E GM AN Ă D EME A R NT I Ş L I M ED A U T S C I A … 4-2007/REV... · Ă L T 2 R E V I S A M I I...

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Ă DE MANAGEMENT ŞI EDUCAŢIE

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No. 4/2007 Editorial Board

Professor Radu VOINEA, PhD, member of the Academy General, Professor Mircea MUREŞAN, PhD, member of the Romanian Scientists’ Academy Professor Ion Gheorghe ROŞCA, PhD Professor Ion STANCU, PhD Bg. Gl., Professor Edwin MICEWSKI, Director of theInstitute for Military Sociology and Military Pedagogy –Vienna Rear-Admiral, Professor Marius HANGANU, PhD, member of the Romanian Scientists’ Academy

Editor-in-chief

AF Colonel, Professor Eng. Gavril MALOŞ, PhD

Deputy editor-in-chief Lecturer Adriana RÎŞNOVEANU

Editors Professor Constanţa BODEA, PhD Major, lecturer Dorinel-Ioan MOLDOVAN, PhD Associate Professor Luiza KRAFT, PhD Professor Vasile MACOVICIUC, PhD Professor Alexandrina DEACONU, PhD Lieutenant colonel lecturer Mihail ANTON, PhD

Cover Elena PLEŞANU

Text processing

Liliana ILIE

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Anti-terrorist fighters selection. Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery - ASVAB and Spectrum CPI – 260 TM/ RO.......................................................... 5

Professor Anghel ANDREESCU, PhD Police commissioner Nicolae RADU, PhD

Psycho-social aspects of human resources activity in ergonomic organization of collectivity in a military unit.................................................................................... 13

Colonel Ioan MANCI Anda-Elena STĂNESCU

The idea of the Basic Pedagogical view on European military Education and raining – needs and advantages.................................................................................................. 20

Associate Professor Glenn-Egil TORGERSEN Innovative teaching methods in military pedagogy .......................................................................... 24

Victoria SYME-TAYLOR

Terminology and Terminological Standardization ........................................................................... 28 Lecturer Luiza-Maria OLTEANU, PhD

Management process and Romanian new economic context............................................................ 31 Professor Dana-Victoria SAVU, PhD

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„„CCAARROOLL II”” UUNNIIVVEERRSSIITTYY PPUUBBLLIISSHHIINNGG HHOOUUSSEE

Editor-in-chief: AF Colonel Gavril MALOŞ, PhD Text processing: Liliana ILIE

Panduri Street no 68-72, Bucharest, 5

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Police quaestor, Professor Anghel ANDREESCU, PhD Secretary of state – The Ministry of Interior and Administrative Reform Police commissioner Nicolae RADU, PhD Counsellor - The Ministry of Interior and Administrative Reform

The instruments Army Alpha and Army Beta, created by Robert M. Yerkes (1876-1956), a Harvard professor who later became a colonel, are known as the first psychological tests applied to American soldiers, for their selection for the European front. Replaced in 1968 by ASVAB (Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery) by Bayroff; Fucs (1970), it was later revised by Massey; Valentine, Jr. (1977). At present time ASVAB 14 (Mitrofan N. & Mitrofan L., 2005) is deemed to be the most used psychological tests batteries for army personnel selection (Murphy, 1985). It is also significant that the Israeli unit SAYERET MAK TAL specialised in counter-terrorist response in paying very special attention to those that intend to become fighters, which is also the pattern for the Russian Air Forces or SPETNAZ corps, or the Special Ops Commando of the US Air Force.

he acquired experience during this time by the military psychologists

was the base of the development of selection techniques. Thus, AGCT (Army General Classification Test) was designed, and applied on no less than 12 million military. In parallel other tests batteries were designed and used for the selection for different special armed forces. A performance-oriented test was designed by the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) – USA and the Special Operations Executive (SOE) – Great Britain. With the II WW, the accent moved from wit testing to specific aptitudes tests. In 1947 DAT (The Differential Aptitude Test) was published and became, after periodical reviews, one of the most popular aptitude tests batteries (Bennett, Seashore, Wesmn, 1982, 1984, apud Mitrofan N.& Mitrofan L., 2005). The first version of FACT

(Flanagan aptitudes classification tests) of 1953 becomes the basis for a broad psychological program for the Israeli Armed Forces (Army Air Aviation Psychology Program) applied under the name of Kaba at the moment of the recruitment and during the military service.

The most used instrument for measuring the wit remains WAIS (Wechsler wit measurement scale for adults). Although not of great interest for us, we could remind the tests DTLA (Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude - Primary) designed by Hammill & Bryant (1991). In this field we can also find BTPAC – Psychological Tests Battery for Cognitive Aptitudes (Miclea and others, 2003) deemed as one of the most significant creations of the Romanian psycho-diagnosis (Mitrofan N. & Mitrofan L., 2005), completed

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by CAS (Cognitrom Assessment System, 2006).

Observing the organisational scheme of the psychological exam proposed by Allport (1981), mention should be made of the concept Ergo-psychometry. Pivotal point of the psychological exam, ergo-psychometry in based on wit recognition using tests like Wechsler; Raven Matrices Factorial; Domino (D70; D48).

Part of this concept is the resistance to stress. This implies undergoing tests in normal/neutral conditions, and ulterior parallel test forms of the initial tests undergone, in conditions of physical and mental stress. Tolerance for frustration, mental stress, accomplishment of tasks in conditions of noise and other stress factors, physical resistance monitored through highly demanding physical exercises and also long distance marches are items of the stress resistance evaluation.

Social behaviour (the subject must speak for several minutes on a given topic, without any preparation time, in the presence of the evaluator and “assisted” by the other candidates) has been the subject of a training programme at the level of anti-terrorist fighters from the Protection and Security Unit. This data completes the profile for stress resistance.

Undergoing complex physical and mental tests in sleep deprivation conditions has led to some interesting conclusions that, however, are not under discussion here. It’s worth mentioning that the Individual Indicator for Stress Resistance, obtained by comparing results achieved under normal conditions to those obtained after 24 hours of

training without any rest/sleep and undergoing stressful conditions like: gun fire noise, smoke, visible blood, lack of visibility in an unknown field, etc.

Personality is part of the ergopsychometric concept. This has been the subject of research/interpretation carried on by Fahremeberg, Selg, Hempel (1991); Barrik si Mount (1991) Grigoras si Liţă (2004), psychologists within the Psycho-Sociological Centre of the Ministry of Interior and Administrative Reform. The structure in charge of studying personality has a particular importance in predicting work performance.

In order to identify the traits of personality that define the anti-terrorist fighters, we drew several modal profiles (specialized professional profiles). In order to raise the awareness within the specialized structures of the National Safety System, the Psychological Inventory CPI –260 / Spectrum CPI – 260 TM- RO, was used within the Psycho-Sociology from the Ministry of Interior and Administrative Reform. Also, the 16 PF Questionnaire, version 5, copyrighted and distributed in Romania by D&D Research (www.ddconsultants.ro) is being used.

Build on the model offered by CPI 434, the Spectrum CPI – 260 TM-RO reduces the managing time with 40% compared to the aforementioned test (Pitariu & Iliescu, 2004). Unlike CPI 480, CPI 462 or CPI 434, „Spectrum CPI – 260 TM/RO” contains 29 scales out of which 20 are the so-called Folk scales, 3 vectorial scales (v1,v2,v3) and 6 special scales build upon 260 items.

Based on the opinion of persons under evaluations, the anti-terrorist fighter must possess several qualities, as follows:

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LEVEL QUALITIES ANTI-TERRORIST

FIGHTERS

very high percentage

high percentage Responsibility

92%

8%


high percentage Initiative

89%

11%


high percentage Self-control

91%

9%


high percentage Camaraderie

86%

14%

In order to deal with unpredictable and difficult situations that might occur during a mission, new solutions are needed. (Albu.C., Psycho-Sociological Centre, 2007). 91% of the fighters consider that the visual and sound acuity play an important role in quickly perceiving the position of the objects in space, the way they interact or move.

Regarding attention, the specialized research (Băjenaru, H., 2006) underline that focusing and maintaining focus under stress or monotony are the most important traits. Mental balance and self-confidence are key traits of the anti-terrorist fighter, according to 94% of the persons under evaluation, fact confirmed by the modal profile (specialized profile).

With a view to setting up the modal profile (specialised) we calculated the

arithmetical average of the scores obtained by 102 fighters from a 228 fighters pattern. The voiding of not less than 126 profiles due to low scores (medium score – 30 T) registered by the scales designed for the control of truthfulness (Wb, Gi, Cm) was explained by the fact that, at the examination date, the candidates were subject to different types of evaluation due to the reform process targeting the restructuring/rejuvenation of the antiterrorist intervention structure.

As mentioned before, we calculated the average (m) of the pattern (N = 102) for each parameter (scale), as this was reported in the end to the average value of the nation-wide representative pattern (Pitariu & Iliescu, 2004).

