascontroversial-DrorNissan,

GiveUsaHug,Ynet,09/03/05.

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andsuchlimitsappearnarrowgiventheexistenceofthePalestinianperspective,evenas

reportedbytheBritishpress.32

Moretelling,asfarasthelimitsofdiscoursego,istheattitudetonegotiatingitself.Arens,in

thesamearticle,mocksthenotionofcreatinganagreementwiththePalestinians,stating

thatthereisampleproofthatwhateveragreementisachievedatCampDavidwillonlybe

away-stationforfurtherPalestinianclaimsagainstIsrael,thatanythingachievedwill

merelybeaninterimagreement,andnomore,andthatthenotionthatIsraelcan

negotiatewiththePalestiniansisadangerousillusion.33InArenslanguageisafearnot

justofthePalestinianenemy,butofconcedingtoevenhavenegotiationsoverseenbyan

impartialarbiter,inthiscasetheUnitedStates.Hemakesitclear:

Summitmeetings,thatinevitablymovetheUnitedStatesfromapositionof

supportingitsIsraeliallytooneofarbitratorintheIsraeli-Palestinianconflict,donot

serveIsrael'sbestinterests.34

Israelsbestinterests,asalways,aredefinedbythebeholder.Hereweseethatthevery

ideaofhavingnegotiationsonanequalfootingisharmfultoIsrael,thatitsomehowisin

itselfaconcessiontodeigntospeakwithPalestiniansasequals,andthatthisisprimarily

becausethePalestiniansthemselvesareinherentlyuntrustworthy.Thiscouldperhapsbe

seenasthemorehawkishviewwithintheIsraelimedia.Weshallnowaddresstheargument

ofthedoves.

ZeevSchiff,aveteranHaaretzjournalist,wroteaninterestingpost-CampDavidarticle

wherehereminiscedaboutfellowIsraelimilitarist-turned-dove,YehoshafatHarkabi.Schiff

andHarkabipre-supposethenecessityofequal-footednegotiations,thoughtheymaintainthatIsraelmustexercisetheutmostcaution,asthePalestinianshaveviolatedevery

agreement,andweshouldnothaveanyfaithinthem.35Schiffisreliablycomfortable

withdescribingthePalestiniansasamonolithtobeoutwittedorfoiled,mentioningArab

hatredofJudaism,butalsoexpressingpityforthePalestinians,lamentingthatitwasvery

depressingtoseethePalestiniansreturntosquareone.36Thelanguageofcompromises

andconcessionsisemphasised,againmarkingakeystapleofIsraelidialogueregarding

CampDavidandnegotiationsingeneralthatbothsides,beingostensiblyequalpartners

forpeace,needtomakesacrificesandallowancestoachieveasettlement.Whilstonthe

faceofitthisareasonableandself-evidentstatement,itignoresthatthePalestinianshave

nolandorpossessionswhichtheycanconcede,andtheIsraelisarenotbeingaskedtoconcedeanyoftheirsovereignterritory.Thus,thoughnegotiationistheappropriate

nomenclature,theaccompanyingconcessionandcompromisewouldonlyfollowifboth

partnershadsomethingtooffer,andthusequalstanding.Thisparadigmwasdutifullykept

tobyboththeliberalopinionpiecesandnewsreporting,whereBarakandShlomoBen-

32ThecoverageofPalestinianscheeringtheirleader'srefusaltoyieldtoIsraelidemandsthathedropthe

PalestinianclaimofsovereigntyovereastJerusalemwasnotrefutedoraddressedbyIsraelimedia,merely

ignored.ClintonUpbeatafterCampDavid,BBCNews

(http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/853350.stm),27July2000.Accessed22/03/10.33Arens,HeadingforaCrashLanding.

34

Ibid.35ZeevSchiff,OnMakingPeaceDespitetheRisks, Haaretz,04/08/2000.

36Ibid.

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14

Amis(IsraeliChiefNegotiator)effortswerereportedascompromiseasopposedtothe

Palestinian,orsometimesmerelyArafats,intractableanddisappointing

stubbornness,withPalestiniansinsistingontheirpositionsandwhenfacedwithIsraeli

leeway,makingitplainthatthiswasnotenough.37Againthefactualrecordofthe

negotiationsthemselvesisbothhardtoascertainandunnecessarytoourstudy,whatis

instructiveisthefaithfulnesstotheIsraelinarrativeofnegotiationsingeneralbothsides

areequallyobligedtomakeconcessions,andyetthePalestinianside,asistheirnature,

continuetobeuntrustworthyandintransigent.

TheJerusalemPost

IntheJerusalemPosttheeditorialpagesespousesimilarconventions,withBaraksCamp

Davidoffer(whichwasentirelyverbal,withnowrittenrecordofitsavewhatwasputinthe

retrospectivesofthenegotiators,yearslater)describedas,variously,extremelygenerous,

themaximumconcessions,andtheendoftheroad.TheemphasisisonIsraelshonest

attemptstogoasfarashumanlypossibleinordertomakepeace,andArafatsrefusaleitherunrealisticperceptionsoranunwillingnesstomakepeacewithIsraelunderanyterms.

38

ThereluctantconclusionisthattheresultoftheCampDavidsummitisthatneitheraleft-

wingnorright-winggovernmentwillbecapableofachievingpeacewiththePalestiniansin

theforeseeablefuture.39Thisisagainpredicatedonanofferofwhichthedetailswere

neverreleasedtothepress,whereonlyBaraksteamandUSnegotiatorDennisRoss

assertedthattheofferwasthebestthatcouldpossiblybemade,andwhereeventhepost-

negotiationsstatedofferfellsignificantlyshortofthebasicrequirementsofinternational

law.TheIsraelimedia,fromrighttoleft,concludedthatthedefiniteproofhadfinallybeen

unearthed;itwasnowclearthatArafatwouldneveragreetopeace,andthatheandthe

Palestinianscouldnotbetrustedaspartnersforanythingothercontinuedwar.

Astoananalysisofpost-peaceprocessevents,

Onesadlycomestotheconclusionthathatredoftheother-irrational,unreasoning

andcompletelyunjustified-liesattherootoftheviolence.Andsuchhatreddoes

notrespondtotherationalquestionofWhy?Forinourmostdangerousworld,

theirirrationalanswertothequestionofWhy?isBecause!40

Whereastheauthorreasons,incontrast,that;

IthinkthatthereislittlethatcanbedonebyIsraeltoanswerthe"Why?"question.

Misplacedsympathieswiththeplightofourenemies,illusorydreamsandfalse

cease-firesandmeetings,havealllednowhere.Weneedtoprotectourselvesandsit

tightandwaitforachangeinthemindsetofourenemies.41

37AlufBennandYossiVerter,Summitfails;PMsaysdreamofpeacestilllives, Haaretz,26/07/2000.

38Editorial,BestChanceforPeace,JerusalemPost,03/08/2000.

39

Ibid.40BerelWein,Why?JerusalemPost,05/10/2001.

41Ibid.

