i
ECOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF VEGETATION
STRUCTURE AND DIVERSITY IN DISTRICT KOTLI AZAD
JAMMU AND KASHMIR, PAKISTAN
MUHAMMAD SHOAIB AMJAD
11-arid-3758
Department of Botany
Faculty of Sciences
Pir Mehr Ali Shah
Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi
Pakistan
2017
ii
ECOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF VEGETATION
STRUCTURE AND DIVERSITY IN DISTRICT KOTLI AZAD
JAMMU AND KASHMIR, PAKISTAN
by
MUHAMMAD SHOAIB AMJAD
(11-arid-3758)
A thesis submitted in the partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in
Botany
Department of Botany
Faculty of Sciences
Pir Mehr Ali Shah
Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi
Pakistan
2017
iii
iv
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION
I Muhammad Shoaib Amjad, hereby state that my PhD thesis
titled “Ecological Evaluation of Vegetation Structure and Diversity in District
Kotli Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan” is my own work and has not been
submitted previously by me for taking any degree from this University Pir Mehr
Ali Shah-Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi or anywhere else in the
country/world.
At any time if my statement is found to be incorrect even after my Graduate
the university has the right to withdraw my PhD degree.
Muhammad Shoaib Amjad
Date: 31-07-2017
v
PLAGIARISM UNDERTAKING
I solemnly declare that research work presented in the thesis titled
“Ecological Evaluation of Vegetation Structure and Diversity in District Kotli
Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan” is solely my research work with no
significant contribution from any other person. Small contribution/help wherever
taken has been duly acknowledged and that complete thesis has been written by
me.
I understand the zero tolerance policy of the HEC and University of Pir
Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi towards plagiarism. Therefore I as an
Author of the above titled thesis declare that no portion of my thesis has been
plagiarized and any material used as reference is properly referred /cited.
I undertake that if I am found guilty of any formal plagiarism in the above
titled thesis even after award of PhD degree, the University reserves the rights to
withdraw/revoke my PhD degree and that HEC and the University has the right to
publish my name on the HEC/University Website on which names of students are
placed who submitted plagiarized thesis.
Student /Author Signature:
Name: Muhammad Shoaib Amjad
vi
vii
DEDICATED
To
My loving Parents
viii
CONTENTS
Page
List of Figures xvi
List of Tables xix
List of Appendices xxiii
List of Abbreviations xxiv
Acknowledgements xxv
ABSTRACT 1
1. INTRODUCTION 4
1.1 STUDY AREA 8
1.1.1 Subtropical Scrub Forest 12
1.1.2 Subtropical Pine Forest 16
1.1.3 Subtropical Broad Leaf Humid Forest 16
1.2 RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
16
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 18
2.1 FLORISTIC COMPOSTION AND
ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISITCS
18
2.2 VEGETAION STRUCTURE/PHYTOSCIOLOGY 24
2.3 PHENOLOGY 34
2.4 ETHNOBOTANY/ECONOMIC USE
CLASSIFICATION
38
2.5 RANGELAND PRODUCTIVITY/BIOMASS 42
2.6 PALATABILITY OF VEGETATION 45
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 47
3.1 SELECTION OF SITES 47
ix
3.2 MEASUREMENT OF ENVIRNOMENTAL
VARIABLE
FLORISTIC COMOSITION AND ECOLICAL
CHARACTERISTICTS
47
3.3 FLORISTIC COMPOSITION AND
ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
50
3.3.1 Plants Collection 50
3.3.2 Life Form 50
3.3.2.1 Phanerophytes
51
3.3.2.2 Chamaephytes
51
3.3.2.3 Hemicryptophytes
51
3.3.2.4 Therophytes
51
3.3.2.5 Geophytes
52
3.3.2.6 Lianas
52
3.3.3 Leaf Size Spectra 52
3.3.3.1 Leptophyll
52
3.3.3.2 Nanophyll
52
3.3.3.3 Microphyll
53
3.3.3.4 Mesophyll
53
3.3.4 Phenology 53
3.3.5 Ethnobotanical Classification 53
3.3.5.1 Multinomial logistic approach
54
3.4 PHYTOSOCIOLGY/VEGETATION STRUCTUE 56
3.4.1 Density 59
3.4.2 Frequency 59
3.4.3 Canopy Cover 59
x
3.4.4 Importance Value 61
3.4.5 Family Importance Value (FIV)
61
3.4.6 Index of Similarity 61
3.4.7 Regenerating Capacity
62
3.4.8 Degree of Homogeneity
62
3.4.9 Degree of Constancy
63
3.4.10 Degree of Aggregation
63
3.4.11 Vegetation Classification and Ordination
64
3.4.11.1 Cluster analysis
64
3.4.11.2 Ordination
65
3.4.11.3 Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA)
65
3.4.11.4 Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA)
65
3.4.12 Diversity and its Components
66
3.4.12.1 Species diversity 66
3.4.12.2 Species richness 67
3.4.12.3 Equitability 67
3.4.12.4 Evenness
68
3.4.12.5 Species maturity 68
3.5 EDAPHALOGY
68
3.5.1 Soil pH 68
3.5.2 Electrical Conductivity
69
3.5.3 Soil Saturation
69
3.5.4 Organic Matter
69
xi
3.5.5 Soil Texture
69
3.5.6 Phosphorus
70
3.5.7 Potassium
70
3.5.8 Calcium Carbonate
70
3.6 RANGE LAND PRODUCTIVITY
70
3.6.1 Herbaceous Biomass
70
3.6.2 Shrubby Biomass
71
3.7 PALATABILITY OF VEGETATION
72
3.7.1 Non Palatable. 72
3.7.2 Palatable
72
3.7.2.1 Highly Palatable 72
3.7.2.2 Moderately Palatable 72
3.7.2.3 Less Palatable 72
3.7.2.4 Rarely Palatable 73
3.7.3 Palatability by Part Used 73
3.7.4 Palatability by Condition 73
3.7.5 Palatability by Animal Preference 73
4. RESULTS 74
4.1 FLORISTIC COMPOSITION AND ITS
ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
74
4.1.1 Floristic Composition 74
4.1.2 Life form and its Seasonal Variation 75
4.1.3 Leaf Spectra and its Seasonal Variation
75
xii
4.1.4 Phenological Behavior
76
4.1.5 Ethnobotany/Economic use classification
77
4.1.5.1 Multinomial logistic specification 78
4.2 PHYTOSOCIOLOGY/VEGETATION
STRUCTURE
93
4.2.1 Community Structure
93
4.2.1.1 Spring Aspect
93
4.2.1.1.1 Dodonaea-Themeda-Justicia community
93
4.2.1.1.2 Justicia- Acacia- Stellaria community
93
4.2.1.1.3 Pinus-Mallotus-Heteropogon community
94
4.2.1.1.4 Carissa-Sida-Geranium community
95
4.2.1.1.5 Mallotus-Pinus-Duchsnea community
95
4.2.1.1.6 Justicia- Acacia- Oxalis community 96
4.2.1.1.7 Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda community
96
4.2.1.1.8 Pinus- Themeda- Mallotus community
97
4.2.1.1.9 Dodonaea- Themeda- Micromeria community
97
4.2.1.1.10 Pinus- Themeda-Duchsnea community
98
4.2.1.1.11 Pinus-Dodonaea-Themeda community
98
4.2.1.1.12 Myrsine-Cotinus-Pinus community
99
4.2.1.1.13 Quercus-Indigofera-Rubus community 100
4.2.1.1.14 Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis community 100
4.2.1.1.15 Quercus-Myrsine-Carex community
101
4.2.1.2 Monsoon Aspect
101
xiii
4.2.1.2.1 Dodonaea-Themeda-Justicia community
101
4.2.1.2.2 Adiantum-Justicia-Acacia community
102
4.2.1.2.3 Pinus-Mallotus-Oxalis community
103
4.2.1.2.4 Carissa-Cynodon-Justicia community
103
4.2.1.2.5 Mallotus-Pinus-Adiantum community 104
4.2.1.2.6 Justicia-Acacia-Themeda community 104
4.2.1.2.7 Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda community
105
4.2.1.2.8 Pinus- Mallotus- Dodonea community 105
4.2.1.2.9 Dodonaea-Olea-Justicia community 106
4.2.1.2.10 Pinus-Themeda-Dodonaea community 106
4.2.1.2.11 Pinus-Dodonaea-Punica community 107
4.2.1.2.12 Myrsine-Cotinus-Pinus community 108
4.2.1.2.13 Quercus-Indigofera-Rubus community 108
4.2.1.2.14 Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis community 109
4.2.1.2.15 Quercus-Myrsine-Carex community 109
4.3. VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION AND
ORDINATION
110
4.3.1 Cluster Analysis 110
4.3.1.1 Subtropical scrub forest (Association A) 110
4.3.1.2 Sub-Tropical pine forest (Association B) 119
4.3.1.3 Subtropical broad leaf humid forest (Association C) 120
4.3.2 Detrended Correspondence Analysis 121
4.3.3 Canonical Correspondence Analysis
122
4.4 SIMILARITY INDEX 138
xiv
4.5 DIVERSITY AND ITS COMPONENTS 141
4.6 TREE DENSITY AND BASAL AREA 142
4.7 REGENERATING CAPACITY
149
4.8 DEGREE OF HOMOGENEITY
150
4.9 DEGREE OF CONSTANCY 150
4.10 DEGREE OF AGGREGATION 150
4.11 EDAPHOLOGY
161
4.12 FORAGE PRODUCTIVITIY 165
4.12.1 Herbaceous Productivity 165
4.12.2 Productivity of Shrub 165
4.13 PALATABILITY OF VEGETATION
166
4.13.1 Degree of Palatability 166
4.13.2 Preference by Animals 175
4.13.3 Classification by Part Used
175
4.13.4 Classification by Condition Used
175
4.13.5 Non Palatable Species
176
5. DISCUSSION
179
5.1 FLORISTIC COMPOSITION ANDECOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
179
5.1.1 Floristic Composition
179
5.1.2 Life Form
180
5.1.3 Leaf Spectra
183
5.1.4 Phenology
184
xv
5.1.5 Ethnobotany/ Economic Use Classification
187
5.2 PHYTOSOCIOLOGY/VEGETATION
STRUCTURE
191
5.2.1 Community Structure
5.1.1
191
5.2.2 Vegetation Classification and Ordination
5.1.2
197
5.2.3 Species Diversity and its Components
5.1.3
201
5.2.4 Tree Density and Basal Area
5.1.4
206
5.2.5 Similarity Index
5.1.5
208
5.2.6 Age Class 209
5.2.7 Degree of Homogeneity
5.1.6
211
5.2.8 Degree of Constancy
5.1.7
212
5.2.9 Degree of Aggregation
213
5.3 PRODUCTIVITY OF RANGELAND
214
5.4 PALATABILITY OF VEGETATION
5.2
216
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 223
SUMMARY 227
LITERATURE CITED 230
APPENDICES 275
xvi
List of Figures
Figure No. Page
1.1 Map of study area 9
1.2 Map showing location of study area with respect to Pakistan and
Azad Jammu and Kashmir
10
1.3 Monthly variation in Rain fall 14
1.4 Monthly variation in Temperature 14
1.5 Monthly variation in Humidity 15
1.6 Monthly variation in wind speed. 15
3.1 Map of District Kotli (Produced by Arc GIS) showing location
of study sites
49
3.2 Map of District Kotli (Produced by Google earth) showing
location of study sites
49
3.3 Sketch showing the appropriate Quadrat size for sampling
different vegetation layers
57
3.4 Sampling procedure in Kotli District, Azad Jammu and Kashmir 58
4.1 Percent share of various habit forms of vegetation of the District
Kotli
89
4.2 Top 17 Plant families represented by highest number of species
in the study area which share 64.36% of the total species
89
4.3 Seasonal variation in life form of District Kotli 90
4.4 Seasonal variation in leaf size of District Kotli 90
4.5 Months clustering dendrogram based on Phenological data 91
xvii
4.6 Phenological responses of vascular flora of District Kotli 91
4.7 Ethnobotanical uses of flora of Kotli District Kotli 92
4.8 Parts used for ethnomedicinal purpose of flora of District Kotli 92
4.9 Altitudinal variation in life form of District Kotli during spring 117
4.10 Altitudinal variation in life form of District Kotli during
monsoon
117
4.11 Altitudinal variation in life form of District Kotli during spring 118
4.12 Altitudinal variation in leaf size of District Kotli during
Monsoon
118
4.13 Cluster analysis Dendrogram representing three different
associations/Habitat type
133
4.14 Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) diagram showing
distribution of 3 plant associations and habitat types among 15
samples/sites
134
4.15 Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) diagram showing
distribution of plant species along the gradient
135
4.16 CCA biplot diagram showing the distribution of different sites
among the three groups (association) along the environmental
gradient
136
4.17 CCA biplot showing the distribution of species along the
environmental gradient
137
4.18 Altitudinal variation of diversity and its components during
spring season
147
4.19 Altitudinal variation of diversity and its components during 147
xviii
monsoon season
4.20 Relationship between diversity and altitude (a) spring (b)
Monsoon
148
4.21 Relationship between species richness with altitude (a) spring
(b) Monsoon
148
4.22 Relationship between (a) Density ha-1
with altitude (b) Basal
area m2ha
-1 with altitude (c) Density ha
-1 with basal area m
2ha
-1
157
4.23 Regeneration capacity of some selected tree species based on
number of individuals in each girth class in District Kotli
158
4.24 Degree of constancy of plant species recorded from District
Kotli
160
4.25 Degree of aggregation of plant associations recorded in District
Kotli during spring
164
4.26 Degree of aggregation of plant associations recorded in District
Kotli during Monsoon
164
4.27 Seasonal and altitudinal variation in herbaceous biomass in
different forest types of District Kotli
168
4.28 Relationship between Herbaceous biomass with Temperature,
Rainfall and altitude
174
4.29 Relationship between Shrubby biomass with rainfall and
temperature
174
4.30 Differential palatability of plant species in District Kotli 178
4.31 Plant parts preferred by animals in District Kotli 178
xix
List of Tables
Table No. Page
1.1 Meteorological data of District Kotli, Azad Jammu & Kashmir
(2006-2015)
13
3.1 Site characteristics of Kotli District, Azad Jammu & Kashmir 48
4.1 Summary of ecological characteristics of the flora of District
Kotli
79
4.2 Taxonomic distribution of plant species recorded from District
Kotli
80
4.3 Number of species in recorded plant families from District Kotli 81
4.4 Number of Plant Species and Family importance value (FIV) in
recorded plant families in different season from District Kotli
82
4.5 Seasonal variation in life form and leaf size spectra of plants of
District Kotli
84
4.6 Average monthly phenological findings of the flora of District
Kotli
85
4.7 Summary of classification of plants of District Kotli based on
economic uses
86
4.8 Parts of plant used for medicinal purposes in District Kotli 87
4.9 Maximum likelihood estimates for various plants uses 88
4.10 Number and total importance value of trees, shrubs, herbs,
grasses and ferns of District Kotli, during spring
111
4.11 Number and total importance value of trees, shrubs, herbs, 112
xx
grasses and ferns of District Kotli, Azad during monsoon
4.12 Life form spectra of Plants communities of District Kotli during
spring
113
4.13 Life form spectra of plant communities of District Kotli during
monsoon
114
4.14 Leaf Spectra of Plant communities of District Kotli during
spring
115
4.15 Leaf Spectra of Plant Communities of District Kotli during
monsoon
116
4.16 Mean relative importance values of species in 3 associations by
cluster analysis in District Kotli
124
4.17 Description of the first four axes of the DCA for the vegetation
data (using the matrix species with their Importance Values (IV)
131
4.18 Description of the first four axes of the CCA for the vegetation
data (using the matrix species with their Importance Values (IV)
132
4.19 Index of similarity and dissimilarity recorded from Kotli Hills
during spring
139
4.20 Index of similarity and dissimilarity recorded from Kotli Hills
during monsoon
140
4.21 Diversity and its component recorded at different localities of
District Kotli during spring
143
4.22 Diversity and its component of plant communities of District
Kotli during monsoon
144
4.23 Correlation between species diversity and richness with altitude 145
xxi
during spring season
4.24 Correlation between Species diversity and richness with altitude
during Monsoon season
146
4.25 Tree density and basal area recorded from different sites of
District Kotli
151
4.26 Correlation between structural attributes among each other and
altitude
152
4.27 Regeneration capacity of some selected tree species based on
number of individuals in each girth class in District Kotli
153
4.28 Degree of homogeneity based on frequency of plants in different
plant communities recorded from District Kotli during spring
154
4.29 Degree of Homogeneity Based on Frequency of plants in
different plant communities recorded from District Kotli during
Monsoon
155
4.30 Degree of Constancy of plants recorded from District Kotli 156
4.31 Degree of aggregation of plant associations recorded from
District Kotli
162
4.32 Phsico-chemical properties of soil of different localities of Kotli
District, Azad Jammu & Kashmir
163
4.33 Seasonal and altitudinal variation in herbaceous biomass (Dry
matter Kg/ha) recorded from different forest types of District
Kotli during 2014-2016
167
4.34 Seasonal and altitudinal variation in biomass (Kg/ha) of Shrubby
Species of District Kotli during 2014-2016
169
xxii
4.35 Correlation between herbaceous and shrubby biomass with
Rainfall, Temperature and altitude
173
4.36 Summary of the palatability of Plants in District Kotli 177
xxiii
List of Appendices
Appendix No. Page
I. Floristic composition, Biological Spectrum and phenology
of plant species recorded from District Kotli, Azad Jammu
& Kashmir
275
II. Ethnobotanical /Economical use classification of District
Kotli , Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan
286
III. Ethnobotanical uses of plants of District Kotli , Azad
Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan
299
IV. Importance value of plant species recorded from different
communities during spring
321
V. Importance value of plant species recorded from different
plant communities of district Kotli, during monsoon
329
VI. Palatability and animal preference of forage plant in
rangeland of district Kotli
339
VII. Pre prepared sheet for recording the phytosociological
attributes of plant species
349
VIII. Sample of Questionnaire used for collection of
ethnobotanical informations
351
IX. Sample of Questionnaire used for collection of palatability
informations in relation to animals
352
X. Phenologicial diagram (Red color represent flowering
period)
353
xxiv
List of Abbreviations
% Percent
⁰ Degree
o C Degree centigrade
CCA Canonical Correspondence Analysis
DCA Detrended Correspondence Analysis
E East (Latitude)
Ha Hectare
IVI Importance value index
Kg Kilogram
Kgha-1
Kilogram per hectar
m2ha
-1 Meter Squre per hectare
Max. Maximum
ME Marginal Effect
Mg Milligram
Min. Minimum
MLE Maximum Likelihood Estimation
MLS Multinomial logistic specification
Mm Millimeter
N North (Longitude)
R Correlation coefficient
R2 Coefficient of determination
RRR Relative Risk Ratio
Spp Species
Sq.mm Square millimeter
TIV Total importance value
P Probability
NWFP North west province of Pakistan
xxv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
All praise and glory to Allah Almighty, Who is exalted and sublime, Who
is Benevolent and Merciful and Who alone is the Bestowed of rewards and honors.
I am grateful to Him for His never ending favors and vast bounties and to His Holy
Prophet, Hazrat Muhammad (P.B.U.H), who is a beacon of light and acme of
knowledge.
I feel great pleasure in expressing my sincerest thanks to ever affectionate
supervisor Prof. Dr. Muhammad Arshad Chairman, Department of Botany, Pir
Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi, for his skillful supervision,
sincere support and inspiring guidance throughout this study. This thesis would not
have been possible to finish in time without his input and encouragement. I
sincerely respect him for her devotion to work, co-operation and encouragement
during the study period. I would like to express my appreciation for providing
necessary facilities and dynamic guidance in the planning, execution and write up
stages of the effort.
It is a great privilege for me to record my heartiest and sincerest thanks to
my foreign supervisor Prof. Dr. Sue Page, Department of Geography, University
of Leicester, UK for her keen interest, moral advice and ever encouraging attitude
throughout the research work.
I have honor to offer my deep sense of gratitude to member Dr.
Rahmatullah Qureshi, Associate Professor, Department of Botany, Pir Mehr Ali
Shah Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi, for his kind supervision and skilled
advises, generous support and guidance.
xxvi
I would then like to thank to member Prof. Dr. Sarwat Naz Mirza,
Professor, Department of forestry, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University
Rawalpindi, without whose adroit guidance and indefatigable support I could have
never completed this task.
I owe debt of gratitude to Dr. Juan Carlose Berrio, Lecture, Department of
Geography, University of Leicester, UK for his valuable and expert suggestions
and sympathetic gratitude to complete my research.
I express my thanks to Higher Education Commission of Pakistan for
providing me the financial support after winning IRSIP scholarships which made
this study possible.
I wish to pay my thanks to my lab fellows friends and fellows Mr. Arshad,
Mirza Faisal Qaseem, Sunbal Khalil, Ejaz Ahmed, Huma Mehreen Sadaf, Sidra
Sabir, Huma Qureshi, whose assistance, cooperation and healthy suggestions will
never be forgotten.
My special thanks go to my mother Hanfia Bibi for his affection, care and
inspiration enabled me to accomplish this great task. My heartiest thanks go to my
affectionate Uncle Prof. Dr. Zahid Hussain Malik who provides me the help and
guidance throughout my research work. My deepest gratitude also goes to my for
the member of Center of Landscape and Climate Change Research, UK for
their invaluable support and whole hearted cooperation throughout the period of my
studies.
May all live long & be happy forever
(Muhammad Shoaib Amjad)
1
ABSTRACT
The present research work was conducted to analyse the plant resources of
District Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. The flora comprised of 202
species distributed among 71 families and 176 genera. Of these, 6 species were
pteridophytes, 1 species was a gymnosperm, 159 species were dicotyledons and 36
species were monocotyledons. Based on species number, Asteraceae (23 Spp.),
Poaceae (20 Spp.), Fabaceae (15 Spp.), Labiatae (11 Spp.), and Euphorbiaceae (7
Spp.) were the leading families. Data on the vegetation biological spectrum reveals
that, therophytes were dominant followed by hemicryptophytes. Nanophylls,
leptophylls and microphylls were the dominant leaf size classes.
Phenological study revealed four different flowering seasons, with April
the peak flowering month during which 122 species blossomed. The flowering
species decreased from spring toward winter season. Ethnobotanical studies
conducted with the local population showed that there were more medicinal uses
(36.96%) of plants as compared to all other use categories. This category was
followed by fodder/forage use (29.80%). The output from the Multinomial logistic
specification (MLS) reflects that non-woody and perennial plants were used more
for medicinal and food purpose as compared to woody and annual plants. With
reference to medicinal uses, aerial parts of plants particularly leaves were
extensively used for preparing different herbal remedies.
There were 30 plant communities identified during the spring and monsoon
seasons. Based on the results of cluster analysis and Detrended Correspondence
Analysis (DCA) techniques these communities were merged in to three plant
2
associations, viz. sub-tropical scrub forest association, sub-tropical pine forest
association and sub-tropical broad leaf humid forest association. Canonical
Correspondence Analysis (CCA) revealed that altitude and aspect were the
strongest factors responsible for controlling the distribution pattern of plant species
as well as classification and the grouping of vegetation into different associations.
The plant species diversity and richness were significantly positively correlated
with altitude. Equitability and evenness were slightly or not affected by altitude.
Species maturity was low in all stands due to severe deforestation.
Edaphology indicated that soil textures in the study area were of loam, clay
loam and sandy loam types with pH values that varied between 6.02-7.51. The
organic matter varied from 0.52-4.25%, saturation 28-61%, phosphorus 5.3-8.5 mg
kg-1
, potassium 120-180 mg kg-1
, and calcium carbonate 7.3-12.12 mg kg-1
.
A palatability study showed that 71 species were non-palatable while 131
species were palatable to varying degrees. Among the palatable plant species, 42
species (20.79%) were highly palatable, 33 species (16.34%) were moderately
palatable, 32 species were (15.84%) less palatable and 24 species were (11.88%)
rarely palatable. The ratio of palatable to total species was 1:1.5 and non-palatable
to total species was 1:2.8. Most of the plant species were used in a fresh condition
by the livestock. Considering the grazable part, it was observed that for 56 species
(40%) whole plants /shoots were used, in 70 species (50%) only leaves were used
and in 14 species (10%) only flowers or fruits were used. There were 162 species
available during the monsoon season and 147 plant species available during the
spring season.
3
The productivity of the area was strongly influenced by the climatic
fluctuation especially of temperature and rainfall. The total average herbaceous
biomass production was 625 kg/ha while total average shrubby biomass production
was 2720 kg/ha. The productivity was highest in the subtropical pine forest and less
in the subtropical broad leaf humid forest. The biomass gradually increased from
March to July and then decreased until February.
The investigated forests have a sub-optimal productivity and need
restoration through conservation and ecological management practices. The strict
policies of government along with the participation of local inhabitants could make
the plant resources sustainable. It is recommended that the government of Azad
Jammu and Kashmir should provide complete protection to these forests for the
improvement of vegetation cover and range conditions. There is a dire need to
provide alternate sources of energy for local communities to overcome the burden
on the forest resources. The severely degraded sites should be subjected to
reforestation with suitable woody and herbaceous species.
4
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Vegetation is a unit which possesses characteristic physiognomic structure
(Hussain and Ilahi, 1991) including all the types of plant present on the earth
(Peter, 2008). It reflects the plant composition of any given area (Arora, 1987).
Vegetation is mainly the outcome of environmental conditions, habitat and
accessible vegetation type (Malik and Malik 2004). Vegetation studies provide
useful information for recognition and definition of diverse plant communities and
vegetation types, vegetation/community mapping, and understanding vegetation-
environmental relationships. Such studies also provide data about the vegetation as
habitats for insects, birds and animals. There is also a need to explain various
vegetational changes in terms of succession and climax with time. Different aspects
of vegetation studies are also helpful in biodiversity conservation and management
purposes, assessment of environmental impacts and vegetation uses and prediction
of possible future changes (Kent and Coker, 1994).
A plant community is an aggregate of living plants having mutual
relationships among themselves and to their physical environment (Oosting, 1948).
The components of each plant community are influenced by climate, soil and
topography. Biotic factors, especially human influences, also mould the course or
shape of succession of plant community or vegetation types (Grubb, 1987). It form
relatively uniform patch distinguishable from neighbouring patch of different
vegetation type. The existence and establishment of plant communities reflects the
5
conditions under which they develop (Malik, 1986).
Phytosociology, a discipline of plant science, addresses the specifics of
plant communities such as floristic composition, structure, development and
distribution due to interrelationships among the species (Tansley, 1920; Allaby,
2004). It is a well-established field which describes the diversity of plant
communities and their relationship with the environment. It is also concerned with
successional relationships and the comparison of different plant communities
(Miyawaki and Fujiwara, 1988).
Historically, vegetation description can be visualized as a means of
communicating plant assemblages at varying spatial scales. The composition of
vegetation has been changed with the passage of time and human activities has
become increasingly concerned with the socio-economic as well as the cultural and
aesthetic values of natural resources and the need to understand more about the way
plants respond to the environment (Gillision, 2006). Therefore there is a need to
analyse different parameters of vegetation, especially in unexplored and
floristically rich areas, in order to understand the state of biodiversity (Mueller-
Dombois and Elenberg, 1974).
In spite of the more recent prevalence of exact numerical measurement
methods for quantifying vegetation characteristics, ocular estimation has been used
for vegetation studies since earlier times and still has a role to play today.
Nevertheless, with the passage of time trend has diverted toward the quantification
of vegetation by using different numerical measurements and indices. According
to many ecologists, the analysis of data by counting, weighing or other forms of
6
direct measurement are more reliable as compared to rough estimation by eye
which does not provide a standardized way of quantifying vegetation parameters.
For this purpose different methods have been proposed to accelerate collection of
field data, followed by statistical and mathematical operations, in order to draw an
exact picture of the vegetation (Curtis and McIntosh, 1950).
The process of classifying vegetation by using standard approaches for
sampling and characterizing vegetation started during last century (Braun Blanquat,
1928) which lead to a diverse accumulated literature for the classification of the
many kinds of vegetation across the globe and to formulate a framework for
naming and organizing them within a syntaxonomic hierarchy of associations,
alliances, orders and classes (Weber et al., 2000).
More recently, ecologists have tried to resolve higher levels of complexity
in vegetation composition, by describing whole successional units (vegetation
series) or more generally, vegetation complexes. Advancements in
phytosociological techniques have included the use of multivariate statistics such as
Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA), Canonical Correspondence Analysis
(CCA), (ter Braak and Smilauer, 2002) and Cluster Analysis (Hill, 1979).
Cluster analysis is a classification technique that is used to classify
ecological communities and to merge them into groups or associations (Amjad et
al., 2014a). DCA applies an indirect gradient Eigen vector technique to focus on
the analysis of species distribution patterns (Khan et al., 2015a; He et al., 2007). It
produces the results without distortion as only species data matrices are required
for DCA analysis. In contrast, CCA is a direct gradient analysis technique in which
7
the distribution pattern of plant species is controlled by environmental factors and
is used to determine relationships among them (Basnou et al. 2009; Takafumi et al.
2009, Ahmad et al., 2014; Urooj et al., 2015; Urooj et al., 2016). This latter
technique combines regression analysis with either correspondence analysis or
reciprocal averaging. In combination, these techniques can be particularly helpful
in the definition of syntaxa and their environmental interpretation (Barbacka et al.,
2015; Amjad, et al., 2014).