Spectrum CPI – 260 TM-RO

PITARIU Pattern Pattern of the Antiterrorist Fighters Scale

Items no. N (Pattern) Average Scale N (Pattern) Average Note

T Do

32 1358 20.14 Do 102 20.01 50

Sp

29 1358 17.23 Sp 102 19.80 51

Sa

23 1358 13.89 Sa 102 15.22 49

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In

23 1358 13.24 In 102 14.38 48

To

20 1358 10.33 To 102 12.40 49

Fx

22 1358 7.26 Fx 102 8.55 51

The interpretation of the average shows a similar pattern, though several significant

differences were observed, as follows:

PITARIU Pattern

Fighters pattern

SCALE Scale

Average Scale Average

Capacity of statute

Cs 11.74 Cs 13.52

Sociability

Sy 16.22 Sy 18.41

Good impression

Gi 18.35 Gi 21.81

Wellbeing

Wb 14.81 Wb 16.89

Work oriented

Wo 17.23 Wo 19.50

Managerial potential Mp 13.91 Mp

16.28

As noticed, the medium profile of the

antiterrorist fighters level presents higher average scores of values compared to the average pattern set by Pitariu & Iliescu (2004), on 13 scales of the 26 Spectrum CPI – 260 TMRO, namely Capacity of Statute (Cs), Sociability (Sy), Good impression (Gi), Welbeing (Wb), Work oriented (Wo) and Managerial Potential (Mp).

Without getting into details, the data (+Cs, +Sy, +Sp, +Sa,+Wb) showed that the antiterrorist fighter manifests interpersonal efficiency and social maturity (+So, +To, +Gi). Furthermore, it worth mentioning the following interpretations:

• DOMINANCE (Do) - ( average score 50 - T )

High values (+) – values around 50 T and more. Mission oriented, authoritative, he

succeeds in imposing his point of view. Assertive, firm and cold-blooded, he acts as competitive, in need for power. He manifests surety in leading.

Note: For high values (T+65), in leading positions, he grows into excessive leadership, over-controlling and aggressive, and even despotic behaviour. In tensioned situations, he can grow into strong reactions.

Low values (-). Hesitant in taking decisions, avoids initiative. Shy, lacking authority, passive and abandon- oriented. Not valid for leading positions.

• STATUTE CAPACITY (Cs) –

(average score 52-T) High values (+) – values around the

mean of 50 T and over. Challenged by knowledge, ambitious, willing to succeed,

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manifests multiple interests in self assertion. Preoccupied by social ascent, with a balanced self image, he wants an active, full of energy way of life.

Note: At high values (T+70), he might manifest detachment towards the others by self-sufficiency, focusing strictly on personal interests and an excessive sensitivity in critical situations. He acts unscrupulously in achieving the targeted objectives.

Small values (-): unsure, shy, tends to withdraw into himself. Reserved towards the others, cautious, he often feels that life is unfair. Self centered, with a limited level of aspirations, he avoids direct competition. He prefers the lamplight, rather then being in the center of general attention. He is not recommended for decision making positions.

• SELF ACCEPTANCE (Sa) – (average

score 49-T) High values (+) - values around the

mean of 50 T and over. Self-confident, self-assured, he has the acknowledgement of self value. He tends to show his personal features. Honest, spiritual, open to new, he shows a behavior adaptable to effort. He dos not have an inferiority complex. He has a big capacity of persuasion and convincement and he quickly puts himself forward. He is a good speaker and he can monopolize a conversation.

Note: At high values (T+70), he shows uncritical overvaluation, self glorification, exploiting inclination and authority, narcissism and egocentrism. Beyond self confidence there is uncertainty, hidden by the fear of being rejected by the others.

Small values (-): sensitive, unconfident on his own capacities, he keeps anxiety inside. He avoids decision making. Anxious, he has the tendency to split hairs. He pays too much attention to unimportant things. Severe with himself, he does not forgive his failures; if he has made a mistake he does not forget easily. He tends to avoid the feeling of blame. He shows a complex of inferiority in his relations with the others.

• INDEPENDENCE (In) – (average score 48-T)

High values (+) - values around the mean of 50 T and over. Active, secure, he sets high objectives and he insists in fulfilling them. He has a good autonomy and decision making capacity. He does not need to be supervised and he can make his own decisions. Independent in his actions, he has the capacity of reaching his goals by his own forces. If he feels that injustice was done to him, he makes himself available to strike an attitude. Self centered, he is not affectionate or friendly. He does not trust people around him.

Small values (-): unconfident in his own capacities, sensitive, he tends to withdraw into himself and avoids making any decision. Slightly inhibited, he shows limited interests, avoiding putting himself forward. He would rather stay in shadow. He avoids confrontation and he easily gives in when facing hardships. Submissive, obedient, he looks for protection of the people around him.

• TOLERANCE (To) - (average score

49-T) High values (+) - values around the

mean of 50 T and over. Open, he shows will of being close to those around him. Sensitive, humane in understanding people, he grants trust, avoiding conflicting situations.

Note: at high values (T+65), he can be seen as naive, on the verge of underestimating the real difficulty of certain issues. The possibility that, by his apparent naivety, the person could hide himself beyond a mask it should be taken into consideration. There is a risk that in such situation the subject could change his behavior and beliefs depending on circumstances, developing a duplicitous conduct. At normal values (T+50 – 60) he is diplomatic, reasonable, observing the others’ rights and beliefs. Impartial, he can be forgiving and altruist. He supports discipline and encourages initiatives.

Small values (-) Reserved towards the others, critical towards their beliefs and opinions, he might look like self-centered and

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reluctant to others’ common sense. Suspicious, interpretative, he feels he is not appreciated within the environment he works in.

Insensitive, intolerant, doesn’t easily forgive if he feels that injustice was done to him. Uncommunicative, lacking the team spirit, in management positions can be hostile, preferring to judge rather than to understand the others. He is not in favor of discipline and harmony at the workplace.

• FLEXIBILITY (average score 50 –T) High values (+) – values around the 50

T average and over. He is stimulated by action, in continuous movement and acts spontaneously. Focused on change and variety, considers boring the regular routine. Sharp, optimist aims at performance in everything he does.

Note: At high values (T+70), attracted to power, shows attraction to adventure. Curious, with the need of learning more than others, can be easily influenced when taking a decision. Most times he thinks after taking a decision.

Low values (-). Cautious, reserved, not dared by adventure. Realist, well organized, prefers predictability and consistency in everything he does. Rejects ambiguity, acts calculated and planned. Consistent, practical, avoids undertaking risks. He is not in favor of change without grounded reasons. He is slightly stubborn, takes things to an end, regardless of the consequences. Strict, doesn’t easily forgive if he feels that injustice was done to him.

Note: at low values (T-30) he acts rigidly and inflexible, supporting his ideas till the "bitter end".

• MANAGERIAL POTENTIAL (Mp) –

(average score 49 T) High values (+) - values ranging

around 50 T average and over. He is ambitious, perseverant, self confident, even-tempered, with intellectual capabilities of upper level. Efficient, practically oriented towards a purpose, fluent, and opened

towards others. He is realist, self confident, adaptable to change, with professional initiative and judgment. Well organized, clear thinking, with capacity of decision taking. Attentive to details, foregoing, supports discipline and team spirit. Persuasive, influences the cooperation of his co-workers. He standouts by diplomacy and emotional maturity.

Low values (-) . Defensive, inhibited, emotionally instable. Anxious, always discontent, with a highly developed critical sense, he has the tendency to “split hairs”. Non co-operative, rebellious towards the others, he doesn’t enforce the discipline and efficiency within the working environment. Discontent, he considers that he is not appreciated to the right value! Confused, disorganized, its own interests are on the first place, he reacts aggressively to the critics, and if he is mistaken it is not him who was mistaken.

•THE ORIENTATION TOWARDS

THE WORK (Wo) – (average score 52 - T)

High Values (+) – values around the average of 50 T and beyond

Trustful, principled, he acts respectfully towards the established working rules. Honest, hard working, he accepts easily complex tasks without being discontent. Goal centered, realistic, he gives significance to the relations with the authority. Temperate, disciplined, he can be the person you need within an efficient working environment, where he feels useful. Faithful, reasonable, he avoids arguments. Preoccupied by current tasks, he has the capacity to bring things to an end. Adaptable to effort, he works well in team. He prefers to participate and collaborate in the decisions taking process.

Low values (-). Inconstant, with multiple interests and aspirations, he can be easily influenced in taking certain decisions. Moody, centered more on his own necessities, he doesn’t respond favorable to the requests. Disorganized, inhibited, pessimistic, he doesn’t have the courage to fight with the

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life’s difficulties. He prefers the easy things and less those claiming attention and effort. Subject to influences, there is a risk to be drowned in a negative entourage.

Following “The Diagram of life styles” (Pitariu & Iliescu, 2004), the highest score regarding the personal life style is situated, in proportion of 71% in ALPHA 5, according to the types and levels presented by the cuboid model (Gough, 1987), which can be interpreted as follows:

I. TYPE ALPHA – (Implementer): enterprising, reliable, open – minded. He invests his self values in participation, interpersonal world, being attached to the rules. He is an active person, oriented to the interpersonal life, efficient, focused on the task. He has the intention to assume the responsibilities concerning leading of the other. Generally, he is attached to the extern rules and traditions. At the high level, he can be a charismatic leader and constructive implementer. At the low level, he can be characterized as a person focused on his own interests, manipulator, concentrated on the desire to be distinguished.

Conclusions: •The necessity to be aware in detail of

the psychical, physical and professional grounding of the terrorists, in the context of brain washing of the future candidates to the terrorist groups, of the religious indoctrination and not only, of the training based on the specific models from the Great Encyclopedia of Jihad, the Letter of Al-Qaeda’s member, How to face and to hold out to the investigators of the Special Agencies, make more than ever the attention in selecting the antiterrorist combatants and the new perspective in their training a duty , adjusted to the complexity of the terrorist phenomenon and to its counteracting.