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WhatshouldbemadeclearisthatadisparitydoesexistbetweenIsraelipublicopinionand

thelimitsofdiscourseinthemedia.PublicopinioninIsraeltendstobemoredovishonkey

issues,andyet,especiallyduringourperiodofstudy,supportforrightwingrejectionist

partiesandrepressivepoliciescontinuedtogrow.Furthermore,thoseinIsraelwhodo

opposefurthersettlementconstruction,andevensupportamajorwithdrawal,tendtothink

thattheirpositionisthatofasmallminority.60%ofIsraelissupportdismantlingmostof

thesettlementsaspartofapeaceagreement,whileonlyhalfthatthinkthatsucha

positionisthemainstreaminIsraelisociety.42TheliberalIsraelimedia,alongwithother

avenuesofopiniondisseminationinIsrael,managetoperpetuateanarrativewhichstates

thatthepeaceindustryanddraft-evadersaretheproblem,andprimarilythat

evidently,thereisnopartner.43Thisnarrativeisthearenainwhichcognitivediscourse

canfunction,itdefineshowIsraeliscanspeakaboutthemselvesandthePalestinians,and

yetitdoesnotnecessarilyrepresenttheopinionofthemajorityofIsrael.However,itis

there,itistheonlydiscussionIsraelisseeandactivelyparticipatein,andsoitdefineshow

thesocietyfunctions.

Academia

Certainly,WesternacademiahasbeenrepletewithorientalistexplanationsfortheArab

worldanditsinteractionswiththeWest,withtheclassicmoderntextbeingRaphaelPatais

TheArabMind(1976).Anattempttounderstand,ordescribe,thecharacteristicsofArab

culturethatputitatoddswiththeWesthasbeenattheforefrontofacademicdialogueon

theIsraeli-Palestinianconflict.Muchashasbeenshownwiththenewsmediaindealingwith

theArabs,WesternandIsraeliacademicshaveruminatedinhighlyideologicaltermsabout

themodernArabmind,[talkingof]itsallegedpropensitytoviolence,itscultureofshame,thehistoricaloverdeterminationofIslam,itspoliticalsemantics,itsdegenerationvis--vis

JudaismandChristianity.44Israeliacademia,muchlikethemedia,islargelyfreefrom

governmentcontrolandcensorship,andcanboastofagloballyrenownedandwellfunded

baseofuniversitiesandacademicthinktanks.Itis,however,ofmarginalinfluenceand

publicpresencecomparedtothemedia,andthuscontributeslesstotheformationand

justificationofanIsraelinationalidentity.Inwhatwecangarnerfromtheacademic

influenceuponsocietalnarratives,itisbesttofocusonthedevelopmentsinthe1990sand

2000s,theriseofandbacklashagainsttheNewHistorians,andthegrowingimportanceof

IsraeliacademicdiscourseintheEnglishspeakingworld.Naturallyacademiaasasubjectof

studyisbothnarrowerthanthemedia,inthatitisspecialisedandisolatedfrompublicconsumption,andbroader,asthevariousdisciplinesconcernedwithoursubjectofstudy;

politics,anthropology,sociology,psychology,literature,andhistory,allowforagreater

rangeofperspectivesandcomparisonswhenassessinganIsraeliOrientalism.Again,

unfortunately,thisstudywillhavetolimititselftoafewscatteredandisolatedexamples

fromeach.

42AlvinRichman,IsraelisPublicSupportforDismantlingMostSettlementshasrisentoaFive-YearHigh,

WorldPublicOpinion,

(http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/articles/brmiddleeastnafricara/659.php?nid=&id=&pnt=659&lb),

15/04/2010.Accessed21/04/2010.43AriShavit,Left,Right,Left,Haaretz,17/09/2009.

44EdwardW.Said,Culture&Imperialism (London:Vintage,1994),p.314.

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DebateswithinZionism

TheacademicdebateregardingthePalestinians,theconflict,andthequestionofIsraeli

identityitselfcametobedefinedbytherisetoprominenceinthelate1980s,uponopening

ofnewarchivalmaterialrelatingtoIsraelsinception,oftheNewHistorians,suchasBenny

Morris,AviShlaim,andIlanPapp,andsubsequentlytheirtraditionalistopponents,

primarilyEfraimKarsh,DanSchueftan,andArnonSofer.ThedebateoverZionismitself

formedapartofthis,butthelineshavenotbeenclearlydelineated,withNewHistorian

andrevisionistBennyMorrisanythingbutaPost-Zionist.Insummary,theargumentofthe

NewHistorianswasthatmuchofIsraelihistoriographywasflawed,anditservedtocreate

anartificialnationalstoryandidentityfriendlytotheinterestsofthemoreextreme

elementsofexpansionistZionism.Thisconceptwassufficientlyradicaltotransformthe

landscapeofIsraeliacademiafromthelate1980suntilrecently,withthetraditionaldefence

ofZionismasinstrumentalandnecessaryforthesurvivaloftheJewishpeoplehavingre-

assertingitsdominanceinthewakeofsupposedPalestinianintransigence.Inaddition,alargepartofradicalsecularism,asignificantforceinIsraelisociety,hasbeenenvelopedin

theJabotinskytraditionofZionismthathasbecomemainstream;theunderstandingthat

thesovereignstateneedonlynominallytobefoundedonJudaism,andthatIsraelisreally

justculturallyJewishratherthanreligiously,asitnolongercanbepurelyethnicallyso.As

such,radicalcritiquesoftheZionistnarrativecanoftenremainwithintheoverarching

doctrinethatZionism,forallitsflaws,isacrucialdefiningpartofIsraeli,andevenpan-

Jewish,identity.BennyMorrisperfectlycapturesthemoderncritical-defenceofZionism,

positingthat

ThewholeZionistprojectisapocalyptic.Itexistswithinhostilesurroundingsandinacertainsenseitsexistenceisunreasonable...[butit]wasnotamistake.Thedesireto

establishaJewishstateherewasalegitimateone,apositiveone.Butgiventhe

characterofIslamandgiventhecharacteroftheArabnation,itwasamistaketo

thinkthatitwouldbepossibletoestablishatranquilstateherethatlivesinharmony

withitssurroundings.45

ThecharacteroftheArabnationremainsinthenewdiscourse,especiallywiththeself

describedleft-wingMorris,whogoesontoexplainthedeepercausesofArabterrorism;

namely

aworldwhosevaluesaredifferent.Aworldinwhichhumanlifedoesn'thavethe

samevalueasitdoesintheWest,inwhichfreedom,democracy,opennessand

creativityarealien...Arabtribalculture[is]barbarian,...averysicksociety[which]

hastobecontained.46

MorrisrejectstheideathatIsraelisocietyandscholarshipexhibitOrientalistand

functionallyracisttraitstowardstheArabs,chargingthatonthecontrary,Arabintolerance

45

BennyMorris,ininterviewwithAriShavit,SurvivaloftheFittest?AnInterviewwithBennyMorris,Haaretz,10/01/04.46Ibid.