The international project “European Vegetation Survey” stimulated an
interest in the field of phytosociology and the adoption of a uniform system for the
classification of vegetation type according to syntaxonomical hierarchy. After this
project many phytosociological research studies have been completed including
those by Otypkova and Chytry (2006), Kropac (2006), Eminagaoglu et al. (2007),
Peer et al. (2008), Dancza (2009), Matevski et al . (2010), Cakan et al. (2013) Tian
et al. (2013), Gungor (2013), Rodríguez-Rojo et al. (2013), Khalik et al. (2013) and
Yuan et al. (2014).
In Pakistan, various phytosociological studies have also been carried out in
order to provide quantitative accounts of the vegetation of different areas of the
country including studies by Beg ans Khan (1984), Hussain and Illahi (1991),
Hussain et al. (1992), Durrani and Hussain (2005), Sultan et al. (2008 a), Qureshi
et al. (2009), Hussain and Parveen (2009), Qureshi and Ahmed (2010), Haq et al.
(2011), Shaheen et al. (2011a), Ilyas et al. (2012), Shaukat et al. (2014), Badsha et
al. (2013) Siddiqui et al. (2013), Qureshi et al. (2014), Shaukat et al. (2014) and
Ilyas et al. (2015).
8
Pakistan is blessed with a diversity of climate, soil types and different
ecological zones which support rich plant diversity. However many remote areas
remain still unexplored for census of vegetation. There is an immediate need for
more detailed reporting of the vegetation according to international standards,
particularly in relatively unexplored and floristically rich areas of Pakistan, in order
to provide the base line information for effective plant conservation strategies and
sustainable development. District Kotli is one such important remote area that the
present study is designed to explore, with a focus on the current vegetation along
with its range and condition using a multivariate approach. The present study will
be helpful for ethnobotanists, ecologists, environmentalists, rangeland managers
and conservationists to verify their results while working in other localities but with
similar environmental features.
1.1 STUDY AREA
Kotli District, Azad Jammu and Kashmir is situated in Pakistan some 141
Km to the north of the capital, Islamabad (73°.47.180´ E to 74° 04.613´ E
longitude; 33° 23.069´N to 33° 29.344´ N latitude and altitude range 450 m to 1900
m) (Fig 1.1).A map showing the location of the different study sites was produced
by using Arc-GIS (Fig. 1.2).The District is mountainous and has an area of about
1862 km2 and a population of 0 .71 million people according to the 2010 census. It
is surrounded by Bimber and Mirpur on the southern side, Rawalpindi and Mirpur
on the western side, Sudhonooti and Poonch on the northern side and Rajori on the
east. Administratively, District Kotli is divided into six tehsils i.e. Kotli, Sehansa,
Nikyal, Khoiretta, Churhoi and Rajdahani.
9
Fig. 1.1: Map of study area.
10
Fig. 1.2: Map showing location of study area with respect to Pakistan and Azad
Jammu and Kashmir.
11
The climate of the area is characterised by a dry subtropical type climate at
lower altitudes and a subtropical humid type in the upper reaches. The summer is hot
in lower altitudinal areas and pleasant in upper reaches, especially in the Nikyal
valley. The winter is cold and snowfall occurs at the higher altitudinal areas. The
metrological data of District Kotli was obtained from the Pakistan Meteorological
Department. The average annual rainfall is 1250 mm. July and August receive the
maximum rainfall which is 291 mm and 188 mm respectively, while November
receives the minimum rainfall which is 19 mm. (Table 1.1; Fig. 1.3). A little snow fall
occurs in the area above 1600 m during the months of January and February.
The average annual maximum and minimum temperature of District Kotli is
28.6 o
C and 15.2 o
C respectively. The warmest months of the year are June and July
with daily average maximum temperatures of 37.1 o
C and 33.9 o
C respectively and
minimum temperatures of 23.5 oC and 23.7
oC, respectively, while the coldest
months of the year are December and January with minimum temperatures of 4.8
oC and 3.9
oC, respectively, and average maximum temperatures of 20.8
oC and
18.6 oC, respectively (Table 1.1; Fig. 1.4).
The average annual humidity in the area is 49%. The upper altitudinal areas
are more humid as compared to the lower reaches and nights are more humid as
compared to days. During July and August, the relative humidity in the area is highest
at 62.1% and 68.2% respectively while relative humidity achieves a minimum during
May and June at 33.2% and 38.5% respectively (Table 1.1; Fig 1.5). Snowfall occurs
in winter during month of January and February only in Nikyal valley. The aerial parts
of plants are also some times injured by sleet and hail which are occasional.
12
The wind direction is generally from the south to west and the average wind
velocity is 1.37 Kont. Average wind velocity is high during May and June at 2.03
Kont and 2.28 Kont respectively while achieving a minimum during November and
December which is 0.53 Kont and 0.71 Kont, respectively (Table 1.1; Fig. 1.6). The
soil textures in the study area were of loam, clay loam and sandy loam types with pH
values that varied between 6.02 and 7.51. The organic matter varied from 0.52-4.25%,
saturation 28-61%, phosphorus 5.3-8.5 mg kg-1
, potassium 120-180 mg kg-1
, and
calcium carbonate 7.3-12.1 mg kg-1
. The geology is Pir-Panjal stone, sand-stone, mud-
stone, quartzite, shale and Siwalick type.
Seasonal springs (Ban spring, Goi spring, Panagh spring and Nail spring) are
main drainage sources in the area. Poonch and Jehlum are main rivers of the area
which unite at Mangla Lake which also play major contribution in the precipitation
of the area. Due to absence of canals, rainwater is the main source of irrigation for
agricultural practices. The important crops of the investigated area are wheat, maize
and rice. The natural vegetation/forests of the area are mainly classified in to three
different types which are as follow:
1.1.1 Subtropical Scrub Forest
Olea ferruginea, Acacia modesta, Ziziphus mauritiana, Butea monosperma,
Flacourtia indica, Justicia adhatoda, Dodonaea viscosa, Carissa opaca, Nerium
indicum, Otostegia limbata, Adiantum iniscum, Amaranthus viridis, Anagallis
arvensis, Barleria cristata, Bidens biternata, Boerhavia procumbens, Brachiaria
reptans, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Commelina benghalensis, Chenopodium album,
Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus rotundus, Dichanthium annulatum, Euphorbia
13
Table 1.1: Meteorological data of District Kotli, Azad Jammu & Kashmir (2006-
2015).
Rainfall
(mm)
Temperature
(o C)
Humidity
(%)
Wind
speed
(Kont)
Wind
Direction
Maximum Minimum
January 62.88 18.56 3.86 49.1 1.15 SW
February 109.93 19.96 7.53 50.8 1.48 SW
March 119.03 25.52 11.96 43.1 1.68 SW
April 79.58 30.59 16.81 39.5 1.75 SW
May 54.03 35.61 21.36 33.2 2.03 SW
June 107.44 37.11 23.46 38.5 2.28 SW
July 290.56 33.94 23.67 62.1 1.43 SW
August 187.98 32.65 23.4 68.2 1.36 SW
September 140.73 32.23 20.78 59.3 1.19 SW
October 37.61 30.37 16.01 48.5 0.93 SW
November 18.9 25.5 9.31 48.8 0.53 SW
December 41.37 20.77 4.81 51.7 0.71 SW
Annual 1250.03 28.56 15.24 49.41 1.37 SW
Source: Pakistan Metrological Department Lahore.
14
Fig. 1.3: Monthly variation in Rain fall.
Fig. 1.4: Monthly variation in Temperature.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Rai
n f
all (
mm
)
Months
Rainfall (mm)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Tem
pe
ratu
re (
o C
)
Months
Max.
Min.
15
Fig. 1.5: Monthly variation in Humidity.
Fig. 1.6: Monthly variation in Wind Speed.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Hu
mid
ity
(%)
Months
Humidity
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Win
d s
pe
ed
(K
no
ts)
Months
Wind speed
16
helioscopia, Fumaria indica, Geranium rotundifolium, Malva parviflora,
Malvastrum coromandelianum.
1.1.2 Subtropical Pine Forest
Pinus roxburghii, Mallotus philippensis, Casearia tomentosa, Dodonaea
viscosa, Colebrookea oppositifolia, Maytenus royleanus, Punica granatum, Rubus
fruticosus, Myrsine Africana, Ajuga bracteosa, Cynoglossum lanceolatum, Cyperus
niveus, Cyperus rotundus, Dicliptera bupleuroides, Duchesnea indica, Euphorbia
indica, Galium elegan, Geranium rotundifolium, Geranium ocellatum, Malvestrum
coromendelianum, Micromeria biflora, Oxalis corniculata, Sonchus asper,
Taraxacum officinale, Thalictrum foliolosum, Viola odorata, Vicia sativa.
1.1.3 Subtropical Broad Leaf Humid Forest
Quercus incana, Pinus roxburghii, Astragalus psilocentros, Berberis lyceum,
Cotinus coggyria, Debregeasia salcifolia, Indigofera heterantha, Isodon rugosus,
Lonicera quinquelocularis, Myrsine africana, Viburnum grandiflorum, Woodfordia
fruiticosa, Zanthoxylum armatum, Achillea millefolium, Bergenia ciliata, Bupleurum
falcatum, Carpesium cernum, Cirsium wallichii, Clematis grata, Crysopogon
aucheri, Cyperus difformis, Geranium nepalense, Geum Canadensis, Heracleum
candicans, Ipomoea hederacea, Melilotus indica, Plantago lanceolata, Pteris
cretica, Salvia moocroftiana, Smilax glaucophylla and Viola canescens.
1.2 RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The whole discussion concludes that Kotli district is floristically rich area
blessed with diverse climate, soil type and different ecological zone. However,
17
being the hilly terrain as well as difficulty to access due to its remote location, the
area was very little explored for census of vegetation by researchers. There was an
immediate need to report the vegetation of areas of Kotli according to international
standards, to provide the base line information for effective plant conservation
strategies and sustainable development. Therefore current study was designed to
quantify the vegetation and rangeland conditions of District Kotli with following
main objectives:
1. To determine the existing vegetation structure, composition and
species diversity in the study area.
2. To correlate different micro-habitats with the vegetation types of the
study area.
3. To determine the seasonal and altitudinal variation in biomass and
phenology of study area.
4. To document the palatability status and economic uses of plants.
18
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The observations and description are generally followed by quantitative
measurements for cautious understanding of vegetation or plant community. Such
data provides an insight to the composition and structure of community and allow
satisfactory comparison of species and groups of species within communities or
between communities (Hussain, 1989).
2.1 FLORISTIC COMPOSTION AND ITS ECOLOGICAL
CHARACHTERISTICS
Thompson and Fleming, (2004) reported 538 species belonging from 98
families and 310 genera. Asteraceae (79 Spp.), Poaceae (46 Spp.), Cyperaceae (35
Spp.), and Fabaceae (20 Spp.) were the leading families in the area. Similarly Zent
and Zent, (2004) reported 533 species distributed among 232 genera and 65
families from Maigualida forests, Sirria. Phytosociological sampling was carried
out in four different plot of 1 hectare each. The number of families varied from 38-
51, number of genera from 76-120, number of species from 133-191 in different
plots. Fabaceae was the dominant family comprised of thirty eight species. On the
basis of family importance value, Burseraceae was dominant in all four plots.
Mendez (2005) recorded 240 species belonging to 52 families and 156
genera from provincial Reserve, Laguna de Llancanel. Among them, 51 families
were of angiosperm (41 dicotyledoneae and 10 monocotyledoneae) and only one
was of gymnosperm. The richest families in the area were Asteraceae and Poaceae
19
having 82 species each while the leading genera were Baccharis and Stipa. The life
form of each species and their distribution were consigned within the vegetation
units, phytogeographic provinces, together with the degree of endemism. The flora
was related to that province and country.
Segwa and Nkuutu, (2006) reported 179 plant species distributed in 146
genera and 70 families from tropical high forest of Uganda. Of them, 72 species
were trees, 10 were shrubs, 58 were herbs and 39 were lianas. Rubiaceae was the
dominant family with 14 species. Other leading families were Euphorbiaceae (13
Spp.), Apocynaceae (10 Spp.) and Moraceae (9 Spp.). The area is rich as compared
to other forests of mainland.
A work on life form was done by Jamir et al. (2006). They reported life
form composition and stratification of montane humid forest in India and
recognized phanerophytes as a dominant life form followed by chamaephytes. They
also concluded that these forests are similar to the humid tropical forest, except
absence of emergent tree and shorter tree height in canopy. Malik and Ahmed,
(2006) reported life form, leaf spectra and similarity index of Sarsawa hills both
qualitatively and quantitatively. They concluded that nanophanerophytes and
megaphanerophytes were dominated qualitatively whereas Index of similarity
showed close similarity between plant communities due to similar altitude and
edaphic characteristics.
Malik et al. (2007) reported life form and leaf size spectra of fifteen
communities from Ganga Choti and Bedori hills both qualitatively and
quantitatively. The hemicryptophytes and therophytes were the dominant life forms
20
while microphylls and nanophylls were major leaf size classes during spring and
monsoon.
Parveen et al. (2008) reported the phytosociology of Dureji Game Reserve.
They recorded 79 species distributed among 32 families and 66 genera. Of them,
three species were rare.
Hussain and Perveen, (2009) reported seventy plant species belonging to 31
families and 59 genera from Tico Baran (Khirthar Range). Life forms, density,
frequency and cover for each plant species present in each 10×10 m2 stand were
recorded. They concluded that chamaephytes were the dominant in the investigated
area which are the indicators of alpine zone. The natural regeneration, structure
and floristic composition of moist semi-deciduous forests in Tinte Bepo forest
reserve have been reported by Addo- Fordjour et al. (2009). They recorded 108
species of 77 plant genera and 37 plant families from three 50×50 m2 plots, each set
in disturbed, disturbed-invaded and undisturbed forest blocks. The most dominant
life form was tree. Among them, Celtis mildbraedii and Triplochiton scleroxylon
were the overall dominant tree species. Undisturbed forest has highest specie
richness. The species diversity was 2.9 for disturbed forest, 3.3 for disturbed-
invaded forest and 3.6 for undisturbed forest. The species diversity of sapling was
highest in disturbed forest. To protect the integrity of this floristically rich forest
proper management practices recommended.
The floristic diversity and ecological characters of 45 wetland sites along
altitudinal gradient in northern Iran has been explored by Naqinehad et al. (2009)
using one way ANOVA, Pearson ranked and Detrended Correspondence Analysis.
21
The study reported 310 plant taxa with 35 endemics or sub endemics. Chamaephyte
was the dominant life form of high mountain areas. Altitude was the primary
detrimental factor for floristic composition. They noticed gradual decrease in soil
pH with the increasing altitude. A similar work on the vegetation structure and
ecological characteristics of subtropical forest of Tabi, Wazirstan, Pakistan was carried out
by Badsha et al. (2010). They reported that phanerophytes and therophytes were the
leading life forms whereas nanophylls was the major leaf size class in the area.
Sher et al. (2011) reported 40 species belonging to 21 families from Lahor
village District Sawabi, Pakistan. Poaceae was dominant family followed by
Brassicaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Asteraceae and Fabaceae. Therophytes (82.5%)
were the dominant life form followed by hemicryptophytes, geophytes and
chamaephytes. Among the leaf size classes, microphylls (42.5%) were dominant.
They were followed by nanophylls (35%) and leptophylls (22.5%). Due to crop
rotation the diversity was higher in Koz Mulk and Pani.
One hundred and thirty plant species belonging to 37 families were studied
for their floristic composition in Koont Research Farm. Poaceae Asteraceae and
Leguminosae were the leading families in the area. Whereas therophytes,
phanerophytes and hemicryptophytes were the main life forms (Qureshi et al.,
2011).
Floristic composition and vegetation structure of Cat Dua Island was
reported by Qin et al. (2012). Euphorbiaceae, Papilionaceae, Moraceae, Rutaceae
and Rubiaceae were dominant families of the area. Due to younger flora, only few
species were endemic to area. Vegetation possesses tropical characters and mainly
22
categorized in to evergreen broad-leaved forests, scrub forests and beach
vegetation. The biodiversity needs protection from anthropogenic influences.
Khan et al. (2012 a) reported 132 species distributed among 47 families and
104 genera. The richest families were Asteraceae and Poaceae. Therophytes
(47.73%) were the dominant life form. They were followed by chamaephytes
(18.18%) megaphanerophytes (11.36%), hemicryptophytes (9.85%),
nanophanerophytes (9.09%), geophytes (3.03%) and parasites (0.76%). Among leaf
spectra, leptophylls (11.36%) were dominant followed by megaphylls (6.82%).
Chawala et al. (2012) reported 881 species belonging to 121 families.
Compositae was dominant family with 122 species in the area. It was followed by
Poaceae, Rosaceae, Leguminosae and Lamiaceae. Similarly, Artemisia was the
most dominant genus with 19 species. It was followed by Potentilla, Saussurea,
Polygonum, Astragalus, Lonicera and Nepeta. The family-to-genera ratio was
1:4.25 and the genera-to-species ratio was 1:2.04 in the investigated area. Out of
881, the checklist consisted of 606 herbs, 63 trees, 108 shrubs, 28 climbers, 67
graminoids and 21 sedges and rushes.
Sherif et al. (2013) studied the floristic composition, biological spectrum
and chorology of 251 species from Khulais. Poaceae (42 species) was dominant
family in the area. It was followed by legumonaceae (20 Spp.), Euphorbiacea (18
Spp.) and Asteraceae (15 Spp.). The remaining eighteen families had one species
each. Therophytes (41.2%) and chamaephytes (31.4%) were leading life forms in
the area where as hemicryptophytes (13.7%) phanerophytes (10%) and geophytes
(4.87%) were less in number. Choronological attributes showed that and Sudanian
23
and Saharo-Arabian elements comprised 43.6% of the total flora.
Ghollasimoo and Fattahi, (2014) reported 108 species from western forests
in Iran, distributed among 84 genera and 29 families. Poaceae was the richest
family comprised of 16 species. It was followed by Asteraceae (15 Spp.), Fabaceae
(14 Spp.) and Apiaceae (8 Spp.). Therophytes and hemicryptophytes were the main
life forms in the area. The most dominant chortypes was Irano-Turanian (34.5%).
Ali et al. (2015) reported 91 plant species belonging to 80 genera and 40
families from Buner, Pakistan. Pinus roxburghii, Quercus incanna and Rhodendron
arboretum were the dominant plant species based on importance value.
Hemicryptophytes and therophytes were the dominant life forms shared 24.4% of
species each, while the microphylls (34.4%) were dominant leaf size class followed
by nanophylls (26.6%). The soil was sandy with acidic pH having low content of
organic matter, CaCo3, and K.
Ali et al. (2016) reported 463 species belonging to 104 families from Chail
valley, Swat. Asteraceae (42 Spp.) was dominant family followed by Poaceae (35
Spp.), Rosaceae (26 Spp.), Lamiaceae (26 Spp.) and Papilionaceae (25 Spp.).
Brassicaceae, Boraginaceae, Apiaceae, Solanaceae and Ranunculaceae were the
other leading families in the area. The dominant life form was therophytes
(40.60%) followed by hemicryptophytes (16.63%). Viscum album, Cuscuta reflexa
and C. europaea were the parasites. Mesophylls (31.75%) were dominant leaf
spectra followed by microphylls (30.24%) and nanophylls (29.37%). Two species
were aphyllous. Most of plant species (65.87%) had simple lamina while only few
(1.73%) had spiny leaves.
24
2.2 VEGETATION STRUCTURE/PHYTOSICOLOGY
Thompson and Fleming, (2004) reported elven plant communities from
Memorial Forest, Kentucky. Of them, seven were forested, two were microhabitats,
one was wetland meadow, and one was culturally disturbed community. The forest
is of mixed mesophytic type. Species diversity and richness of evergreen forests of
Andaman Island were analysed. The foot hill forest had highest species diversity
and richness and heterogeneity was similar throughout the investigated forest area
(Tripathi et al., 2004).
Staden and Bredenkamp, (2005) reported five major plant communities
from Marakele National Park, using Braun- Blanquet technique i.e. Olea europaea
subsp. africana -Diospyros whyteana community, Protea caffra-Loudetia simplex
community, Acacia-caffra-Heteropogon contortus community, Andropogon
huilensis-Xyris capensis community, Burkea africana-Setaria lindenbergiana
community. The communities were explained on the basis of habitat. A study on
sub-alpine scrub and alpine meadow vegetation from Tibetan plateau China was
reported by Kurschner et al. (2005). The most common vegetation units in the area
were Potentilla scrub, alpine grassland and alpine Kobresia mats which from zonal
vegetation under cold & moist climatic conditions. Alpine grassland was dominated
by medium sized Poaceae rather than Cypraceae. The area receives heavy grazing
pressure from domesticated livestock during summer.
Ahmed et al. (2006) reported the four monospecific vegetation type and 24
different plant communities from different climatic zone of Himalayan forest of
Pakistan. Majority of plant communities had similar floristic composition but differ
25
in the quantitate values. Malik et al. 2006 described the vegetation structure of
Lohibeher reserve forest using TWINSPAN and DCA. They reported the four main
communities viz Ziziphus-Malcolmia, Prosopis-Chrysopogon, Capparis-Eleusine,
Salix-Saccharum community. Species composition were mainly controlled by soil
texture, water table and flooding.
The vegetation structure and composition of Karagol Sahara National park
was investigated by Eminagaoglu (2007), using quadrat method. They laid 114
quadrats to analysed the vegetation and reported seven new associations named
Querco petreae-picetum orientalis association, Junipero oxycedri-Pinetum
sylvestris, Fago orientalis-Abietum nordmonnianae, Pino sylvestris-Picetum
orientalis, Abieti nordmonnianae- Picetum orientalis, Abiete nordmonnianaea-
Pinetum sylvestris, Junipero comumuni- Pinetum sylvestris and two sub
associations named Fraxinetosum angustifoliae sub association and Crataegetosum
microphyllae sub association.
Phytosociology of Pir Chanasi hills was carried out by Malik et al. (2007).
They reported 13 plant communities containing 77 species. They isolated climate,
soil conditions and anthropogenic activities as the main contributor of vegetation
pattern, among which chemical composition of soil was the most significant factor.
There was heavy deforestation and over grazing in the area.
Structure, composition and growth rate at five different locations in pine
forest of Dangam have been investigated. Based on importance value and species
composition there were one bi-specific and two mono-specific communities in the
area viz. Cedrus deodara community, Picea smithiana community and Cedrus-
26
deodara-Pinus wallichiana community. This study showed that tree seedling were
absent in the communities due to poor regeneration of these forests. Basal area of
tree was also quite low (7.4 m2/ha-1). Long term conservation and management
practices required on urgent basis to save these forests (Wahab et al., 2008).
The vegetation structure of Olea ferruginea forest in Dir, Pakistan was
reported by Ahmed et al. (2009 a). The communities were Olea-Punica
community, Platanus-Morus community, Olea-Ficus community, Olea-Alianthus
community, Olea-Acacia community, Morus-Celtis community, Olea-Morus
community, Olea-Monotheca community, Pure Olea community, Olea-Quercus
community. They concluded that these communities have similar floristic
composition with different quantitative value. Another work on community
structure was done by Ahmed et al. (2009 b). They studied species composition and
community structure of Cedrus deodara forests of Himalayan range of Pakistan.
The communities were Deodar – Juglans community, Deodar–Taxus community,
Deodar–Pinus gerardiana community, Deodar-Quercus community, Deodar–
Picea community, Deodar– Pinus wallichiana community, Deodar–Abies
community. These forests were highly disturbed.
Ahmed et al. (2009 c) reported thirteen stands in Pinus roxburghii forest
from Himalayan and Hindukush range of Pakistan. Pinus roxburghii was purely
dominated in twelve stands but in one location, it was associated with some
angiospermic species like Punica granatum, Dodonaea viscosa, Erodium
cicutarium, Vicia sativa and Medicago denticulate. They concluded that the forest
is unstable and degraded. It will be vanished if present conditions remains.
27
Multivariate analysis of vegetation and environmental data of Ayubia
national park, Rawalpindi was done by Jabreen and Ahmed, (2009) using
ordination techniques. Out of total 44 species recorded, 10 more abundant species
were responsible for more than 15% cover. Two way indicator species analysis
resulted in two major community types. Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA)
resulted in four major plant communities while Canonical Correspondence
Analysis results species correlation and association with soil electric conductivity,
pH, and heavy metal.
The patterns of species diversity along Teral landscape in Uttar Prddesh,
India have been analysed. It was composed of an array of habitats including
cultivated area, human habitation and natural vegetation. The vegetation was of
four types i.e. grassland, secondary scrub, old field and forests. The grassland was
the most floristically rich area amongst all type followed by forests, old field and
scrub. They reported 615 species of 389 genera and 94 families from the study
area. The frequency of large number of plant species had a range of 0.001- 0.1%
and was considered rare. The recorded alpha diversity for the area was 4.035
having largest contribution of shrubs. Woody perennial species had very low
diversity (Shukla, 2009).
Sharma et al. (2009) studied the impact of altitude on species richness and
diversity on Indian Himalayan forests. They concluded that it was higher at the
lower altitude, medium at mid altitude and lowest at the upper altitude.
Phytosociology of Push Ziarat was conducted by Farooq et al. (2010). The
communities were Pinus-Abies-Sophora, Pinus-Abies, Abies-Cedrus, Abies-Pinus
28
and Pinus-Abies communities. They concluded that vegetation is depleting at fast
rate due to population exploitation. The communities so established reflected the
characters of dry temperate entities.
The structure, composition and soil phiso-chemical analysis of Quercus
forest from Chitral was reported by Khan et al. (2010). Eight stands containing 60
species were sampled at four different localities ranging from 1770 −2370m
altitude. Vegetation was sampled by using circular plot method. Quercus baloot
was purely dominated at 5 sites, while Quercus dilatata was co-dominant in
remaining 3 stands at higher altitudes. The soil was acidic, pH ranging from 5.5-
6.6. Maximum water holding capacity and soil moisture ranged between 47-62 %
and 28-57% respectively and both were significantly correlated with altitude.
Density and basal area was low at lower elevation while high at upper altitude.
Akbar et al. (2010) conducted phytosociological studies on Skardu hills
using quadrat method. They reported two gymnospermic tree species i.e. Pinus
wallichiana and Juniperus execlsa and one angiospermic tree species i.e. Betula
utilis. Ground flora was dominated by Astragalus Zanskarensis, Leontopodium
himalyanum, Taraxcum baltistanicum, Potentilla anserina, Oxyria digyna
Hieracium lanceolatum, Tanactum artemisiodes, and Rosa wenniana. The forest
was highly disturbed due to anthropogenic pressure.
Siddiqui et al. (2010) reported the vegetation structure of Himalayan moist
temperate coniferous forest of Azad Jammu and Kashmir using multivariate
technique. Sampling was done at 41 different stands of 5 localities. Wards cluster
analysis demarcated three main groups which are clearly separated on PCA
29
ordination diagram. The dominant species in Group I stands was Pinus wallichiana,
group II stand was Abies pindrow while group III stand was Cedrus deodara.
Ordination analysis reflects strong correlation between altitude and vegetation
composition. The forests were highly disturbed due to human interference therefore
recommendation for conservation and future studies was proposed.
The structure and composition of vegetation in sub-tropical forest of Kuman
Himalaya was analysed by Karkwal and Rawat, (2010). They reported Querqus
leucotrichophora, Q. floribunda, Q. semicarpifolia and Pinus roburghaii as a
dominant tree species .Using 100m2 plots for trees, 25m
2 plot for shrub and 1m
2
plots for herbs, they found that density of tree ranged between 10 to 28.6, of shrubs
between 1.8 to 12.7 and of herbs between 28.1 to 103.7. On the basis of abundance
frequency ratio they found that distribution of plant species was contagious in the
study area.
Ahmed et al. (2011 a) reported the vegetation structure and dynamics of
Cedrus deodara forest from Himalayan and Hindu Kush range of Pakistan using
multivariate approach. Sampling was carried out in 47 stands from 23 different
locations using point-centred quarter method. Ward‟s clustering technique merge
the vegetation in to 6 groups which could readily be superimposed on DCA
ordination diagram. Elevation, pH, organic matter, total nitrogen, and magnesium
were the main factor controlling the specie composition. The forest had poor
regenerating status which was clearly reflected by the gaps in majority of size
classes. Significant relationship was observed between diameter, growth rate and
age in majority of Cedrud deodara stands. Proper management required for
30
conservation of these forests.
Structural diversity, vegetation dynamics and anthropogenic impact on
lesser Himalayan subtropical forests of Bagh has been investigated by using DCA.
They reported that Simpson‟s diversity ranged from 0.85 to 1.96, Menhinick‟s
diversity from 1.49 to 1.37, evenness from 0.23 to 0.61, average species richness
per site from 36 to 40 and maturity index from 41to 44. The altitude is most import
factor which controls the distribution pattern of species. They concluded that
human and livestock interferences create a spiky decline in forest vegetation
attributes (Shaheen et al., 2011a).