•Computerized processing and reshaping of the psychical evaluation process,

through a strict reference to the function analysis, in order to select, evaluate and periodically physical exam of the personnel, represent already the preoccupation of the Ministry of Interior and Administrative Reform. A functional model, taken out from years of experience and investigations, can be the one of the Psychology Section from the Staff of the Ministry of Defense.

•Due to the obsoleteness of the bateries’components of the psychological tests, one of them are used before 1950, the validity of the evidences has to represent a high priority for all specialized structures of the National Security System.

•Any selection program has to be periodically reevaluated in order to estimate if the conditions of the program are not exchanged and deteriorated the relation between predictor – criteria. This has to be done at least once a year. Unfortunately, there are structures where the reevaluation is done once at five years or never.

•The process of organizing / adjusting the activities related to the psychological selections is not a less complex one. Under the conditions of the legal aspects ruled by the Law 213, the psychologist has to represent more than a simple instrument in the hand of those who, making use of the power, try to protect themselves by the his signature. Unfortunately, this is an usual situation for many of the structures of the National Security System.

•In this context, without defining / strengthening the place of the psychologist in the unit where he is in charge, the idea of performance acquires more often the character of a simple formality.

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REFERENCES

BARRICK, M.R. & MOUNT, M.K. (1991). The Big Five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta – analysis, în, Personnel Psychology, 47, SUA, 1991.

ALLPORT, G.W. Structura si dezvoltarea personalităţii. Bucuresti, Ed. Didactica si Pedagogica, 1981. ANDREESCU, A.; RADU, N., Modele si strategii de selectie in evaluarea psihologica a personalului

destinat misiunilor speciale, in, “Buletin Documentar”, MIRA, Centrul de Studii Postuniversitare (CSP), nr. 1, 2007;

ANDREESCU, A.; RADU, N., (2007). Profilul specializat 16 PF5 al luptatorului destinat misiunilor speciale (M.I.R.A.; S.P.P.) în, “Conferinta de Psihologie Militara” (PSIHOMIL), Ministerul Apărarii, 31 mai 2007;

ALBU, C. Particularitati ale selectiei psihologice a personalului destinat misiunilor speciale, in, Conferinta Internationala “Diversitate si multiculturalitate”, Universitatea “Dimitrie Cantemir”, Tg Mures, 2007.

BARRICK, M.R. & MOUNT, M.K. The Big Five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta – analysis, în, „Personnel Psychology”, 47, 1991.

BAJENARU, H. Consideratii actuale privind pregatirea psihologica. Prelegere, “Simpozion de Psihologie”, Jandarmeria Română, Ministerul Administratiei si Internelor, 2006.

BERNARD, J.L. Les methodes d evaluation de la personalite, Paris, 1975. BYRDORF, P. Military Pilot Selection, în, „Aviation Psychology: A Science and a Profession”, Goeters,

K.M. (ed.), Asgate Pubilsing Company, 1998. COLLINS, J.M. Green Berets SEALs & Spetsnaz: U.S. & Soviet Special Military Operations. Pergamon –

Brassey’s, 1987. CRACSNER, E.C. Elemente de Psihologie Militară. Bucureşti, Ed. A.I.S.M., 2003. FAHREMBERG, J.; SELG, H.; HAMPEL, R. Inventarul de Personalitate Freiburg – Manual de aplicare,

în, « Inventare Multifazice de Personalitate », Institutul de Ştiinţe ale Educaţiei, Bucureşti, 1991. GRIGORAŞ, M.; LIŢĂ, St., (2004). Aspecte metodologice privind analiza psihologica a posturilor din

domeniul ordinii si sigurantei publice, în, « Buletin de Informare şi Documentare » , DirecţiA Management Resurse Umane, nr.3-4, Bucureşti, Ed. Ministerul Administraţiei şi Internelor.

HAMIL & Bryant, 1991, in, MITROFAN, N. şi MITROFAN, L. op.citat. MASSEY; VALENTINE, Jr., 1997, în, MITROFAN, N. şi MITROFAN, L. op.citat. MICLEA, M. şi colaboratori. BTPAC (Bateria de Teste Psihologice pentru Aptitudini Cognitive),

COGNITROM, Cluj – Napoca, 2003. MICLEA, M. şi colaboratori. CAS (Cognitrom Assesment System), COGNITROM, Cluj – Napoca, 2006. MITROFAN, N. Şi MITROFAN, L. (2005). Testarea psihologică. Inteligenţă şi aptitudine, Iaşi, Editura

Polirom, 2005 MURPHY, K. The Wonderlic Personnel Test, 1985, în, KEYSER şi SWEETLAND , Test Critiques, vol. I,

Test Corporation of America, SUA. PITARIU, H.D.; HEHN, H. Investigarea personalităţii cu ajutorul CPI, în Revista de Psihologie, 26, 1980. PITARIU, H. Psihologia selecţiei şi formării profesionale, Cluj – Napoca, Ed. Dacia, 1983. PITARIU, H.D. Inventarul Psihologic California, varianta 462, Cluj-Napoca, 1995. PITARIU, H.D.; & ILIESCU, D. Spectrum CPI 260 Tm – Ro; Universitatea „Babeş – Bolyai”, Cluj –

Napoca, 2004 RADU, N. Luptătorul antiterrorist-un profil psihomoral, în, « Spirit militar modern », vol. 3, 1999. RADU, N. Recurs la Siguranţa Statului, Evaluarea psihologică a personalului destinat misiunilor speciale,

Bucureşti, Ed. FED PRINT, 2006. SCHMIDT, FL. Personnel selection, în, “Annual Review of Psychology”, vol.43, 1992.

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Colonel Ioan MANCI, Commander, 15th Mechanized Brigade, Iasi Anda-Elena STĂNESCU, Specialist in psychology, 198th Logistic Battalion, Iasi

The management of manpower resources in different institutions must be done in such way as to follow the institution’s goals, but also to uphold their employee’s individual interests. To do that, one must not forget that the human being is the most important element in this equation and an institution exists and performs its functions through the people working there. That is why, in every process involving people, their active and creative role, ability to work, capacity to efficiently use their skills and also their physical and psychological characteristics must be taken into account.

A. The interdisciplinary character of the military institution – a favoring condition of the ergonomical organization of activity

he accomplishment of the main objective of any military institution

presumes the cooperation among a group of people qualified in different specialties. Each of these people performs his activity in his own area of expertise, achieved in different learning institutions or by practicing it for a longer or shorter period of time, but all follow the accomplishment of the unit’s common objective. The unity of effort of the whole group is ensured by the leadership of the military organization, carried out at all echelons of its structure.

The ergonomical organization of work becomes a necessity because the activity performed in a military institution has an interdisciplinary character. An optimal psychological climate represents one of the enabling conditions for this type of organization because, the more extended this

is, from the leadership level, all the way down to micro-group level (subunits, compartments, offices, etc), the better results are assured.

B. The organizational structure of the

military institution – outcome of the proportion between the amount and quality of tasks and the personnel’s capacity to carry out their duties

An ergonomically well structured working group must be realized, from this point of view, only with well balanced working positions. The numerous groups, comprising very diverse working positions, can not be lead with competence by a single person. Due to this fact, in the division of work, based on the identity or similarity of profiles criterion, are created subdivisions or small collectives corresponding to the operational leadership capacity of a single person. At different levels, conception, execution or planning subdivisions are created.

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The criterion on which the set up of a military unit’s structure is based is the permanent balance between the responsibilities of each position and the ability of each person assigned to those positions to fulfill their daily duties, having at the same time enough time to respite from one working day to another.

The ensemble of the military unit’s subdivisions, based on this kind of balance, is depicted in the unit’s organizational diagram.

C. The hierarchy of operational

leadership – the result between amount and complexity of the decision issues assigned to persons in leading positions

The operational leadership starts with the command team of that unit and continues down to the lowest position in the organizational diagram.

When establishing the number of command levels and the number of positions directly subordinated to a leader, the same principle of balance between the amount and complexity of decision issues, on one hand, and the capacity of the person appointed to that position, on the other hand, must be taken into account.

In the military institutions with working places where the percentage of subordinates with superior education is preponderant, adopting an authoritarian leadership style is a mistake. The competence of the group members generates their desire to make use of it, which gives them the satisfaction of professional fulfillment through the proficient contribution they can bring in the process. Due to their increased competence, they have a critical attitude both in the analyses they make, but also against different solutions which somebody could try to impose to them without consulting them.

The leader is not a simple commander anymore, he is a coordinator of a whole group, where all the issues are discussed and decisions are collective and mandatory for all members.

The perfect functioning of the interpersonal hierarchic communication, at all

levels, is conditioned by obeying the main principle between the persons with the right to decide and those with obligation to execute: one executant must be allocated to a single person with the right to decide. This principle means that a clear delimitation of competencies and responsibilities must be made.

D. Collective behavior The personnel of the military

institution, to bring their expected contribution to the accomplishment of its objectives, must be utilized with great care, in such way that the efficiency of their work to be brought to a high level, and the working time to be used as rational as possible. This thing is done by having an efficient organization of work, based on techniques and methods offered by contemporary science and also by extended practice.

It is normal in these conditions to take into consideration not only the regular organization of work, but also the scientific one, which has mainly the purpose of saving resources and increasing its efficiency. At the same time, the scientific organization of work follows other aspects like: promoting new techniques and technologies, in order to make it easier and to reduce the expenses for achievement and maintaining the working capacity of the personnel for long periods of time; efficient use of the creative capacity of employees and guiding this process in the direction of making their work more proficient, inducing a rigorous discipline of work, in parallel with ensuring a physical and psychological climate appropriate for achieving performance.