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oftheJewishStateisaxenophobic,Muslimrejectionoftheotherwhichhasexisted

throughoutMuslimhistory.47

Akeydiscussionamongthehistoriansistheeventsof1948,thebirthofIsraeland

ZionismsfoundingmythasIlanPappcallsit.Thedebate,again,isprimarilyamongIsraeli

historiansandconcernsitselfwithwhathappenedinIsraelsfoundingWarof

Independence,howtherefugeeproblemcametobe,andtheArabwaraims,whichby

extensionoftenbecomesadiscussionoftheArabcharacter.Thedebateiskeytotheentire

Zionistnarrative,with1948beingIsraelstriumphantWarofIndependence,whileforArab

PalestiniansitmarkstheNakbatheCatastrophe.Thus,thedebatecutstothecoreof

Israelsimageofitself.48ThenewfindingspublishedinMorriss,Papps,andShlaims

bookshadaprofoundeffectonthenascentpeaceprocess,anddialoguewithinIsrael.No

longercouldthetraditionalnarrativesimplyignoreissueslikethePalestinianrefugee

problem,andindeedthenewaffirmationofaPalestiniannarrativeledtodemandsfor

recognitionoftheplightoftherefugeesatCampDavidandnegotiationssince.Instead,a

new,morehardlineapproachwastaken,onewhichconfrontedthePalestiniannarrativeinorderthatitbemadecompatible,evencomplementary,withtheZionistunderstanding.

Morrishimself,especiallyduringtheearly2000s,wastospearheadthiseffort,arguingthat

pre-NewHistorianZionismdisclaimedthelegacyofthePalestinians,basicallyfearingthat

admissionofsuchclaimswouldbeattheexpenseofZionismitself,whereasinrealityboth

haddegreesofmorallegitimacy,49thoughheseekstojustifyZionistbrutalityonly,

presumablyomittingPalestinianviolencefromhismorallegitimacycaveat.

ForEdwardSaid,themostdemoralisingaspectoftheZionist-Palestinianconflictisthe

almosttotaloppositionbetweenmainstreamIsraeliandPalestinianpointsofview...There

simplyisnocommonground,nopossibleareaforgenuinereconciliation.50

Itseemsthat,evenwithagenuinelynewapproachasexemplifiedbyProfessorMorris,thesongremains

thesame:ZionistdiscoursehasalwaysstipulatedthattheveryexistenceofPalestinians,no

matterhowconfinedordisempowered,constitutesaracialandreligiousthreattoIsraels

security.51ThePalestiniansmustbeeitherdeniedordestroyed,theyareatonceZionisms

existentialenemy,andacauseofitsunifyingdynamic.

Translation

AquestionofsimplenomenclaturealsoarisesinacademicdiscussionofthePalestinian

question,sometimeswithregardtotranslationissues,andsometimesregardingspecificwordchoices.AnexcellentdiscussionofbothcanbefoundinYonatanMendelsworkon

ZionismandtheArabiclanguage,wherehedeconstructstheacceptedterminologyusedto

describetheconflictskeyevents,includingterminologyusedbybothsides.Mendelargues

47BennyMorris,indiscussionwithAndrewWhitehead,NoCommonGround:JosephMassadandBenny

MorrisdiscusstheMiddleEast,HistoryWorkshopJournal,(Spring2002),No.54,pp.205-216,p.213.48AviShlaim,WhenHistoriansMatter,ProspectMagazine,

(http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/2008/06/whenhistoriansmatter/),29June2008,Issue147.Accessedon

24/04/2010.49Morris,indiscussionwithWhitehead,NoCommonGround,p.211.

50

EdwardW.Said,PalestiniansUnderSiege:PuttingPalestineontheMap,LondonReviewofBooks(14December2000),Vol.22,No.24:pp.9-14,p.14.51Ibid,p.12.

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that,intranslation,someofthemostbasiclanguagewecanusetotalkabouttheconflict

hasbecomeinfusedwithapoliticalagenda;thattheword'smeaningisbeingre-filledwith

Israeli-Jewishpoliticalcontent,contextandunderstanding,whichisso'natural'andobvious

thatitneednotevenbeexplained.52Hegivestheexampleofintifada,theaccepted

terminologyinIsrael,theArabWorld,andtheWest(evidencedbymyownprevioususeof

it)todescribethePalestinianarmeduprisingsin1987and2000.InaHebrew-language

piecebyBaruchKimmerling,thewordhitkomemutisusedinreferencetothePalestinian

riots.TheHebrewiscorrectinthatittranslatesdirectlytoanuprising,buthaspositive

connotationsasanactofresistanceorheroism.AsaHebrewterm,thewordissorarely

usedinHebrewlanguageliteraturetodescribetheactionsofthePalestiniansthattodoso

wouldbenearincomprehensible,inthatcontext.Rather,theArabicwordintifadaisleft

untranslatedinbothHebrewandEnglishscholarship,andhascome,especiallyinIsrael,to

denoterioters,terrorism,Molotovcocktails,stonethrowing,burningtires,bloodand

clashes...asanunexplainedexpressionitmaintainsratherintimidating,demonicand

violentconnotations.53However,wereonetocheckanArabic-Hebrewdictionary,itwould

showthatthetwotermsaredirecttranslationsofeachother.MendelbelievestheuseoftheuntranslatedArabicintifadatobeaconsciouschoiceonthepartofIsraelischolarship

andthemedia;

loyaltytotheword'smeaningisseentobekeptduetotheuseofthisauthentic

version,andsimultaneouslytheword'sgenuinemeaningisemptiedduetothelack

ofappropriatetranslation...[thustheArabic],whichisbasicallyaresponsiveand

defensiveconcept,cameouttobeatleastintheIsraeliJewishconceptan

offensiveandviolentnotion,asdistanceaspossiblefromitsreactivenatureand

fromIsraeliongoingoccupation.54

IntifadacanthenbeusedtodescribeallsortsofnegativebehaviourinIsrael,muchasthe,

whenstrictlydefined,innocuous,termfundamentalisthasbecomeinEnglish.Whenan

IsraeliArabmemberoftheKnesset(IsraelsParliament),MuhammadBarakeispokeofhis

respectfortheintifada,meaningresistanceintheWestBanktocontinuationof

occupation,hewasroundlyvilifiedandinvestigatedforviolationofIncitementtoTerrorism

laws.55AsimilarcaseexistswiththewordShahid,meaningwitnessinArabicbutprimarily

usedbyMuslimstodepictmartyrs.Theconnotationsonceagainsuggestthosewhodiein

thenameofamoralcause,muchliketheoriginalEnglishmeaningofmartyr.Mendelalso

addressestheIsraeliuseofthewordinpublicdiscourse;

IsraeliOrientalistsandmediaperceivethisconceptofshahidorshahadaasaliento

Israeli/Jewishsociety,anddefinitelyinhuman.Theideaofvaluingone'sdeathover

one'slifeisseenasakindofbackwardIslamicconceptonlyconfirmingwhat'we'

already'know'aboutIslam,MuslimsandPalestinians.56

52YonatanMendel,WhatsinaWord?OnIsraeliTranslationsofIntifada,Shahid,Hudna,andIslamic

Movements,CambridgeLiteraryReview(2010)Issue3,(Forthcoming).53Ibid.