Shaheen et al. (2011 b) reported the community structure, diversity and
richness from alpine pasture of Bagh, Azad Kashmir. Based on the importance
value four plant communities were identified viz Poa–Primula–Sibbaldia,
Primula–Caltha–Primula, Poa alpina–Poa pratensis–Scirpus, and Sibbaldia–Poa–
Scirpus. Shannon–Wiener‟s and Simpson's diversity index average value was 0.91
and 3.13 respectively, species evenness value was 0.90 and maturity index average
value was 44.1. Diversity and richness was negatively correlated with altitudinal
gradient. Both the attribute decreased with the increase in the altitude.
Anthropogenic activity mainly deforestation, overgrazing, fuel and fodder
collection, felling and construction greatly reduced the diversity and richness of
medicinal flora in the investigated area. They recommended the development and
implementation of conservation strategies for the protection of phytodiversity of
Himalayan alpine pasture.
Ilyas et al. (2012) reported the vegetation structure of temperate forest of
31
Sawat, Pakistan. Based on the importance value, eight plant communities were
recognized viz Populus-Debregeasia- Nasturtium community, Pinus roxburghii-
Plectranthus-Rumex community, Olea-Plectranthus-Micromeria community,
Quercus-Indigofera-Amaranthus community, Cedrus-Indigofera-Thymus
community, Pinus wallichiana-Indigofera-Galium community, Cedrus-Viburnum-
Pteridium community and Pinus wallichiana-Viburnum-Leucas community. The
vegetation is under heavy anthropogenic pressure in the form of deforestation,
overgrazing and logging. They recommended immediate conservation measures
along with participation of local community to protect valuable forest ecosystem.
Shaheen et al. (2012) reported the vegetation of temperate forest of Bagh,
using CCA analysis. Average specie number ranged between 30- 40, Diversity
value ranged between 0.75-2.27, evenness betwee0.21-0.27 and maturity between
38-51. CCA analysis revealed that species diversity and richness was negatively
correlated with altitude, slope and aspect. Forest structure was detoriated therefore
immediate conservation strategies required for protection of biodiversity. Species
diversity and richness of Karambar lake vegetation from Chitral was highlighted by
Shaheen and Shinwari, (2012). They reported 108 plant species belonging to 27
families in four plant communities. Asteraceae (19%) was dominant in the area.
The communities have an average species diversity, evenness and richness of 2.18,
0.68 and 29 respectively. TWINSPAN and DCA showed relationship between
moisture gradient and distribution of plants in the area. Reproductive capacity,
population structure and spatial pattern of Senna holosericea and Fagonia indica in
two different site of southern Sindh have been investigated. The size class
distribution of both the classes was positively skewed with high frequency in small
32
classes that shows adequate conscription of both species. Spatial pattern was
disclosed aggregated due to high soil fertility underneath the selected plant and
lower in gaps. Fecundity of the two plants was also different due to difference in
plant size (Shaukat et al., 2012).
Sher et al. (2013) studied the phytosociology of Sudengalli hills during
summer. They reported 13 plant communities distributed in to five associations.
Due to different conditions, species composition, community‟s structure and
associations differed on southern and northern slopes. Grasses were dominant at the
top. The ranking method for assessment of human influences on the rapid declining
of Himalayan scrub forest was developed by Khan et al. (2013 a).Three stages viz
natural stage, degraded stage and sub-natural stage was derived after complete
analysis. Communities were delineated either by dominant life form or
presence/absence of Acacia modesta and Olea ferruginea. Main anthropogenic
factors that lead to rapid degradation and declination of these forests are land use
activities, construction, cultivation, over population, increased number of animals
or tractors per village.
Ahmad et al. (2013 c) studied the distribution and structure of vegetation
along motorway by using multivariate analysis. TWINSPAN classified whole
vegetation in to two main communities (Lepidium- Carthamus and Euphorbia -
Parthenium) and 13 sub-communities. Detrended correspondence recognize four
main group including Carthamus- Lepidium-Parthenium-Euphorbia community,
Conyza-Calotrpis-Crysopogan community, Cymbopogan -Conyza community and
Cynodon- Sonchus- Prosopis community.
33
The pattern of species richness along the altitudinal gradient of Karnali river
valley, Nepal was investigated by Bhattari et al. (2014). They reported 199 plant
species including 21 trees, 33 shrubs and 145 herbs. All the life forms have uniform
pattern of species richness along the altitudinal gradient. On local scale species
richness pattern is mainly controlled by altitude, soil properties and environmental
heterogeneity. They revealed the marked difference in species richness pattern
between local and regional scale which is due to difference in sampling methods
and data generating strategy. Saurav and Das, (2014) reported 157 plant species
distributed among 114 genera and 72families from the temperate forest of Darjiling
Himalaya. Diversity, richness and evenness were maximum for trees followed by
shrubs and herbs. A strong positive correlation was reported between diversity and
importance value.
Akhtar and Bergmeier, (2015) reported the species diversity and richness of
flora of Miandam, Swat along the altitudanl gradient between 1600-3400 m. The
data was collected from 400 quadrats of 10 × 10 m2. Relations ship between growth
form and altitude was established by using polynomial regression. Diversity and
richness of herbaceous species were not significantly influenced by altitude.
Herbaceous species richness was high ranged between 0.46 and 0.89, with
maximum richness between 2000-2200m. Species richness of shrub was maximum
between 2000-2500 m. While tree species richness was lowest at higher elevation.
However α diversity was low and β diversity was high throughout the gradient. The
turnover of tree species was also high at lower reaches and again at 2600-2800m.
The maximum species richness for all growth form was observed at 2200-2500m.
Santos et al. (2015) reported the vegetation structure, species composition
34
and diversity of three different communities viz Cerrado, Dense Cerrado, and
typical Cerrado in Amazon transition zone, Brazil. Species diversity was highest in
Cerrado as compared to other two communities while the species richness was high
in the Cerrado and dense Cerrado as compared to the typical Cerrado. The
individuals were tall in Cerrado and dense Cerrado as compared to typical Cerrado.
The similarity among the three communities depends upon the parameters which
were analysed. Cerrado and dense Cerrado were quite similar in term of vegetation
structure, Species composition and richness while the diversity of Cerrado and
typical Cerrado was quite similar.
Bokhari et al. (2016) reported the species composition, community structure
and species interrelationship in the pine forest of Azad Jammu and Kashmir using
multivariate approach. Point Centred Quarter (PCQ) method was used for sampling
of trees species from 31 different sites to reveal the impact of landslides and
earthquake on vegetation. Cluster analysis demarcated six groups each dominated
by different coniferous plant species. Pinus wallichiana was dominated in Group I
and V and co dominant in the Group III. The remaining groups were dominated by
Pinus roxburghii, Cedrus deodara, Abies pindrow and Picea smithiana. The NMS
ordination techniques recognized strong interrelationship between the species of
different group which are clearly separated in ordination diagram. The majority of
pine forests are highly disturbed due to both the human interferences and natural
activities while few forests due to less anthropogenic pressure had stable structure.
2.3 PHENOLOGY
The phenology is directly correlated with climate in term of rainfall,
35
temperature and day length. The different life form of plants shows seasonality
among the various phenological events. Leaf fall was most seasonal and was at its
peak during the driest month while flowering was maximum during the wettest
months. The fruiting occurred throughout the year (Marqueus et al., 2004).
Holopainen et al. (2006) recorded tree-rings to corroborate the relationship
between climatic factors and the timing of various phenological events. They
concluded that phenological indices show no correlation with precipitation and
positive correlation with increase in temperature. Tree rings have non stationary
relationship with phenology anomaly.
Xu et al. (2009) studied urbanization impact on phenology using satellite
data. Urbanization cause climatic changes (temperature, humidity and wind speed
etc.) that in turn result in phenology. However there was no so significant linear
relationship between urbanization and phenological differences. Impact of
urbanization on phenology of deciduous broad leaf forest in United States was
recorded by White et al. (2002). They concluded that urbanization was responsible
for advancement of SOS (start of season) and prolongation of EOS (End of season)
which result in longer GSL growing season length. Productivity of urban area is
lower than forest area.
Jadeja and Nakar, (2010) studied phenology of ten tree species of eight
different families from Girnar forest reserve of Gujarat. They observed that pattern
of phenology was same in most of the plant species. Peak flowering occurred in
moth of January and February while Peak fruiting occurs in March and April. The
influence of climatic variations on co-flowering patterns of wild species in
36
subalpine meadow was reported Forrest et al., (2010). They concluded that climatic
variations lead to change in competitive environment for wild flower species. The
impacts of climatic changes on plants phenology have been studied in
Mediterranean ecosystems. There was a shift in plant phenology in response to
change in the climatic factors specially temperature and precipitation (Gordo and
Sanz, 2010).
Butola and Malik, (2012) reported the phenology of some important
medicinal plant of Himalayan at various altitude ranging from 110m-2500m. They
revealed that flowering and fruiting period of these plant species varied greatly at
different site which is attributed to variation in environmental factor like rainfall,
temperature light and humidity.
Bijalwan et al. (2013) reported the impact of microclimatic variation on the
phenological pattern of alpine vegetation at four different sites of Garhawal
Himalaya. They concluded that phenology of alpine plants are directed influenced
by both the environmental and topographical factors. The adaptation of
microclimatic variation is responsible for difference in timing of phenological
events of plant at four sites.
Amjad et al. (2013) reported the season and altitudinal variation among the
phenological pattern of flora of Nikyal valley. A total of 110 Plant species were
recorded from the area including 55 herbs, 29 shrubs and 5 trees. May and June
were the peak flowering period while fruiting was at peak during June. Timing and
amount of rainfall influenced the phenological pattern of flora of investigated area.
Adrian et al. (2015) reported the effect of temperature in spring phenology
37
of 14 different plant species of temperate forest. They observed negative
correlation between temperature and phenological events. Raise in temperature
may lead to change in timing dependent species interaction particular competition
for light among the different species of deciduous forest which in turn advances the
flowering period. Spring forces play a significant role in determination of
phenology of all the plant species because they are sensitive to chilling.
Nakar and Jadeja, (2015) reported the flowering and fruiting phenology of
26 plant species belonging to 13 families in Ginar reserve forest, India. They
observed significant variation in flowering and fruiting. Maximum plant species
flowered during September followed by August while fruiting was at peak during
December and January. The longest flowering period of 179 days was observed for
Sida cordifolia while the lowest period of 33 flowering days for Vernonia
anthelmintica. Highest and lowest pooled average number of fruiting days was
recorded for Cassia auriculata and Cassia occidentalis. Highest and lowest fruiting
periods were 279.7 and 35.7 days/year respectively. Three species had longest
flowering duration (153.76 days) while 6 species had lowest flowering period
(40.88 days). Average deviation of flowering period was 16.4 day while average
deviation of fruiting period was 19 days for the whole study period.
Hawes and Peres, (2016) reported the phenological pattern among the
seasonally flooded and unfolded forest in Amazonia, Western Brazil by using three
different complementary methods in 100 ha plot. Different forest type has generally
similar phenological patterns. Aquatic phase was peak season for leaf fall.
Flowering occurred generally after rainfall and extended up to terrestrial and rainy
38
season in flooded and unflooded forest respectively. The difference in fruiting
pattern is mainly due to variation in vegetation composition and dispersal mode.
They recommended use of multiannual data and repeated studies across different
forest types to highlight the role of flood and other environmental factors.
2.4 ETHNOBOTANY/ECONOMIC USE CLASSIFICATION
Hamyun et al. (2005) documented the ethnobotanical importance of 176
plant species from Gabral valley, Sawat. Of them, 133 were medicinal plant
species, 33 fodder species, 29 fuel wood species, 24 vegetables and pot herbs
species, 19 fruit yielding plant species, 18 veterinary medicinal species, 16
condiments and spices, 10 ornamental plant species, 8 timber wood species and 8
used as mouth wash (Maswak). Other miscellaneous uses of plants include fencing,
naming, agricultural tools, honey bee attractant, furniture, mythological use,
poisonous plants, thatching and roofing, anti-snake and scorpion bite, anti-lice,
baskets making, brooms, tea, soil binder, sticks, rope making etc.
Zabihullah and Akhtar, (2006) reported the traditional uses of 82 plant
species from Kot Manzaray Baba valley. The local inhabitants used the plants for
various purposes such as medicinal (65%), fuel wood (20%), fodder (12%),
honeybee attractant (6%), fruit (8%), timber (9.80%) and potherb (7%). Arisaema
jacqumontii is used as antidote for snake bite. Other uses included furniture wood,
making of agricultural tools, hedges, fencing and thatching, game tools. Due to
extensive grazing and deforestation the vegetation of area is disturbed.
Ibrar et al. (2007) reported the ethnobotany of 97 plant species from
39
Shangla district. The main utility of the plant was fuel wood and fodder (37 species
each.). other uses included medicinal (31 spp.), edible (18 spp.), timber (12 spp.),
furniture (4 spp.), fencing (4 spp.), honey bee(4 spp.), agricultural tool (3 spp.),
flavoring agent (2 spp.), mat and basket (2 spp.), religious belief (2 spp.), mouth
wash (2 spp.), tea (1 spp.), fiber (1 spp.), adhesive (1 spp.), irritant (1 spp.), pen (1
spp.). Majority of species are used for multi purposes.
Barkatullah et al. (2009) reported the folk uses of 100 plants belonging to
49 families from Batkhela, Pakistan. Majority of plant species were used for
medicinal purpose (66 Spp.), followed by edible fruits and seed (21 spp.), fodder or
forage (18), vegetable (12 Spp.), fuel (12 Spp.), hatching and building (11 Spp.),
furniture (11 Spp.). Five species were used each for timber wood, hedge and
fencing and source of poison. Three species for making ketchup, 2 species each
were used as source of fixed oil, miswak, for making sticks for defence and for
cattle, ornamental purposes and source of mehindi by girls. The plants were also
used as irritant, for the making of Salai (a little stick for applying „surma‟ to the
eyes), tanning, refresher in milk pots, for making chewing gum and insect repellent.
Ali et al. (2011) reported the indigenous used of 90 plant species from
Malam Jabba valley, Sawat. The majority of plant species were uses as medicinal
(71 Spp.) followed by fodder (20 Spp.), vegetable (10 Spp.), wild fruits (14 Spp.),
fuel wood (18 Spp.), thatching, hedges and fencing (9 Spp.), furniture and
agriculture tools (9 Spp.), honey bee (4 Spp.), religious (2 Spp.), evil eyes (2 Spp.)
and poison (3 Spp.). Some plants are used for dual purposes.
Khan et al. (2012 b) reported the local uses of 161 plant species belonging
40
to 56 families in Takht e Nasratti using semi structured Questionnaires. They
include 194 herbs, 23 shrubs, 22 trees, 9 grasses and 3 parasitic plants. Poaceae and
Asteraceae were the dominant families in the area. Majority of plant species were
medicinal (73.3%) followed by fodder (70.8%), fuel (26.7%), timber woods (9.94
%) vegetables (14.3 %), veterinary (31.06%) and honey bee species (55.9%) fruits
33 (20.5%) agricultural tool (10.6%) fencing 19 (11.8%) and furniture making 18
(11.18%). The study area had great potential from ethnobotanical point of view.
Ethnobotany and conservation status of flora of Azad Kashmir was reported
by Bano et al. (2013). Out of one eighty, majority of plant species were used for
miscellaneous purposed (150 Spp.) followed by medicine (140 Spp.), fuel (116
Spp.), food (60 Spp.), fodder (109 Spp.), Most plants have more than one use. The
conservation status of 33 species was also determined, 2 species were extinct, 8
were rare, 7 were critically endangered, 4 were endangered and 12 were vulnerable
in the area.
Deeb et al. (2013) conducted survey and documented the medicinal value of
different plant species from Lebanon. 128 species were used for treating various
diseases, in the following way: 51 species were used for treating gastrointestinal
diseases, 32 for kidney and urinary disorder, 37 for blood and cardiovascular
disorder, 19 for disorders of the nervous system, 21 for diabetes diseases, 19 for
respiratory disorder, 18 for sexual disorders, 17 for hair problems, 7 for liver
disorder, 6 for tumours, and many other plant species for different diseases.
Herbalist must be train properly for collection and storage of herbs.
The traditional uses of 66 plant species belonging from 37 families have
41
been investigated. The chief utility of plants were medicinal (63.60%) including
veterinary medicinal followed by fodder (59.09%), fuel wood (43.93%), timber and
agricultural tool (24.24%), edible fruits and vegetables (25.57%) and other
miscellaneous uses (33.33%) (Ahmad et al., 2013 b).
Rana et al. (2014) reported the ethnobotany of the 67 plant species
belonging form 37 families of Pangi valley, India. Of them 36 species were
medicinal, 22 specie for agriculture and veterinary uses, 17 species for fodder and
16 species for handicraft and domestic uses. Medicinal plants were used for the
treatment of various ailments such as curing cough, fever, arthritis, joint pain,
abdominal parasites, jaundice, snake bite etc. Aerial parts (82.09%) were the most
commonly used for preparing different herbal remedies as compared to
underground parts (17.91%).
Khan et al. (2015 b) reported the ethnobotany and folk uses of 43 plant
species belonging to 25 families. The major utility of the plant is for medicinal
purpose (38 spp.) followed by fodder (9 species), edible (9 spp.), vegetable (6 spp.),
fuel wood (5 spp.), timber and construction (3 spp.), veterinary (3 spp.), Hedge and
fencing (3 spp.), Some species such as Berberis lycium, Olea ferruginea, Myrtis
communis and Rheum emodi become rare in the area due to extensive utilization.
So they need proper conservation and protection otherwise become extinct from the
study area.
Jan et al. (2016) reported the traditional uses of 35 plant species belonging
to 20 families from Killa District Baluchistan, Pakistan. The plants were used for
various purposes by local inhabitant such as fuel, medicine, cooking and
42
construction etc. They recommended the preservation of indigenous knowledge for
the conservation of plant resources as well as further utilization in pharmaceutical
industries for drug development.
2.5 RANGELAND PRODUCTIVITY/BIOMASS
Hussain and Durrani, (2007) reported the productivity of Harbori rangeland.
Growing season stretches from April to October. July and August were the most
productive month. The average dry biomass production gradually increased from
August to October and then gradually decreased onward up to October. Intense
grazing, overexploitation and soil erosion were the main factor responsible for
degradation of rangeland. Therefore modern methods of range management along
with the local community participation recommended for sustainable utilization of
plant resources of rangeland.
Badsha et al. (2010) reported the productivity of subtropical forest of Tabi,
Wazirstan, Pakistan. They concluded that productivity decreased with altitude. Similarly
Mendoza and Galicia 2010 reported the above and below ground biomass in seven
different temperate forest of Mexico. They revealed that deforestation and change
in land used could reduce the above ground biomass production up to 90 percent.
They recommended that deforestation and improved forest management could
mitigate global climate changes. Altitudinal variation and distribution of biomass in
subtropical solan forest was reported by Sharma (2011). Out of total, 36.63% was
shared by Chir Pine, 32.78% by ban Oak, 28.94% by broad leaves, 1.15% deodar
and 0.84% by culturable land use. The biomass increase with increase in altitude as
44.89% was reported at altitudinal range of 1500-1800m, 42.38% at 1200-1500m,
43
10.35% at 1800-2100 and 2.36 at 900-1800m.
Baraloto et al. (2011) reported the impact of soil, climate and forest
structure on the spatial pattern of above ground biomass in Amazonia forest. He
revealed soil is weakly and climatic factors poorly correlated with above grand
biomass. Whereas stand variables proved to be more valuable factor for
comparison of ABG in contrasting habitats.
Sher et al. (2011) determined the productivity of forbs and grasses in fields
of lahor village District Sawabi. They reported that productivity of forbs was high
as compared to grasses.
Sher et al. (2013) reported the altitudinal variation in biomass across
Sudengalli hills. Biomass of the forbs increased up to 2350 m but then it decreased
gradually towards the top, on the southern slope. Totally opposite behaviour has
been seen for the grasses on the same slope. Forbs have greater biomass than
grasses on the northern slopes.
Lewis et al. (2013) reported the above ground biomass production of
tropical forest of Africa. Average above ground biomass production of African
country was 395.7 Mg dry mass ha-1. During the driest nine months of the year,
above ground biomass shows a positive relationship with rainfall three wettest
months of the year show negative relationship. In contrast to rainfall, above ground
biomass show a negative relationship with temperature, C: N ratio (suggesting a
positive soil phosphorus–AGB relationship), and soil fertility. The productivity was
positively correlated with clay-rich soils. These findings suggest that productivity is
44
controlled by both climatic and edaphic factors and AGB of African closed-canopy
tropical forests may be highly sensitive to the rainfall and temperature changes.
Amjad et al. (2014 b) reported the seasonal and altitudinal variation in
herbaceous biomass of Nikyal valley by using harvest method. Average biomass
was 854 Kg/ha in the investigated area. The biomass decreased with the increase in
altitude. Seasonally biomass increased from March to July and then afterward starts
decreasing. The productivity was maximum during July and minimum during
February due to dry and cold weather. Temperature and rainfall was the mainly
control the productivity of area.
Khan et al. (2014 a) reported the seasonal and altitudinal variation in
biomass of 15 different shrubby species of Takht-e-Nasrati. They recorded the
decreasing trend in biomass with the increase in altitude. Saccharum bengalense
had highest above ground biomass while Cassia angustifolia had lowest. Winter
season was most productive because majority of plant species are in dormant stage
while due to grazing and browsing, the biomass was less during summer season.
Biomass assessment is essential for the sustainable management of plant resources
as it highlights the unpredictable resources of the study area.
Ensslin et al. (2015) reported the impact of altitude and land use on the
biomass production of herbs, shrubs and trees of Mount Kilimanjaro. They revealed
that tree biomass is high at intermediate elevation and shrub biomass decreased
linearly with altitude from 900-4000m. Whereas herb biomass was high at middle
elevation and decrease both toward lower altitude (Savanahs) and upper altitude
(alpine zone). Different type of land use decreased the woody biomass and
45
increased the herb biomass at all altitudes.
2.6 PALATABILITY OF VEGETATION
Sultan et al. (2008 b) conducted survey and documented the nutritive value,
palatability and digestibility of free range land grasses from Chagharzai. There
were ten grasses having macro-minerals (Ca, P, K and Mg) and micro-minerals
(Cu, Zn, Mn and Co). Heteropogon contortus has highest potential uptake rate
Cymbopogon schoenanthu has lowest. However, the highest relative preference
(RP) was observed for Dichanthium annulatum and lowest for Cymbopogon
schoenanthus which were located at lower altitude.
The palatability of 129 species from Kalat was reported by Hussain and
Durrani (2009). There were 50.4% highly palatable species, 41.1% species mostly
palatable species, 4.65% less palatable and 3.87% rarely palatable species in the
area. Active growing season starts from April to October and then decline onward.
Khan and Hussain, (2012) reported the palatability and animal preference
of 161 different plant species from Kark, Pakistan which include 116 herbs, 23
shrubs and 22 trees. Among them 43 species were mostly palatable, 32 species
were highly palatable, 34 species were less palatable, 23 were rarely palatable
while only 23 species were non palatable. Animals mostly prefer the plants in fresh
form Majority of plant species were preferred by goat (33.52%), followed by camel
(22.4%), cow (17.33%), sheep (14.5%) and donkey (12.22%). Zizyphus mauritiana,
Acacia modesta, Cyperus spp., Dichanthium annulatum, Euphorbia prostrata and
Kickxia ramosissima were the most preferred species in the area. The palatable
species were mostly available in hilly area during winter so palatability and animal
46
preference increased during summer. Therefore evaluation of nutritional and
mineral status of palatable species is highly recommended.
Gulshan and Dasti, (2012) reported preference of grazing animals for
different plant species of Thal and Cholistan desert. They revealed that 39 plant
species in the area that were frequently grazed by animals. The grazing pressure by
different animals was high on herbs and grasses as compared to shrubs and trees.
Grasses were highly preferred by the animals. The animals also have great socio
economic impact on human population.
Amjad et al. (2014 c) reported the palatability status of 110 plant species
form Nikyal valley, Azad Kashmir. Among them 50 species were non palatable, 22
species were mostly palatable, 19 plant species were less palatable, 10 species were
highly palatable, 9 species were rarely palatable. Leaves were most widely used
plant part by different animal. Maximum plant species were preferred by goat
followed by sheep, cow and buffalo. Palatability of plant species varied with
season, habitat and animal type.
Shaheen et al. (2014) reported the palatability and seasonal availability of
169 plant species belonging to 56 families of Kotli Sattian Rawalpindi. Among
them, 106 species were highly palatable, 37 species were moderately palatable,
while only 26 species were less palatable. The major contribution to forage species
were made by Poaceae followed by Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae,
Lamiaceae. Leaves were mainly used plant for fodder followed by whole plant and
aerial parts. Majority of plant species were available during April, May and March.
Goat preferred maximum plant species so it is best suited to the climate of the area.
47
Chapter 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS
District Kotli was selected for the detailed phytosociological investigation,
ethnobotanical enumeration and assessment of rangeland conditions. The area lies
within longitude 73o 47 to 74
o 04 east and latitude 33
o 23 to 29 north. The
altitudinal variation of District Kotli ranged between 467m-1897m. It is 141 Km
away from Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan.
3.1 SELECTION OF SITES
Several pre analysis tours were made to the area to get acquaintance with
the physiognomy, form, topography and aspects of vegetation. The whole area was
divided in to 15 different sites/stands for vegetation analysis based on the
physiognomy, altitude, aspects and topography keeping in view the maximum
possible heterogeneity in vegetation (Table 2.1; Fig. 2.1-2.2).
3.2 MEASUREMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLE
Altitude and coordinates of each site were recorded by using GPS. Slope was
determined by using clinometer and aspect was determined by using the compass.
Grazing pressure in the studied sites was estimated by categorization of sites into
low, moderate and highly grazed classes representing the grazing intensity.
Different visual indicators of grazing activity like, cattle droppings, browsed
vegetation, trampling trails and hoof marks were observed and used in the class
categorization (Khan, 2012; Shaheen, 2012). Soil erosion was recorded on a scale
48
Table 2.1: Site characteristics of District Kotli, Azad Jammu & Kashmir.
Location Site
code
Altitude
(m)
Aspect Slope Longitude
N°
Latitude
E°
Jandi Gala Site 1 473 SW 72 33°23'04"N 73°47'38"E
Maneel Site 2 587 W 40 33°27'53"N 73°55'58"E
Sehr mandi Site 3 593 N 40 33°26'51"N 73°49'27"E
Kurti Site 4 667 S 52 33°28'39"N 73°54'36"E
Danna Site 5 687 E 44 33°25'16"N 73°58'27"E
Chitti Bakri Site 6 757 SW 63 33°31'13"N 73°55'30"E
Nar Mahando Site 7 847 SW 58 33°27'20"N` 73°47'11"E
Mansuh Site 8 850 NE 47 33°24'51"N 73°56'42"E
Allan Site 9 919 SW 58 33°29'25"N 73°58'23"E
Powarmora Site 10 1125 NW 49 33°30'45"N 73°55'40"E
Supply Site 11 1233 N 53 33°28'26"N 73°59'55"E
Pirlasoor I Site 12 1550 NW 52 33°28'34"N 74°04'23"E
Pirkalanjar Site 13 1704 N 54 33°29'21"N 74°09'37"E
Pirlasoora II Site 14 1725 NW 68 33°28'23"N 74°04'16"E
Pirlasoora III Site 15 1897 N 55 33°28'10"N 74°04'00"E
49
Fig.2.1: Map of District Kotli (Produced by Arc GIS) showing location of study
sites.
Fig. 2.2: Map of District Kotli (Produced by Google earth) showing location of
study sites.
50
of 1-4 (low, moderate, high and severe) by observing the recent signs of erosion
including absence of vegetation cover, gullies and water channels (Shaheen, 2012).
3.3 FLORISTIC STRUCTURE AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERSITICS
3.3.1 Plant Collection
Frequent floristic surveys were carried out during different seasons for two
consecutive years from 2014-2016. The plant specimens were collected in triplicate
during sampling, carefully dried and mounted on herbarium sheets using standard
taxonomic methods recommended by Jain and Rao (1977) and Sha (2007). The Flora of
Pakistan (www.eflora.com) was followed for taxonomic identification (Nasir &
Ali, 1970-1989; Ali & Qaiser, 1993-2015). Whereas, Tropicos (www.tropicos.org)
and the International Plant Name Index (IPNI) (www.ipni.org) were used to
obtained the correct botanical names (Mehmood et al. 2015). The confirmation of
identified plant species were done at Herbarium (ISL) of Department of Botany,
Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad and National herbarium of Pakistan museum
of Natural history. The fully determined vouchers were deposited in the herbarium
(ISL) Quaid i Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan.
3.3.2 Life Form
Life form is defined as ''Habit of the plant”. It is used to characterise the
climate of an area. The plants of the study area were classified in to different life
form classes based on the degree of presence and protection of the perennating
buds during unfavourable condition following Raunkiaer (1934), Hussain (1989)
and Badsha (2012).
51
3.3.2.1 Phanerophytes
Plant species whose perennating buds are present in aerial parts at height
above 25cm from the ground surface. It includes trees and shrubs and further sub
divided into following categories:
Megaphanerophytes (MP): Trees having perennating buds at height more than 2m.
Nanophanerophytes (NP): Shrubs having perennating bud at height from 25cm-2m.