Having an organizational framework characteristic for the military institution, the collective behavior is strongly influenced by the organizational diagram, specific regulations, laws and dispositions, but also by the way the activity is organized.

The life in a military unit’s collective has multiple facets. Among them, we will mention several we consider essential, as follows:

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The status of a person in the group where he works defines his position compared to the other members, at the level of the whole unit, but also at the level of his micro group.

This position is set by the ensemble of assigned tasks, of whose accomplishment is responsible, hierarchically, beginning with the next superior leader, up to the leadership of the unit. At the same time, the position underlines the rights that a particular person has to request from the other members of the collectivity to accomplish their tasks, which, in turn, are setting the conditions for the realization of his own duties, in accordance with his status.

The activity carried out according to everyone’s status, consists of a certain number of roles. In execution of each role are reflected the rights and obligations related to each status it puts into practice. One could say for that reason that the status is a global and structural way to state the rights and obligations of a person within the collectivity, while the role is a fragmentary and dynamic-functional way to put into practice the status it originates from.

Integration in the working group. The set up of the working collective of a military unit is a very complex psycho-social process, which is realized in time, and sometimes becomes permanent, if we take into consideration all the movements occurring in time (new employees to replace those who left for different reasons, absorption of the graduates from the military academic institutions). Through the organization and initiation methods, the newcomers begin by acknowledging their status and associated roles. Animated by the desire to know the other members of the collectivity and to cooperate with them, a change of information and a beginning of cooperation take place. This accommodation process takes place normally and agreeably if the hierarchic leaders put into practice a pleasant psycho-social climate. There must be a strong determination of each member of the collectivity to thoroughly know their assigned

tasks and to find out the simplest ways to adapt to this complex aggregate.

The leadership of the unit is directly interested in knowing the level of general knowledge, professional competence, character traits and development possibilities of each member of the collectivity, which is possible by recording in the personal file the significant data, the periodic evaluations, and also the important facts and events that occur during the employment period.

Subsequent to the admission in the unit’s working collective, follows the integration itself, which is actually done in the working process, through the contacts established with the other members of the collective. The most frequent of them are done at micro group level. At macro group level, integration consists only in establishing relationships based on mutual respect, thrust, discipline at work and other methods meant to create an agreeable psycho-social climate.

Discipline at work. In the military units - institutions with a numerous personnel - the organization of work is the main factor imposing participation of each individual at the collective activity, with regards to both quantity and quality, and with maximum promptness. In this mechanism, the whole personnel must establish a rigorous and permanent cooperation. Any digression, a negative attitude against work, for example, or conflicts between the members of the collective, indiscipline, cause the mechanism to fault, affecting the homogeneity of the system.

Strict obedience of order and discipline within the working collective is the main responsibility of each member of the military unit. Discipline at work is put into practice by fulfilling the assigned tasks entirely and with high quality, and by strictly obeying the standing laws and regulations.

Because is inevitable in the working process to appear flaws and mistakes, it is indispensable to also have a process to acknowledge the merits and the well done work – the reward.

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The rewards are highly stimulating instruments used to motivate the people to further increase their working capacity, obviously without jeopardizing the ergonomic law of conserving the working capacity from one day to another.

The enhancement of an organization’s performances is related to the motivation level of its members. The motivational theories, especially those focusing on the needs, consider the main motivational factor is the material aspect, particularly the salary and other related revenues (rewards), which is in accordance with different criteria closely correlated with professional preparation and the results at work.

Together with the material rewards, moral stimulants are also used and, together, these two motivational categories are the most used levers and they meet the needs of the personnel and, at the same time, they make the command and decision process easier for the commanders.

The motivation of personnel is not fully achieved by using the material aspect. Frequent situations were reported when a few encouraging words had a more stimulating effect for the person receiving them, even more then the leader would have imagined. That is why a good commander must know how to psychologically motivate his subordinates, as to receive from them a total involvement of their human capacity in the activity.

A psychologically motivated individual is somebody who knows his duties very well and comes forward to meet the needs of his subordinates and superiors.

The annual evaluation of activity gives the possibility to know the aptitudes and development and promotion perspectives of individuals, with the purpose of a right employment and exploitation of them.

The annual evaluations have to be concise and to correctly reflect the individual’s activity, taking into consideration:

- results achieved in accomplishing the assigned duties;

- level of professional training; - personal qualities (initiative,

discipline at work, commitment, professional reputation);

- desire to improve his professional education;

- involvement in accomplishing the unit’s objectives;

- care for preserving unit and army property;

- obedience for the law; - behaviour within the working group,

family and society. One of the main objectives of activity

evaluation is the selection of personnel for promotion. A recently emerged concept in the human resources management area is career planning, which is the process of identification of needs, aspirations and opportunities related to career within an organization, as well as initiation of programmes meant to develop the human resource – with the purpose of supporting the career in that organization.

E. Mobilization of latent component

of working capacity In the daily activity, each individual is

building his own working stile, which is characterized by a certain rhythm and a certain quality of the activity he performs or of the final product he creates. Generally, he is not applying his whole working capacity in this process. The part which is kept as reserve is the latent part of the working capacity, whose partial mobilization is possible by: remuneration system, initial salary, granting the stages and gradations, stimulating through awards, using different methods to increase the professional training, promoting the personnel.

F. The ergonomic criteria concerning

preservation and recuperation of the working capacity

The recuperation of the energy spent in the working process is a mandatory condition for preservation of the working capacity. The elementary form of this recuperation is “the

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conservation of workforce from one day to another”, which is the second objective law of ergonomics. In practice, this involves having a lunch break during the working hours, the length of the working day and the daily rest. For longer periods, this conservation of workforce is ensured through the weekly rest and annual vacation, and in case of temporary loss of working capacity, through different types of medical leave.

Finally, in special cases, when the working capacity is permanently reduced as a result of an accident or disease, we can not speak about conservation, but rather about recuperation, readjustment and reintegration of those affected in the economical and social life.

G. The interpersonal, collaboration

and mutual help relationships, depleted of tensions that could disturb the psychological balance – the main ergonomic condition for the success of the interdisciplinary collaboration at working group and whole unit levels.

The activity of a military institution is reduced, finally, at the relationships established between the members of the group.

The temporary relations between the members who generally get rarely together or do not meet at all do not generate tensions. The experience shows that even in these cases friendship, respect and mutual sympathy relations can be formed.

In case of frequent encounters, at micro-group level (subunits, compartments, offices), we have the most favouring conditions for the formation of these disturbing tensions. Because of that, the preoccupation to maintain a favourable psycho-social climate within this kind of micro-groups must be permanent. The experience showed that in those groups where friendship relationships exist between members and the relations are agreeable and without any conflicts, the level of productivity is superior.

H. The working group The structure of the working group is

decisive for its success. This notion has been characterized as a complex of roles and statuses defining the members’ behaviors and the relationships between them.

Through the work division within the group, the development of a particular type of cooperation is expected. The repartition of work within the group in specialized tasks is a very difficult operation. Synthesizing the existing points of view, J. McGrath showed that such a division of work should take into consideration at least three aspects:

• the establishment of the roles net should be strongly linked with the aptitudes of the members of the working group;

• the work should be integrated into a whole;

• the task should be distributed in such a way, as to be well coordinated in time and space.

The communication system at the group level has a very big importance in the life of working group members. The most important role of the group communication is the humanization of structures. This leads to elimination of monotony at work, the group relations develop, the needs of the human psyche are fulfilled.

The affective structure of the group is a result of interpersonal relationships. The affective model of the group has an important role in optimizing its structure, developing similar attitudes, acceptance, and interdependence of goals. The affective relationships, although they have a strong role as group bonding agent, do not guarantee the quality of group behaviors nor their moral values orientation.

The structure and dynamics of group are interdependent. The structure is, in fact, the effect of the group dynamics, which can be defined by a generic term: group behavior. The effects could be noticed in the development of some individual typologies, the increase of the social learning capacity level and of capacity to solve different problems according to the real situation,

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orientation, the level of motivation and performance.

Through its dynamics, the group supports the apparition of some human typologies at individual and collective level. The more rational the internal activity of the working group is, the better its results – at individual or social level – are. The individual performances are merging into a group performance.

Finally, it can be stated that the performance appears as a synthesis phenomenon of all the components, structural and dynamical elements of the working group.

A working group can not exist unless it develops a self consciousness and its members are aware of their existence as a group. The unity of action itself is based on this consciousness, together with the cohesion, solidarity and the common goals and aspirations. Therefore, the ties between the members of a group are not only functional or affective, but they also have a moral element. The morale of a working group can be influenced by a series of factors: material, psycho-individual and psycho-social and emerges especially in relation to the needs of the group members. Satisfying these needs is the first condition to obtain a good morale in the group.

The coordinator of the working group. The leadership represents, from the psycho-social and managerial point of view, the entire activity of the group, including its influencing and directing (not by coercion) process. How exactly is the conscious leadership performed is expressed through management style, defined by inter human relationships that appear as a result of applying the functions of management. For this reason, the leadership style is perceived by the person on which is applied (especially in the form of motivation and performance, in the positive or negative way) but also by the person who performs it.