54Ibid.

55Barakei(Hadash)addedtothelitanyofstatementsthatportrayradicalIsraeliArableadersasafifth

column...[heandotherArabMKs]mustbeheldaccountableforsupportingattacksagainstIsraelEditorial,BarakeisIntifada,JerusalemPost,6/11/2000.56Mendel,WhatsinaWord?

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Prof.YoavGelberfromHaifaUniversitysummarisedthesenationaldivides:

thereareculturaldifferencesbetweentheChristiancultureofconfession,andthe

Jewishself-accusationculture,andthe'everyoneshouldbeblamedbutme'

Palestinian-Arabculture[Therearedifferences]betweenaculturewhichplacesthe

sacrednessoflifeinthecentre[Judaism]andaculturethatencouragessuicidesand

shahids[Islam]57

ThetermissufficientlyknowntobeevenusedasathreatintheIsraelipress,aswhen

formerHaaretzeditorMattiGolannotedthatYasserArafatrecentlysaidhislife'sdreamis

tobecomeashahid.Perhapsit'stimeweseriouslyexploredthepossibilityofmakinghis

dreamcometrue.58Suchcasualincitementtotargetedassassinationofthemanwhois

ostensiblytheonlypeacepartneravailableisshockingtoWesternobservers,butasthe

practicewasandisroutinelycarriedoutagainstoppositionleadersintheterritories,and

wastriedmanytimesonArafathimself,ithasbecomebothalegitimatenotioninIsraelidiscourseandacommontacticinpractice.IncidentallyGolandoesntpresumethatsucha

movewouldchangemuchontheenemyside;theanimal-likePalestinianleaderswillbe

preoccupiedwithfightingovertheinheritance.59

Dehumanisationisemployedthroughthedifferentiationofconceptassociatedwithus;

IsraeliJews,suchasself-criticism,openness,andrationality,asopposedtothepolar

oppositeswhicharedulyassociatedwiththem,theArabs,notablyself-righteousness,

fanaticism,andirrationality,fromwhichallothermorespecificallegations,suchasanti-

Semitismandapropensitytoviolence,follow.

Hypothesis

TheLimitsofLanguage

Thediscourseevidentinthisperiodisinterrelatedtothenewlinguisticdeviceswehave

seenthroughouttheworld,andnotjusttheWest,intheWaronTerror.ThisWarona

propernounhasservedasadefiningshibbolethforhowweengageinsecuritydiscourse

today,withtheconceptofSecuritization,popularisedbytheCopenhagenSchoolof

internationalrelations,arguingthatsecurityisaspeech-act;asocialconstructionwhereby

issuesarebroughtintobeingasasecuritysituationbysuccessfullyrepresenting[them]assuch.

60ThisWittgensteinianapproach,wheretheuseoflanguagecreatesmeaninginitself,

isrelevantespeciallyinthatitallows,inthewordsoftheCopenhagentheorists,forthe

castingofissuesasanexistentialthreat;anissueofsupremepriority,thusbylabellingit

assecurityanagentclaimsaneedforandarighttotreatitbyextraordinarymeans,taking

57YoavGelber,History,Memory,Propaganda:TheHistoricalDisciplineinIsraelandintheWorld(TelAviv:Tel

AvivUniversityPress,2007),p.15.58MattiGolan,WhyShouldtheLeftSaveArafat?JerusalemPost,23/10/2003.

59

Ibid.60MichaelC.Williams,Words,Images,Enemies:SecuritizationandInternationalPolitics, International

StudiesQuarterly(Dec.,2003),Vol.47,No.4:p.513.

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politicalissuesandliftingthemabovepolitics.61Frequently,repressiveIsraeliactions

againstthePalestiniansintheOccupiedTerritorieshavebeen,evenifcondemnedas

disproportionate,justifiedundertheguiseofsecurity.SecurityconcernshavebeenIsraels

carteblancheforincreasinglydestructiveretributionandcollectivepunishmentofthe

Palestinianpopulation,with4182peoplelefthomelessinthefouryearsfollowingthelatest

intifada(2001-2004)simplyduetopunishmenthousedemolitions.62

Intheresearchsofar,IcontendthatwehaveseenevidenceofaspecifictypeofIsraeli

Orientalism,wherethemediaandacademiaaretoalargedegreecomplicitincreatinga

monochromespectrumthroughwhichthePalestinianArabsareviewed.ThePalestinians,as

thedesignatedOther,andenemy,areportrayedinawaythatconformstoagreatdegree

withthenarrativethatnegatestheirownstory;thatofexpansionistZionism.Iproposethat

thisparticularportrayalisbornlessoutofthetypicalWesternfascinationwith,andpityfor,

theEasthistorically,andmoreduetothepeculiaritiesofthatdefiningcharacteristicand

ideologyofIsrael;Zionism.IsraeliOrientalismisreactionary,andnotapriorjustificationfor

imperialistadventurismaswas,andis,theOrientalismofsectionsoftheWesternelite.

SaidsOrientalism

First,IshalloutlinethescopeofOrientalism,howitrelatestomystudy,andhowwhatwe

haveidentifiedinIsraeliprintmediaandacademiadiffersfromEdwardSaidsclassic

concept.

In19thCenturyEurope,Orientalismequatedtoasetofidiomsandlinguistictruths.Said,in

hisseminal1978workOrientalism,investigatesthenatureoflanguageinorderto

ascertainhowitcanframeourunderstandingofthephysical.Wittgensteinproposedthatlanguagedidnotdescribetheworldinthesensethatitwasauniversalcategorisingdevice,

butratherthatlanguagecreatedmeaningitself,thatthemeaningofawordisitsuseinthe

language.63Nietzschedismissedthetruthoflanguageasnoughtbut

amobilearmyofmetaphors,metonyms,andanthropomorphismsinshort,asum

ofhumanrelations,whichhavebeenenhanced,transposed,andembellished

poeticallyandrhetorically,andwhichafterlonguseseemfirm,canonical,and

obligatorytoapeople:truthsareillusionsaboutwhichonehasforgottenthatthisis

whattheyare.64

WeneednotfullyembraceWittgensteinandNietzschesdismissaloflanguageasan

objectivelabeller,assuchanotionismerelyimportantinordertohighlightthesubjectivity

andlatencyoflanguage,especiallywhenbeingusedtodescribeanotionallyeffablesetof

facts,suchasthenatureoftheOrientandOrientals,orthecharacterofthecollective

61BarryBuzan,OleWver,JaapdeWilde, Security:ANewFrameworkforAnalysis(Boulder,CO:Lynne

Reinner,1998),p.26.62BTselem,StatisticsHouseDemolitionsasPunishment,2005,

(http://www.btselem.org/English/Punitive_Demolitions/Statistics.asp).Accessedon11/4/10.63

LudwigWittgenstein,PhilosophicalInvestigations(Oxford:BasilBlackwell,1953),p.43.64FriedrichNietzsche,OnTruthandLieinanExtra-MoralSense,inThePortableNietzsche ,editorand

translatorWalterKaufmann(NewYork:VikingPress,1954),p.46.