3.3.2.2 Chamaephytes (Ch)
Plants species having perennating buds closed to the ground surface up to
25cm. These are found at higher altitude and cold climate receiving protection from
snow fall and falling leaves.
3.3.2.3 Hemicryptophytes (H)
These are perennial herbaceous plants in which perennating buds lie at
ground level and protected by soil or leaves. Their aerial portions die at the end of
growing season leaving behind the perennating bud at or just beneath the ground
surface.
3.3.2.4 Therophytes (Th)
These are annual seed bearing plants which complete their life cycle in one
year. The perennating buds are present in the form of seeds and are characteristic of
desert or disturbed vegetation where they are protected from natural competition
due to biotic interference.
52
3.3.2.5 Geophytes (G)
Species in which perennating buds are present and protected under soil,
water or mud. This group included the plants with rhizome, corm and bulb.
3.3.2.6 Lianas (L)
These include woody climbers and vines.
Raunkiaerian Life form spectrum was calculated as follow:
3.3.3 Leaf Size Spectra
It helps in understanding the physiological process. Leaf area was
calculated by following formula
Leaves were than classified in to following classes as described by
Raunkiaer (1934):
3.3.3.1 Leptophyll (L)
Leaf size is 0.000025 sq. m (25 sq.mm.)
3.3.3.2 Nanophyll (N)
Leaf size is 0.00025 sq. m (9×25 sq.mm.)
53
3.3.3.3 Microphyll (Mi)
Leaf size is 0.002025sq. m (9×9×25 sq.mm).
3.3.3.4 Mesophyll (Me)
Leaf size is 0.018225 sq. m (9×9×9×25 sq.mm)
Raunkiaerian spectrum was calculated as follows:
3.3.4 Phenology
The phenological observations of plants were recorded monthly from
August 2014 to July 2016. Starting month and duration of strobili development,
sporogenesis and flowering was recorded for each plant species. A Microsoft excel
sheet was prepared by giving value 1 when the species was found in a flowering or
reproductive stage in a particular month and 0 other wise. The sheet was then
exported in the PC ORD version 5 (McCune & Grace, 2002; McCune & Mefford,
2005). Cluster analysis was performed to merge the months in to four different
flowering seasons. The percentage of flowering within each month was calculated
by applying the formula:
3.3.5 Ethnobotanical Classification
Ethnobotanical information was obtained by using oral interviews and semi
54
structured questionnaires (Martin, 1995). The questionnaires were developed
following the methods of Edwards and his co-workers (Edwards et al. 2005) given
in Appendix VIII. A total of 182 informants across different age groups were
selected randomly from different villages of district Kotli with particular emphasis
on Hakeem‟s, nomads and elder people of the area who are well aware of
indigenous uses of the plants particularly for medicinal purpose. To enhance the
authenticity of data queries were repeatedly made. The plants were classified on the
basis of economical uses reported by local people such as medicinal, fodder, fuel
wood, timber, vegetable or edible fruit, Agricultural tool, Ornamental, Timber wood,
Hedge/ Fencing, herbal tea and honey bee species etc. For data analysis Multinomial
Logistic Specification (MLS) was used.
3.3.5.1 Multinomial logistic approach
Logistic regression is an authoritative statistical approach of modelling a
binomial outcome with one or more explanatory variables (i.e. it takes the value 0
or 1 for plants having or not having a medicinal use). This approach generally
follows two specifications (a) binary logit specification (b) multilogit specification.
When the response variable has two categories the binary logit specification is
used. However multilogit specification is used in the case of multi-categorical
response variables (Mc Fedden, 1974; Truglia, 2009; Clark, 2009). Both the
specification could be applied in current study. However, the multinomial logit
specification was found to be the most practical in current study because in the
study area the multiple uses of plants were noted and hence this method‟s ability to
deliver more realistic findings.
55
Multinomial logistic specification model have been widely used as a part of
foreseeing relationship of plant utilization to their respective use categories. This
model is particularly applied where the response variables are multi-categorized
(Mc Fedden, 1974; Clark, 2009). In this study we examined various plant uses
against different plant categories. The response variable has multiple plant uses that
were categorized into (1) medicinal, (2) food, (3) combined use of food and
medicinal and (4) all other uses of plants. A response is categorized as medicinal if
the use of the plant was medicinal only, food if the use of the plants was as a
fodder, vegetable or fruit, herbal tea and source of nectar for honey bees, while all
other uses of plants included fuel, timber, poison, roof thatching, hedge/fencing,
ornamental, agricultural tools etc. The multiple outcomes of the response variable
i.e. plant uses require multinomial logistic specification (Arshad et al. 2014) where
the individuals are interested in the change in probabilities of plants uses with unit
change in the elements of x cetris peribus, P(y=j│x), j=0, 1, …, J. However, in this
study, the covariates were also categorical in nature i.e. plant growth-form
categories were used in this study (annual or perennial and woody or non-woody)
so the model evaluated the difference of plant uses for active category than
reference category. Therefore, employing a multinomial logistic model helped to
evaluate the probability of the alternative j against alternative i for every i ≠ j. This
took the form:
miik
K
k
mkm ZXYP
jYP
1)0(
)(ln
Where P(Y=j) and P(Y=0) are represented by Pj and P0 respectively and the
model becomes
56
miik
K
k
mkm
o
jZX
P
P
1
)ln(
Multinomial regression models overcome the limitation of linearity,
normality and homogeneity of variances for explanatory variables and are assessed
by Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) that is based on chi-square distribution
(Truglia, 2009; Bruder, 1989). The goodness of fit of model is overall estimated
through LR Chi Square and Pseudo R2. Pseudo R
2 reflects the explanatory power of
the mode but it is not trustworthy measure of goodness of fit. Therefore significant
LR Chi Square is used instead of Pseudo R2 to indicate the goodness of fit of the
model. Authentic studies justify the application of such specifications (Kirchkamp,
2009).
3.4 PHYTOSOCIOLOGY/VEGETATION STRUCTURE
Fifteen different sites were selected for phytosociological analysis of
District Kotli based on altitude, floristic composition, physiognomic contrast and
aspect (Fig. 2.3-2.4).Vegetation sampling was done by using quadrat method in
three layers i.e. herbs (˂ 1m height), shrubs (1-5m height) and trees (≥ 5m height)
by following specific locality procedure (Ford, 1978; Cox, 1967). Thirty stands
were established during spring and monsoon. Species area curve was used to
determine the size of quadrats (Misra, 1968) which were 1 x 1m2
for herbs, 5 x 5m2
for shrubs and 10 x 10m2 for trees (Fig. 2.3). The appropriate numbers of quadrats
were 5, 10 and 15 for herbs, shrubs and trees respectively. Area covered by each
stand was 500 m2. A schematic representation of the sampling procedure is given in
Fig. 2.4.
57
Fig. 2.3: Sketch showing the appropriate quadrat size for sampling different
vegetation layers. Five quadrats of 10 ×10 m2 for trees, 10 quadrats of 5 × 5
m2 for shrubs and 15 quadrats of 1 × 1 m
2 were laid on each sampling site.
58
Fig. 2.4: Sampling procedure in Kotli District, Azad Jammu and Kashmir.
Study area Forest type No of Quadrats Quadrats/site
Kotli
Jandi Gala
Allan
Chitti Bakri
ChiitBakri
Maneel
Trees (5), shrubs
(10), herbs (15)
Subtropical
Scrub forest
Subtropical
pine forest
Trees (5), shrubs
(10), herbs (15)
Subtropical
broad leaf
humid forest
Trees (5), shrubs
(10), herbs (15)
Danna
Trees (5), shrubs
(10), herbs (15)
Trees (5), shrubs
(10), herbs (15)
Sehrmandi
Supply
Pawarmorha
Trees (5), shrubs
(10), herbs (15)
Mansuh
Nar mahanodo
Allan
Danna
Trees (5), shrubs
(10), herbs (15)
Trees (5), shrubs
(10), herbs (15)
Pir Lasoora III
Pir Lasoora II
Trees (5), shrubs
(10), herbs (15)
Trees (5), shrubs
(10), herbs (15)
Pir Kalinjar
Trees (5), shrubs
(10), herbs (15)
Trees (5), shrubs
(10), herbs (15)
Trees (5), shrubs
(10), herbs (15)
PirLasoora I
Trees (5), shrubs
(10), herbs (15)
Trees (5), shrubs
(10), herbs (15)
Sites Total
Quadrats
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
Total 450 quadrat during each
season
59
Number of individuals and cover for each plant species is recorded in
quadrat on pre prepared sheet given in the Appendix VII. For calculating the cover
of tree species, circumference of tree was measured at breast height by using
measuring tape. The cover of herbs and shrubs were visually estimated and
converted in to Daubenmire cover classes. The phytosociological attributes were
than calculated by using following formulas:
3.4.1 Density
Density is a total number of individuals of each species per unit area
sampled, given by formula (Hussain, 1989):
3.4.2 Frequency
Frequency is a uniformity or time of occurrence of species with in the area
(Brower and Zar, 1977) or percentage of quadrates in which specie is recorded and
is given by formula (Hussain, 1989):
3.4.3 Canopy Cover
Proportion of ground occupied by perpendicular projection or the aerial
parts of individuals of species under consideration and was calculated after the
Cox, 1967 by using following formula:
60
To calculate the canopy cover of herbs and shrubs, cover/abundance was
visually assessed according to regulated Daubenrmire (1934) cover classes which
are as follow:
Class Range (Cover percentage) Mid-point
1 Up to 5% 2.5
2 5 -25% 15
3 25 -50% 37.5
4 50-75% 62.5
5 75-95% 85
6 95-100% 97.5
Change to relative values
The average of values of density, frequency and canopy cover converted in
to relative values of these attributes to obtain the more reliable figure according to
following formulae (Hussian, 1989):
61
3.4.4 Importance Value
Importance value of each species was calculated by adding relative values of
density, frequency and cover. (Hussain, 1989).
(Curtis and McItosh, 1950)
3.4.5 Family Importance Value (FIV)
It was calculated by adding the importance value of of all the species in a
particular family (Malik, 2005; Badsha, 2012).
3.4.6 Index of Similarity
It is the percentage of the quantitative values of the species common in two
randomly selected communities to the total quantitative values of both
communities. It was calculated by Sorensen‟s index (Sorenson, 1948) as modified
by Motyka et al. (1950), which used importance value (Quantitative value) rather
than presence or absence data (Qualitative value) of species.
Where
C = Sum of lowest importance value of species pairs common in both stands
A = Sum of importance value of all the species in stand A
B = Sum of importance value of all the species in stand B
62
Index of dissimilarity: it is the percentage of dissimilarity in the quantitative values
between the two communities and will be calculated according to following formula:
3.4.7 Regenerating Capacity
The regenerating capacity of forest i.e. whether forest is regenerating, still
stand or decline calculated by the distribution of individuals of each tree species in
different age class (Malik, 2005; Badsha, 2011). Ten age classes were established
by keeping the interval of 30cm which are as follow:
Classes Circumference range (cm)
1 0-30
2 31-60
3 61-90
4 91-120
5 121-150
6 151-180
7 181-210
8 211-240
9 241-270
10 271-300
3.4.8 Degree of Homogeneity
This was calculated based on the Raunkiaer law of frequency (Raunkiaer,
1934) as follow:
63
The range of various frequency classes are as follow:
S. No. Frequency Classes Range
1 A Present up to 20%
2 B 21-40%
3 C 41-60%
4 D 61-80%
5 E 81-100%
3.4.9 Degree of Constancy
Constancy is the degree of presence of plant species in a community which
spread through number of stands. It was calculated by using frequency classes
which are as follow (Raunkiaer, 1934).
S. No Range Constancy classes
1 0 – 20 Rare
2 21 – 40 Seldom Present
3 41 – 60 Occasionally Present
4 61 – 80 Mostly Present
5 81 – 100 Constantly Present
3.4.10 Degree of Aggregation
Individual plants species may be distributed randomly, aggregated or in
regular manner. Curtis and Cottom index (Curtis and Cottom, 1959) was used to
measure the degree of aggregation of plant species which is as follow:
64
Where
D = Observed density
d = Expected density
Species are aggregated if the value is more than 2, regular if the value is
less than 1, intermediate if the value is between 1 and 2 and random or unity if the
observed density and expected density are equal.
3.4.11 Vegetation Classification and Ordination
Vegetation classification and ordination is often used by community
ecologist to assess the distribution pattern of plant species and communities.
Multivariate statistical approaches were used for this purpose. The objectives were
to identify the plant associations or habitat types and to reduce the large data set to
low dimension space for better interpretation.
3.4.11.1 Cluster analysis
Cluster analysis was used to classify the vegetation into different
association or habitat type. Quantitative data (importance value) was used for
analysis as it gives clearer picture then qualitative data. Wards method was used as
linkage method to group the stands. The data was subjected to both normal as well
as inverse cluster analysis. The associations were established at three levels of
division on dendrogram.
65
3.4.11.2 Ordination
Ordination, a multivariate statistical technique, is used to reduce a huge
amount of data in to a low dimensional space in which similar species and samples
come closer together while dissimilar ones go further apart. Two different
approaches i.e. indirect gradient analysis (only specie composition data required)
and direct gradient analysis (both species composition and environmental data
required) exist. Both direct and indirect ordination approaches were used for data
analysis keeping in view the objective of the current research work. Gradient
analysis was done by using data on both the vegetation and environmental
variables. The analysis for both techniques i.e. direct and indirect environmental
gradient analysis was performed using CANOCO version 5.0 (Ter Braak, 1986, Ter
Braak and Barendregt, 1986, Terbraak and Prentice, 1988).
3.4.11.3 Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA)
Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) is used among the indirect
gradient analysis techniques to determine ecological gradients that control the
spatial variations in plant assemblages as it produces the results without distortion
(Hill and Gauch Jr., 1980, ter Braak, 1988). Species abundance data (Importance
Values) were used for DCA procedures in CANOCO version 5.00. The results of
the DCA explain the ecological gradient for the plant association or habitat types
demarcated by a Cluster Dendrogram.
3.4.11.4 Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA)
Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was used among the direct
66
gradient analysis to determine the relationship between plant species distribution
pattern and environmental variables. It is more robust and widely used and further
authenticates the result of the DCA (Kent and Coker, 1994, Greig-Smith, 2010,
Dufrene & Legendre, 1997, McCune and Grace, 2002). This latter technique
combines regression analysis with either correspondence analysis or reciprocal
averaging. Abundance data of all the 202 species at 15 different sites along with
environmental data matrices were used together for CCA procedure in CANOCO
version 5.00 with the objective to determine relationships between vegetation and
environmental data and to see whether environmental heterogeneity or something
else was responsible for the clustering pattern recognized by cluster analysis and
DCA analysis.
3.4.12 Diversity and its Components
3.4.12.1 Species diversity
Diversity reflects the health and productivity of vegetation. The Shannon‐Weiner
(1949) index was used for comparison of diversity at various altitudes and aspects. It
measures the information needed to explain every member of individual and was
calculated by formula:
∑
Where H= Shannon‟s diversity index
ni = number of individual of i th of species S in a stand
n= Total number of individual of all species present in a stand
67
Person correlation and cubic regression analysis was used to find the relationship
between the species diversity and altitude. Species diversity was used as the response
variable and altitude as the explanatory variable.
3.4.12.2 Species richness
Species richness is richness of flora of an area. It was calculated by using the
Margalef (1958) index.
Where
R = Species Richness
S = Total number of species in a community
n= Total Number of individuals of all species in a community
Person correlation and cubic regression analysis was used to find the relationship
between the species richness and altitude. Species richness was used as the response
variable and altitude as the explanatory variable.
3.4.12.3 Equitability
Equitability measures the ratio of observed diversity to maximum diversity possible for
the same number of species and in this is recorded following Sheldon (1969):
Where
H = Shannon‟s diversity
68
S = Total number of species
3.4.12.4 Evenness
Gibson‟s evenness (E) index was calculated by
Where
eH = Expected value from Shannon‟s diversity
S = Total number of species in a community
3.4.12.5 Species maturity
This reflects the maturity of stand or community. It was calculated after Pichi-
Sermollis (1948) which is as:
3.5 EDAPHOLOGY
The soil samples were collected from three randomly selected areas in each
site up to the depth of 15cm and mixed to make a composite. The soil was then
stored in labelled polythene bags. Different physico-chemical properties of soil like
saturation, texture, pH, electric conductivity, organic matter, and amount of
phosphorus, potassium, and calcium carbonate were measured for each sample.
3.5.1 Soil pH
The pH was measured by using 1:5 soil saturation extract by pH meter by
69
maintain temperature upto25 oC (Jackson, 1962; Hussain, 1989).
3.5.2 Electrical Conductivity
It was measured using 1:5 soil saturation paste by electrical conductivity
meter by maintaining temperature up to 25 o C (Jackson, 1962; Hussain, 1989).
3.5.3 Soil Saturation
Saturation of soil samples were computed by using formula
3.5.4 Organic Matter
Walkley and Black‟s titration was used for determination of organic matter.
Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) solution was used in sulphuric acidic (H2SO4)
medium for oxidation. (Jackson, 1962; Hussain, 1989).
3.5.5 Soil Texture
A hydrometer was used to determine the texture of each soil sample. 100
gram of soil was mixed with 200 ml of distilled water. Then added 125 ml of 1%
hexametaphosphate to the soil sample and soaked overnight. The sample was then
shifted to a dispersion cup and stirred for 5 minutes by using electrical stirrer.
Content was then transferred to 1 litre bouyoucus cylinder and distilled water was
added in it to bring the volume up to 1 litter. The fraction of silt and clay were
calculated by using Hydrometer and fraction of sand was determined by subtraction
70
(Bouyoucous, 1962). Soil textural triangle was used to determine the textural
classes (Brady and Weill, 1996).
3.5.6 Phosphorus
The soluble phosphorus was extracted by hydrophobic ammonium fluoride
solution which was measured colorimetrically. (Olsen and Sommers, 1982;
Kitayama et al. 2000).
3.5.7 Potassium
Flame emission spectrometry was used to determine the amount of
potassium in each sample (Jackson, 1962; Rhoades, 1982).
3.5.8 Calcium Carbonate
Titration method was used to determine the amount of calcium carbonate.
Neutralization was done by using hydrochloric acid (Rayan et al. 1997).
3.6 RANGE LAND PRODUCTIVITY
Productivity refers to the standing amount of above ground material present
in a unit time at a given area and was determined by using harvest technique.
Different methods used for the estimation of productivity of the herbaceous and
shrubby plant species are as follow:
3.6.1 Herbaceous Biomass
Herbaceous biomass was estimated by harvest method. Five permanent
71
quadrats of 1 × 1 m2 were selected from each of the fifteen sites in three different
forest types. Above ground foliage of grasses and herbs were clipped at height of 2
inches. They were put in to polythene bag and were weighed and averaged. The
result was expressed in gm/m2 and then converted in to kg/ha (Kirmse and
Norton,1985; Bonham, 1989; Hussain & Durrani, 2007; Khan and Hussain 2012).
The procedure was repeated during every month. Pearson correlation and linear
regression was used to determine the relationship of biomass with rainfall,
temperature and altitude. Herbaceous biomass production was used as the response
variable whereas rainfall, temperature and altitude were used as explanatory
variables. Analysis was performed in SPSS software.
3.6.2 Shrubby Biomass
Based on the availability of shrubs the whole area was divided in to fifteen
sites. Ten quadrats of 5 × 5 m2 were laid down at each site. Reference unit
technique was used to investigate the shrub biomass (Andrew et al. 1981; Khan et
al. 2014 a). A small quantitative part of a plant like shoot with an average size of
10-20% foliage weight was used as a reference unit. The representative part
(reference unit) was cut down and weighed. The total number of reference unit of
plants were counted and multiplied with the weight of the reference unit for
estimation of shrub biomass. Pearson correlation and linear regression was used to
determine the relationship of biomass with rainfall and temperature. Shrubby
biomass production was used as the response variable whereas rainfall, temperature
and altitude were used as explanatory variables. Analysis was performed in SPSS
software.
72
3.7 PALATABILITY OF VEGETATION
This was calculated by observation of grazing animals in the field. Goats,
sheep and cattle were observed visually to determine their preferences. Some
informations were also collected from local people and nomads on questionnaire
given in Appendix IX. Plants were classified in to palatable and non-palatable.
Palatable plants were further classified in to different palatability classes, part used,
conditions and animal preference (Amjad et al., 2014c; Shaheen et al., 2014;
Hussain and Durani 2009).
3.7.1 Non Palatable
This group includes the plants which are not grazed by animals.
3.7.2 Palatable
This group includes the plants which are partially or completely grazed by
animals and were furthered classified on the basis of preference by grazing animals.
3.7.2.1 Highly Palatable
Species which were highly preferred throughout the growing season over
other plant species.
3.7.2.2 Moderately Palatable
Species with average or intermediate preference by grazing animal.
3.7.2.3 Less Palatable
Species which were less preferred throughout the growing season.
73
3.7.2.4 Rarely Palatable
Species which were grazed only when no other choice or option was
available for feeding.
3.7.3 Palatability by Part Used
The palatable plant species were classified on the basis of parts grazed by
livestock. i.e. either leaves, shoots, inflorescences or whole plants.
3.7.4 Palatability by Condition
Palatable plant species were classified according to conditions whether they
were used in fresh condition, dry condition or both fresh and dry condition.
3.7.5 Palatability by Animal Preference
The livestock differ in their choice of feed in the same rangeland. Palatable
plants were further classified according to weather they were grazed by goat sheep
or cattle.
74
Chapter 4
RESULTS
4.1 FLORISTIC COMPOSITION AND ITS ECOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
4.1.1 Floristic Composition
The flora of District Kotli consisted of 202 species of 71 families and 176
genera (Table 4.1). Of these, there were 159 species of dicotyledons, 36 species of
monocotyledons, one species of gymnosperm and six species of pteridophytes.
Pinus roxburghii was the only gymnosperm present in the investigated area (Table
4.2). On the basis of growth form, 11 trees, 28 shrubs and 163 herbs comprised the
5.45%, 13.86% and 80.69% of the floral diversity of the investigated area (Table
4.1; Fig 4.1).
Asteraceae (23 Spp.) and Poaceae (20 Spp.) were the dominant families
followed by Fabaceae (15 Spp.), Labiatae (11 Spp.), and Euphorbiaceae (7 Spp.).
Acanthaceae, Amaranthaceae, Apiaceae, Cyperaceae, Malvaceae and Rosaceae had
5 species each. Boraginaceae, Convolvulaceae, Geraniaceae, Polygonaceae,
Pteridaceae and Rananculaceae had 4 species each (Table. 4.3; Fig. 4.2). Each of
the Apocynaceae, Brassicaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Primulaceae and Solanaceae had
3 species. The remaining 49 families had two or fewer species in the study area
(Table 4.3).
During the spring season, 147 species belonging to 58 families were
75
reported while in the monsoon season 162 species belonging to 65 families were
recorded from the study area (Table 4.1). Based on their importance values,
Poaceae and Pinaceae were the dominant families both during spring and monsoon
season (Table 4.4).
4.1.2 Life Form and its Seasonal Variation
The flora of the study area was overall dominated by therophytes (73 Spp.;
36.14 %), followed by hemicryptophytes (39 Spp.; 19.31%), nanophanerophytes
(27 Spp.; 13.37%), geophytes (21 Spp.; 10.40%), lianas (16 Spp.; 7.92%),
chamaephytes (15 Spp.; 7.43%), and megaphanerophytes (11 Spp.; 5.45%) (Table
4.1).
Seasonal variation in life form was also reflected in the data. In the spring
season there were 36.05% (53 Spp.) therophytes, 21.09% (31 Spp.)
hemicryptophytes, 17.69% (26 Spp.) nanophanerophytes, 8.16% (12 Spp.)
geophytes, 7.48% (11 Spp.) megaphanerophytes, 5.44% (8 Spp.) lianas, and 4.08%
(6 Spp.) chamaephytes recorded. While in the monsoon season, there were 30.86%
(50 Spp.) therophytes, 19.14% (31 Spp.) hemicryptophytes, 16.67% (27 Spp.)
nanophanerophytes, 11.11% (18 Spp.) geophytes, 8.64% (14 Spp.) lianas, 6.79%
(11 Spp.) megaphanerophytes, and 6.79% (11 Spp.) chamaephytes recorded ( Table
4.5: Fig. 4.3). The percentage of therophytes was high during spring as compared to
monsoon season.
4.1.3 Leaf Spectra and its Seasonal Variation
The flora of the study area was overall dominated by nanophylls (73 Spp.;
76
36.14%) followed by leptophylls (54 Spp.; 26.73%) and microphylls (53 Spp.;
26.24%). While mesophylls (22 Spp.; 10.89%) were much lower in number (Table
4.1).
Seasonal variation in leaf spectra showed that during the spring season there
were 38.10% (56 Spp.) nanophylls, 28.57% (42 Spp.) leptophylls, 22.45% (33
Spp.) microphylls and 10.88% (16 Spp.) mesophylls. While in monsoon there were
37.65% (61 Spp.) nanophylls, 28.40% (46 Spp.) microphylls, 22.84% (37 Spp.)
leptophylls and 11.11% (18 Spp.) mesophylls recorded (Table 4.5; Fig. 4.4).
4.1.4 Phenological Behaviour
Four different flowering seasons could be observed in the investigated
region (Fig. 4.5).The first flowering season stretches from March to May (spring)
during which 52.81 % of species were found in flowering. The second season
(summer) stretches from June to August during which 53.80 % of species were
found in bloom. The third season (autumn) occurs from September to October
during which 34.40% plants were in flower. The fourth season (winter) occurs from
November to February during which only 10.40% species were found in flower.
The flowering trend decreased from spring to the winter season. It was
observed that the majority of plant species (122 Spp.; 60.40%) were found in
flower during April followed by May (111 Spp.; 54.95%), July (111 Spp.; 54.95%),
and August (108 Spp.; 53.47%). Whereas the least number of species were found in
flower during the months of December (17 Spp. 8.42%) and January (18 Spp.;
8.91%). The maximum number of plant species initiated flowering during the
77
month of March (60 spp.; 29.70%) followed by April (43 Spp.; 21.29%), June (25
Spp.; 12.38%) and July (23 Spp.; 11.39%. (Table 4.6; Fig. 4.6). Peak flowering in
trees, shrubs and herbs occurred during April, while among the grasses flowering
was at a peak during August. Ferns for most part reproduced during June-August.
Phenological diagram of plant species is given in Appendix X.
4.1.5 Ethnobotany/Economic Use Classification
The total useable plant species reported were 177 while for the remaining 25
species no use was reported from the study area.
There were 36.96% (129 spp.) medicinal plant species, 29.80% (104 Spp.)
fodder/forage plant species, 6.88% (24 Spp.) fuel wood plant species, 6.30% (22
Spp.) edible fruits/vegetable plant species, 2.58% (9 Spp.) poisonous plant species,
2.01% (7 Spp.) ornamental plant species and agriculture tool plant species each,
1.72% (06 Spp.) timber wood plant species, hedge/fence plant species and nectar
plants for honey bees each, 1.43% (05 Spp.) roof thatching species and herbal tea
plant species each, while 5.44% (19 spp.) plant species had other uses such as resin
yielding, tanning, dying, making rope, soap or broom and for miswak (Table 4.7;
Fig. 4.7). Detailed ethnobotanical uses of plant species are given in Appendix III.
In context to the medicinal uses of plants, leaves were most commonly used
(68 Spp.; 38.86%) to prepare different indigenous recipes, followed by the whole
plants (35 Spp.; 20%), fruits (22 Spp; 12.57%), roots (18 Spp. 10.29%), flowers (11
Spp. 6.29%), seeds (8 Spp.; 4.57%), underground stems (5 Spp.; 2.86) and bark (3
Spp.; 1.71) (Table 4.8; Fig. 4.8).
78
4.1.5.1 Multinomial logistic specification estimations
Multinomial logistic specification modeled the probabilities of plant uses
against plants categories through MLE by maximizing the log likelihood function
at -209.46 in 5 numbers of iterations. The coefficients obtained through logistic
specification for annual plants have positive non-significant effects for medicinal,
food and combined use of medicinal and food plants. While woody plants have
negative significant effects on medicinal, food and their combined use. These
coefficients show the difference in logit (log of odd ratios) for active category than
reference category as the covariates are also categorical in nature. The marginal
effects have more useful interpretations than logistic coefficients or Relative Risk
Ratio (RRR).
The marginal effect of annual plants is negative for medicinal use of plants
showing that perennial plants are used more for medicinal purposes than annual
plants. Similarly, non-significant positive marginal effects for food use and
combined uses indicate the greater use of annual plants for food and combined
uses. Negative significant marginal effects of woody plants reflect the empirical
fact that for all uses non-woody plants are more used than woody plants i.e. in the
case of medicinal use, woody plants were used 18 percent of less than non-woody
plants. Likewise, there was 24.4 percent less food use and 18.5 percent less use for
combined food and medicine purposes of woody plants, indicating that non-woody
plants have more medicinal, food and combined uses than woody plants. Pseudo R2
is 12.93 percent which is a significant result, however, highly significant LR Chi
square at less than 1 percent indicates that overall model has a good fit (Table 4.9).
79
Table 4.1: Summary of ecological characteristics of the flora of District Kotli.