The presentation of different management stiles can be interpreted in multiple ways. Based on the way a decision is

taken, Kurt Lewin described three leadership stiles:

1) The democratic leader = is the one who encourages the group members to express their opinions and needs, encouraging direct participation in the process of influencing the quality and direction of decision;

2) The autocratic leader = filters everything through his own evaluation criteria, considered to be unsurpassed. The communication network is star shaped, around the leader who is placed at the center of all messages;

3) The “laissez-faire” leader = who leaves the things to go by themselves, based on the spontaneity of the group relations, which, sometimes, degenerates in anarchy.

The R. Likert model, similar to the ones mentioned above, is based on four leadership styles, corresponding to four types of managers:

1) Authoritarian – investigative system; 2) Authoritarian – paternalist –

benevolent system; 3) Consultative system; 4) Participative (collective) system. The exercise of authority is legitimate

only within the space of power, being an intrinsic part of it, since all the positions having the possibility to influence the inter-human relationships are related to the control activity, and the people who hold them are called leaders.

Among the main functions a leader has to accomplish in order to honor his assignment we can mention:

1) Executive functions: organization, initiation, representation, coordination, control;

2) Preservation functions: crystalliza- tion, facilitation, support, symbol, ideal and model.

By the way these functions are personalized through their efficient integration in the status – role prescriptions, we can speak about the leader’s prestige, a particularly important element for the quality

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of participation at the achievement of common objectives.

The most important issue at the working group level is that the leader has to achieve the authority he formally has due to his position in the diagram. If he fails to do so, the use of authority based solely on the position in the formal hierarchy leads to lack of collaboration, at the human level, and to

failure in accomplishing the institution’s objectives.

Knowing the real capabilities of the group members and an appropriate delegation of authority and of status – roles according to their aptitudes represent the warranty of success and it was confirmed by practice as the best way to bring together highly cohesive and proficient groups.

REFERENCES

Burloiu, Petre, Human resources management, Ed. Lumina Lex, Bucureşti, 1997. Buzărnescu, Ştefan, Leadership sociology, Timişoara, 2003. Cornescu, Viorel, Bonciu, Cătălina, Human resources management, Ed. Trei, 1999. Creţu, Ina, Human resources management (course notes), Technical University of Moldova,

Chişinău, 2007.

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Glenn-Egil TORGERSEN Associate Professor, Norwegian Defense Command and Staff College

European countries are getting closer every day both politically and culturally. At the same time most

countries are focusing on keeping their distinctive character and origin. In international military operations, several participants from different countries will work together in obtaining a common goal. This fact will put great demands on the individuals’ competence in regard to language proficiency, communication skills, cultural understanding, will and conduct. Today military education differs in regard to the areas mentioned.

Multinational exercises and operations gather participants with different levels of training, different structure and organizational backgrounds. In addition there are varieties in culture, ethics and ideology. These realities influence on communication and how tasks and situations are perceived, understood and executed. Such profound differences can be both an advantage and disadvantage for military efficiency in international exercises and operations. The goal must be to reduce those conditions that may reduce efficiency based on different backgrounds and nationality. One solution may be a common (European) military pedagogical basic view; The Basic Pedagogical View of Allied Military Education and Training (PAMET-doctrine).

A suggestion is that the PAMET-doctrine can be developed with the same structure as the Norwegian basic view as a basis for development. However, all countries must participate in the development. IAMP can be the “centre of gravity” in such a development work. The development of a PAMET-doctrine is expected to take approximately five years.

NORWEGIAN BASIC PEDAGOGI- CAL VIEW OF MILITARY EDUCATION AND TRAINING (FPG)

n the Spring 2006, the leader of the Norwegian Defense Educational

Command launched a pedagogical platform

for all educational and training activities applying to the Norwegian Defense: The Basic Pedagogical view of the Defense (FPG 2006).

A basic collective view is a collective description of central pedagogical concepts and how these are to be understood within an organization. The basic view should create a common understanding of the fact that these concepts and principles shall apply to all teaching and training within the organization, also what is bought externally. FPG focuses on 8 basic structures – basic view on:

Education, Human (relationships), Society, Learning, Knowledge, Ways of work, Aims and Organization (also see appendix). The pedagogical stress is based on democratic principles, especially based on equality, in other words inclusiveness and tolerance; deliberate democracy and pedagogy. The gist in FPG is a turning of the learning perspective from knowledge arrangements to knowledge development and stress on reflection/experience learning and problem based learning. Such qualities are necessary to interpret political situations and power forces and be able to master unforeseen, not linear situations in the course of operations. FPG therefore gives clear signals to relational competence building. FPG shall be a means for a more co-ordinated and effective

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teaching, and thereby create a more robust and competence based defence.

CAN A COMMON ALLIED

PEDAGOGICAL VIEW CONTRIBUTE TO A MORE EFFECTIVE EDUCATION?

The basic pedagogical view shall be a means to develop a more timely competence and in this way contribute to the Defence soling its tasks in a better way. It is still not enough that Norway develops its own basic pedagogical view. It is because today’s military tasks to a great degree are trained, planned, executed and evaluated by multinational forces. Above all, there are all two training restraining relationships related to international training and exercise.

(1) Challenge attached to culture, communication and thresholds of values

With common international exercises and other military education, personnel with different preferences come together. It is a known fact that both the effects of keen assignments can be reduced because of linguistic, organisational, cultural and routine related differences between the personnel taking part. These realities influence on communication and how tasks and situations are perceived, understood and executed. Such profound differences can be both an advantage and disadvantage for military efficiency in international exercises and operations. The goal must be to reduce those conditions that may reduce efficiency based on different backgrounds and nationality. Therefore, it might be necessary to build a common understanding some of different basic democratic values, linguistic, cultural relationships and also co-ordinate understanding and contents in command and control routines and orders. In addition, basic value concepts are interpreted differently, both individually and nationally. For instance, the term tolerance can be seen in different ways, which again influences determination processes and actions on all levels. For instance, it is not probable that deployed forces in a CIMIC operation will be greeted with a tolerance

level that Jacques Derrida describes as hospitality, and the force must, on their side, balance between the task that is to be executed and at the same time show the most possible tolerance in relation to the parts’ culture, wishes and demands.

(2) Challenges attached to didactics The system of military education is

more or less different within the various nations. This creates expectations to what learning is, how learning takes place and how teaching should be organised and evaluated. If the expectations to the didactic contents vary too much between the participants, this can weaken the learning process. For instance, a group with a long tradition within authoritarian pedagogy may find it difficult to be placed in a learning situation with diffuse aims and discussion based training and work tasks, without unambiguous answers, procedures or instructor governed activities. In the same way, such a group will need more convincing than others that oral debates based on deliberate principles and dialogue pedagogical methods can be a sensible approach in situations where they previously have been taught to make their authority clear with a short distance to the use of power and force. In other types of operations there can be talk of teaching of the local population in conflict ravaged countries and areas with a different culture and a different view on learning and mastering. That may require both pedagogical tact

and cultural insight.

To reduce these learning prohibitive relationships, there may be need for a common allied basic pedagogical view (“PAMET doctrine” that applies to all the nations that take part in addition to the present more standardised systems for international exercises, for such as the Exercise planning directive (NATO 2004)).

A PAMET doctrine should contain basic view on and principles for training which is developed together across the different countries. From this basic view, the different countries can develop their specific basic view, that takes care of both allied focus and the individual country’s distinctive character.

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In other words, a common allied basic view can develop common expectations to the military teaching activities, and thereby contribute to a better and more effective teaching. On such a basis international exercises can be carried through with participants that have a common didactic understanding and a common understanding of value loaded concepts. With such a background it is plausible to suppose that the participants can meet sharp international operations of today in a better way. In a further idealistic

perspective, bridges can be

built, where the basic pedagogical view is one of the pawns which contribute to this.

A common allied military basic view, can, however – in a global perspective – create more robust and sharp dividing lines between alliances of power, because the basic view will strengthen the network within the alliance, something that other alliances of power may see as threatening or as changes in already established multinational balances of power. This can also seen in relation to John Dryzek’s “Inclusive states”, where he says: “Many other aspects of political systems, including cultural aspects, can make it difficult for disadvantaged groups to attain real recognition and access, even when these groups are large.”. This can actually contribute to the fact that the single alliance becomes more restrictive in relation to including new states or organizations. In addition there is a question about what states and organizations should be included under a common basic pedagogical view, not least as seen in a European perspective.

Also the philosopher Jürgen Habermas warns against the egalitarian; “In the strict sense universalism amounts to egalitarian individualism and morality that demands mutual recognition, in the sense of equal respect and reciprocal consideration for everybody.”

Such an exclusive and moral

fellowship also gives “… equal rights for the

protection of everybody’s individuality and otherness.”. The universal discourse, however, “…can be abused as a particularly insidious form of legitimating since particular interests can hide behind the glimmering façade of reasonable universality.” The sociologist Zygmunt Bauman

warns against

universal and rational approaches, especially in connection with politics and ethics. A common allied basic pedagogical view can be used as a means to forward a certain political agenda, even if the intention with the basic pedagogical is focused on improving military teaching and training.

However, it is of course not so that a common allied basic pedagogical view demands identical understanding between the nations. And in view of the above mentioned dangers, it is still a question whether a common basic view can strengthen the fellowship both between allied nations and other alliances of power. Anyhow, it is possible that the PAMET doctrine can be seen as a pedagogical force to make effective international multimilitary teaching and in this way improve the ability of tackling difficult operations.