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Palestinianpsyche.ThusSaidarguesthat,infact,theseidiomsandtruthsthatWestern

OrientalistsemployedtodescribetheEasternotherdidnotnecessarilyrefereventothe

realOrient(whethersuchathingastherealOrientexistsisanothermatter),butinstead

thefieldthathadbeenconstructedsurroundingtheword.Europeansdiscourseaboutthe

Orientwasdeterminedbytheconfinesofthelanguagethathadbeenusedtodescribeit.

TheconceptionofOrientalsaseffeminate,weak,unenlightened,curiousintheir

backwardness,andessentiallyatoddswiththedivinelysanctionedWesterncivilisation,was

notjustaconclusiondrawnafterstudyandargument,onanequalstandingwithpossible

otherconclusions.ThesetruthsabouttheOrient,bothspecificandevenatthelevelthat

suggesteditwaspossibletoformulatetruthsaboutthisOther,werepre-suppositionsin

Orientalistdiscourse,theyshapedthediscussionthatcouldbehad.AsOrientalismwas

prevalenttoagreatdegreeinEurope,Saidsuggests,andindeedwastheonlyframeworkin

whichEuropeanscouldconceptualisethisOrient;theonlylanguagethatwasavailableto

them,thediscoursesurroundingtheOrientthatemergedwasnecessarilyareflectionof

theseimperialistandself-congratulatingtruths.Saidgoessofarastosaythatthe

existenceofthefieldofOrientalism,inbeingasystemoftruths(asNietzschehaddefinedthem),meantthateveryEuropean,inwhathecouldsayabouttheOrient,was

consequentlyaracist,animperialist,andalmosttotallyethnocentric.65

Orientalismwascruciallyalsoaprofession,andascanbeseeninIsraelwherestudyofand

commentaryontheArabsisanalmostexclusivelyJewishIsraelipursuit,theisolationofthe

Orientalfromthedebatecreatesamorelatentandcaricaturedimage.

Orientalismasapracticetoday

Howthen,isOrientalismutilised?InthesectionofhisbookoutliningOrientalismsWorldliness,SaididentifiesRudyardKiplingsWhiteManasaspecificandpowerful

ideologicalnotion.BeingaWhiteMan,especiallyinthecolonies,involvedcertainsortsof

behaviourandwasaformofauthoritybeforewhichnon-whites,andevenwhites

themselves,wereexpectedtobend.66TheOthernessalsoservedtocreateanUs-ness,a

commonbondandidentityconstructedprimarilyfromthedoctrineoftheWhiteManinthe

colonies,andhowthebehaviourexpectedofhimwasaresultofhisinnatedifferenceswith,

andsuperiorityto,thenatives.

Wecanseethisinbasicpsychology,andespeciallyinself-categorizationtheory,where

peoplerepresent,defineandidentifythemselvesonthebasisofgroupmembership.Thedelineationofinandoutgroupsisvitallyimportanttoformandmaintainsocialidentity.

Individualslooktoothergroups(outgroups)tounderstandwhattheirgroup(ingroup)is

not,thenaturaltendencybeingtodeemyourowngroupasmorepositivethantheother.

Furthermore,individualstrytoalignthemselvesascloselyaspossible(intermsoftheir

behaviourandattitudes)totheirconceptualprototypeofthetypicalin-groupmember.67

Suchanidentitycanbeextremelypowerful,andwhencombinedwiththedehumanisation

65Said,Orientalism,p.204.

66

Ibid,p.227.67ScottTindaleetal.,GroupProcessesandtheHolocaust,in UnderstandingGenocide:TheSocialPsychology

oftheHolocaust,ed.LeonardNewmanandRalphErber(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2002),p.146.

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thatoftenaccompaniescreatingtheoutgroup,itismucheasiertocoercetheingroupto

commitatrocities.68

ItisthisfacetofOrientalismwhichperhapsappliesbesttotheIsraelisituation.Israels

behaviourtowardsthePalestinians,defendedandreinforcedbythedominantnarratives

promulgatedinIsraelisociety,islessaboutanti-Arabsentimentasafirstcause,andmore

aboutthespecialplaceandauthorityaffordedtoIsraelisifonesubscribestotheideology

ofZionism.Itisanespeciallystrongformofgroupidentity,onemoreovertthanisusually

seen,andonethatiscodifiedandpreachedasastatedoctrine.Evenmoreapparentlythan

withwhiteEuropeancolonialism,forpracticalZionismanotherlinkinthechainbindingus

togetherwasformedwhileanotheroutsiderwasbanished.69Nevertheless,itwouldbe

mistakentosimplyseeZionismasnothingbutanoffshootandregion-specificexpressionof

19thcenturyEuropeancolonialism.Certainlytherewerechauvinisticcharacteristics

inherited,buttheideologyofZionismisfarmoreparticularthanthegeneralexpansionism

calledforintheWhiteMansBurden.Nor,ofcourse,doesZionismitselfevennecessitate

whatwewouldthinkofasimperialism,butratherfacilitatesforthosewhowishtoemployitinthismanner.ItsdifferencesfromtheproductsofEuropeanOrientalismareobviouseven

fromthefactthatJews,alongwithArabMuslims,weresubjectsofOrientalistthoughtin

dealingwiththeSemiticraces.

DanRabinowitzarguesthatOrientalotheringstemsfromthenotionofculturalism:an

active,oftenconsciousattemptbyformalandinformalstateagenciestoestablish

compositenotionsofculture.70ThiswasmanifestedinIsraelbyacertaininterpretation

andappropriationofZionism,athoroughlymodernistideology,wherebythestatesoughtto

createanewsecularandmodernisedidentity.71Thisidentitywasformednotjustatthe

expenseoftheArabpopulationsreasonsforanattachmenttotheland,butwasaconsciousnegationofanyPalestiniannarrativeregardingaconnectiontohistoricPalestine.

ItfurthermorewasnecessarilyinoppositiontotheperpetuationoftheideaoftheJewish

Diaspora;thenotionofJewishcommunitiesintegratingintotheirnativesocietieswhilst

remainingculturallyJewish.TheZionistproject,bothinitsearlylabour-orientated,bi-

nationalcharacter,andinitslatersovereignterritorialidentity,arguedfortheresponsibility

ofJewstomakealiyah(immigrationtoIsrael),thuscreatinganewculturallyJewishidentity

toreplacetheold.Thisnewidentity,tiedupwiththedoctrineofZionism,becamedominant

inthe1930sand40s,andmuchmoresoaftertheestablishmentoftheStateofIsrael.The

solidificationofthisidentity,andthefurtherlinksinthechainbindingustogether,came

withtheencountering,othering,anddispossessingoftheArabPalestinians.RevisionistZionism,associatedwithZeevJabotinsky,emphasisedforcingtheArabpopulationof

PalestinetoacceptasovereignJewishstate,incontrasttothelabourZionismofthe

kibbutzim,themajorityoftheearlyYishuv(theMandatePalestineJewishcommunity).Early

Israelianthropologicaldialoguewaskeytothis,withthelanguageusedrevealingan

interestingreversecorrelation.TraitsthatIsraeliwriterssingleoutasdefiningArabculture

68ChristopherBrowning,OrdinaryMen(London:PenguinGroup,1992),p.73.