S. No. Ecological Characteristics Number Percentage
A. Flora
I. Total Species 202 -
II. Family 71 -
III. Genera 176 -
B. Habit
I. Tree 11 5.45
II. Shrub 28 13.86
III. Herb 163 80.69
C. Seasonality/Aspect
I. Spring 147 47.57
II. Monsoon 162 52.43
D. Life Form Spectra
I. Megaphanerophyte 11 5.45
II. Nanophanerophyte 27 13.37
III. Therophyte 73 36.14
IV. Hemicryptophyte 39 19.31
V. Geophyte 21 10.40
VI. Chamaephyte 15 7.43
VII. Lianas 16 7.92
E. Leaf Spectra
I. Leptophyll 54 26.73
II. Nanophyll 73 36.14
III. Microphyll 53 26.24
IV. Mesophyll 22 10.89
80
Table 4.2: Taxonomic distribution of plant species recorded from District Kotli.
Taxa
Taxonomic distribution
Total
Pteridophytes Gymnosperms
Angiosperms
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
Families 03 (4.23%) 01(1.41%) 11 (15.49%) 56 (78.87%) 71
Genera 05 (2.84%) 01 (0.57%) 31 (17.61%) 139 (78.98%) 176
Species 06 (2.97%) 01 (0.50%) 36 (17.82%) 159 (78.71%) 202
81
Table 4.3: Number of species in recorded plant families from District Kotli.
S.No Family No. of
Species
S.No Family No. of
Species
1. Asteraceae 23 37. Berberidaceae 01
2. Poaceae 20 38. Campanulaceae 01
3. Fabaceae 15 39. Caprifoliaceae 01
4. Labiatae 11 40. Celastraceae 01
5. Euphorbiaceae 07 41. Colchicaceae 01
6. Acanthaceae 05 42. Commelinaceae 01
7. Amaranthaceae 05 43. Dryopteridaceae 01
8. Apiaceae 05 44. Elaeagnaceae 01
9. Cyperaceae 05 45. Fagaceae 01
10. Malvaceae 05 46. Flacourtiaceae 01
11. Rosaceae 05 47. Juncaceae 01
12. Boraginaceae 04 48. Liliaceae 01
13. Convolvulaceae 04 49. Loranthaceae 01
14. Geraniaceae 04 50. Menispermaceae 01
15. Polygonaceae 04 51. Nyctaginaceae 01
16. Pteridaceae 04 52. Onagraceae 01
17. Rananculaceae 04 53. Orchidaceae 01
18. Apocynaceae 03 54. Oxalidaceae 01
19. Brassicaceae 03 55. Papaveraceae 01
20. Caryophyllaceae 03 56. Phyllanthaceae 01
21. Primulaceae 03 57. Pinaceae 01
22. Solanaceae 03 58. Plantaginaceae 01
23. Asparagaceae 02 59. Polygalaceae 01
24. Dioscoreaceae 02 60. Rhamnaceae 01
25. Gentianaceae 02 61. Rutaceae 01
26. Hypericaceae 02 62. Sapindaceae 01
27. Lythraceae 02 63. Saxifragaceae 01
28. Oleaceae 02 64. Scrophulariaceae 01
29. Rubiaceae 02 65. Selaginellaceae 01
30. Salicaceae 02 66. Simaroubaceae 01
31. Adoxaceae 01 67. Smilacaceae 01
32. Aizoaceae 01 68. Urticaceae 01
33. Anacardiaceae 01 69. Verbenaceae 01
34. Araceae 01 70. Violaceae 01
35. Araliaceae 01 71. Vitaceae 01
36. Balsaminaceae 01
82
Table 4.4: Number of Plant Species and Family importance value (FIV) in recorded plant
families in different season from District Kotli.
Spring Monsoon
Family Species FIV Species FIV
1. Acanthaceae 02 220.12 05 311.82
2. Adoxaceae 01 33.14 01 26.37
3. Aizoaceae 0 0 01 14.71
4. Amaranthaceae 03 17.53 04 20.46
5. Anacardiaceae 01 49.14 01 38.57
6. Apiaceae 2 5.15 03 13.88
7. Apocynaceae 02 100.39 03 111.06
8. Araceae 0 0 01 10.94
9. Araliaceae 01 24.09 01 29.80
10. Asparagaceae 0 0 02 6.80
11. Asteraceae 18 296.57 17 180.23
12. Balsaminaceae 01 1.55 0 0
13. Berberidaceae 01 58.83 01 49.09
14. Boraginaceae 03 14.77 04 47.34
15. Brassicaceae 03 18.73 0 0
16. Campanulaceae 0 0 01 1.35
17. Caprifoliaceae 02 11.08 01 8.63
18. Caryophyllaceae 02 51.88 01 10.99
19. Celastraceae 01 26.04 01 24.33
20. Colchicaceae 01 2.42 0 0
21. Commelinaceae 01 9.30 01 3.59
22. Convolvulaceae 0 0 04 18.83
23. Cyperaceae 03 94.67 05 147.04
24. Dioscoreaceae 0 0 02 19.66
25. Dryopteridaceae 01 14.60 01 51.77
26. Elaeagnaceae 01 3.55 01 2.77
27. Euphorbiaceae 05 236.26 06 242.89
28. Fagaceae 01 140.62 01 128.27
29. Flacourtiaceae 01 8.06 02 10.74
30. Papaveraceae 01 11.86 0 0
31. Gentianaceae 01 2.20 01 6.5
32. Geraniaceae 04 89.48 02 22.18
33. Hypericaceae 01 7.47 02 7.62
34. Juncaceae 0 0 01 1.64
83
35. Labiatae 08 195.40 10 163.88
36. Leguminosae 11 286.76 13 292.83
37. Liliaceae 01 7.39 0 0
38. Loranthaceae 01 3.29 01 2.65
39. Lythraceae 02 41.08 02 31.97
40. Malvaceae 03 86.65 03 106.23
41. Menispermaceae 0 0 01 1.03
42. Nyctaginaceae 01 23.39 01 54.89
43. Oleaceae 02 60.06 02 74.21
44. Onagraceae 01 13.38 01 5.75
45. Orchidaceae 0 0 01 1.03
46. Oxalidaceae 01 160.98 01 108.07
47. Phyllanthaceae 0 0 01 44.98
48. Pinaceae 01 409.91 01 361.92
49. Plantaginaceae 01 20.91 01 1.51
50. Poaceae 18 657.97 13 729.03
51. Polygalaceae 0 0 01 4.33
52. Polygonaceae 04 15.54 01 6.28
53. Primulaceae 03 177.32 02 131.06
54. Pteridaceae 01 66.10 04 144.59
55. Rananculaceae 03 18.95 03 10.31
56. Rhamnaceae 01 33.15 01 35.74
57. Rosaceae 05 186.38 05 112.17
58. Rubiaceae 02 113.31 02 93.62
59. Rutaceae 01 1.63 01 1.31
60. Salicaceae 02 39.83 02 35
61. Sapindaceae 01 212.83 01 215.45
62. Saxifragaceae 01 2.38 01 1.73
63. Scrophulariaceae 01 1.56 0 0
64. Selaginellaceae 0 0 01 10.29
65. Simaroubaceae 01 1.86 01 1.47
66. Smilacaceae 01 2.02 01 5.1
67. Solanaceae 02 3.23 02 8.24
68. Urticaceae 01 10.57 01 8.23
69. Verbenaceae 01 18.62 01 19.86
70. Violaceae 01 77.27 01 83.09
71. Vitaceae 0 0 01 22.43
84
Table 4.5: Seasonal variation in life form and leaf size spectra of plants of District
Kotli.
Parameters Season/Aspect
Spring Monsoon
No % No %
A. Life Form
Megaphanerophyte 11 7.48 11 6.79
Nanophanerophyte 26 17.69 27 16.67
Therophyte 53 36.05 50 30.86
Hemicryptophyte 31 21.09 31 19.14
Geophyte 12 8.16 18 11.11
Chamaephyte 06 4.08 11 6.79
Lianas 08 5.44 14 8.64
Total 147 162
B. Leaf Spectra
Leptophyll 42 28.57 37 22.84
Nanophyll 56 38.10 61 37.65
Microphyll 33 22.45 46 28.40
Mesophyll 16 10.88 18 11.11
Total 147 162
85
Table 4.6: Average monthly phenological findings of the flora of District Kotli.
Months Species found in flowering Species started flowering
Number Percentage Number Percentage
January 18 8.91
12 5.94
February 28 13.86
11 5.45
March 87 43.07
60 29.70
April 122 60.40
43 21.29
May 111 54.95
10 4.95
June 107 52.97
25 12.38
July 111 54.95
23 11.39
August 108 53.47
07 3.47
September 89 44.06
06 2.97
October 50 24.75
01 0.50
November 21 10.40
01 0.50
December 17 8.42
03 1.49
86
Table 4.7: Summary of classification of plant species of District Kotli based on
economic uses.
Economic use classes No. of Species Percentage of Species
Medicinal species 129 36.96
Fodder/Forage species 104 29.80
Fuel wood species 24 6.88
Vegetable/edible fruit species 22 6.30
Poisonous species 09 2.58
Agricultural tool species 07 2.01
Ornamental species 07 2.01
Timber wood species 06 1.72
Hedge/ Fence species 06 1.72
Honey bee species 06 1.72
Roof thatching species 05 1.43
Herbal tea species 05 1.43
Species used for other purposes (Resin
yielding/Tanning/Dying/Rope making,
Soap making/Broom making/Miswak)
19 5.44
87
Table 4.8: Parts of plant used for medicinal purposes in District Kotli.
Part used for medicinal
purpose
Number of plant species Percentage of plant species
Leaf 68 38.86
Whole Plant 35 20.00
Fruit 22 12.57
Root 18 10.29
Flower 11 6.29
Seed 8 4.57
Stem 5 2.86
Underground Stem 5 2.86
Bark 3 1.71
88
Table 4.9: Maximum likelihood estimates for various plants uses.
Plants Medicinal Food Medicinal & Food
Categories Coefficients RRR ME Coefficients RRR ME Coefficients RRR ME
Annual = 1,
Perennial = 0
0.145 1.157 -0.043 0.411 1.508 0.021 0.590 1.805 0.089
Woody= 1,
Non-Woody =
0
-2.757* 0.064* -0.183* -3.989* 0.019* -0.244* -2.657* 0.070* -0.185*
Constant 0.742 0.588 0.642
Overall Characteristics
No. of Observations 174
No. of Iterations 5
Pseudo R2 0.1293
LR Chi Square 62.19*
Log Likelihood -209.46
Note: all other uses is used as reference outcome.
*,** shows significance level at 1 percent and 5 percent respectively.
ME and RRR are Marginal Effects and Relative Risk Ratio/Odd Ratios respectively.
89
Fig. 4.1: Percent share of various habit forms of vegetation of the District Kotli.
Fig. 4.2: Top 17 Plant families represented by highest number of species in the
study area which share 64.36% of the total species.
5%
14%
81%
Tree species
Shrub species
Herb species
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
Asteraceae
Poaceae
Fabaceae
Labiatae
Euphorbiaceae
Acanthaceae
Amaranthaceae
Apiaceae
Cyperaceae
Malvaceae
Rosaceae
Boraginaceae
Convolvulaceae
Geraniaceae
Polygonaceae
Pteridaceae
Rananculaceae
No. of Plant Species
Fam
ilie
s
No. of Plant Species
90
Fig. 4.3: Seasonal variation in life form of District Kotli.
Key: MP= Megaphanerophytes, NP = Nanophanerophytes, Th= Therophytes, H =
Hemicryptophytes, G= Geophytes, Ch = Chamaephytes, L = Lianas.
Fig. 4.4: Seasonal variation in leaf size of District Kotli.
Key: L = Leptophyll; N = Nanophyll; Mi = Microphyll; Me = Mesophyll
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
MP NP Th H G Ch L
Pe
rce
nta
ge o
f p
lan
t sp
eci
es
Life form
Monsoon
Spring
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
L N Mi Me
Pe
rce
nta
ge o
f P
lan
t sp
eci
es
Leaf Size Classes
Monsoon
Spring
91
Fig. 4.5: Months clustering dendrogram based on Phenological data.
Fig. 4.6: Phenological responses of vascular flora of District Kotli.
Wards cluster analysis dendrogram of phenological data
Distance (Objective Function)
Information Remaining (%)
5.5E+00
100
1.2E+02
75
2.4E+02
50
3.6E+02
25
4.8E+02
0
January
December
February
November
March
April
May
June
July
August
Septembe
October
4 Season
1
2
3
4
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
No
. of
Spe
cie
s
Months
Species foundin flowering
Species startedflowering
92
Fig 4.7: Ethnobotanical uses of flora of District Kotli.
Fig. 4.8: Parts used for ethnomedicinal purpose of flora of District Kotli.
0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
40.00%
Pe
rce
nta
ge o
f P
lan
t sp
eci
es
use
d
Econimic use classification
0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
40.00%
45.00%
Pe
rce
nta
ge o
f p
lan
t sp
eci
es
Part used for ethnomedicinal purpose
93
4.2 PHYTOSOCIOLOGY/VEGETATION STRUCTURE
4.2.1 Community Structure
4.2.1.1 Spring aspect
Fifteen plant communities were established in the District Kotli during spring
2015, which are as:
4.2.1.1.1 Dodonaea-Themeda-Justicia community
This community was recorded from Jandi Galla hills at an altitude of 473
m, located at 33°23'04"N and 73°47'38"E co‐ordinates. The community comprised
of 4 tree species, along with 5 shrub, 12 herb and 5 grass species. The total
importance value (TIV) of the first three dominants was 120.80 while the rest of the
species contributed the total importance value of 179.20. The total importance
value (TIV) contribution by trees was 47.22, by shrubs 106. 48, by herbs 103.85
and by grasses 42.47 (Table 4.10).
The dominant life form was therophytes (36%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (24%), nanophanerophytes (16%), megaphanerophytes (16%),
chamaephytes (4%), and geophytes (4%) (Table 4.12). The dominant leaf spectra
was nanophylls (48%), followed by leptophylls (24%), microphylls (16%) and
mesophylls (12%) (Table 4.14).
4.2.1.1.2 Justicia-Acacia-Stellaria community
Justicia- Acacia- Stellaria community was established in Maneel hills at an
elevation of 587 m, located at 33°27'53"N and 73°55'58"E co‐ordinates. It was
94
comprised of 3 tree species along with 4 shrub, 13 herb, 2 grass and one fern
species. The total importance value (TIV) of the first three dominants was 124.18
while the rest of the species contributed the total importance value of 175.82. The
TIV contribution by trees was 87.88, by shrubs 58.06, by herbs 118.12, by grasses
11.08 and by ferns 24.86 (Table 4.10).
The vegetation was dominated by therophytes (39.13%), followed by
nanophanerophytes (17.39%), hemicryptophytes (13.04%), megaphanerophytes
(13.04%), geophytes (8.7%) and lianas (8.7%) (Table 4.12). The dominant leaf
spectra was nanophylls (39.13%), followed by leptophylls (34.78%), microphylls
(17.39%), and mesophylls (8.7%) (Table 4.14).
4.2.1.1.3. Pinus-Mallotus-Heteropogon community
This community was established in Sehr Mandi at an altitude of 593 m,
located at 33°26'51"N and 73°49'27"E co‐ordinates. The community was
comprised of 03 tree species along with 3 shrub, 19 herb, 5 grass and 1 fern
species. The TIV contributed by the first three dominants was 115.74 while the TIV
of remaining species was 184.26. The herbs were the major contributor with a TIV
of 112.34. The contribution by trees was 68.96, by shrubs 44.77, by grasses 72.45
and by ferns 1.5 (Table 4.10).
The dominant life form was therophytes (48.28%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (24.14%), geophytes (13.79%), megaphanerophytes (10.34%)
and nanophanerophytes (3.45%) (Table 4.12). The dominant leaf spectra was
nanophylls (41.38%), followed by leptophylls (37.93%), microphylls (10.34%) and
95
mesophylls (10.34%) (Table 4.14).
4.2.1.1.4 Carissa-Sida-Geranium community
At an altitude of 667 m, Carissa-Sida-Geranium community was recorded,
located at 33°28'39"N and 73°54'36"E co‐ordinates. It was composed of 3 tree
species, along with 3 shrub, 24 herb and 4 grass species. The TIV of the first three
dominants was 69.66 while the remaining species had a TIV of 230.34. The herbs
made a major contribution with TIV of 184.87 while the trees, shrubs and grasses
had TIV of 38.69, 47.62, and 28.82 respectively (Table 4.10).
The dominant life form was therophyte (58.82%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (11.76%), megaphanerophytes (8.82%), nanophanerophytes
(8.82%), geophytes (5.88%), lianas (2.94%) and chamaephytes (2.94%) (Table
4.12). The dominant leaf spectra was leptophylls (38.24%) followed by nanophylls
(32.35%), microphylls (20.59%), and mesophylls (8.82%) (Table 4.14).
4.2.1.1.5 Mallotus-Pinus-Duchsnea community
This community was established in Danna at an altitude of 687 m, located
at 33°25'16"N and 73°58'27"E co‐ordinates. The community was composed of 2
tree species, along with 7 shrub, 17 herb, 3 grass and 1 fern species. The TIV of the
first three dominants was 102.36 while the remaining species had TIV of 197.64.
The TIV contributed by trees was 61.43, by shrubs 69.34, by herbs 106.02, by
grasses 51.63 and by ferns 11.59 (Table 4.10).
The dominant life form was therophytes (37.93%), followed by
96
hemicryptophytes (20.69%), megaphanerophytes (20.69%), geophytes (10.34%),
nanophanerophytes (6.9%) and lianas (3.45%) (Table 4.12). The dominant leaf
spectra was nanophylls (44.83%), followed by leptophylls (27.59%), microphylls
(17.24%) and mesophylls (10.34%) (Table 4.14).
4.2.1.1.6 Justicia- Acacia- Oxalis community
This community was reported at an altitude of 757m from Chitti Bakri hills,
located at 33°31'13"N and 73°55'30"E co‐ordinates. It was comprised of the
following species: 2 trees, 6 shrubs, 20 herbs, 4 grasses and 1 fern. The TIV
contributed by the first three dominants was 97.53 while the rest of the species
contributed TIV of 202.47. The TIV contributed by trees was 33.55, by shrubs
60.09, by herbs 168.76, by grasses 26.63 and by fern 10.98 (Table 4.10).
The dominant life form was therophytes (42.42%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (21.21%), nanophanerophytes (15.15%), geophytes (9.09%)
megaphanerophytes (9.09%) and lianas (3.03) (Table 4.12). The dominant leaf
spectra was nanophylls (42.42%), followed by leptophylls (36.36), microphylls
(15.15%) and mesophylls (6.06%) (Table 4.14).
4.2.1.1.7 Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda community
Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda community was recorded from Nar Mahando hills
at an altitude of 847 m, located at 33°27'20"N and 73°47'11"E co‐ordinates. The
community comprised of following species number: 1 tree, 2 shrubs, 17 herbs, and
5 grasses. The TIV contributed by the first three dominants was 156.44 while the
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remaining species contributed a TIV of 143.56. The TIV contributed by trees was
76.35, by shrubs 76.01, by herbs 73.22 and by grasses 74.45 (Table 4.10).
The dominant life form was therophytes (52%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (24%), megaphanerophytes (12%), geophytes (8%) and lianas
(4%) (Table 4.12). The dominant leaf spectra was nanophylls (40%), followed by
leptophylls (32%), microphylls (16%) and mesophylls (12%) (Table 4.14).
4.2.1.1.8 Pinus- Themeda- Mallotus community
At 850 m, Pinus- Themeda- Mallotus community was established, located
at 33°24'51"N and 73°56'42"E co‐ordinates. The community comprised of the
following number of species: 1 tree, 3 shrubs, 12 herbs, 3 grasses and one fern. The
TIV contributed by the first three dominants was 154.37 while the remaining
species contributed TIV of 145.63. The TIV contributed by trees was 77.25, by
shrubs 80.85, by herbs 90.47, by grasses 48.05 and by fern 3.29 (Table 4.10).
The dominant life form was therophytes (35%), followed by geophytes (25%),
hemicryptophytes (20%), nanophanerophytes (10%) and megaphanerophytes
(10%) (Table 4.12). The dominant leaf spectra was leptophylls (40%) followed by
nanophylls (35%), mesophylls (15%) and microphylls (10%) (Table 4.14).
4.2.1.1.9 Dodonaea- Themeda- Micromeria community
This community was recorded at altitude of 919 m in Allan hills, which was
located at 33°29'25"N and 73°58'23"E co‐ordinates. The community comprised of
the following number of species: 3 trees, 3 shrubs, 13 herbs, and 4 grasses. The
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Total importance value (TIV) contribution of the first three dominants was 120.34
while the rest of the species had TIV 179.66. The TIV contribution by the trees was
39.75, by shrubs 80.48, by herbs 102.97 and by grasses 76.78 (Table 4.10).
The dominant life form was therophytes (39.13%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (26.09%), nanophanerophytes (13.04%), megaphanerophytes
(13.01%), geophytes (4.35%), and lianas (4.35%) (Table 4.12). The dominant leaf
spectra was nanophylls (52.17%), followed by leptophylls (34.78), microphylls
(8.7%) and mesophylls (4.35%) (Table 4.14).
4.2.1.1.10 Pinus- Themeda-Duchsnea community
This community was established in Powarmora hill at altitude of 1125 m,
located at 33°30'45"N and 73°55'40"E co‐ordinates. The community comprised of
the following species number: 1 tree, 4 shrubs, 14 herbs, 4 grasses and 2 ferns. The
TIV contribution of the first three dominants was 106.36 while the rest of the
species had a TIV of 193.64. The TIV contribution by trees was 45.51, by shrubs
50.68, by herbs 135.97, by grasses 59.26, and by ferns 8.57 (Table 4.10).
The dominant life form was therophytes (36%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (28%), nanophanerophytes (16%), geophytes (16%) and
megaphanerophytes (4%) (Table 4.12). The dominant leaf spectra was nanophylls
(48%), followed by leptophylls (28), microphylls (16%) and mesophylls (8%)
(Table 4.14).
4.2.1.1.11 Pinus-Dodonaea-Themeda community
This community was established at an altitude of 1233 m in the Supply
99
hills, located at 33°28'26"N and 73°59'55"E co‐ordinates. The community
comprised of 01 tree species along with 6 shrub, 13 herb, 2 grass and 3 fern
species. The TIV contribution of first three dominant was 96.16 while the rest of
species had TIV 203.84. The TIV contribution by tree was 45.63, by shrubs 109.03,
by herbs 91.99, by grasses 41.04, and by ferns 12.51 (Table 4.10).
The vegetation was dominated by therophytes (28%), followed by
nanophanerophytes (24%), geophytes (24%), hemicryptophytes (12%),
megaphanerophytes (4%), chamaephytes (4%) and lianas (4%) (Table 4.12). The
dominant leaf spectra was nanophylls (40%), followed by leptophylls (32%),
microphylls (20%) and mesophylls (8%) (Table 4.14).
4.2.1.1.12 Myrsine-Cotinus-Pinus community
This community was harboured in base of Pir Lasoora hills at an altitude of
1550 m, located at 33°28'34"N and 74°04'23"E co‐ordinates. It was comprised of 2
tree species along with 10 shrub, 20 herb, 4 grass and 2 fern species. The TIV
contribution of first three dominant was 93.85 while the rest of species had TIV
206.15. The TIV contribution by trees was 31.22, by shrubs 135.49, by herbs
102.36, by grasses 28.25, and by ferns 2.72 (Table 4.10).
The vegetation was dominated by hemicryptophytes (29.73%), followed by
nanophanerophytes (24.32%), therophyte (16.22%), geophytes (13.51%), lianas
(8.11%), megaphanerophytes (5.41%) and chamaephytes (2.7%) (Table 4.12). The
dominant leaf spectra was nanophylls (37.84%), followed by leptophylls (27.03%),
mesophylls (18.92%) and microphylls (16.22%) (Table 4.14).
100
4.2.1.1.13 Quercus-Indigofera-Rubus community
At the top of Pir Kalijar hills (Alt. 1704 m) Quercus-Indigofera-Rubus
community was recognized, located at 33°29'21"N and 74°09'37"E co‐ordinates.
The community comprised of 3 tree species along with, 11 shrub, 25 herb, 5
grasses and 1 fern species. The TIV contribution of first three dominant was 89.22
while rest of species had TIV of 210.78. The TIV contribution by tree was 45.73,
by shrubs 102.61, by herbs 104.66, by grasses 43.15 and by ferns 3.85 (Table 4.10).
The vegetation was dominated by hemicryptophytes (30.23%) followed by
therophytes (20.93%), nanophanerophytes (20.93%), geophytes (11.63%)
megaphanerophytes (6.98%), lianas (4.65%) and chamaephytes (4.65%) (Table
4.12). The dominant leaf spectra was nanophylls (39.53%), followed by leptophylls
(27.91%), microphylls (20.93%), and mesophylls (11.63%) (Table 4.14).
4.2.1.1.14 Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis community
This community was recorded from Pir Lasoora mid hills at an altitude of
1725 m, located at 33°28'23"N and 74°04'16"E co‐ordinates. The community
comprised of 2 trees, 8 shrub, 21 herbs and 3 grasses. The TIV contribution of first
three dominant was 109.37 while the rest of species had TIV of 190.63. The TIV
contribution by trees was 31.87, by shrubs 135.7, by herbs 99.04, by grasses 33.39
(Table 4.10).
The vegetation was dominated by therophytes (12.12%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (36.36%), nanophanerophytes (21.21%), geophytes (12.12%)
megaphanerophytes (6.06%), lianas (6.06%) and chamaephyte (6.06%) (Table
101
4.12). The dominant leaf spectra was nanophylls (36.36%), followed by leptophylls
(27.27), microphylls (21.21%), and mesophylls (15.15%) (Table 4.14).
4.2.1.1.15 Quercus-Myrsine-Carex community
Quercus-Myrsine- Carex community was established in Pir Lasoora hills at
an elevation of 1897 m, located at 33°28'10"N and 74°04'00"E co‐ordinates. The
community comprised of 3 tree species along with 7 shrub, 24 herb, 3 grass and 1
fern species. The TIV contribution of first three dominant was 108.10 while the rest
of species had TIV of 191.90. The TIV contribution by trees was 67.16, by shrubs
71.59, by herbs 139.91, by grasses 20.52, and by ferns 0.83 (Table 4.10).
The vegetation was dominated by hemicryptophytes (32.43%), therophytes
(29.73%), followed by nanophanerophytes (13.51%), geophytes (10.81%)
megaphanerophytes (8.11%) and lianas (5.41%) (Table 4.12). The dominant leaf
spectra was nanophylls (45.95%), followed by leptophylls (24.32%), microphylls
(21.62%) and mesophylls (8.11%) (Table 4.14).
4.2.1.2 Monsoon aspect
Fifteen plant communities were established in the District Kotli during
monsoon 2015, which are as:
4.2.1.2.1 Dodonaea-Themeda-Justicia community
This community was recorded from Jandi Galla hill at an altitude of 473 m,
located at 33°23'04"N and 73°47'38"E co‐ordinates. The community comprised of
4 trees species along with 5 shrub, 14 herb and 3 grass species. The total
102
importance value (TIV) of first three dominants was 128.92 while the rest of
species contributed TIV of 171.08. The share by trees was 49.83, by shrubs 109.44,
by herbs 96.98 and by grasses 43.75 (Table 4.11).
The dominant life form was therophytes (32%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (20%), nanophanerophytes (16%), megaphanerophytes (16%),
chamaephytes (8%), geophytes (4%) and lianas (4%) (Table 4.13). Nanophylls
(40%) were dominant followed by microphylls (28%), leptophylls (20%) and
mesophylls (12%) (Table 4.15).
4.2.1.2.2 Adiantum-Justicia-Acacia community
Adiantum-Justicia-Acacia community was established in Maneela hill at an
altitude of 587 m, located at 33°27'53"N and 73°55'58"E co‐ordinates. The
community was comprised of 3 tree species along with 4 shrub, 7 herb, 2 grass and
one fern species. The first three dominants shared the total importance value of
158.91 while the remaining species shared the importance value of 141.09. The
TIV contribution by trees was 101.79, by shrubs 67.67, by herbs 25.47, by grasses
41.53 and by ferns 63.54 (Table 4.11).
The vegetation was dominated by therophytes (29.41%), followed by
nanophanerophytes (23.53%), hemicryptophytes (17.65%), megaphanerophytes
(17.65%), geophytes (5.88%) and lianas (5.88%) (Table 4.13).
The dominant leaf spectrum was nanophylls (41.18%), followed by
microphylls (29.41%), leptophylls (17.65%) and mesophylls (11.76%) (Table
4.15).
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4.2.1.2.3 Pinus-Mallotus-Oxalis community
This community was established in at Sehr Mandi an altitude of 593m,
located at 33°26'51"N and 73°49'27"E co‐ordinates. The community was
comprised of the following number of species: 3 trees, 3 shrubs, 23 herbs and 5
grasses. The TIV contributed by first three dominants was 110.05. The remaining
species shared TIV of 189.95. The herbs were the major contributor with TIV of
139.74. The contribution by trees was 68.95, by shrubs 45.61, by herbs 139.74 and
by grasses 45.69 (Table 4.11).