The development of a PAMET doctrine must still take place in close deliberative co-operation between the nations in question. A suggestion is that the contents, as a starting point, can be developed in the same way as the Norwegian basic view. I propose that the IAMP appoints a subcommittee which will discuss the need for a PAMET-doctrine or possibly suggest organizing and strategy for further development. The different countries’ authorities should be contacted and briefed about this project as soon as possible. IAMP can be the “centre of gravity” in such a development work. I assume that such a work will take from 3 to 5 years. The military pedagogical community in Norway would like to contribute to the development.

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REFERENCES Bauman, Z. 1996. Postmoderne etik. Göteborg: Daidalos. Beck, U. 2002. Power in the Global Age. Cambridge: Polity Press. Bessette, J.M. 1980. Deliberative Democracy: The Majority Principle in Republican Government. I: R.A.

Goldwin & W.A. Schambra (red.). How Democratic is the Constitution? Washington: American Enterprise Institute.

Biesta, G. 2006. Beyond Learning: Democratic Education for a Human Future. London: Paradigm Publishers.

Bohman, J. & Rehg, W. 1997. Deliberative democracy. London: The MIT Press. Borradori, G. 2003. Philosophy in a Time of Terror: Dialogues with Jürgen Habermas and Jacques Derrida.

Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Burke, J. (Ed). 1990. Competency Based Education and Training. London: The Falmer Press. Cohen, J. 1997. Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy. I: Bohman, J. & William Rehg. Deliberative

democracy. London: The MIT Press. Dryzek, J.S. 2000. Deliberative democracy and beyond. Oxford: Oxford university press. Elster, J. (ed.). 1998. Deliberative Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. Englund, T. 2004a. Skola för deliberativ demokrati?. I: Petter Aasen; Per Björn Foros & Per Kjöl red.:

Pedagogikk og Politikk s 249-270. Festskrift til Alfred Oftedal Telhaug i anledning 70-årsdagen 25.september 2004. Oslo: Cappelen akademisk forlag.

Englund, T. 2004b. Deliberativa samtal i ljus av deliberativ demokrati – en fråga om att utveckla deliberativa förhållningssätt. I: I: Klas, R. & Premfors Roth (red.). Deliberativ demokrati. Lund: Studentlitteratur.

Eriksen, E. O. & Weigård, J. 2000. Habermas politiska teori. Lund: Studentlitteratur. FKOPUB. 2003. Pædagogiske principper for forsvaret. FKOPUB PS. 180-1. Forsvarskommandoen,

Danmark. Florian, H. (ed.) 2002. Military Pedagogy – an International Survey. Frankfurt: Peter Lange Verlag.FPG.

2006. Forsvarets Pedagogiske Grunnsyn. Oslo: Forsvarets stabsskoleGreen, A. 1997. Education, globalization and the nation state. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.Heyd, D. 1996. Toleration. An Elusive Virtue. Princeton N.J.: Princeton University press.Howorth, J. & John T.S. Keeler (ed 2004): Defending Europe: The EU, NATO and the Quest for European

Autonomy. Palgrave: Macmillian. Kernic, F., Callaghan, J. & Philippe Manigart. 2002. Public Opinion on European Security and Defense.

Frankfurt: Peter Lang GmbH. Lynton, R.P. & Pareek, U. 2000. Training for Organizational Transformation. Part 1 and Part 2. London:

Sage Publications Ltd. Løvlie 2006. Education for Deliberative Democracy. In: Ilan Gur Ze’ev & Klas Roth (eds). 2006. Critical Issues

in Education in a Global World (Springer, forthcoming). Muth, J. 1962. Pädagogischer Takt. Heidelberg: Quelle & Meyer.NATO. 2004. Exercise planning directive.

NATO UNCLASSIFIED. Peters, Michael A. 2005. Education, Globalization and the State in the Age of Terrorism. London: Paradigm Publishers.

Rieker, P. 2006. Europeanization of National Security Identity. The EU and the Changing Security Identities of the Nordic States. Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group. Roth, K. 2004. Deliberativ pedagogik och deliberative samtal som värderingsprocedur. I: Klas, R. & Premfors

Roth (red.). Deliberativ demokrati. Lund: Studentlitteratur.Thomassen, L. (Ed). 2006. The Derrida-Habermas Reader. Edinburgh University Press.

Tobias, S., Fletcher, J.D. (Ed). 2000. Training & Retraining. A Handbook for Business Industry, Government and the Military. New York: Macmillian References USA.

Torgersen, G.E. & Bergh, J. 2006. Prosjektrapport for Forsvarets Pedagogiske Grunnsyn. Oslo: Forsvaretsstabsskole/Forsvarets institutt for ledelse.Walzer, M. 1997. On toleration. New Haven: Yale University press. Young, I.M. 2000. Inclusion and democracy. Oxford: Oxford university press.

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Victoria SYME – TAYLOR Director of External Relations, Defence Studies Department, Joint Services Command and Staff College, United Kingdom

This paper will seek to explore the differing methods available in the teaching of military officers. It

will examina more traditional approaches of teaching based on the active teacher and passive student model (lectures) and then it will explore how new methods of teaching can societal expectations of the military. A case study will be used of a particular Masters course in which students examine how the experience of conflict expressed through differing mediums such as literature, film and the media enhances our understanding of the societal and cultural impact of war.

The paper will conclude that we need to be increasingly imaginative in the way we see teaching in order to reflect the expectations of future generations of military officers. This will also form an important part of course desing and thus will emphasise the importance of international comparisons and benchmarking.

INTRODUCTION

hen looking at new approaches to military education at mid career

level it is important to see any course not just as a list of subjects to be covered but to understand why the course has been constructed in a particular manner, how the material links together, and what precisely the student should be trying to achieve in relation to learning objectives and outcomes. This should emphasise the distinction between training, which aims to reproduce a particular task and job, and education which enables development of an individuals intellectual ability. However, this is made on the assumption that military education is an important tool in achieving a professional military. This has not always been accepted when looking at the history of armed forces.

THE CHALLENGE The reason why education is so

important to the military officer at this point in his career rest on the nature of the challenges

facing defence in the 21st century. While a key strength of military organisations is the solidity and cohesiveness, underpinned by doctrine and systems, it is also true that the challenges posed by the use of military force in the world today require officers who can think and act independently of templated or formulaic guide lines. These challenges flow from the changes in the strategic environment driven by social, economic and political factors. These changes are affecting the nature of warfare and by extension security as a whole. As a consequence, the demand for professionalisation within the Armed Services and particularly at the critical Staff Officer 1 and OF5 rank levels has never been greater.

DEFINING AIM AND END STATE We have to be aware of the requirement

to have a clearly stated aim and clearly stated end state.

In a given course these can be defined as follows:

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a. Aim To prepare selected officers for high grade appointments, developing their command, analytical and communication skills, and by providing a broad understanding and knowledge of joint, single service and combined operations, and defence as a whole.

b. Student end state. To have developed a mind that is flexible and can analyse and conceptualise in a military context in order to make timely and logical decisions in all types of subsequent appointments.

Nevertheless necessary questions need to b asked such as; Are these correct? Do they reflect the position of the military in all societies or just some? Do they answer the challenges of the new security environment?

SKILL REQUIREMENTS The student end state clearly focuses on

developing the ability to make timely, logical and military relevant decisions. In more detail, such decisions result from a choice for enactment made from amongst a range of options. In order for the choice to be logical, relevant and effective, it is essential that the issue is properly understood in terms of what is required, and the potential options are interpreted, analysed and evaluated against the required outcome. This is as relevant for the future commander as it is for the future staff officer as staffs that have a genuine understanding of the commanders problem are better equipped to support the commander. All the above requires a student to understand such areas as for example, the international system, the moral dimensions of warfare, the impact of cultural values on societal expectations of war.

THE OPERATIONAL FOCUS While the development of problem

solving and decision making skills is generic, how those skills are to be deployed is key to the success of any course at this level. A key feature of at and close to OF5 level is the requirement to convert higher level ideas to practical outcomes. The interface between the conceptual and practical is in line with Joint

Doctrine Paper 01 headline description of the operational level. The operational level represents the point at which the issues associated with the practical employment of force are matched to desired strategic outcomes, whether in the field of battle or in the wider management of capability. Achieving that conversion demands effective problem solving and decision making developed upon a firm foundation of knowledge of Defence as a whole. Thus a military course at this level requires an operational focus so that the development of problem solving and decision making skills is professionally relevant. More critically this focus requires more than use of operational level examples in course material. Instead, it requires that students draw out those issues and implications that are relevant to decision making and the achievement of success at the operational level.

For example students will need to see how strategic thinkers develop their ideas on war and how they can or cannot be applied to the modern context. This is also the case when looking at historic examples of leadership qualities. Case studies illuminate for the students those key attributes and indeed key failings.

LEARNING Drawing on the analysis above, it can

be shown that the primary learning aims is to develop professionally relevant and effective problem solving and decision making skills. Professional relevance is achieved through focusing course material at the operational level and this requires students to consider the following factors as constant and central to learning.

1. Command and Leadership. Here the student needs to understand the obstacles that may exist in a given situation. These obstacles may be cultural, organisational, based on perceptions of trust and confidence or a lack of understanding, due to physical and resource constraints, or most likely a combination of all or some of these. The aim therefore is to encourage

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systematic and reflective understanding of the issues and challenges confronting commanders and leaders working at the operational level, in order to promote personal and team Command and Leadership qualities.

2. Key Questions Success at the operational level demands the ability to identify key issues amongst a mass of detail. While and increase in knowledge may enable identification of a wider set of questions, effort has to be made to tackle the decisive issues. This requires great clarity of thought and the aim is to develop the learner’s ability to define the critical decisions required for success at the operational level.