69Ibid,p.228.

70DanRabinowitz,OrientalOtheringandNationalIdentity:AReviewofEarlyIsraeliAnthropologicalStudies

ofPalestinians, Identities:GlobalStudiesinCultureandPower(2002),9:pp.305-324,p.306.71YaelZrubavel,RecoveredRoots:CollectiveMemoryandtheMakingofIsraeliNationalTradition(Chicago:

UniversityofChicagoPress,1995),pp.22-35.

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areoftendiametricoppositionsoffeaturesmanyIsraelisseeastypicaloftheirown

identity.72Thiswascertainlytrueinthecreationofanationalidentity,butremainsso

todayintheIsraelianalysisofthePalestiniancharacterandmotivations.

AvenuesofNarrative:TheIsraeliMedia

Ashasbeendemonstrated,boththepopularmediaandtheelitesphereofacademialargely

conformtoapre-existingsocietalconstruct;aZionistframeworkthroughwhichtheconflict

mustbeexplained.Thisidentityconstructionispartbourgeoisnationalismandpartpan-

national...,butisstrengthenedandevenpartiallycreatedbyaconflictandrelationshipwith

acontradictoryidentity.Thisidentity;thatofthePalestiniansasportrayedbythe

ideologicalorgansofIsraelisociety,doesnotexistasanindependentandself-sufficient

concept,itisinsteadanotherofNietzscheslinguistictruths;inthiscaseadefinableother

toserveasthecounterpointtoZionismsus.ThisOrientalismisindeedmorenecessaryand

formativetoitsauthorsthantheEuropeanversionSaidexposed,withitservingtobindand

fortifyanidentityconstructthatisyoungandoftenfragile,heldtogetherbymovableborders,amilitarymachine,andavulnerablestate.TheStateZionismbuilthasbeen

remarkablydiverseinitsstructure,andyetnowmorethanever,unifiedinitsprimary

nationaldiscourse.Itissplitethnically,withtheAshkenazi(European),Sephardic(Spanish

andNorthAfrican),andMizrahi(MiddleEastern)Jews,alongwithsizeableArabandDruze

minorities.CulturallyandlinguisticallyitisasdiverseasanymulticulturalWesternnation,

andtherehasremainedadegreeofnon-homogeneityeveninitslegallydefining

characteristic;Judaism,withonlyavocalminoritycomprisingtheharedi(Ultra-orthodox)

whilstsecularJewsarestillthemajority.FurthermoreitappearsclearthatIsraelismore

complexthanjustaEuropeansettler-colonialstate;akindofMiddleEasternRhodesia.

ThereisagenuineattachmentforJewstotheHolyLand,andcertainlytheHolocaustwasacrucialfactorinspurringtheinternationalcommunitytorecognisetheneedsofself-

determinationfortheJewishYishuv.Thesefactsexist,andarenotmereproductsofthe

webweavedbythediscoursewithinZionism.Nevertheless,initscomplexity,themodern

Zionistdiscoursehasimportantandfundamentalconstructionsregardingitsownnature,

andthatofitsperceivedenemies.Indeed,theveryexistenceofitsenemies,howeverreal

theymaybe,isacrucialpartofthenarrativewithoutwhichitwouldceasetobe.

Thereasonthen,Icontend,forastrikingnationalconsensusinthemidstofadiverseand

unlike-mindedsociety,isthespecialplaceoccupiedbytheArabPalestinianOtherinthe

modernZionistnarrative.Thecharacterisationwhichhasbeenshown;thatoftheArabsasworthlesscreatureswhojustwanttokillJewsandblockIsrael'snobleeffortstocreatea

modernflourishingJewishstate,73iscrucialtoapoliticaldialoguewhichservesthepurpose

ofcontinuingtocreatetheus.Thisdevelopmentcanevenbetraced,asitevolvedwiththe

changingconditionsinIsraelfollowingtheoccupation,andthenthepost-intifadapeace

process.JonathanCookarguesthattheIsraeli,ormodernZionist,consensusregardinga

distinctPalestinianidentity,whichhadpreviouslybeendenied,resultedfromanew

approachtothedemographicthreat,andthepoliticaldemandsoftheOsloperiodand

possiblePalestinianstatehood.Thecharacterisation,aswehaveseenespeciallyinIsraeli

academia,ofPalestiniansonbothsidesoftheGreenLineaspartofsomekindofover-

72Rabinowitz,OrientalOtheringandNationalIdentity,p.307.

73NoamChomsky,ininterviewwiththeauthor,2010(includedinAppendix).

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archingandconspiratorialPalestiniannationalplottodestroytheJewishstate,and

thereforeoftheArabIsraelisasfifth-columnists,beganasaprogrammeofcreatingaweak

andcontrollablePalestinianstateinwhichtoejectthedemographicproblem,andended,

afterCampDavid,asanintellectualframeworkinwhichthePalestiniansarenecessarily

two-faced,incorrigibleterrorist(s)...[andeitherthe]enemy(Hamas),afifthcolumn

(PalestiniansinsideIsrael),[or]asanenemythatcouldpossiblybereinedinundertheright

leadershipandwithenoughUSpressure(Fatah).74

DebateonanIsraeliOrientalism

ThereisadebateonthischaracterisationofIsraeliOrientalism,withsomearguingthat

Israelisareencouragedtoviewallnon-Jews(Goyimisthepejorativetermused

uncriticallybymostHebrewspeakers)asinherentlyanti-Semiticandthereforeanti-

Israeli,75andthusArabsaremerelythefocalpointofmediademonizationthroughaccident

ofgeography.Thereissomemeritinthisargument,butitignoresthespecificcolonial

relationshipthatexistsbetweenparticularlyAshkenaziIsraelisandtheArabworldingeneral,aEuropeanintellectualtraditionofthecivilisersversustheunderdeveloped.

ThoughtheBritish,forinstance,wereprobablyasanti-SemiticandhostiletotheJewsas

muchoftheArabworld,andhadoccupiedthelandofPalestinesince1916,thesame

dynamicdidnotexist.AspecificdivisionaswascreatedbetweenArabandIsraelicouldnot

applyasforcefullytootherplayerswithintheregion,asthestrengthoftheOther

distinctioninthecaseoftheArabsshows.Anotherconsiderationistheclashofreligions,

whichiscertainlyafactor,butshouldnotbeoveremphasized.First,thePalestiniansarenot

now,norhavebeen,overwhelminglyhomogenousintheirreligion,withsizeableChristian

andsecularminorities,alongwiththedominantSunniMuslimmajority.Second,Israeli

societyandamajorityofZionists,asmentionedbefore,definethemselvesassecular.