The vegetation was predominantly therophytic (46.88%), followed by
hemicryptophytic (25%), nanophanerophytic (3.13%), megaphanerophytic
(9.38%), chamaephytic (3.13%) and geophytic (12.5%) (Table 4.13). Nanophyllous
species (40.63%) were dominant, followed by leptophyllous (27.5%),
microphyllous (12.5%) and mesophyllous (9.38%) (Table 4.15).
4.2.1.2.4 Carissa-Cynodon-Justicia community
At an altitude of 667 m, Carissa-Cynodon-Justicia was recorded, located at
33°28'39"N and 73°54'36"E co‐ordinates. It was composed of following number of
species: 3 trees, 3 shrubs, 17 herbs, 5 grasses and 1 fern. The TIV by three
dominants was 84.40 and by remaining species 215.60. The herbs had major
contribution with TIV of 103.9 while the grasses, shrubs, trees and ferns had TIV
of 75.28, 61.7, 51.91 and 7.23 respectively (Table 4.11).
The major life form was therophytes (37.93%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (13.79%), geophytes (13.79%), nanophanerophytes (10.34%),
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megaphanerophytes (10.34%), lianas (10.34%) and chamaephytes (3.45%) (Table
4.13). There were 37.93% nanophylls, 31.03% microphylls, 27.59% leptophylls
and 3.45% mesophylls (Table 4.15).
4.2.1.2.5 Mallotus-Pinus-Adiantum community
This community was established in Danna at an altitude of 687 m, located
at 33°25'16"N and 73°58'27"E co‐ordinates. The community was comprised of
flowing number of species: 2 trees, 7 shrubs, 19 herbs, 3 grasses and 2 ferns. The
TIV of 118.98 and 181.02 was recorded for first three dominants and remaining
specie respectively. The share by trees was 58.44, by shrubs 66.47, by herb 79.8, by
grasses 60.38 and by ferns 34.89 (Table 4.11).
On Raunkiaerian scale, therophytes (34.38%) were dominant, followed by
hemicryptophytes (18.75%), megaphanerophytes (18.75%), geophytes (15.63%),
nanophanerophytes (6.25%), chamaephytes (3.13%) and lianas (3.13%) (Table
4.13). The leaf spectra consisted of nanophylls (40.63%), leptophylls (28.13%),
microphylls (15.63%) and mesophylls (15.63%) (Table 4.15).
4.2.1.2.6 Justicia-Acacia-Themeda community
This community was established at altitude of 757 m from Chitti Bakri hills,
located at 33°31'13"N and 73°55'30"E co‐ordinates. It was comprised of 2 tree
species along with 6 shrub, 12 herb, 4 grass and 1 fern species. The TIV
contributed by first three dominants was 138.88 while the rest of species
contributed 162.12. The TIV contribution by trees was 50.42, by shrubs 84.59, by
herbs 93.40, by grasses 59.52 and by ferns 12.06 (Table 4.11).
105
The dominant life form was therophytes (32%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (20%), nanophanerophytes (20%), geophytes (16%) and
megaphanerophytes (12%) (Table 4.13). The dominant leaf spectra was nanophylls
(52%), followed by leptophylls (32), microphylls (8%) and mesophylls (8%) (Table
4.15).
4.2.1.2.7 Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda community
Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda community was recorded from Nar Mando hills at
an altitude of 847 m, located at 33°27'20"N and 73°47'11"E co‐ordinates. The
community comprised of 1 tree species along with 2 shrub, 18 herbs, and 3 grass
species. The TIV contributed by first three dominants was 141.73 while the
remaining species contributed TIV of 158.27. The TIV contributed by tree was
62.95, by shrubs 60.77, by herbs 112.38 and by grasses 63.92 (Table 4.11).
The dominant life form was therophytes (41.67%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (25%), geophytes (20.83%), megaphanerophytes (12.50%) and
chamaephytes (8%), (Table 4.13). The dominant leaf spectra was leptophylls
(54.17%) followed by nanophylls (20.83%), microphylls (12.5%) and mesophylls
(12.5%) (Table 4.15).
4.2.1.2.8 Pinus- Mallotus- Dodonea community
At 850 m Pinus- Mallotus- Dodonea community was established, located at
33°24'51"N and 73°56'42"E co‐ordinates. The community comprised of 1 tree
species along with 3 shrub, 13 herb, 4 grass and 2 fern species. The TIV
contributed by first three dominants was 139.09 while the remaining species
106
contributed TIV of 160.91. The TIV contributed by trees was 71.57, by shrubs
75.35, by herbs 69.89, by grasses 69.57 and by ferns 13.64 (Table 4.11).
The dominant life form was therophytes (34.78%), followed by geophytes
(21.74%), hemicryptophytes (13.04%), nanophanerophytes (8.7%),
megaphanerophytes (8.7%), chamaephytes (4.35%), and lianas (8.7%) (Table
4.13). The dominant leaf spectra was leptophylls (34.78%), followed by nanophylls
(21.74%), microphylls (26.09%) and mesophylls (17.39%) (Table 4.15).
4.2.1.2.9 Dodonaea-Olea-Justicia community
This community was recorded at an altitude of 919 m in Allan hills, which
was located at 33°29'25"N and 73°58'23"E co‐ordinates. The community
comprised of following number of species: 3 trees, 3 shrubs, 13 herbs and 2
grasses. The TIV contribution of first three dominant was 124.97 while the rest of
species had TIV of 175.03. The TIV contribution by trees was 49.15, by shrubs
97.10, by herbs 124.53 and by grasses 29.4 (Table 4.11).
The dominant life form was therophytes (38.1%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (19.05%), nanophanerophytes (14.29%), megaphanerophytes
(14.29%), geophytes (9.52%), and lianas (4.76%) (Table 4.13). The dominant leaf
spectra were nanophylls (47.62%), followed by leptophylls (33.33), microphylls
(14.29%) and mesophylls (4.76%) (Table 4.15).
4.2.1.2.10 Pinus-Themeda-Dodonaea community
This community was established in Powarmora hill at the altitude of
107
1125m, located at 33°30'45"N and 73°55'40"E co‐ordinates. The community
comprised of following number of species: 01 tree, 04 shrubs, 22 herbs, 03 grasses
and 02 ferns. The TIV contribution of first three dominant was 87.79 while the rest
of species had TIV of 212.21. The TIV contribution by trees was 39.44, by shrubs
44.07, by herbs 137.46, by grasses 53.07 and by ferns 25.92 (Table 4.11).
The dominant life form was therophyte (33.33%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (21.21%), geophytes (18.18%), nanophanerophytes (12.12%),
lianas (9.09), megaphanerophytes (3.03%) and chamaephytes (3.03%) (Table 4.13).
The dominant leaf spectra was nanophylls (39.39%), followed by microphylls
(24.24%), leptophylls (21.21) and mesophylls (15.15%) (Table 4.15).
4.2.1.2.11 Pinus-Dodonaea-Punica community
This community was established at an altitude of 1233 m from Supply hills,
located at 33°28'26"N and 73°59'55"E co‐ordinates. The community comprised of
following number of species: 1 tree, 6 shrubs, 19 herbs, 03 grasses and 1 fern. The
TIV contribution of first three dominant was 79.79 while the rest of species had
TIV 220.21. The TIV contribution by tree was 38.55, by shrubs 90.44, by herbs
117.87, by grasses 34.78, and by fern 18.39 (Table 4.11).
The vegetation was dominated by therophytes (26.67%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (23.33%), nanophanerophytes (20%), geophytes (13.33%)
chamaephytes (6.67%), lianas (6.67%) and megaphanerophytes (3.33%), (Table
4.13). The dominant leaf spectra was nanophylls (46.67%), followed by
leptophylls (30%) microphylls (13.33%), and mesophylls (10%) (Table 4.15).
108
4.2.1.2.12 Myrsine-Cotinus-Pinus community
This community was harboured in base of Pir Lasoora hills at an altitude of
1550 m, located at 33°28'34"N and 74°04'23"E co‐ordinates. The community was
comprised of following number of species: 2 trees, 10 shrub, 29 herbs, 6 grasses
and 1 fern. The TIV contribution of first three dominant was 87.39 while the rest of
species had TIV 212.61. The TIV contribution by tree was 24.3, by shrubs 104.99,
by herbs 119.38, by grasses 46.10, and by fern 5.27 (Table 4.11).
The vegetation was dominated by therophytes (27.66%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (21.28%), nanophanerophytes (19.15%), geophytes (17.02%),
chamaephytes (8.51%), megaphanerophytes (4.26%) and lianas (2.13%) (Table
4.13). The dominant leaf spectra was nanophylls (44.68%), followed by leptophylls
(21.28%), microphylls (21.28%) and mesophylls (12.77%) (Table 4.15).
4.2.1.2.13 Quercus-Indigofera-Rubus community
At the top of Pir Kalijar Hills (Alt. 1704 m) Quercus-Indigofera-Rubus
community was recognized, located at 33°29'21"N and 74°09'37"E co‐ordinates.
The community comprised of 3 tree species along with 11 shrub, 24 herb, 05 grass
and 3 fern species. The TIV contribution of first three dominant was 66.49 while
the rest of species had TIV of 233.51. The TIV contribution by trees was 33.76, by
shrubs 78.10, by herbs 133.68, by grasses 34.14 and by ferns 20.33 (Table 4.11).
The vegetation was dominated by therophytes (25%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (22.73%), nanophanerophytes (20.45%), geophytes (15.91%),
megaphanerophytes (6.82%), lianas (6.82%) and chamaephytes (2.27%) (Table
109
4.13). The dominant leaf spectra was microphylls (31.82%), followed by
leptophylls (29.55%), nanophylls (29.55%) and mesophylls (9.09%) (Table 4.15).
4.2.1.2.14 Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis community
This community was recorded from Pir Lasoora at an altitude of 1725 m,
located at 33°28'23"N and 74°04'16"E co‐ordinates. The community was
comprised of 2 tree species along with 8 shrub, 23 herb and 4 grass species. The
TIV contribution of first three dominant was 89.04 while the rest of species had
TIV 210.96. The TIV contribution by trees was 26.77, by shrubs110.83, by herbs
120.31, by grasses 42.09 (Table 4.11).
The vegetation was dominated by hemicryptophytes (33.33%), followed by
therophytes (19.44%), nanophanerophytes (19.44%), geophytes (16.67%)
megaphanerophytes (5.56%), and lianas (2.78%) and chamaephytes (2.78%) (Table
4.13). The dominant leaf spectra was nanophylls (41.67%), followed by leptophylls
(30.56%), microphylls (16.67%) and mesophylls (8.33%) (Table 4.15).
4.2.2.15 Quercus - Myrsine - Brachiaria community
Quercus - Myrsine - Brachiaria community was established in Pir Kane
hills at an altitude of 1897 m, located at 33°28'10"N and 74°04'00"E co‐ordinates.
The community comprised of 3 tree species along with 7 shrub, 21 herb 2 grass and
1 fern species. The TIV contribution of first three dominant was 108.79 while the
rest of species had TIV of 191.21. The TIV contribution by trees was 68.44, by
shrubs 72.89, by herbs 127.5, by grasses 29.99 and by ferns 1.19 (Table 4.11).
110
The vegetation was dominated by therophytes (33.33%), followed by
hemicryptophytes (15.15%), nanophanerophytes (15.15%), megaphanerophytes
(12.12%), geophytes (12.12%), lianas (12.12%) and chamaephytes (3.03%) (Table
4.13). The dominant leaf spectra was nanophylls (42.42%), followed by
microphylls (27.27%), leptophylls (21.21%) and mesophylls (9.09%) (Table 4.15).
4.3 VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION AND ORDINATION
4.3.1 Cluster Analysis
The cluster analysis dendrogram produced by using Ward‟s agglomerative
method is given in Fig. 4.13. Three groups of species were recognized at 4×104
Euclidean distance which is equivalent to 50% information level based on similar
floristic composition and geographical characteristics. The detail of each plant
association/habitat type is as follows:
4.3.1.1 Subtropical scrub forest (Association A)
This association was found at an altitudinal range between 473 - 919 m and
consisted of five sites (1, 2, 4, 6, 9). The vegetation was of a xeric nature and
included 6 species of trees, 9 species of shrubs and 74 species of herbs. The first
three dominants were Justicia adhatoda (I.VI=35.89), Acacia modesta (IVI=23.90)
and Dodonaea viscosa (IVI=23.81) (Table 4.16). Olea ferruginea and Carissa
opaca were the other important woody species. The herb layer was mainly
characterized by Adiantum incisum, Cyperus niveus, Malvastrum
coromandelianum, Boerhavia procumbens and Oxalis corniculata whereas
prominenet perennial grasses were Cynodon dactylon and Themeda anathera.
111
Table 4.10: Number and total importance value of trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses and ferns of District Kotli, during spring.
Height 473 587 593 667 687 757 847 850 919 1125 1233 1550 1705 1725 1897
Communities DTJ JAS PMH CDG MPD JAO PMT PTM DTM PTD PDT MCP QIR QMB QMC
Total Species 26 23 31 34 30 33 25 20 23 25 25 28 45 34 38
Trees 04 03 03 03 02 02 01 01 03 01 01 02 03 02
03
Shrubs 05 04 03 03 07 06 02 03 03 04 06 10 11 08 07
Herbs 12 13 19 24 17 20 17 12 13 14 13 20 25 21 24
Grasses 5 2 5 4 3 4 5 3 4 4 2 4 5 3 3
Ferns 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 3 2 1 0 1
TIV contributed
by 3 dominants
120.80 124.18 115.74 69.66 102.36 97.53 156.44 154.37 120.34 106.36 96.16 93.85 89.22 109.37 108.10
By remaining
species
179.20 175.82 184.26 230.34 197.64 202.47 143.56 145.63 179.66 193.64 203.84 206.15 210.78 190.63 191.90
By Trees 47.22 87.88 68.96 38.69 61.43 33.55 76.35 77.25 39.75 45.51 45.63 31.22 45.73 31.87 67.16
By Shrubs 106.48 58.06 44.77 47.62 69.34 60.09 76.01 80.85 80.48 50.68 109.03 135.49 102.61 135.7 71.59
By Herbs 103.85 118.12 112.34 184.87 106.02 168.76 73.22 90.47 102.97 135.97 91.99 102.36 104.66 99.04 139.91
By Grasses 42.47 11.08 72.45 28.82 51.63 26.63 74.45 48.05 76.78 59.26 41.04 28.25 43.15 33.39 20.52
By Ferns 0 24.86 1.5 0 11.59 10.98 0 3.29 0 8.57 12.51 2.72 3.85 0 0.83
Key: DTJ= Dodonaea-Themeda-Justicia community; JAS = Justicia- Acacia- Stellaria community; PMH = Pinus-Mallotus-Heteropogon community
; CSG= Carissa-Sida-Geranium community; MPD= Mallotus-Pinus-Duchsnea Community; JA0= Justicia- Acacia- Oxalis Community; PMT= Pinus-
Mallotus-Themeda community, PTM = Pinus- Themeda- Mallotus community, DTM= Dodonaea- Themeda- Micromeria Community, PTD = Pinus-
Themeda-Duchsnea Community, PDT= Pinus-Dodonaea-Themeda community, MCP = Myrsine-Cotinus-Pinus community, QIR = Quercus-Indigofera-
Rubus Community, QMB= Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis community, QMC = Quercus-Myrsine-Carex Community
112
Table 4.11: Number and total importance value of trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses and ferns of District Kotli, Azad during monsoon.
Height 473 587 593 667 687 757 847 850 919 1125 1233 1550 1705 1725 1897
Communities DTJ AJA PMO CCJ MPA JAT PMT PMD DOJ PTD PDP MCP QIR QMB QMBa
Total Species 26 17 34 29 33 25 24 23 21 32 30 48 46 37 34
Trees 04 03 03 03 02 02 01 01 03 01 01 02 03 02
03
Shrubs 05 04 03 03 07 06 02 03 03 04 06 10 11 08 07
Herbs 14 7 23 17 19 12 18 13 13 22 19 29 24 23 21
Grasses 3 2 5 5 3 4 3 4 2 3 3 6 5 4 2
Ferns 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 2 0 2 1 1 3 0 1
TIV contributed
by 3 dominants
128.92 158.91 110.05 84.40 118.98 138.88 141.73 139.09 124.97 87.79 79.79 87.39 66.49 89.04 108.79
By remaining
species
171.08 141.09 189.95 215.60 181.02 161.12 158.27 160.91 175.03 212.21 220.21 212.61 233.51 210.96 191.21
By Trees 49.83 101.79 68.95 51.91 58.44 50.42 62.95 71.57 49.15 39.44 38.55 24.3 33.76 26.77 68.44
By Shrubs 109.44 67.67 45.61 61.7 66.47 84.59 60.77 75.35 97.1 44.07 90.44 104.99 78.1 110.83 72.89
By Herbs 96.98 25.47 139.74 103.9 79.8 93.4 112.38 69.89 124.53 137.46 117.87 119.38 133.68 120.31 127.5
By Grasses 43.75 41.53 45.69 75.28 60.38 59.52 63.92 69.57 29.4 53.07 34.78 46.1 34.14 42.09 29.99
By Ferns 0 63.54 0 7.23 34.89 12.06 0 13.64 0 25.92 18.39 5.27 20.33 0 1.19
Key: DTJ= Dodonaea-Themeda-Justicia community; AJA = Adiantum-Justicia-Acacia community; PMO = Pinus-Mallotus-Oxalis
Community; CCJ= Carissa-Cynodon-Justicia community; MPA= Mallotus-Pinus-Adiantum community; JAT= Justicia-Acacia-Themeda
community; PMT= Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda community; PMD = Pinus- Mallotus- Dodonea community; DOJ= Dodonaea-Olea-Justicia
community; PTD = Pinus-Themeda-Dodonaea Community; PDP= Pinus-Dodonaea-Punica Community; Myrsine-Cotinus-Pinus
community; QIR = Quercus-Indigofera-Rubus Community; QMB= Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis community; QMBa = Quercus-Myrsine-
Brachiaria community
113
Table 4.12: Life form spectra of Plants communities of District Kotli during spring.
Associations
Communities Altitude
(m)
Total
species
MP NP Th H G Ch L
No % No % No % No % No % No % No %
Subtropical
scrub forest
association
DTJ 473m 25 4 16 4 16 9 36 6 24 1 4 1 4 0 0
JAS 587m 23 3 13.04 4 17.39 9 39.13 3 13.04 2 8.7 0 0 2 8.7
CSG 667m 34 3 8.82 3 8.82 20 58.82 4 11.76 2 5.88 1 2.94 1 2.94
JAO 757M 33 3 9.09 5 15.15 14 42.42 7 21.21 3 9.09 0 0 1 3.03
DTM 919M 23 3 13.01 3 13.04 9 39.13 6 26.09 1 4.35 0 0 1 4.35
Average 11.99 14.08 43.10 19.22 6.40 1.39 3.80
Subtropical
pine forest
association
PMH 593m 29 3 10.34 1 3.45 14 48.28 7 24.14 4 13.79 0 0 0 0
MPD 687m 29 6 20.69 2 6.9 11 37.93 6 20.69 3 10.34 0 0 1 3.45
PMT 847M 25 3 12 0 0 13 52 6 24 2 8 0 0 1 4
PTM 850M 20 2 10 2 10 7 35 4 20 5 25 0 0 0 0
PTD 1125M 25 1 4 4 16 9 36 7 28 4 16 0 0 0 0
PDT 1233M 25 1 4 6 24 7 28 3 12 6 24 1 4 1 4
Average 10.17 10.06 39.54 21.47 16.19 0.67 1.91
Subtropical
broad leaf
humid forest
association
MCP 1550M 37 2 5.41 9 24.32 6 16.22 11 29.73 5 13.51 1 2.7 3 8.11
QIR 1704M 43 3 6.98 9 20.93 9 20.93 13 30.23 5 11.63 2 4.65 2 4.65
QMB 1725M 33 2 6.06 7 21.21 4 12.12 12 36.36 4 12.12 2 6.06 2 6.06
QMC 1897M 37 3 8.11 5 13.51 11 29.73 12 32.43 4 10.81 0 0 2 5.41
Average 6.64 19.99 19.75 32.19 12.02 3.35 6.06
Key: DTJ= Dodonaea-Themeda-Justicia community; JAS = Justicia- Acacia- Stellaria community; CSG= Carissa-Sida-Geranium community;
JA0= Justicia- Acacia- Oxalis Community; DTM= Dodonaea- Themeda- Micromeria Community; PMH = Pinus-Mallotus-Heteropogon community ;
MPD= Mallotus-Pinus-Duchsnea Community; PMT= Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda community, PTM = Pinus- Themeda- Mallotus community, PTD =
Pinus- Themeda-Duchsnea Community, PDT= Pinus-Dodonaea-Themeda community, MCP = Myrsine-Cotinus-Pinus community, QIR = Quercus-
Indigofera-Rubus Community, QMB= Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis community, QMC = Quercus-Myrsine-Carex Community; MP=
Megaphanerophytes, NP = Nanophanerophytes, Th= Therophytes, H= Hemicryptophytes, G= Geophytes, Ch= Chamaephytes, L= lianas
114
Table 4.13: Life form spectra of plant communities of District Kotli during monsoon.
Associations
Communities
Altitude
(m)
MP
NP
Th
H
G
Ch
L
No % No % No % No % No % No % No %
Sub-tropical
scrub forest
association
DTJ 473 4 16 4 16 8 32 5 20 1 4 2 8 1 4
AJA 587 3 17.65 4 23.53 5 29.41 3 17.65 1 5.88 0 0 1 5.88
CCJ 667 3 10.34 3 10.34 11 37.93 4 13.79 4 13.79 1 3.45 3 10.34
JAT 757 3 12 5 20 8 32 5 20 4 16 0 0 0 0
DOJ 919 3 14.29 3 14.29 8 38.1 4 19.05 2 9.52 0 0 1 4.76
Average 14.06 16.83 33.89 18.10 9.84 2.29 5.00
Sub-tropical
pine forest
association
PMO 593 3 9.38 1 3.13 15 46.88 8 25 4 12.5 1 3.13 0 0
MPA 687 6 18.75 2 6.25 11 34.38 6 18.75 5 15.63 1 3.13 1 3.13
PMT 847 3 12.5 0 0 10 41.67 6 25 5 20.83 0 0 0 0
PMD 850 2 8.7 2 8.7 8 34.78 3 13.04 5 21.74 1 4.35 2 8.7
PTD 1125 1 3.03 4 12.12 11 33.33 7 21.21 6 18.18 1 3.03 3 9.09
PDP 1233 1 3.33 6 20 8 26.67 7 23.33 4 13.33 2 6.67 2 6.67
Average 9.28 8.37 36.29 21.06 17.04 3.39 4.60
Subtropical
broad leaf
humid forest
association
MCP 1550 2 4.26 9 19.15 13 27.66 10 21.28 8 17.02 4 8.51 1 2.13
QIR 1704 3 6.82 9 20.45 11 25 10 22.73 7 15.91 1 2.27 3 6.82
QMB 1725 2 5.56 7 19.44 7 19.44 12 33.33 6 16.67 1 2.78 1 2.78
QMBa 1897 3 9.09 5 15.15 11 33.33 5 15.15 4 12.12 1 3.03 4 12.12
Average 6.43 18.55 26.36 23.12 15.43 4.15 5.96
Key: DTJ= Dodonaea-Themeda-Justicia community; AJA = Adiantum-Justicia-Acacia community; CCJ= Carissa-Cynodon-Justicia
community; JAT= Justicia-Acacia-Themeda community; DOJ= Dodonaea-Olea-Justicia community; PMO = Pinus-Mallotus-Oxalis
community; MPA= Mallotus-Pinus-Adiantum community; PMT= Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda community; PMD = Pinus- Mallotus-
Dodonea community; PTD = Pinus-Themeda-Dodonaea Community; PDP= Pinus-Dodonaea-Punica Community; Myrsine-Cotinus-
Pinus community; QIR = Quercus-Indigofera-Rubus Community; QMB= Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis community; QMBa = Quercus-
Myrsine- Brachiaria community, MP= Megaphanerophytes, NP = Nanophanerophytes, Th= Therophytes, H = Hemicryptophytes, G=
Geophytes, Ch = Chamaephytes, L = Lianas
115
Table 4.14: Leaf Spectra of Plant communities of District Kotli during spring.
Association
Location
Altitude (m)
Total species
L
N
Mi
Me
No % No % No % No %
Subtropical
scrub forest
association
DTJ 473 25 6 24 12 48 4 16 3 12
JAS 587 23 8 34.78 9 39.13 4 17.39 2 8.7
CDG 667 34 13 38.24 11 32.35 7 20.59 3 8.82
JAO 757 33 12 36.36 14 42.42 5 15.15 2 6.06
DTM 919 23 8 34.78 12 52.17 2 8.7 1 4.35
Average
33.63
42.81
15.57
7.99
Subtropical
pine forest
association
PMH 593 29 11 37.93 12 41.38 3 10.34 3 10.34
MPD 687 29 8 27.59 13 44.83 5 17.24 3 10.34
PMT 847 25 8 32 10 40 4 16 3 12
PTM 850 20 8 40 7 35 2 10 3 15
PTD 1125 25 7 28 12 48 4 16 2 8
PDT 1233 25 8 32 10 40 5 20 2 8
Average 32.92
41.54
14.93
10.61
Subtropical
broad leaf
humid forest
association
MCP 1550 37 10 27.03 14 37.84 6 16.22 7 18.92
QIR 1704 43 12 27.91 17 39.53 9 20.93 5 11.63
QMB 1725 33 9 27.27 12 36.36 7 21.21 5 15.15
QMC 1897 37 9 24.32 17 45.95 8 21.62 3 8.11
Average 26.63
39.92
20.00
13.45
Key: DTJ= Dodonaea-Themeda-Justicia community; JAS = Justicia- Acacia- Stellaria community; CSG= Carissa-Sida-Geranium
community; JA0= Justicia- Acacia- Oxalis Community; DTM= Dodonaea- Themeda- Micromeria Community; PMH = Pinus-Mallotus-Heteropogon
community ; MPD= Mallotus-Pinus-Duchsnea Community; PMT= Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda community, PTM = Pinus- Themeda- Mallotus
community, PTD = Pinus- Themeda-Duchsnea Community, PDT= Pinus-Dodonaea-Themeda community, MCP = Myrsine-Cotinus-Pinus community,
QIR = Quercus-Indigofera-Rubus Community, QMB= Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis community, QMC = Quercus-Myrsine-Carex Community; L =
Leptophyll; N = Nanophyll; Mi = Microphyll; Me = Mesophyll.
116
Table 4.15: Leaf Spectra of Plant Communities of District Kotli during monsoon.
Associations
Communities
Altitude
(m)
Total species
L N Mi Me
Subtropical
scrub forest
association
No % No % No % No %
DTJ 473 25 5 20 10 40 7 28 3 12
AJA 587 17 3 17.65 7 41.18 5 29.41 2 11.76
CCJ 667 29 8 27.59 11 37.93 9 31.03 1 3.45
JAT 757 25 8 32 13 52 2 8 2 8
DOJ 919 21 7 33.33 10 47.62 3 14.29 1 4.76
Average
26.11
43.75
22.15
7.99
Subtropical
pine forest
association
PMO 593 32 12 37.5 13 40.63 4 12.5 3 9.38
MPA 687 32 9 28.13 13 40.63 5 15.63 5 15.63
PMT 847 24 13 54.17 5 20.83 3 12.5 3 12.5
PMD 850 23 8 34.78 5 21.74 6 26.09 4 17.39
PTD 1125 33 7 21.21 13 39.39 8 24.24 5 15.15
PDP 1233 30 9 30 14 46.67 4 13.33 3 10
Average
34.30
34.98
17.38
13.34
Subtropical
broad leaf
humid forest
association
MCP 1550 47 10 21.28 21 44.68 10 21.28 6 12.77
QIR 1704 44 13 29.55 13 29.55 14 31.82 4 9.09
QMB 1725 36 11 30.56 15 41.67 6 16.67 3 8.33
QMBa 1897 33 7 21.21 14 42.42 9 27.27 3 9.09
Average
25.65
39.58
24.26
9.82
Key: DTJ= Dodonaea-Themeda-Justicia community; AJA = Adiantum-Justicia-Acacia community; PMO = Pinus-Mallotus-Oxalis
Community; CCJ= Carissa-Cynodon-Justicia community; MPA= Mallotus-Pinus-Adiantum community; JAT= Justicia-Acacia-Themeda
community; PMT= Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda community; PMD = Pinus- Mallotus- Dodonea community; DOJ= Dodonaea-Olea-Justicia
community; PTD = Pinus-Themeda-Dodonaea Community; PDP= Pinus-Dodonaea-Punica Community; Myrsine-Cotinus-Pinus
community; QIR = Quercus-Indigofera-Rubus Community; QMB= Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis community; QMBa = Quercus-Myrsine-
Brachiaria community; L = Leptophyll; N = Nanophyll; Mi = Microphyll; Me = Mesophyll.
117
Fig 4.9: Altitudinal variation in life form of District Kotli during spring.
Key: MP= Megaphanerophytes, NP = Nanophanerophytes, Th= Therophytes, H =
Hemicryptophytes, G= Geophytes, Ch = Chamaephytes, L = Lianas.