3. Practical Implications. The aim under this heading is to enable analysis of operational level problems and the development of appropriate organisational, methodological and resource based solutions.

4. Solutions. The challenges and problems confronted at the operational level are invariably situation specific and often unique. While taught processes and procedures may help to organise the development of solutions, unique problems require independent, innovative and creative thinking from the outset if the solutions are to be effective. Where appropriate that thinking may also need to be genuinely original. The aim under this heading is to develop the learner’s ability to evaluate the implications and issues for the operational level that arise from the strategic context and tactical realities.

TEACHING LEVEL AND

METHODS The above requirements and methodology

are focused at the post graduate level that is the requirement to develop intellectual ability on top of enhanced knowledge base. The following sets of complementary teaching methods are used.

1. Imparting and enhancing knowledge through methods such as small group activates, media (e.g. video), lectures, research (essential and wider reading) and e learning.

2. Active learning including practising problem solving and decision making through methods such as syndicate room discussions, debate, brainstorming, exercises, case studies, role-play and student led presentations.

ASSESSMENT The assessment of a course at this level

(postgraduate) reflects best practice in UK higher education. Students should be aware of clearly defined objectives and outcomes. Assessment should also be reflective in its approach. Examples of assessment include essay, debate, communication and team leadership skills. Students will also have academic assessment reflected in their end of course report.

INNOVATIVE TEACHING

METHODS AND APPROACHES Students on Military courses must

expect to be challenged by the course material available to them. As such we as educators must seek to counter the criticism that we allow a stereotypical approach to military education to develop. Thus sources of research material made available tot eh students must come from a diverse range of sources and reflect a wide spectrum of opinions. Students should at his level be able to seek out appropriate evidence to back analysis and be they innovative in the research material they use. The following example of a course taught as part of the MA in Defence Studies will show how this can be achieved.

IMAGES OF WAR This course looks at how conflict is

expressed in popular and elitist mediums. Memoirs, diaries and poetry are used to explain individual responses to conflict. Students are asked whether these accounts affected the way future generations viewed warfare. The requirement for memorialisation after war is seen in the context of a need for a collective explanation for sacrifice. The role of war in re enforcing national identity is examined using propaganda images, art and

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films. An analysis of war films post conflicts reflect the use of war as a medium for human emotions and in some cases to re enforce the “never again” perception of war. The subject is, by its nature, multidisciplinary in approach and uses diverse mediums. It requires from the students a degree of textual analysis. Witnessing military officers reading out poetry is rewarding! At the end of this period of study students should be able to assess how war continues to hold a central role in the national psyche and how the experience of past conflicts affects the way nation’s states view conflict. The course is taught in syndicate groups of 12. Students are required to present on a chosen topic and write an essay of 6000 words.

CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, it can be observed, that

military education of officers at mid career

revel must be continuously reviewed for two reasons. Firstly, a requirement to reflect the changing nature of the security environment and secondly a need to reflect changes in best practice in higher education. The particular intellectual needs of military officials must be seen as unique, but it is of vital importance that the education they receive is of the highest standard and comparable to the post graduate level offered to civilian students. Teaching has to be seen to as innovative with an emphasis placed on differing learning processes. Students must also be exposed to information and material that goes beyond the traditional assumptions of what constitutes “military education”. All this enhances the student’s ability to make accurate and balanced decisions as commanders or as a support to command decisions.

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Lecturer Luiza-Maria OLTEANU, PhD ”Carol I” National Defence University

Each term is to be found within a terminological system. Hereafter, we offer two definitions of

terminology, a limited one (all terms belonging to a conceptual category) and a broad one (all terms belonging to all professional domains of the human activity).

The following definition of terminology is to be employed: “all terms belonging to a certain domain of production, activity, knowledge, which form a certain sector of the lexicon and which are most prone to undergo regulations and categorizations.”*

ithin terminology, each term has its own terminological field,

which is defined by Reformatskji as being “a sector of the lexicon that witnesses connections of parallelism (synonyms), contrast (opposites) and overlapping (metonymic and synecdoche connections of words). (…) Only within its lexical field can the word get its meaning (…), the context being its spoken usage, while the field is its existence in the language system”.1

In subject literature on terminology, there are two ways mentioned of forming new terms: the morphological one and the lexical-sematical one. The latter is also called metaphorical, and it was one of the initial ways of formation of new terms, whereas nowadays it is the most productive one. Consequently, the terminological system pertaining to science and technology is formed on the basis of literary national language rules, thus keeping its characteristic

* Реформатский, А.А., Термин как член лексической системы языка//Проблемы структурной лингвистики/Отв. ред. С.К. Шаумян, Москва, Наука, 1968, pp. 116. 1 Реформатский, А.А., Введение в языковедение, Москва, Аспект Пресс, 2005, pp. 147-148.

means of creating new terms, especially the semantic one.

On the other hand, terminology belongs to the literary language, which goes in line with the influence of all characteristic semantic processes of the latter. Monosemantic and polysemantic similarities mirror the cross-relations between semantic fields and concept groups. The overlapping between them brings about associative thinking, which leads to loads of figurative meanings of various kinds.

In between common language and terminological systems there is an ongoing interaction that leads to the criteria of setting boundaries between a word and a term. Thus we reach the criteria of including a word in the specialized vocabulary class, what is specifically known as “the terminological character of the term”2. Such a character is to be determined through the process of terminologization, defined as “the adaptation of a word pertaining to the common language to a terminological system as a result of its semantic conversion carried out either 2 Городецкий, Б.Ю., Термин и его лингвистические свойства, Структурная и прикладная лингвистика, Вып. 3, Ленинград, 1987.

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through semantic change or through metonymic or metaphoric transfer”3.

The terminologization process is carried out in several steps, from the non-term → terminoid (contextual term) → term.4 Practically speaking, all researchers define military vocabulary as being made up of words and phrases which refer to ‘military concepts’, but ‘military concept’ is somehow unclear and is related to a series of extra linguistic factors. The Army is a social and state institution that belongs to the domain of state politics, and, consequently, we might talk about military and political vocabulary.

Within subject literature, those extra linguistic factors mentioned above have not led to a unified opinion regarding functional differentiation of the military vocabulary. But, in the view of those working in the military domain, the army is both an instrument of the state employed in dealing with domestic and foreign policy issues, organization of military and combat actions, and also the one which has combat power, armament and technique to carry out politico-military issues. Thus, the functional vocabulary used for expressing the necessary concepts, and the language used by military personnel in their communication can be considered as terminological or non-terminological vocabulary.

There is a two-fold difference between specialized communication and general communication in the type of oral and written texts that are produced, and in the usage of specific terminology.

The constant and rapid progress of science and technology has brought about a spectacular increase in the number of concepts that have had to be named, either because of new creations or adaptations of something already in existence. As a result

3 Хижняк, С.П., Терминологичность языкового знака и специфика терминологизации номинативных единиц в юридической терминологии, Единицы языка и их функционирование, Вып. 7, Саратов, 2001, pp. 74. 4 Богачева, Д.П., Проблемы лексикографического описания научной терминологии: Дис. .... канд. Филол. наук, Москва, 1999, pp. 120.

the terminology in certain subject fields has often experienced an uncontrolled increase in the number of designations. Organized terminological standardization is a way to combat the diversity of names and thus ensure communicative precision among specialists.

The International Organization of Standardization (ISO), which was created in 1947 to develop universal standards to improve communication and cooperation among nations and to reduce the barriers to commercial exchange on the international level, defines the term standardization as follows:5

The process of formulating and applying rules for an orderly approach to a specific activity for the benefit and with the co-operation of all concerned, and in particular for the promotion of optimum overall economy taking due account of functional conditions and safety requirements.

The object of standardization includes products and processes, which are primarily but not exclusively industrial, units of measurement, safety of people and goods, terminology and the representation of symbols.

Within these parameters, Rondeau mentions that standardization is based on a series of principles that must be followed:6

a. It is an act of simplification that reduces variety and increases uniformity by choosing one alternative over others.

b. It is a group activity that must be achieved via consensus, not by imposition.

c. It is an activity whose only value lies in its application; the publication of a standard is meaningless unless the standard is applied.

d. It is an act that can be revised, but it should be stable enough so that those who have to comply with it take it into account; decisions must be the result of detailed, reasoned arguments. 5 Cabre, M. Teresa, Terminology. Theory, Methods and Applications, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin, 1999, pp. 195. 6 Rondeau, Guy & Juan C. Sager, Terminologie et coopération internationale, Quebec, 1986.

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e. It is a social activity with economic repercussions.

The term ‘standardization’ as applied to language presents yet another ambiguity, even if we discard its possible interpretation as expansion of usage. As Auger7 noted, the term standardization can refer both to establishing some forms of language by means of self-monitoring and to the intervention of an appropriate organization in order to establish preferences for some forms over others.

As a result, ‘terminological standardization’ has at least three meanings:

Institutional standardization is a process by which a body sets the preferred use for a designation.

International standardization is a process by which an international body sets the characteristics or conditions that certain products should comply with together with the terms appropriate for them.

Non-interventionist standardization is a process by which a certain terminological system monitors itself by mutual accord of its end-users.

Terminological standardization in the first two senses is a part of general standardization, which includes both standardization of special terms and

7 Auger, Pierre, La Commission de terminologie de l’Office de la langue française et la normalization terminologique, Terminogramme, 1984.

standardization of principles and methods of terminology as a theory and practice.