WhetherZionismisOrientalisttoday,andespeciallyinour2000-2005timeframe,is

contestedasananachronisticcharge.TheterminSaidsusagewasprimarilydirectedat18th

and19thCenturyEuropeanintellectualsandartists,thoughhedidmaintainthatitcontinued

inmodernscholarship,especiallyintheworkofhistorianslikeBernardLewis.Dr.Ilan

DanjouxoftheHebrewUniversityofJerusalemargueshoweverthatIsraelicharacterisation

ofPalestiniansissituationalandnotgeneralised,andthatthenarrativesuggeststhat

wherePalestinianssupportviolence,thisisbecauseitisstrategicallybeneficialortheresult

offrustration,notaculturalnorm.76JournalistYoniMendeldisagrees,positingthat

InasocietywhichgathersaroundthearmyasitsfocalpointandwhichseesJudaism

asanationalidentity,theJewish-militarydiscourseemergesalmostnaturally.

Withinthisdiscourse,whichbecomesthesociety'scommonsense,certain(positive)

behavioursarelinkedtotheJews,andcertain(negative)behavioursarelinkedtothe

Arabs.Givingthemediaasanexample,oneneedstorememberthatwithinIsraeli

commonsense,thethemesofviolence,aggressiveness,propagandaandincitement

74JonathanCook,ininterviewwiththeauthor,2010(IncludedinAppendix).

75

RanHaCohen,Israel,ANewDecade, Antiwar.com,(http://original.antiwar.com/hacohen/2010/04/09/israel-a-new-decade/),10/04/2010.Accessed21/04/2010.76IlanDanjoux,ininterviewwiththeauthor,2010(IncludedinAppendix).

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areArab-oriented,whileself-defence,response,restraintandmoralityareJewish-

Israeli-oriented,andrarelyrepresentArabbehaviourorwaysofthinking.77

MendelreasonsthatthecriticismdirectedtowardsPalestinianbehaviourisrootedinwhat

IsraelisocietyunderstandsaboutPalestinians,andcannotbemerelysituationalasthe

entireapparatusofdiscussionissetuptoportraytheminthatway.Thisisfurthermade

possiblebythefactthatwithintheIsraelisphereswherethisknowledgeisbeingmade,

Arabsarenotallowed,withbarelyanyjobsingovernment,academia,orthemedia,that

relatetotheArabworldortheconflict,assignedtoactualArabcitizensofIsrael.78Thus,the

voiceoftheOrientiscreatedbytheabsenceofanygenuinevoiceofthesubject.

TheviewofIsraelisocietyasinthroetoadeterministicworldview,wherethenationis

raisedbeyondthepolitical,iscorroboratedbythereverenceIsraelishaveforcertain

institutions,mostnotablythearmy(IsraelDefenceForce).Thisisrelatedtotheprimacyof

security,anditsperceiveddemands,inIsraelidiscourse.TheIDFisthemostrespectedand

developedinstitutionoftheIsraelistate,andcertainlyoneofthemostpervasive,withconscriptionforallnon-Arabcitizensover18,exceptforHaredi(Ultra-Orthodox)Jews.The

armyisever-presentinIsraelilife,withthemajorityofthepopulation(allablebodiedmen

andwomenuptoage50,andsometimesolder)effectivelyservingasreservists,creatinga

highlymilitarisedsociety.Thosefewwhodonotconformareostracisedandvilified,with

nationalleft-wingplaywrightShmuelHasfarisayinghewouldrefusetoworkwith[Israeli

actorwhohadnotserved,Itay]Tiranjustlikewithanymurdererorrapist.79Withthe

internalisationofstatedoctrinebyordinaryIsraelis,dissentisremarkablytame,andeven

thatisaverymarginalpursuit.ThisisacknowledgedbythehighrankingluminariesofIsraeli

society,withAirForceCommanderMajorGeneralDanHalutz,speakingaboutmembersof

GushShalom,declaringthatthesepeoplearen'tevenmarginal.TheyareoutsidethemarginsoftheStateofIsrael,whileIfeelthatIamthemoralcompassandconscienceof

thenationofIsrael...ThereisnomoremoralarmythantheIDF.80Halutz,whenaskedhow

hecoulddropabombknowingitwouldkillciviliansandchildren,dismissedthequestionas

notlegitimate,thatIfyouwanttoknowwhatIfeelwhenIreleaseabombIfeelaslight

knockonthewingoftheplanewhenthebombisreleased.Afteraseconditpasses,and

thatsall.81SuchblatantglorificationofviolenceisindeedcondemnedwithinIsrael,though

rarelypunished,butthediscourseissufficientlypulledtowardstherightthatoppositionto

MajorGeneralHalutzsverypresenceintheoccupiedterritoriesisseenasdissentremoved

fromreality,outsidethemarginsofthenationofIsrael.

Itmustbeemphasisedthatthisresearchsaysnothingastothecontraryperceptionsof

PalestinianArabstowardstheIsraelis,manyofwhichareundoubtedlymirroredinthe

attitudesthathavebeenshownhere.Itsaysnothingaboutanypossiblecausalrelationship

thatcouldexistbetweenthetwoidentitiesortheprejudicesthateachcarryregardingeach

77YonatanMendel,OrientalismStillMattersinModernDayIsrael,TheGuardian,

(http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jun/17/israelandthepalestinians),17/06/2008.Accessed

16/04/2010.78Ibid.

79

HaCohen,Israel,ANewDecade.80DanHalutzininterviewwithVeredLevy-Barzilai,TheHighandtheMighty, Haaretz,21/08/2002.

81AviramZino,CivilRightsGroupChallengesHalutz,Ynet,24/07/06.

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other.Mostimportantly,itdoesnotsuggestthatanyoftheattitudesandidentifications

foundwithinthescholarshipandmediacoveragearepositiveornegative,helpfulor

unhelpful.Thoughmyownprejudiceshaveundoubtedlybecomeclearthroughout,itisfar

beyondtheremitofthisstudytodenoteblame,attachsubjectivevalueorcondemnationto

thebehaviourofactors,ortoprescribesolutions.

Summary

Insummarythen,thehypothesisadvancedhereisthatmodernZionism,asahybridof

Jewishnationalism,theologicalprescription,andaconditionalidentity,hasimposedupon

bothIsraelandtheoccupiedPalestiniansapre-determinedidentity,andaresultant

frameworkwithinwhichtheycanoperate.TheconflicthascharacterisedIsraelsincebefore

itsbirth,butmosttangiblysincethestartoftheoccupation,andtheidentityofZionistIsrael

isthusinextricablylinkedwithwhathasalwaysbeenitsobstacletoovercome,theproblem

ofthePalestinians.AsJohnLyndon,directorofagrassrootspeacemovement82intheregion

putsit(speakinginhispersonalcapacity);

Israelconceptualisesitsenemy(Arabsingeneral,andPalestiniansinparticular)as

Theother,intrinsicallydifferentfromthemselvesandlesslikelytoactrationally,

governedinsteadbyemotionsandreligiousideology.Thereisalsoanincreasingly

prevalentbeliefthatArabassurancesandpromisescannotbetrusted,andthatthey

areinsomewaypredisposedtowarddouble-dealinganddishonesty.83

Themediaandacademiaserveasmerecasestudiesofthis,butareinstructiveinsofaras

theyrepresentthedoctrinaltoolsofthedominantideology,andthussettheboundariesfor

debate.No(significant)governmentcensorshiporexternalpressureisimposedinordertocreatetheseboundaries,rathertheyexistasanecessaryfunctionofaclearlydefined

identity,wheretotrespassbeyondthelimitsofwhatthisnarrativeoutlinesistobendand

distorttheidentityitself.ThePalestiniansare,asagrouporOther,madetobethealien

andyetfamiliarenemy.Weknowtheirnature,whichisuntrustworthy,fanaticalintheir

disdainforlifeandthematerialworld,purveyorsofacultureofdeath,andsoon.Weknow

thattheirmotivescoincidewiththeseimplacablefacetsoftheircharacter,andsoour

knowledgewassimplyconfirmedwhenArafatrefusedBaraksgenerousofferatCamp

David,provinghimselftobetheincorrigibleterroristtheyallare.Thesestatementsarenot

bigotry,butcommonlyunderstoodlinguisticconventions,andsoshapethewayIsrael

perceivestheentireconflict.

