Dr. Ion Georgiou FGV-EAESP-IMQ 1

Strategic Options Development and Analysis

The Principles

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Why maps? SODA works by constructing and analyzing cognitive maps The usefulness of cognitive mapping has gained currency during the last twenty years

Bryant J (1984) Modelling alternative realities in conflict and negotiation. Journal of the Operational Research Society 35(11): 985-993

Langfield-Smith K (1992) Exploring the need for a shared cognitive map. Journal of Management Studies 29(3): 349-368

Fiol CM (1992) Maps for managers: Where are we? Where do we go from here? Journal of Management Studies 29(3): 267-285

Kitchin RM (1994) Cognitive maps: what are they and why study them? Journal of Environmental Psychology 14(1): 1-19

Nicolini D (1999) Comparing methods for mapping organizational cognition. Organization Studies 20(5): 833-860

Daniels K, Johnson G (2002) On trees and triviality traps: locating the debate on the contribution of cognitive mapping to organizational research. Organization Science 23(1): 73-81

Tegarden DP, Sheetz SD (2003) Group cognitive mapping: a methodology and system for capturing and evaluating managerial and organizational cognition. OMEGA The International Journal of Management Science 31(2): 113-125

Kane M, Trochim WMK (2007) Concept Mapping for Planning and Evaluation. Sage: Thousand Oaks the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, Florida University System, Cmap tools program that

‘empowers users to construct, navigate, share and criticize knowledge models represented as concept maps’ (see http://www.ihmc.us/)

A string of mind mapping gurus have emerged, the most famous being Tony Buzan, the self-proclaimed ‘inventor of mind mapping’ (Buzan, 2002; see also http://www.imindmap.com)

… no matter whether one calls them concept maps, cognitive maps, or mind maps, particular structures have spawned spidergrams, bubble diagrams, logic diagrams, and tree diagrams (to name but a few)

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The mapping approach offered by Operational Research Operational research offers its own version of

cognitive mapping: Strategic Options Development and Analysis, or SODA.

What differentiates SODA from other cognitive mapping approaches is its basis in George Kelly’s psychological theory of personal constructs.

Although SODA does not pretend to appropriate Kelly’s theory en masse, it does borrow two key ideas: one theoretical, and one procedural

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George Kelly’s theory

Highly developed Books

Kelly GA (1955/1991) The Psychology of Personal Constructs. 2nd edn. Routledge: London

Kelly GA (1963) A Theory of Personality: The Psychology of Personal Constructs. Norton: London.

Kelly GA (1970) A brief introduction to personal construct theory. In Bannister D (ed.), Perspectives in Personal Construct Theory. Academic Press: London pp. 1-30

Journals International Journal of Personal Construct

Psychology among others... Kelly’s central theme is the manner in which human

beings understand the world through mental constructs

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George Kelly’s theory

Interested in uncovering the meaning behind what we say, and thus minimize ambiguity

He noted that problems tend to be analyzed or interpreted according to the type of analyst one consults: a Freudian/Jungian analyst will structure and analyze

according to Freudian/Jungian principles; A Behaviorist would most probably analyze the situation and

draw conclusions in terms of conditioning This implies that the frame of reference of the analyst delimits

what is perceived, how it is described, and what the ultimate prescription might be

Kelly’s objective was to devise a theory, coupled with an analytical technique, which would remove (as far as possible) the analyst’s frame of reference (i.e. bias), and so undertake problem description and resolution from the client’s point of view

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The new role of the analyst

Where once the analyst was seen as some type of specialist in the contents of the mind, s/he would now be appreciated more as a process facilitator specializing in structuring the client’s thoughts as the client sees them

This view of analysis, and of the role of the analyst, underpins SODA what the client needs is help in structuring

complex perceptions so that the client him/herself can then resolve the problem using this structure

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Kelly’s basic procedure Reality, and what we make of it, is constituted by contrasts, rather than

absolutes Any individual understands a phenomenon in terms of constructs

A construct is constituted by a contrast A person is pleasant

Not pleasant is not a contrast – it is the negative What is the particular contrast which is being implicitly conveyed? Pleasant… rude (here, pleasant includes politeness) Pleasant… exciting (here, pleasant includes placidity: merely pleasant, maybe

even a bit boring) In this way, constructs open up the world of human understanding Any model structured according to constructs differentiates at least two views

of the world This is useful because in one model we can identify a strategy which leads

somewhere as opposed to following another (opposite) strategy which leads somewhere else

we can thus compare and contrast strategies SODA does exactly this

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Understanding Kelly’s basic approach through a contemporary example