Standardization of terminology plays a primary role in the standardization of industrial and commercial products and is an essential part of the process because specialists express ideas and conceptualize reality through terms and also need terms to establish and express product standards.

Standardization of terms is a complex process that entails a number of operations: the unification of concepts and concept systems, the definition of terms, the reduction of homonymy, the elimination of synonymy, the fixing of designations, including abbreviations and symbols, and the creation of new terms. The purpose of terminological standardization is to aid communication in special languages, and is not applied to the vocabulary of the general language. Terminological standardization cannot be carried out without the intervention of subject specialists, who, after all, are the real end-users of its products. Though it is regularly revised, standardized terminology must give the impression of stability. Proposals for terms, especially those for special fields with international scope, must reconcile national and international viewpoints.

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Professor of Philosophy and Sociology, Dana-Victoria SAVU, PhD The Academy of Economic Sciences, Bucharest – Romania

Nowadays pace limits up to annulment the traditional representation, which representation understands the present as a relatively stable structure, born in the past and extended through continuity. Between today’s multiple dimensions, the non stagnant character is the most manifest. The measured trajectories with which until recently we were framing the progressive estimates and the evolution – understood as a mere extrapolation to which the future adds mere corrections – appear today spectacularly distorted by genuine explosions.

nder the pressure of factors such as technical, scientific, social,

political, economical, ecological, military, the accelerating pace changes the environment to levels of mutation. Facts deny the stillness and the present becomes past with a speed that defies the traditional working assumptions. The modern society dynamism is left without the back-up of an acting horizon if the managerial tasks are connected to a present or future that merely extends the past. Today’s game stake is the change, and the businesses that cannot comply efficiently have little chance of survival.

Romania, the land whose defining characteristics have their roots in a Latin humane typology, radially forged by great empires throughout the history, vectored by often clashing religions, mentalities, traditions, customs, suffering the indignities of the dictatorial communism, this land could become the object of a stand alone

management research theme. There are almost 18 years since the terrible fracture which the communism collapse has induced in the social fabric of those days (an unknown event in the post World War II other European countries). This elapsed time creates a depth of field of great relevance regarding this period, period bordered by two overwhelming events: the ’89 communism overturning and the imminence of joining the European Union.

These almost 18 years are defined by an enhanced scarcity of mature managers, sound and responsible personalities, fit for the challenge of the extremely painful transition. The majority of the managers who graduated or matured in the eighties and at the beginning of the nineties (i.e. the plant managers in the 40 to 60 age range) have been deprived of training possibilities, due to the transition inherent structural changes; their chance to remodel by means of various

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focused channels of education in managerial expertise, corresponding and connected to the world we are preparing to join, was also hampered.

The managerial personality defining process and its refining is therefore an issue that needs to be studied in the context of two very complex and important interlaced phenomena:

- the deep Romanian structural conversion process covering the above mentioned time span;

- the European Community system, with its requirements and relative rigidity, judiciously conceived and honed during 6 decades of confronting the social and economic realities of a heterogeneous cultural area.

One of the most important dimensions of the managerial personality casting and re-casting in this context is the morphing of a different mentality in the act of leading, as well as the collaborators reception of the new economic context: the transition from the planned forcing of the quantitative production increase, the distribution of which (location and quantity) being of central government competence, to the free market economy. For the aspiring manager a difficult and totally new challenge was born: the marketing.

This direction of the manufacturing thinking rises a wealth of additional issues, a few of which are: at par quality with the EU products, the search for cost reduction (the low wages cannot make up for the organizational losses, energy and raw material waste, or obsolete technologies), the environmental high standards, the computerized accounting and tracking systems (e.g. ERP, SAP).

In today’s Romania, regarding the use of the modern management systems, we believe that a specific kind – the risk management – could define a new and challenging sector coming alive. Let review a

few of the risks a nowadays Romanian manager exposes himself to:

- the unstable legal frame – it fostered the great acquisition scams during the government properties privatization process, the misallocation of the investment funds, the great scams in the banking system, etc;

- the corruption – it degraded the functioning of the fair competition rules;

- the fear of social convulsions – it has enhanced the unfair competition, through subsidizing of nonviable enterprises;

- the inflation – it has contaminated and changed the meaning of profits and losses;

- the Central Bank monetary and credit dispensing policy (which deflates the economy expansion potential).

The following is an example of the monetary policy impact on the Romanian economy in general and on the managerial risk in particular.

At the beginning of 2004 the manufacturing companies were forced to face a new policy of targeting the inflation, launched by the National Bank (Romanian equivalent of the American Federal Reserve Board). Welcomed at its face value, it should have helped the efficient entrepreneurs fight their earnings erosion by high inflation. Also, companies running high losses would not have been able to mask their inefficiency by diminishing their debt, as a result of the same high inflation. But the National Bank acted in a brutal manner: from June 01 2004 to mid-August 2006 the Romanian currency – the Leu [ROL] – appreciated 15.27% versus the € (4.159 to 1, respectively 3.524 to 1), conversely cutting massively into the companies revenues, particularly of those with foreign customer base and contracts calculated in € or $. This ROL appreciation happened over a background of a rise in the local operating costs by some 20% due to the urban – area where most companies operate –

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inflation (clearly higher than the statistical overall inflation). Also, the annual interest for credit in ROL, the continually appreciating RON, was climbing toward 30%, while our EU competitors were having access to 5-7% /year interest credits.

The results of this policy came quickly: thousands of companies closed, in the first half of 2006 almost 70,000 industrial working places, the macroeconomic indices – particularly the commercial and current deficits – have reached record levels, and we have not seen the bottom yet.

Nowhere in Europe have the managers been confronted with such situations. How did some Romanian companies managers got to keep the balance sheets afloat? Excluding the raw materials and consumables and utilities intangible costs, the bulk of the measures were directed toward:

- freezing the salary budgets (one of the consequences being the emigration of the work force);

- encroaching into the amortizing funds, hence skipping renewing and modernizing the equipment;

- switching from ROL to € credits. Although the large majority of

companies’ leaders did apply such policies, only a small number of them have managed to avoid bankruptcy. That is how strongly felt was the National Bank shock treatment, on top of other handicaps and transitional issues associated with the move to the market economy. Here is where the professionalism (some might call it managerial art) of some of the managers, who succeeded in overcoming these situations, showed up.

It is known that the main (if not the only) advantage of the Romanian manufacturer against his foreign competitors is the low labor cost. In time, this advantage melts down due to the alignment of the cost of living with the one in the rest of the EU.

The managers have been forced to take drastic action to face this evolution, and in order to try to cumulate the two ingredients of the economic efficiency: rise revenues and reduce the costs. The package of measures included the following:

- performance improvement, rise of the products technological quantum, in order to capture and maintain a market position;

- achieving and sustaining high quality levels, based on the EU standardized procedures;

- identification and implementation of modern technological solutions, even when and if programs of sustained investments are required;

- implementing the IT (Information Technology), including financial and inventory tracking modern software reshaping the organizational charts and the human resources management.

We can use the example of a Romanian company, S.C. COMELF Bistrita, as a typical case study. Belonging to an industrial segment hardly hit by the events of the past 18 years (shrinking of both volume and complexity of sold products) – the company specializes in industrial and construction equipment – COMELF has managed to show the following numbers for the years 1991-2005:

- physical production has risen from 7,349 to 9,834 tones of equipment and the gross product value went from € 8,725,000 to € 22,264,000, the numbers reflecting a significant technical level improvement;

- productivity has improved from € 3,100 to € 20,500 / employee / year;

- the monthly average gross employee salary has improved from € 50 to € 353.

It is important – to illustrate the significance of the restructuring process, lead by a modern and efficient management – the fact that the results have been achieved while in the same time the employee total was

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reduced from 2,843 to 1,085. The company leadership analysis as well as the experience of similar companies abroad confirm that a producer of COMELF size – in terms of capacity, equipment and growth potential – has a workforce of 1,100-1,200.

Timely, energetically and insightfully implemented, these measures have softened the monetary policies effect. Some consequences – like the massive brain drain, the qualified labor force (e-)migration – cannot be avoid. The main problem the Romanian managers have to confront is the very lack of qualified labor force.

Although the experienced managers did not battle at their time with the specific issues of the present days economy, and the young ones are just beginning to accumulate experience, we can mention the exponential rise in the hiring of Romanian experts in top management positions at multinational corporations, at home as well as abroad.

The XXI-st century challenges the manager in general and the Romanian manager in particular with an extremely complex company / corporation structure, in need of being understood and led in line with the way each team forms and evolves. The

Risk Management is joined by the Management Focused On Humans, the latter altering considerably the thinking about “what’s the meaning of the man” in the economic universe. He (the man) cannot be defined anymore as a basic employee, but as a “human” with a developed potential. Leading becomes an art, primarily directed toward the organizational structures and fostering a culture which looks at people not as employees, but as humans. If the people lack motivation to develop their full potential, the companies cannot reach and – even more important – retain the optimum performance level.

The modern management does not treat the people as individuals within groups of employees, do not judge them exclusively for their specific professional skills, but as social-cultural individualities, as personalities. More so, the world in which the manager operates nowadays, the more and more complex and diverse system of roles and demands forces him to train, think and act dynamically, creatively, competently.

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COPYRIGHT© 2006, „Carol I” National Defence University. All rights

reserved. Reproductions are allowed under the condition of specifying the source.

The responsability regarding the content of the articles is all to the authors.

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