Conclusions

Israelidiscourseisbynomeanstheproductofatotalitariansystemormindset,andthe

media,thoughconstrainedinsomeways,iscertainlynotPravda.WithinIsrael,dissident

voicesareheardandareevenprominentenoughtoachieveexposuretoaworldwide

audience,asevidencedbymyowncitationofGideonLevy,AmiraHass,AviShlaimand

82

TheOneVoiceMovementisaninternationalmainstreamgrassrootsmovementthataimstoamplifythevoiceofIsraeliandPalestinianmoderates(www.onevoicemovement.org).Accessed23/04/2010.83JohnLyndon,ininterviewwiththeauthor,2010(IncludedinAppendix).

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othersinthisdissertation.NorisHebrewsocietyespeciallycomplianttowardsthe

governmentandstateofficials,withahealthydisrespectforgovernmentauthorityfigures

surpassingthatofmanyWesternnations,andanaveragePrimeMinisterstenurebeing

around2years.WecanmakenomistakethatIsraelisacomparativelyopensociety,and

certainlythemostfreeintheMiddleEast.EvenintheOccupiedTerritories,certainlyunfree

underIsraeliadministration,themostdiligentandreliablehumanrightsorganisationsand

activistsareIsraeli,withBTselemprovidingthebenchmark.Anyconclusionsthatcanbe

drawnfromthisdissertationcouldnotsuggestaparticularlackoffreedomorcoercionof

thoughtinIsrael,atleastcomparedwithitsneighbours.

Whatinsteadcanweconclude?Israel,asaself-avowedlyideologicalnation,hasconstructed

anarrativethatinformsandlimitsdiscourseoncertainkeyissues.TheveryactofIsraels

statehood,itsexistenceandprominence,ispredicatedonaninevitableconflict.Bybeing

partof,byparticipatingintheflourishingofthisyoungnation,theindividualswhich

constituteIsraelisocietyaredefiningforthemselvesasetofboundaries;adelineationof

whatmakesusus,andthuswhatourcorrespondingOtheris.WhatsetsIsraelapartinthisrespectistheclarityofsuchademarcation,theclearlyenunciated,inthepressand

elsewhere,narrativeoftheIsraeliJewsasanationunderthreat,andwithaclearenemy.

Thelinesaredrawnandtheparticipantsencouragedtotakeaside,withbothteams

convenientlynamedanddescribedbythecommentators.

TheconstituentpartsofZionisminitsmodernformarenotjust,asitsproponentsmaintain,

arecognitionofwhatbindstogetherandlinksallJews;alanguage,aculture,aheritage,a

homeland.Itispredicatedonaconflict,onethatappearsintractable.TheIsraeliidentityis

justassurelybuilt,inpart,onanegationofcertainpartsofthePalestinianidentityasitis

onanaffirmationoftheJewishidentity.Foressentiallythetwopeoplessharethesameland,andhavedoneforasignificantperiodoftime.IsraelastheJewishStateisa

challenge,asituationwhichrequiresasecuritizationofthePalestinianthreat,anda

classificationofthePalestiniansasathreat.Theselinguistictruthsarebuiltintothevery

fabricofIsraelanditssociety,tocontradictthemistostepoutsidetheboundariesof

legitimatediscourse.

Thisisnottosuggestthattheconflictismanufacturedoranillusion,itisverymuchareality.

Palestinianterrorismandanti-SemitismwithintheArabworldarenotjustlinguistic

constructs,andsometimessituationsdoamounttoasecuritythreat,andshouldsurelybe

labelledassuch.Tosuggestthatjustourlanguagecanaccountforalltheseperceivedrealitieswouldbesomethinglikeavulgarpost-structuralism,andasthelateEdwardSaid

observed,humanrightsarenotculturalorgrammaticalthings,andwhenviolatedtheyare

asrealasanythingwecanencounter.84Whatisinsteadsuggestedisthatcommentators

mustnecessarilyframetheconflictinacertainway,andthoughthisdependsontheir

personalinclinationsandpersuasions,itisfundamentallydeterminedbytheirenvironment,

bywhatiswithintheirlinguisticandculturalcapacitytosay.Withregardtotheenemy,the

ArabOtherbothwithintheirmidst,intheirdisputedterritories,andacrossfromthemat

theirnegotiatingtables,thelimitsofdescriptivediscoursearelargelypre-determined.An

IsraeliOrientalismissomanifestonlybecauseoftheintimaterelationshiptheJewishState

84EdwardW.Said,HumanismandDemocraticCriticism(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2004),p.136.

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haswithitssupposednemesis.TheidentityofZionismisdefinedbytheidentityofits

opponentsprimarilybecauseitrequirestheirdefeat,orexpulsion,andsothelanguageof

conflictisaninevitabilityinastatethatinstilsthismentalityinitspopulace.

EveryfacetofwhattheIsraelimedia,academia,andtoabasicextentsociety,have

determinedisthePalestiniannatureisconditionedonitsun-Israeliness.ThePalestinians,

especiallyduringthecasestudyofour2000-2005timeperiod,arecharacterisedas

unreliable,violent,morereligious,irrational,inciters,different,andirreconcilableasa

peoplewiththeWesternvaluesthatIsraelischerish.Again,likeSaid,itisnotthe

researchersplacetoassesstheveracityoftheseclaims,oropineonwhethersuchclaims

aboutthecharacterofapeoplecanevenbemade.Suchsubjectivejudgementsareleftfor

thereader.WhatcanbedemonstratedisthatthedialoguewithinIsraelisrepletewiththis

terminology,butmoresothatitisdirectedandformedwithinthecontoursofthismindset;

thatthisisnecessarilyso.AswithSaidsexposureofOrientalismasaprofessional

phenomenonbothhistoricallyandinthepresentday,sotooisthisIsraeliArabistdiscourse

thedomainofacademics,toasmallerdegree,andthemainstreammediatoamuchgreaterdegree.Theyaretheself-appointedinvestigatorsintothenatureoftheOther,theyarethe

instigatorsofthedialogueofdehumanisation.

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Bibliography

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