Invade Invade IraqIraq... ... notnot

RemainRemain indifferentindifferent to to dictatorsdictators AllowAllow democracydemocracy to to flourishflourish in in itsits ownown timetime Do Do notnot supportsupport thethe armamentsarmaments industryindustry QuestionQuestion thethe electoralelectoral advantageadvantage of of warswars UniteUnite thethe alliesallies in in warwar againstagainst terrorismterrorism PursuePursue alternativealternative sourcessources of of energyenergy PursuePursue diplomaticdiplomatic channelschannels FocusFocus onon AfghanistanAfghanistan Invade Invade NorthNorth KoreaKorea ((oror PalestinianPalestinian TerritoriesTerritories, , oror

Iran)Iran)

negativeav

aila

ble

cont

rast

s

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SODA Maps

They represent subjective data meaningfully and transparently through a process of cause and effect

They facilitate decision making, problem solving, and negotiation in organizational contexts

They act as documents of clear argumentation Visual aid for

comprehending the perceptions of problem owners discovering otherwise hidden aspects of the problem

Alternative strategies (stemming from thinking in opposites) Feedback loops (stemming from the network structure of

cognitive maps)

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SODA: Interdisciplinary range

SODAmaps

[Di]GraphTheory

Topology

Blockmodeling

Cartography

Graphdrawing

[Social]NetworkTheory

GraphMining

RepertoryGrids

MatrixTheory

Psychology

SystemTheory

Epistemology

We want a tool that: Models thoughts Models choices Incorporates

multiple variable-types

Enables creativity and analysis

Can deal with individuals and teams

Helps attain a degree of disciplinary objectivity

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SODA Map

A model of the system of constructs used to communicate the problem The model has a particular structure Depending on its position in the structure, a

construct may be an option/means/constraint or an outcome/end/objective.

The meaning of a construct is enhanced through its relationship to other constructs

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Model structure

Outcomes (Head)

Strategic options

Operational options/constraints(Tail)

Strategic options, sometimes called strategic directions, are options which have no other options above them in the map, but which are below the outcomes.

Goals/aspirations

Facilitative goals

Strategies

Strategic issues

Strategic options

Goals/aspirations

Facilitative goals

Strategies

Strategic issues

Strategic options

End

Means

Outcome

Option

End

Means

Outcome

Option

Alternative structures are available

Note, although the bottom-up structure is recommended, it is not a rule.

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Linking constructs

A SODA map is composed of interlinked constructs

The links are arrows Arrows are positive or negative

Positive arrows have no symbol Negative arrows have a –ve symbol

-

+ve link

-ve link

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Understanding SODA thru SODA

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Merged maps

Individual maps structure the understanding of each individual involved in the situation

A holistic appreciation of the group’s understanding requires a merged map

Groups maps may be created by merging individual maps similar constructs are merged into one constructs from key members of the group should be retained a balance of constructs from all members of the group should

be present the facilitator may suggest the addition/deletion of constructs

and links

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Merging maps

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Clusters

Maps consist of interacting constructs Therefore a map is system of constructs

It is possible to identify groups of constructs within the map – sub-systems of constructs known as clusters A cluster of constructs is one that refers to a particular

issue Aside from a map being a system of constructs,

therefore, a map is also a system of interrelated clusters, each of which addresses a particular issue

Identification of clusters allows one to highlight the main issues of a situation, and the interrelations between them

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Unclustered map

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Clustered map

complexity

Rep Grid Theory

richness constrain

negotiative power

grid for projects

unclustered constructs

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Color-coding clusters

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Things to note about clusters They usually have a

head or two Cluster with

numerous heads usually indicate that a more attentive analysis is required

A head may be considered as symbolizing an issue that acts upon the problem situation

They usually have a number of tails that lead into a head

A head of one cluster can act as one of the tails of another cluster

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References

RAPW Chapter 2 Eden (1988) Cognitive mapping. European Journal of

Operational Research 36(1): 1-13 Eden C, Jones S (1984) Using repertory grids for problem

construction. Journal of the Operational Research Society 35(9): 779-790

Brown S (1992) Cognitive mapping and repertory grids for qualitative survey research: some comparative observations. Journal of Management Studies 29(3): 287-307

Ackermann A, Eden C, Brown I (2005) The Practice of Making Strategy: A Step-By-Step Guide. Sage: London

Bryson JM, Ackermann F, Eden C, Finn CB (2004) Visible Thinking: Unlocking Causal Mapping for Practical Business Results. Wiley: Chichester