Fig 4.10: Altitudinal variation in life form of District Kotli during monsoon.
Key: MP= Megaphanerophytes, NP = Nanophanerophytes, Th= Therophytes, H =
Hemicryptophytes, G= Geophytes, Ch = Chamaephytes, L = Lianas.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
MP NP Th H G Ch L
Pe
rcen
tage
of
Pla
nt
Spec
ies
Life form
Subtropical scrubforest association(473m-919m)
Subtropical pineforest association(593m-1233m)
Subtropical broadleaf humid forestassociation(1550m-1897m)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
MP NP Th H G Ch L
Pe
rcen
tage
of
Pla
nt S
pe
cie
s
Life form
Subtropical scrubforest association(473m-919m)
Subtropical pineforest association(593m-1233m)
Subtropical broadleaf humid forestassociation (1550m-1897m)
118
Fig. 4.11: Altitudinal variation in life form of District Kotli during spring.
Key: L = Leptophyll; N = Nanophyll; Mi = Microphyll; Me = Mesophyll
Fig 4.12: Altitudinal variation in leaf size of District Kotli during monsoon.
Key: L = Leptophyll; N = Nanophyll; Mi = Microphyll; Me = Mesophyll
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
L N Mi Me
Pe
rcen
tage
of
pla
nt s
pec
ies
Leaf size classes
Subtropical scrub forestassociation (473-919m)
Subtropical pine forest (593-1233m)
Subtropical broad leaf humidforest (1550-1897)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
L N Mi Me
Pe
rce
nta
ge o
f p
lan
t sp
eci
es
Leaf size classes
Sub-tropical scrub forestassociation (473m-919m)
Sub-tropical pine forestassociation (593m-1233m)
Sub-tropical broad leafhumid association (1550m-1897m)
119
The species in this association also included many cultivated species which were
not included in the analysis. This association occurred at relatively low altitudes
within the study area and thus the vegetation was easily accessible to the local
people who utilized the plant resources for a range of purposes.
The soils in this association were loam to clay loam with an organic matter
content of 0.62-3.45%, a pH that varied from 7.00 to 7.27, electrical conductivity
from 0.55-0.93 µs cm-1
, phosphorus content from 5.8-8.50 mg kg-1
, and potassium
content of 120-140 mg kg -1
(Table 4.32).
4.3.1.2 Sub-Tropical pine forest (Association B)
This association occurred at an altitudinal range between 593-1233 m and
consisted of six sites (3, 5, 7, 8, 10, and 11). The association comprised 97 species
including 3 tree species, 9 shrub species and 85 herb species. Pinus roxburghii
(IVI=53.91), Themeda anathera (IVI =26.75) and Mallotus philippensis
(IVI=26.85) were the first three dominants (Table 4.16). The shrubby layer was
dominated by Dodonaea viscosa and Carissa opaca while the herb layer was
mainly characterized by Themeda anathera, Heteropogon contortus, Oxalis
corniculata, Duchesnea indica, Dicliptera bupleuroides and Micromeria biflora.
This association also occurred at a relatively low altitude, thus similar to the first
association, the plant communities were easily accessible to local people. The main
anthropogenic pressures included grazing, timber and fuel wood removal.
The soils in this association were loam to clay loam with organic matter
content of 0.52-1.90%, a pH that varied from 6.60-7.18, electrical conductivity
120
from 0.39-0.70 µs cm-1
, phosphorus content in the range 5.3-7.3 mg kg -1
,
potassium content of 120-180 mg kg -1
, and calcium content of 7.7- 12.2 mg kg -1.
(Table 4.32).
4.3.1.3 Subtropical broad leaf humid forest (Association C)
This association was recorded at an altitude of 1550-1897 m and consisted
of four sites (12, 13, 14, 15). This association consisted of 105 plant species
including 4 species of trees, 19 species shrubs and 84 species of herbs. Quercus
incana (I.V=33.61), Myrsine africana (I.V=26.45) and Pinus roxburghii
(I.V=15.61) were the first three dominants (Table 4.16). Other important woody
species were Berberis lycium, Cotinus coggygria, Viburnum grandiflorum and
Indigofera heterantha while the herb layer was mainly dominated by Themeda
anathera, Galium aparine, Viola canescens, Carex sempervirens, Origanum
vulgare, Duchesnea indica, Hedera nepalensis and Chrysopogon aucheri. The
association occurred at the altitudinal junction of the sub-tropical and humid
climate types and, in contrast to the first two associations, is more mesic in
character. This association included the plant communities of the higher altitudes in
the study area but it still experiences anthropogenic impacts including medicinal
plant collection, fodder, forage and fuel wood collection, and grazing. Sites in this
association were highly eroded with severe grazing intensity.
Soils were sandy loams to clay loams with organic matter contents of 1.71-
4.25%, a pH that varies from 6.02-7.51, electrical conductivity from 0.38-0.60 µs
cm-1
, a phosphorus content from 7.4-8.5 mg kg-1
, potassium content from 120-
160 mg kg -1
, and a calcium content from 7.3- 10.3 mg kg -1
(Table 4.32).
121
4.3.2 Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA)
The environmental gradient was initially explained by the DCA. The first
two axes described 28.68% of the variance of the species data (Table 4.17) which
was then plotted as an ordination plot by using CANODRAW a utility of
CANOCOO. For better visual interpretation, classification results were used to
categorize the ordination results. The site/sample scores on first two ordination
axes, along with the classification results for the three plant associations, are shown
in Figs. 4.14 & 4.15. The DCA diagram illustrates the environmental gradients and
facilitates interpretation of the dendrogram derived through cluster analyses. The
diagram presenting the distribution of plant species further supports the influence
of these gradients on species composition, diversity and community structure (Fig
4.15).
The first DCA axis explains the altitudinal gradient among the plant species
and habitat. Sites of lower altitude (subtropical scrub forest association 473m-919
m) grouped to the left-hand side of the DCA ordination diagram, while sites of the
higher altitude (subtropical broad leaf humid association 1550m-1897 m) are
grouped on the right side. This also illustrates the latitudinal and altitudinal
gradient complex of the Kotli i.e., the sites at the start/opening of District Kotli are
grouped on the left part of DCA diagram (lower latitudes) and the more distant
sites (higher latitudes) are clustered on the right side with reference to first axis
(Fig. 4.14).
The first DCA axis also reflects environmental gradients amongst the plant
species and communities. Plant species and sites of mesic habitats (at lower
122
latitudes and lower altitudes) are clustered to the left-hand side of the species
ordination diagram (sub-tropical scrub forest). Plant species and sites of more xeric
habitats (at higher and middle altitudes) are plotted on the right hand of the diagram
while the species and sites of lower-middle altitudes are plotted in the centre of the
diagram (Fig 4.14; Fig 4.15). The first axes also separate the sites according to
aspect (north and south facing) i.e., by grouping the sites of north-aspect slopes to
the right hand side and south-aspect to the left side of the plot diagrams (Figs. 4.14;
4.15).Thus first axis of the DCA ordination diagrams as a whole illustrate complex
latitudinal, altitudinal and climatic gradient among the vegetation.
4.3.3 Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA)
The relationship among the distribution pattern of plant species with
environmental gradients was explained by performing CCA analysis. The
summation of all the canonical eigenvalues (explained variance) was 1.753. The
first eigenvalue was quite high (0.6349) which is a reflection of the high gradient
strength for plant species distribution along this axis. The first axis explained 18.27
% of the total explained variance while the first and second axes together explained
nearly half (45.5%) of the total inertia, accounting for 53.68% of the species
environmental gradient correlation (Table 4.18). The cumulative percentage
variance of the species environmental gradient relationship in the 3rd
row of the
data table represents the amount of variance explained as a fraction of the total
inertia. A high species and environmental cumulative percentage variance was
observed (Table 4.18).
The CCA bi-plot diagrams show that both the plant species composition and
123
the abundance are reflection of the differences in the environmental variables,
mainly altitude (P = 0.002) and aspect (P = 0.008) followed by the distance from
settlement (P = 0.098), grazing intensity (P =0.4) slope (P= 0.59) and erosion
(P=0.83). The CCA biplot for sites and species indicate that the first axis is mainly
under the influence of altitude, aspect and slope while the 2nd
axis is mainly
correlated with grazing intensity, erosion and distance from settlement. The sites
with the subtropical humid forest association were distinguished by the effect of
high altitudinal range (p value ≤ 0.002) and were separated from sites with
subtropical scrub forest under the cumulative effect of aspect and grazing intensity.
The sites with subtropical pine forest are located mainly in the centre of the
diagram so they are not affected by any environmental factor except for sites 3 and
5 which are under influence of aspect and grazing intensity (Fig. 4.16; Fig. 4.17).
The first axis of CCA ordination diagrams (site and species biplots) clearly
recognized the strongest ecological gradient (Table 4.18; Fig. 4.16; Fig. 4. 17). The
species + environmental bi-plots and site + environmental bi-plots confirm each
other by establishing relationship between the habitat and community data with the
environmental variables. Pearson„s correlations with ordination axis for the CCA
plot indicate that plant species composition and abundance were the reflection of
environmental variables principally the altitude, aspect and grazing intensity. The
Pearson„s correlations showed that the first axis (e =0. 0.531) is mainly correlated
with altitude (r = 0.97) and aspect (r = -0.692); the second axis (e = 0.252) is
correlated principally with grazing intensity (r = - 0.643) and partially with erosion
(r = -0.307); while the third axis (e = 0.096) is correlated mainly with slope
pressure (r =0.781) and partially with distance from settlement (0.366).
124
Table 4.16: Mean relative importance values of species in 3 associations demarcated by
cluster analysis in District Kotli.
S.No Species Names Associations
A B C
1. Acacia modesta Wall. 23.9 0 0
2. Achillea millefolium L. 0 0 0.46
3. Achyranthes aspera L. 0.35 0.62 0.86
4. Adenostemma lavenia (L.)
Kuntze
0.52 0 0
5. Adia`ntum incisum Forssk. 11.14 6.8 0
6. Adiantum venustum D. Don 0.72 0 0
7. Aegopodium podagrari L. 0 0 0.99
8. Ailanthus altissima (Mill.)
Swingle
0 0 0.42
9. Ajuga bracteosa Wallich ex.
Benth.
2.08 2.51 0
10. Ajuga parviflora Benth. 0 0 0.19
11. Alternanthera pungens
Kunth
0.29 0 0
12. Alysicarpus bupleurifolius
(L.) DC.
0.44 0 0
13. Amaranthus viridis L. 0.76 0.06 0
14. Anagallis arvensis L. 0 0 0.2
15. Anaphalis margaritacea (L.)
zwwBenth. and Hook.f.
2.78 0.68 0
16. Androsace umbellata (Lour.)
Merill
0 0 2.38
17. Anisomeles indica (L.)
Kuntze
0 0.15 0
18. Arenaria neelgherrensis
Wight & Arn.
1.1 0 0
19. Argyrolobium roseum Jaub. 3.59 0 1.12
20. Aristida adscensionis L. 0 0 0.61
21. Artemisia scoparia Waldst.
& Kit.
0.5 0 0
22. Asparagus capitatus subsp.
gracilis (Royle ex Baker)
Browicz
0 0.27 0
23. Astragalus leucocephalus
Grah.ex Benth.
0 0 0.41
24. Astragalus psilocentros
Fisch.
0 0 1.5
25. Barleria cristata L. 0 0.31 0
26. Berberis lycium Royle 0 0.25 13.11
125
27. Bergenia ciliata Sternb. 0 0 0.51
28. Bidens bipinnata L. 0.13 0 0
29. Bidens biternata (Lour.)
Merr. & Sherff
2.48 0.46 0.51
30. Boerhavia procumbens
Banks ex Roxb.
7.27 0.47 0
31. Brachiaria eruciformis (Sm.)
Griseb.
0.39 1.22 0
32. Brachiaria reptans (L.) C.A.
Gardner & C.E. Hubb.
6.37 3.31 4.65
33. Buglossoides arvensis (L.)
I.M. Johnst.
0.9 1.61 0
34. Bupleurum falcatum L. 0 0 0.6
35. Butea monosperma (Lam.)
Taubert
3.03 0 0
36. Calamintha umbrosa (M.
Bieb.) Fisch. & C.A. Mey.
0 0 1.44
37. Campanula pallida Wall. 0 0 0.17
38. Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.)
Medik
0.65 0 0
39. Carex sempervirensVill. 0 0 8.78
40. Carissa opaca Stapf ex
Haines
11.02 5.03 0
41. Carpesium cernuum L. 0 0 1.33
42. Casearia tomentosa Roxb. 0 5.75 0
43. Cenchrus ciliaris L. 0.41 0.57 0
44. Chenopodium album L. 0.4 0 0
45. Chrysopogon aucheri
(Boiss.) Stapf
0 0 6.27
46. Cirsium wallichii DC. 0 0 1.93
47. Cissampelos pareira var.
hirsuta (Buch.-Ham. ex DC.)
Forman
0 0.09 0
48. Cissus carnosa Lam. 2.24 0 0
49. Clematis grata Wall. 0 0 1.24
50. Colebrookea oppositifolia
Smith.
0 1.72 0
51. Commelina benghalensis L. 1.29 0 0
52. Conyza bonariensis (L.)
Cronq.
0.19 1.76 1.25
53. Cotinus coggygria Scop. 0 0 10.96
54. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 7.07 0.21 1.23
55. Cynoglossum lanceolatum
Forssk.
0.15 1.28 0.11
56. Cyperus difformis L. 0 0 0.24
126
57. Cyperus niveus Retz. 8.2 1.82 1.82
58. Cyperus rotundus L. 0.73 0.17 0.27
59. Dactyloctenium aegyptium
(L.) Willd.
0.09 0 0
60. Debregeasia salicifolia (D.
Don) Rendle
0 0 2.35
61. Dichanthiumannulatum
(Forssk.) Stapf
4.02 0.3 0
62. Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees 5.41 7.15 0
63. Digitaria setigera Roth 0.18 0 0
64. Dioscorea bulbifera L. 0 0.35 0
65. Dioscorea melanophyma
Prain & Burkill
0 1.29 0
66. Dodonaea viscosa (L.) 23.81 15.85 0
67. Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop 0 0.3 0
68. Dryopteris stewartii Fraser-
Jenk.
0 3.99 2.31
69. Duchesnea indica (Andrews)
Teschem.
0.17 8.95 6.92
70. Elaeagnus parvifolia Wall.
ex Royle
0 0 0.79
71. Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. 0 1 0
72. Eragrostis japonica (Thunb.)
Trin.
0 0 0.76
73. Erioscirpus comosus (Nees)
Palla
0 3.31 0
74. Erodium cicutarium (L.)
L'Hér. ex Aiton
0 0.13 0
75. Euphorbia esula L. 0 0 1.37
76. Euphorbia helioscopia L. 0 0.53 0
77. Euphorbia hirta L. 2.24 0.57 0
78. Euphorbia indica Lam. 0 0.52 0
79. Euphorbia prolifera Buch.-
Ham. ex D. Don
0 0.63 0
80. Euphorbia prostrata Ait. 0 0.59 0
81. Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. 0.19 0 0
82. Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.)
Merill.
1.88 0 0
83. Fumaria indica Pugsley 1.19 0 0
84. Gagea pakistanica Levichev
& Ali
0.08 0.55 0
85. Galium aparine L. 4.97 1.64 12.06
86. Gentianodes decemfida
(Ham.) Omer, Ali & Qaiser
0 0 0.28
87. Geranium nepalense Sweet 0 0 1.67
127
88. Geranium ocellatum Camb. 0 0.54 0
89. Geranium rotundifolium L. 5.11 2.57 0.68
90. Gerbera gossypina (Royle)
Beauv.
0 0.2 1.56
91. Geum canadense Jacq. 0 0 1.04
92. Gloriosa superba L. 0 0.2 0
93. Hedera nepalensis K. Koch. 0 0 6.74
94. Heracleum candicans Wall.
ex DC.
0 0 0.15
95. Heteropogon contortus (L.)
P. Beauv. ex Roem. &
Schult.
4.82 17.79 0
96. Hypericum oblongifolium
Choisy
0 0 1.71
97. Hypericum perforatum L. 0 0 0.14
98. Impatiens edgeworthii Hook.
f.
0 0 0.19
99. Imperata cylindrica (L.) P.
Beauv.
0.89 1.76 0
100. Indigofera heterantha Wall.
ex Brandis
0 0 6.16
101. Indigofera linifolia (L.f.)
Retz.
0 0 0.22
102. Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br. 0.52 0.2 0
103. Ipomoea hederacea Jacq. 0 0.19 0.23
104. Ipomoea pestigridis L. 0.53 0 0
105. Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex
Benth.) Codd
0 0 0.58
106. Jasminum officinale L. 0 0 0.84
107. Juncus articulatus L. 0.16 0 0
108. Justicia adhatoda L. 35.89 0 0
109. Justicia peploides (Nees) T.
Anderson
0 0 1.03
110. Lactuca dissecta D. Don 0 1.63 0.77
111. Lantana camara L. 0.75 2.58 0
112. Launaea procumbens
(Roxb.) Ramayya &
Rajagopal
0 0.09 0
113. Lepidium sativum L. 0 0 0.59
114. Lespedeza juncea var.
sericea F.B. Forbes &
Hemsl.
0 6.05 5.68
115. Lonicera quinquelocularis
Hardwicke
0 0 2.46
116. Loranthus pulverulentus 0 0 0.74
128
Wall.
117. Lotus corniculatus L. 0 0 0.32
118. Mallotus philippensis
(Lamk.) Mull. Arg.
8.96 26.85 0
119. Malva parviflora L. 0.19 0 0
120. Malvastrum
coromandelianum (L.)
Garcke
7.63 1.78 0
121. Maytenus royleana (Wall. ex
M.A. Lawson) Cufod.
0.56 3.73 0
122. Medicago polymorpha L. 0 0.12 0.15
123. Melilotus indica (L.) All. 1.12 0.7 1.18
124. Micromeria biflora (Buch.-
Ham.ex D.Don) Benth.
5.5 7.02 5.31
125. Myriactis nepalensis Less.. 0 0 0.22
126. Myrsine africana L. 0 3.48 26.45
127. Nerium oleander L. 1.82 0 2.67
128. Neslia apiculata Fisch., C.A.
Mey. & Ave'-Lall.
0.75 0 0
129. Oenothera rosea L.Herit.ex
Ait.
0.17 1.29 0.24
130. Olea ferruginea Royle 12.75 0 0
131. Onosma thomsonii Clarke 0 0.06 0
132. Onychium japonicum
(Thunb.) Kunze
0 0 0.41
133. Oplismenus undulatifolius
(Ard.) P. Beauv.
0 0 1.41
134. Origanum vulgare L. 0 0 8.01
135. Otostegia limbata (Bth.)
Bioss.
0.69 0 0
136. Oxalis corniculata L. 7.18 12.8 5.46
137. Parthenium hysterophorus L. 6.38 1.64 0
138. Phyllanthus urinaria L. 2.02 2.07 0
139. Physalis divaricata D. Don 0.19 0.44 0
140. Pinus roxburghii Sargent 0 53.91 15.61
141. Plantago lanceolata L. 0 0 2.8
142. Poa annua L. 0 0 0.46
143. Polygala abyssinica R. Br.
ex Fresen.
0 0.37 0
144. Polygonum aviculare L. 0.14 0.52 0
145. Polygonum plebeium R. Br. 0 0.93 0
146. Prunus persica (L) )Batsch 0 0.49 2.04
147. Pteracanthus alatus (Wall.
ex Nees) Bremek.
0 0 2.65
129
148. Pteris cretica L. 0 0.07 0.79
149. Punica granatum L. 0.4 3.9 0
150. Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss. 0.5 0 0
151. Quercus incana W. Bartram 0 0 33.61
152. Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex
Royle
0 0 1.62
153. Ranunculus muricatus L. 0.34 0 0
154. Rhynchosia pseudo-cajan
Camb.
0 0 2.12
155. Rosa brunonii Lindl. 0 0 1.62
156. Rubia cordifolia L. 0.38 1.29 2.86
157. Rubus fruticosus L. 0 3.81 5.6
158. Rumex dentatus L. 0.11 0 0
159. Rumex hastatus D.Don 0 0 0.24
160. Saccharum spontaneum L. 0 2.76 0
161. Salix acomophylla Boiss. 0 0 0.73
162. Salvia moocroftiana Wall. ex
Benth.
0 0 1.59
163. Salvia plebeia R.Br. 0 0.25 0
164. Sauromatum venosum
(Aiton) Kunth
0 0.91 0
165. Saussurea heteromalla (D.
Don) Handel-Mazzetti
0 0.2 0
166. Scandix pecten-veneris L. 0.42 0 0
167. Selaginella chrysocaulos
(Hook. & Grev.) Spring
0 0 1.29
168. Senecio nudicaulis
Buchanan-Hamilton ex D.
Don
0 0.65 0
169. Serratula praealta L. 0 0 0.23
170. Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem.
& Schult.
0.7 0 0
171. Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv. 0 0.54 0.72
172. Sida cordata (Burm.f.)
Borss. var. cordata
2.23 0 0
173. Sida cordifolia L. 3.24 1.73 0
174. Silene conoidea L. 0.06 0 0
175. Smilax glaucophylla
Klotzsch
0 0.24 0.54
176. Solanum nigrum L. 0.26 0 0.14
177. Solanum surattense Burm. f. 0.06 0 0
178. Sonchus arvensis L. 1.15 1.53 0
179. Sonchus asper (L.) Hill 0 5.01 0.46
180. Sorghum halepense (L.) 0 0 6.08
130
Pers.
181. Stellaria media (L.)Vill. 4.96 0.14 0
182. Swertia petiolata D. Don 0 0 0.81
183. Taraxacum officinale F.H.
Wigg.
3.77 2.92 3.56
184. Thalictrum foliolosum DC. 0 0 0.38
185. Themeda anathera (Nees ex
Steud.) Hack.
18.59 26.75 12.51
186. Torilis nodosa (L.) Gaertn. 0 0 0.12
187. Trichodesma indicum (L.)
Lehm.
0 1.3 0
188. Tridax procumbens L. 2.05 0 0
189. Trifolium repens L. 0 0.23 0.52
190. Triumfetta pentandra
A.Rich.
1.8 0 0
191. Tylophora hirsuta (Wall.)
Wight
0 0.11 0
192. Verbascum thapsus L. 0 0 0.2
193. Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. 0 0.2 0
194. Viburnum grandiflorum
Wallich ex DC
0 0 7.44
195. Vicia sativa L. 0.78 0.84 0.09
196. Viola canescens Wall.ex
Roxb.
0 6.71 9.98
197. Woodfordia fruticosa (L.)
Kurz
0 0 2.77
198. Youngia japonica (L.) DC. 0.48 0.4 0.07
199. Zaleya pentandra (L.) C.
Jeffrey
0.57 0.75 0
200. Zanthoxylum armatum DC. 0 0 0.37
201. Zeuxine strateumatica (L.)
Schltr.
0 0.09 0
202. Ziziphus
mauritiana var. spontanea (E
dgew.) R.R. Stewart ex
Qaiser & Nazim.
6.89 0 0
Key: A = Subtropical scrub forest association
B = Subtropical pine forest association
C = Subtropical broad leaf humid forest association
131
Table 4.17: Description of the first four axes of the DCA for the vegetation data (using
the matrix species with their Importance Values (IV).
All the species (202) and all the sample/sites (15) were included
Statistic Axis 1 Axis 2 Axis 3 Axis 4 Total
inertia
Eigenvalues 0.6615 0.3353 0.2228 0.1053 3.47592
Explained variation
(cumulative)
19.03 28.68 35.09 38.12
Gradient length 3.89 2.54 2.08 1.86
132
Table: 4.18: Description of the first four axes of the CCA for the vegetation data
(using the matrix species with their Importance Values (IV).
All 202 species, 15 sites and 6 environmental variables are included in the analysis
Axes 1 2 3 4 Total
inertia
Canonical
Eigen values
Eigenvalues 0.6349 0.3068 0.2430 0.2212 3.4759
1.7534
Explained variation
(cumulative)
18.27 27.09 34.08 40.44
Pseudo-canonical
correlation
0.9866 0.9549 0.9438 0.8941
Explained fitted
variation
(cumulative)
36.19 53.68 67.53 80.13
Summary of Monte Carlo test (499 permutations
under reduced model)
First Axis For all
four axis
P 0.002 P 0.001
F 1.8 F 1.4
133
Fig. 4.13: Cluster analysis Dendrogram representing three different
associations/Habitat types.
Distance (Objective Function)
Information Remaining (%)
8.8E+02
100
1.6E+04
75
3.1E+04
50
4.7E+04
25
6.2E+04
0
Site 1
Site 9
Site 2
Site 4
Site 6
Site 3
Site 7
Site 5
Site 8
Site 10
Site 11
Site 12
Site 14
Site 13
Site 15
3 Assoc.
1
2
3
134
Fig. 4.14: Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) diagram showing distribution of
3 plant associations and habitat types among 15 samples/sites.
135
Fig 4.15: Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) diagram showing distribution
of plant species along the gradient.
-1 5DCA Axis 1
-0.5
3.0
DC
A A
xis
2
Aca mod
Adi ini
Aju bra
Ana arv
Ber lyc
Boe pro
Bra rep
Car sem
Car opaCon bon
Cry auc
Cyn dac
Cyp niv
Dic ann
Dic bup
Dod vis
Dry ste
Dus ind
Eri com
Gal apaGer rot
Het con
Jus adh
Les jun
Mal phi
Mal cor
Mel ind
Mic bif
Myr afr
Ner ole
Ole fer
Ori vul
Oxa cor
Par hys
Phy uri
Pin rox Que incRub corRub fru
Sid cord
Son asp
Sor hal
Tar off
The ana
Vio can
136
Fig. 4.16: CCA biplot diagram showing the distribution of different sites among the three
groups (association) along the environmental gradient.
-1.0 1.0 CCA Axis 1
-1.0
1
.0
CC
A A
xis
2
Altitude Aspect Slope
Grzn int
Dstn fd
Erosion
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Site 4
Site 5
Site 6
Site 7
Site 8
Site 9 Site 10 Site 11
Site 12
Site 13
Site 14
Site 15
137
Fig. 4.17: CCA biplot showing the distribution of species along the environmental
gradient.
-1.0 1.0CCA Axis 1
-1.0
1.0
CC
A A
xis
2 AltitudeAspectSlope
Grzn int
Dstn fd
Erosion
Aca modAch mil
Ade lav
Adi ven
Aeg pod
Aju bra
Aly bup
Ama vir
Ana arvAnd umb
Are neg
Ari ads
Art sco
Ber lyc
Boe pro
Bup fal
But mon
Cap bur
Cal umb
Car sem
Car opa
Car cer
Che alb
Cir walCis car
Cle gra
Com ben
Cot cog
Cry auc
Cyn dac Deb sal
Dic ann
Dic bup
Dig set
Ela par
Eup esu
Eup hir
Evo als
Fla indFum ind
Gen decGer nep
Ger gos
Geu can
Hed nep
Het con
Imp cyl
Ipo eri
Ipo pes
Jun art
Jus adh
Les jun
Lor pulMal phi
Mal par
Mal cor
Myr afr
Nes api
Ole fer
Opl undOri vul
Oxa cor
Par hys
Pla lan
Poa ann
Pte cre
Pup lap
Que inc
Ran mur
Rub cor
Rum den
Sca pec
Sal moo
Set pumSid cor
Sid cord
Sil con
Smi gla
Sol nigSol sur
Son arv
Sor hal
Ste med
Swe pet
Tri pro
Tri pen
Ver tha
Vib gra
Vio canWoo fru
You jap
Zal pen
Zan arm
Ziz mau
138
4.4 SIMILARITY INDEX
4.4.1 Spring Aspect
During spring highest similarity of 64.70% was recorded between Pinus-
Mallotus-Heteropogon and Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda community which was
followed by Mallotus-Pinus-Duchsnea and Pinus-Themeda-Duchsnea community
(63.02), Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda and Pinus-Themeda-Mallotus community
(57.86). Myrsine-Cotinus-Pinus and Quercus-Myrsine-Berberis community, Pinus-
Mallotus-Heteropogon and Pinus-Themeda-Mallotus community, Pinus-Themeda-
Duchsnea and Pinus-Dodonaea-Themeda community, Pinus-Mallotus-
Heteropogon and Mallotus-Pinus-Duchsnea community, Pinus-Themeda- Mallotus
and Pinus-Themeda-Duchsnea community and Justicia- Acacia- Stellaria and
Justicia- Acacia- Oxalis community shared similarity value between 51.65% to
55.94%. While remaining communities had similarity less than 50% (Table 4.19).
4.4.2 Monsoon Aspect
During monsoon season, highest similarity (61.09%) was recorded between
Mallotus-Pinus-Adiantum and Pinus-Mallotus-Dodonea community. It was
followed by Pinus-Themeda-Dodonaea and Pinus-Dodonaea-Punica community
(59.22%), Pinus-Mallotus-Oxalis and Mallotus-Pinus-Adiantum community
(58.30). While Pinus-Mallotus-Dodonea and Pinus-Themeda-Dodonaea
community, Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda and Pinus-Mallotus-Dodonea community,
Mallotus-Pinus-Adiantum and Pinus-Themeda-Dodonaea communities, Myrsine-
Cotinus-Pinus and Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis communities (50.43%) shared
similarity of 50.53% to 53.60%. The remaining plant communities shared less than
50% similarity among themselves (Table 4.20).
139
Table 4.19: Index of similarity and dissimilarity recorded from District Kotli during spring.
I.D
I.S
Communities DTJ (473m)
JAS
(587m)
PMH
(593m) CDG (667m)
MPD (687m)
JAO (757m)
PMT (847m)
PTM (850m)
DTM (919m)
PTD (1125m)
PDT (1233m)
MCP (1550m)
QIR (1704m)
QMB (1725m)
QMC (1897m)
DTJ (473m) X 81.20 81.12 86.58 79.78 69.80 83.00 68.76 53.40 74.83 78.87 92.33 91.84 91.73 94.45
JAS (587m) 18.80 X 79.07 61.35 71.73 48.35 82.13 80.36 79.08 83.05 89.27 91.11 92.40 94.36 92.02
PMH (593m) 18.88 20.93 X 89.68 46.68 72.08 35.30 44.29 77.04 56.45 67.71 80.19 79.45 82.19 85.42
CDG (667m) 13.42 38.65 10.32 X 89.12 59.64 94.46 94.00 85.56 86.28 89.51 91.29 93.56 94.36 92.61
MPD (687m) 20.22 28.27 53.32 10.88 X 70.10 47.71 47.78 71.96 36.98 57.01 76.50 78.54 82.47 81.04
JAO (757m) 30.20 51.65 27.92 40.36 29.90 X 80.23 82.33 69.41 70.30 80.58 86.45 83.55 87.60 90.71
PMT (847m) 17 17.87 64.70 5.54 52.29 19.77 X 42.14 81.97 65.70 74.17 83.00 83.32 88.03 88.89
PTM (850m) 31.24 19.64 55.71 6.00 52.22 17.67 57.86 X 68.26 47.32 51.13 77.88 77.34 85.05 78.28
DTM (919m) 46.60 20.92 22.96 14.44 28.04 30.59 18.21 31.74 X /67.71 73.65 91.01 89.50 88.75 92.61
PTD (1125m) 25.17 16.95 43.55 13.72 63.02 29.70 34.30 52.68 32.29 X 44.36 73.40 73.57 79.25 77.55
PDT (1233m) 21.13 10.73 32.29 10.49 42.99 19.42 25.83 48.87 26.35 55.64 X 69.10 69.73 74.36 76.54
MCP(1550m) 7.67 8.89 19.81 8.71 23.50 13.55 17.00 22.12 8.99 26.60 30.90 X 61.40 44.06 57.52
QIR (1704m) 8.16 7.60 20.55 6.44 21.46 16.45 16.68 22.66 10.50 26.43 30.27 38.60 X 62.82 62.23
QMB (1725m) 8.27 5.64 17.81 5.64 17.53 12.40 11.97 14.95 11.25 20.75 25.64 55.94 37.18 X 56.00
QMC (1897m) 5.55 7.98 14.58 7.39 18.96 9.29 11.02 21.72 7.39 22.45 23.46 42.48 37.77 44.00 X
Key: Same as in Table 4.10
140
Table 4.20: Index of similarity and dissimilarity recorded from District Kotli during monsoon.
I.D
I.S
Communities DTJ (473m)
AJA
(587m)
PMO
(593m) CCJ (667m)
MPA (687m)
JAT (757m)
PMT (847m)
PMD (850m)
DOJ (919m)
PTD (1125m)
PDP (1233m)
MCP (1550m)
QIR (1704m)
QMB (1725m)
QMBa (1897m)
DTJ (473m) X 80.62 83.2 70.26 82.09 60.53 79.86 74.52 59.46 78.23 86.25 95.77 93.69 92.3 96.86
AJA (587m) 19.38 X 79.69 69.26 66.76 54.18 85.5 81.13 71.79 88.28 95.74 97.66 95.82 98.51 89.23
PMO (593m) 16.8 20.31 X 79.08 41.7 64.79 51.03 56.88 74.39 65.12 73.62 84.47 83.73 88.86 90.31
CCJ (667m) 29.74 30.74 20.92 X 89.69 59.44 93.16 93.13 66.46 88.93 93.19 95.68 94.57 92.96 93.86
MPA (687m) 17.91 33.24 58.3 10.31 X 69.57 50.68 38.91 74.57 48.16 64.85 86.03 83.17 92.62 90.51
JAT (757m) 39.47 45.82 35.21 40.56 30.43 X 70.31 75.84 58.12 73 85.08 93.84 91.48 94.52 98.02
PMT (847m) 20.14 14.5 48.97 6.84 49.32 29.69 X 46.67 77.8 61.39 72.86 84.88 84.78 87.11 90.95
PMD (850m) 25.48 18.87 43.12 6.87 61.09 24.16 53.33 X 68.99 46.32 57.41 83.32 83.14 87.63 89.31
DOJ (919m) 40.54 28.21 25.61 33.54 25.43 41.88 22.2 31.01 X 72.68 76.95 93.12 91.62 87.92 98.27
PTD (1125m) 21.77 11.72 34.88 11.07 51.84 27 38.61 53.68 27.32 X 40.78 75.76 74.7 83.31 82.59
PDP (1233m) 13.75 4.26 26.38 6.81 35.15 14.92 27.14 42.59 23.05 59.22 X 68.1 71.45 72.26 75.2
MCP(1550m) 4.23 2.34 15.53 4.32 13.97 6.16 15.12 16.68 6.88 24.24 31.9 X 61.72 49.57 64.36
QIR (1704m) 6.31 4.18 16.27 5.43 16.83 8.52 15.22 16.86 8.74 25.3 28.55 38.28 X 57.98 66.4
QMB (1725m) 7.7 1.49 11.14 7.04 7.38 5.48 12.89 12.37 12.08 16.69 27.74 50.43 42.02 X 58.25
QMBa (1897m) 3.14 10.77 9.69 6.14 9.49 1.98 9.05 10.69 1.73 17.41 24.8 35.64 33.6 41.75 X
Key: Same as in Table 4.11
141
4.5 DIVERSITY AND ITS COMPONENTS
During the spring season, the average diversity value computed for the
investigated area was 2.79, ranging from 2.43-3.10 at different altitudes. Subtropical
broad leaf humid forest (1550-1897m) had the highest diversity values with an
average of 2.98 ranging from 2.82-3.08 while the subtropical pine forest (593-1233m)
represented lower diversity values averaging 2.69 and ranging from 2.54-2.85. The
subtropical scrub forest association (467-919m) showed an average value of 2.70
ranging 2.43 to 3.10. (Table 4.21; Fig. 4.18). Diversity show significant positive
correlation (r = 0.59) with altitude. The altitude explained 42% (R2 = 0.42)
variation in diversity (Table 4.23; Fig. 20a).
Average species richness was 4.32 per site and ranged between 3.09-5.98.
Subtropical broad leaf humid forest showed highest average richness value (5.16)
while the subtropical pine forest showed a lower species richness value (3.80). The
richness has significant positive correlation (r = 0.62) with altitude (Table 4.23).
The altitude explained 52 % (R2 = 0.52) variation in species richness (Table 4.23;
Fig. 4.21a). The average equitability value was 0.82 per site ranged between 0.77-
0.88 and average evenness value was 0.55 per site ranged between 0.49-0.63. The
altitude has little effect on equitability and evenness. The maturity index showed
that all the forests are immature as the maturity values are less than 60% (Table
4.21; Fig. 4.18).
During the monsoon season the average diversity computed for the
investigated area was 2.81 and ranged from 1.83-3.19. Subtropical broad leaf humid
association had the highest diversity values with an average of 3.06, while the
142
subtropical scrub forest association represented lower diversity, with values
averaging 2.55. The subtropical pine forest association showed an average value of
2.82 (Table 4.22; Fig. 4.19). The diversity show significant positive correlation (r =
0.56) with altitude (Table 4.24). The altitude explained 52% (R2 = 0.42) variation
in diversity (Fig. 4.20b ).
Average species richness computed for the study area was 4.40 per site
ranged between 2.48-5.95. Subtropical broad leaf humid forest association had a high
average richness value of 5.31 while subtropical scrub forest association showed lower
average richness value of 3.63 (Table, 4.22). The richness show significant positive
correlation (r = 0.64) with altitude (Table 4.24). The altitude explained 50% (R2 =
0.50) variation in richness (Fig. 4.20b). The average equitability was 0.82 ranging
between 0.65-0.90 and average evenness value was 0.57 per site ranged between
0.37-0.68. The altitude has little influence on equitability and evenness. The
maturity index showed that all the forests are immature (Table 4.22: Fig. 19).
4.6 TREE DENSITY AND BASAL AREA
The average tree density recorded for the investigated area was 1002 ha-1
and ranged between 280 to 2060 ha-1
. The subtropical broad leaf humid forest had
highest average tree density (1770 ha-1
) and ranged between 1500-2060 ha-1
while
the subtropical pine forest had low average tree density value (540 ha-1
) that ranged
between 360 to 880 ha-1
. The subtropical scrub forest had average tree density
value (904 ha-1
) and ranged between 280-1400 ha-1
(Table 4.25).The tree density
showed significant positive correlation (r = 0.60) with altitude (Table 4.26). The
altitude explained 54% (R2) variation in tree density (Fig. 4.22a).
143
Table 4.21: Diversity and its component of plant communities of District Kotli during spring.
Association Location Altitude
(m)
Total
species
Diversity
(H’)
Evenness Richness
(R)
Equitability Maturity
(M)
Subtropical
scrub forest
association
Dodonaea-Themeda-Justicia 473 25 2.67 0.58 3.79 0.83 43.06
Justicia- Acacia- Stellaria 587 23 2.43 0.49 3.27 0.77 47.55
Carissa-Sida-Geranium 667 34 3.1 0.65 4.67 0.88 46.55
Justicia- Acacia- Oxalis 757 33 2.78 0.49 4.55 0.79 38.08
Dodonaea-Themeda- Micromeria 919 23 2.5 0.53 3.75 0.8 37.54
Average 2.696 0.55 4.01 0.814 42.556
Subtropical
pine forest
association
Pinus-Mallotus-Heteropogon 593 29 2.79 0.56 4.20 0.83 38.17
Mallotus-Pinus-Duchsnea 687 29 2.69 0.51 4.23 0.80 39.40
Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda 847 25 2.54 0.51 3.98 0.79 32.53
Pinus- Themeda- Mallotus 850 20 2.54 0.63 3.09 0.85 40.16
Pinus- Themeda-Duchsnea 1125 25 2.70 0.59 3.64 0.84 46.13
Pinus-Dodonaea-Themeda 1233 25 2.85 0.69 3.64 0.89 52.27
Average 2.69 0.58 3.80 0.83 41.44
Subtropical
broad leaf
humid forest
association
Myrsine-Cotinus-Pinus 1550 37 2.89 0.48 4.86 0.80 40.26
Quercus-Indigofera-Rubus 1704 43 3.08 0.51 5.98 0.82 37.63
Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis 1725 33 2.90 0.55 4.39 0.83 53.04
Quercus-Myrsine-Carex 1897 37 3.04 0.56 5.42 0.84 32.89
Average
2.98 0.53 5.16 0.82 40.96
144
Table 4.22: Diversity and its component of plant communities of District Kotli during monsoon.
Association Communities Altitude
(m)
Total
species Diversity Evenness Richness Equitability Maturity
Subtropical
scrub forest
association
Dodonaea-Themeda-Justicia 473 25 2.58 0.53 3.97 0.80 41.02
Adiantum-Justicia-Acacia 587 17 1.83 0.37 2.48 0.65 48.23
Carissa-Cynodon-Justicia 667 29 2.97 0.67 4.27 0.88 42.18
Justicia-Acacia-Themeda 757 25 2.70 0.59 3.78 0.84 36.67
Justicia-Acacia-Themeda 919 21 2.65 0.67 3.64 0.87 33.81
Average
2.55 0.57 3.63 0.81 40.38
Subtropical
pine forest
association
Pinus-Mallotus-Oxalis 593 32 3.08 0.68 4.80 0.89 34.22
Mallotus-Pinus-Adiantum 687 32 2.54 0.40 4.68 0.73 35.66
Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda 847 24 2.61 0.56 3.59 0.82 41.94
Pinus- Mallotus- Dodonea 850 23 2.57 0.57 3.54 0.82 37.25
Pinus-Themeda-Dodonaea 1125 33 3.05 0.64 4.75 0.87 39.99
Pinus-Dodonaea-Punica 1233 30 3.06 0.71 4.17 0.90 48.89
Average
2.82 0.59 4.26 0.84 39.66
Subtropical
broad leaf
humid forest
association
Myrsine-Cotinus-Pinus 1550 47 3.17 0.51 5.95 0.82 39.93
Quercus-Indigofera-Rubus 1704 44 3.19 0.55 5.74 0.84 43.62
Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis 1725 36 3.07 0.60 4.68 0.86 54.72
Quercus-Myrsine- Brachiaria 1897 33 2.82 0.51 4.86 0.81 35.39
Average 40 3.06 0.54 5.31 0.83 43.42
145
Table 4.23: Correlation between species diversity and richness with altitude during
spring season.
S. No Attributes r value Significance level
1 Altitude/ Diversity (H') 0.59 p<0.05
2 Altitude/ Richness (R) 0.62 p<0.05
146
Table 4.24: Correlation between Species diversity and richness with altitude during
monsoon season.
S. No Attributes r value Significance level
1 Altitude/ Diversity (H') 0.56 p<0.05
2 Altitude/ Richness (R) 0.64 p<0.05
147
Fig. 4.18: Altitudinal variation of diversity and its components during
spring.
Fig. 4.19: Altitudinal variation of diversity and its component during
monsoon.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Diverstiy Richness Equitability Evenness
Ran
ge
Diversity and its components
Subtropical scrub forest(467-919m)
Subtropical pine forest(593-1233m)
Subtropical broad leafhumid forest (1550-1897m)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Ran
ge
Diversity and its components
Subtropical Scrub forest(467-919m)
Subtropical pine forest(593-1233m)
Subtropical broad leafhumid forest(1550-1897m)
148
Fig. 4.20: Relationship between diversity and altitude (a) spring (b) monsoon
Fig. 4.21: Relationship between species richness with altitude (a) spring (b)
monsoon.
149
The average basal area of the forest stands was 9.63 m2ha
-1 and ranged
between 1.19-19.18 m2ha
-1. Subtropical pine forest association had highest average
basal area (15.28 m2ha
-1) that ranged between 10.65-17.49 m
2ha
-1 while the
subtropical scrub forest had lowest average basal area (6.18 m2ha
-1) ranged
between 1.19-19.18 (Table 4.25). The subtropical broad leaf humid forest
association had average basal area of 5.47 m2 ha
-1 and ranged between 1.84-10.75
m2ha
-1 (Table 4.25). The basal area showed negative but non-significant
relationship (r = -0.23) with altitude (Table 4.26). The altitude explained only 15%
(R2 = 0.15) variation in basal area (Fig. 4.22b). The tree density and basal area have
negative but non-significant relationship (r = -0.37) with altitude (Table 4.26). The
tree density explained 19% variation (R2 = 0.19) in basal area (Fig. 4.22c).
4.7 REGENERATING CAPACITY
The numbers of the individuals of each tree species in different girth classes
are presented in Table 4.27. The individuals of same tree species were distributed
among different girth classes which reflect that plants of different age group were
present. Pinus roxburghii and Quercus incana had maximum girth of 274 cm and
252 cm respectively.
Pinus roxburghii was the only tree species present in all the age classes
which reflect the fair chance of regeneration of this species. While the remaining
tree species such as Quercus incana, Acacia modesta, Olea ferruginea, Mallotus
philippensis, Casearia tomentosa, Butea monosperma, Prunus persica, Flacourtia
indica, Salix acomophylla and Ziziphus mauritiana were not regenerating due to
non-uniform or sporadic distribution pattern of individuals in some of girth classes.
150
Their mature and over mature individuals were present occasionally or absent
completely (Table 4.27; 4.23).
4.8 DEGREE OF HOMOGENEITY
There were 15 plant communities each during spring and monsoon season.
During spring season, 9 communities were heterogeneous while 6 were
homogenous (Table 4.28). Similarly during monsoon season, 9 communities were
heterogeneous while 6 were homogenous (Table 4.29)
4.9 DEGREE OF CONSTANCY
During the spring season, 147 species were recorded. Of these, 103 species
were rarely present, 28 were seldom present, 12 were occasionally present, 2 were
mostly present and 2 were constantly present. In the monsoon season, 162 species
were recorded. Of these, 120 species were rarely present, 26 were seldom present,
14 were occasionally present, 2 were mostly present and one was constantly present
(Table 4.30; Fig. 4.24).
4.10 DEGREE OF AGGREGATION
The overall situation is given in Table 4.31. It can be observed that
aggregated species were dominant followed by intermediate species in all the three
different forest types both in the monsoon and spring seasons.
During the spring season the percentage of aggregated species remains
constant while the percentage of intermediate species decreases and percentage of
regular species increases with increasing altitude (Table 4.31: Fig. 4.25).
151
Table 4.25: Tree density and basal area recorded from different sites of District
Kotli.
Sites Density
/100m2
Density/hectare Basal
area/100m2
Basal
area/ha
Jandi Gala 5.8 580 0.0199 1.99
Bana 14 1400 0.1918 19.18
Seh mandi 5.4 540 0.1672 16.72
Kurti Grave
Yard 10.4 1040 0.035 3.50
Doongi 8.8 880 0.1065 10.65
Chitti Bakri 12.2 1220 0.0404 4.04
Narmando 5 500 0.17494 17.49
Mansuh 7.8 780 0.1707 17.07
Allan 2.8 280 0.0218 2.18
Pagwarmorha 3.6 360 O.1236 12.36
Supply 3.8 380 0.1736 17.36
Pir lasoor_I 18 1800 0.04042 4.04
Pirkalinjar 17.2 1720 0.05236 5.24
Pirlasoora II 20.6 2060 0.0184 1.84
Pir Lasoora III 15 1500 0.1075 10.75
152
Table 4.26: Correlation between structural attributes among each other and altitude.
S. No Attributes r value Significance level
1 Density ha-1
/Basal area -0.37 Non-significant
2 Altitude/Density ha-1
0.60 p<0.05
3 Altitude/Basal area -0.23 Non-significant
153
Table 4.27: Regeneration capacity of some selected tree species based on number of individuals in each girth class in District Kotli.
Girth
classes
(cm)
Pinus
roxburghii
Quercus
incana
Acacia
modesta
Olea
ferruginea
Mallotus
philippensis
Ziziphus
mauritiana
Butea
monosperma
Casearia
tomentosa
Prunus
persica
Flacourtia
indica
Salix
acomophylla
0-30 68 191 47 10 102 27 6 04 02 10
31-60 56 75 77 30 20 13 8 - - 05 01
61-90 44 15 17 17 1 1 - - 01 - -
91-120 29 2 1 2 - - - - - - -
121-150 33 - - - - - - - - -
151-180 20 - - - - - - - - - 01
181-210 12 - - - - - - - - -
210-240 9 1 - - - - - - - -
241-270 3 1 - - - - - - - -
270-300 1 - - - - - - - - -
154
Table 4.28: Degree of homogeneity based on frequency of plants in different plant
communities recorded from District Kotli during spring.
Communities Altitude A
(0-20)
B
(21-40)
C
(41-60)
D
(61-80)
E
(81-100)
Status
Dodonaea-Themeda-
Justicia
473 10 7 3 2 4 He
Justicia-Acacia-
Stellaria
587 7 6 2 3 5 He
Pinus-Mallotus-
Heteropogon
593 13 8 3 2 5 Ho
Carissa-Sida-Geranium 667 9 11 2 6 6 He
Mallotus-Pinus-
Duchsnea
687 13 7 4 2 4 Ho
Justicia-Acacia-
Oxalis
757 15 8 1 5 5 He
Pinus-Mallotus-
Themeda
847 18 2 - 3 3 Ho
Pinus-Themeda-
Mallotus
850 7 6 3 - 4 He
Dodonaea-Themeda-
Micromeria
919 13 2 1 4 3 Ho
Pinus-Themeda-
Duchsnea
1125 10 2 7 2 4 He
Pinus-Dodonaea-
Themeda
1233 10 1 3 5 6 Ho
Myrsine-Cotinus-
Pinus
1550 15 7 6 4 5 Ho
Quercus-Indigofera-
Rubus
1704 18 13 3 8 3 He
Quercus-Myrsine-
Berberis
1725 7 9 6 5 7 He
Quercus-Myrsine-
Carex
1897 16 13 5 1 3 He
Key: He = Heterogeneity; Ho = Homogeneity
155
Table 4.29: Degree of Homogeneity based on frequency of plants in different plant
communities recorded from District Kotli during monsoon.
Communities Altitude Total
Species
A
(0-20)
B
(21-40)
C
(41-60)
D
(61-80)
E
(81-100)
Status
Dodonaea-
Themeda-Justicia
473 26 11 9 1 - 5 Ho
Adiantum-
Justicia-Acacia
587 17 7 3 1 1 5 Ho
Pinus-Mallotus-
Oxalis
593 34 15 10 4 3 2 He
Carissa-Cynodon-
Justicia
667 29 11 7 4 3 4 He
Mallotus-Pinus-
Adiantum
687 33 18 4 3 3 5 Ho
Justicia-Acacia-
Themeda
757 25 10 7 5 - 3 He
Pinus-Mallotus-
Themeda
847 25 10 6 4 1 4 He
Pinus- Mallotus-
Dodonea
850 23 11 5 1 2 4 Ho
Dodonaea-Olea-
Justicia
919 21 10 7 1 1 2 Ho
Pinus-Themeda-
Dodonaea
1125 33 11 10 6 3 3 He
Pinus-Dodonaea-
Punica
1233 30 9 5 6 5 5 He
Myrsine-Cotinus-
Pinus
1550 48 19 13 6 4 6 He
Quercus-
Indigofera-Rubus
1704 46 15 11 7 8 5 He
Quercus-Myrsine-
Berberis
1725 37 9 8 2 10 8 He
Quercus-Myrsine-
Brachiaria
1897 33 17 07 03 03 4 Ho
Key: Ho = Homogenous; He = Heterogeneous
156
Table 4.30: Degree of Constancy of plants recorded from District Kotli.
S. No
Range
(%)
Number of species
Constancy class
Spring Monsoon
1 0-20 103 120 Rare
2 21-40 28 26 Seldom present
3 41-60 12 14 Occasionally present
4 61-80 02 02 Mostly present
5 81-100 02 01 Constantly present
157
Fig. 4.22: Relationship between (a) Density ha-1
with altitude (b) Basal area m2ha
-1
with altitude (c) Density ha-1
with basal area m2ha
-1.
158
Fig. 4.23 (Continue): Regeneration capacity of some selected tree species based on number of individuals in each girth class in District Kotli.
0
20
40
60
80
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No
. of
Ind
ivid
ual
s
Girth classes
(a). Pinus roxburghii
0
50
100
150
200
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No
of
ind
ivid
ual
s
Girth classes
(b). Quercus incana
0
20
40
60
80
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No
. of
ind
ivid
ual
s
Girth classes
(c). Acacia modesta
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No
. of
ind
iviu
dal
s
Girth classes
(d). Olea ferruginea
0
10
20
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No
. of
ind
ivid
ual
s
Girth classes
(f). Ziziphus mauritiana
0
50
100
150
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No
. of
Ind
ivid
ual
s
Girth classes
(e). Mallotus philippensis
159
Fig 4.23: Regeneration capacity of some selected tree species based on number of individuals in each girth class in District Kotli.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No
. of
ind
ivid
ual
s
Girth classes
(j).Flacourtia indica
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 3 5 7 9
No
. of
ind
ivid
ual
s
Girth classes
(g). Butea monosperma
No. ofIndividuals
0
2
4
6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No
. of
ind
ivid
ual
s
Girth classes
(h). Casearia tomentosa
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No
. of
Ind
ivid
ual
s
Girth classes
(k). Salix acomophylla
0
1
2
3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No
. of
ind
ivid
ual
s
Girth classes
(i). Prunus persica
160
Fig. 4.24: Degree of constancy of plant species recorded from District Kotli.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Rare Seldompresent
Occasionallypresent
Mostlypresent
Constantlypresent
Nu
mb
er
of
Spe
cie
s
Constancy classes
Spring
Monsoon
161
However during the monsoon season, the percentage of aggregated species
increases with an increase in altitude while the percentage of intermediate species
and regular species decreases with the increasing altitude in the study area (Table
4.31; Fig. 4.26).
4.11 EDAPHOLOGY
There were three plant associations in the investigated area viz subtropical
scrub forest association, subtropical pine forest association and subtropical broad
leaf humid forest association.
Subtropical scrub forest lies at altitudinal ranges between 467-919m. The
soil varied from loam to clay loam type while saturation varied from 32-56%, pH
7-7.27 electric conductivity 0.55-0.93dsm-1, organic matter 0.62-3.45%,
phosphorus from 5.8-8.5, potassium 120-140mm and calcium carbonate 9-12.1
(Table 4.32).
Subtropical pine forest lies at altitudinal ranges between 593m-1233m and
has loamy and clay loamy soil. The saturation varied from 32-61%, pH 6.60-7.18,
electrical conductivity 0.39-0.70dsm-1, organic matter 0.52-1.90 %, phosphorus
from 5.3-7.3, potassium 120-180 mm and calcium carbonate7.7-12.2 (Table 4.32).
Subtropical broad leaf humid forest lies at altitudinal ranges between 1550-
1897m and has clay loam to sandy loam type soil. The saturation varied from 28-
52%, pH 6.02-7.51, electrical conductivity 0.38-0.60 dsm-1, organic matter 1.71-
4.25 %, phosphorus from 7.4-8.5, potassium 120-160 mm and calcium
carbonate7.3-10.3 (Table 4.32).
162
Table 4.31: Degree of aggregation of plant associations recorded from District Kotli.
Association Spring Monsoon
Aggregated Intermediate Regular Unity Aggregated Intermediate Regular Unity
Subtropical scrub forest
(497-919m)
58% 28% 14% - 44% 37% 19% -
Subtropical pine forest
(593-1233m)
58% 26% 16% - 57% 27% 16% -
Subtropical broad leaf
humid forest
(1550-1897m)
57% 23% 20% - 73% 14% 13% -
163
Table 4.32: Phsico-chemical properties of soil of different localities of Kolti District, Azad Jammu & Kashmir.
Associations
Altitude
(m)
Saturation
(%)
Texture pH
EC
(dsm-1)
OM
( %)
P
(mg Kg-1)
K
(mg Kg-1)
CaCo3
(mg Kg-1)
Subtropical
scrub forest
association
473-919 32-56 Loam-clay loam 7.00 -7.27 0.55-0.93 0.62-3.45 5.8-8.5 120-140 9-12.1
Subtropical
pine forest
association
593-1233 32-61 Loam-clay loam 6.60-7.18 0.39-0.70 0.52-1.90 5.3-7.3 120-180 7.7-12.12
Subtropical
broad leaf
humid forest
association
1550-1897 28-52
Clay loam-
Sandy Loam
6.02-7.51 0.38-0.60 1.71-4.25 7.4-8.5 120-160 7.3-10.3
Key: EC= Electrical conductivity; OM= Organic matter; P = Available Phosphorus; K = Potassium; CaCo3= Calcium carbonate.
164
Fig. 4.25: Degree of aggregation of plant associations recorded in District Kotli during
spring.
Fig. 4.26: Degree of aggregation of plant associations recorded in District Kotli during
monsoon.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Pe
rce
nta
ge o
f P
lan
t sp
eci
es
Distribution classes
Subtropical scrub forest(497-919m)
Subtropical pine forest (593-1233m)
Subtropical broad leaf humidforest
(1550-1897m)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Pe
rce
nta
ge o
f P
lan
t sp
eci
es
Distribution classes
Subtropical scrub forest(497-919m)
Subtropical pine forest (593-1233m)
Subtropical broad leaf humidforest
(1550-1897m)
165
4.12 FORAGE PRODUCTIVITIY
4.12.1 Herbaceous Productivity (Biomass)
The total average herbaceous biomass productivity of district Kotli was 625
kg/ha with maximum value of 1277 kg/ha in subtropical pine forest during July and
minimum value of 79.3 Kg/ha in subtropical broad leaf humid forest during
February. The maximum average biomass was reported for subtropical pine forest
(735 Kg/ha) while minimum average biomass mass reported for the subtropical
broad leaf humid forest (463 Kg/ha). The subtropical scrub forest has average
biomass of (676 Kg/ha). There was increasing trend in biomass production up to
August and then it started declining up to February. The July and August was the
most productive month in the study area while the January and February were the
least Productive. The altitude also influenced the biomass production. With slight
deviation, it was observed the amount of herbaceous biomass gradually decline
while moving from lower to higher altitude (Table 4.33: Fig. 4.27).
The herbaceous biomass showed significant positive correlation with
temperature (r = 0.91) and rainfall (r = 0.60) and significant negative correlation (r
= -0.61) with altitude (Table 4.35). The temperature explained 82% (R2 = 0.82),
altitude explained 51% (R2 = 0.51) and rainfall explained 36% (R
2 = 0.36) variation
in herbaceous biomass production (Fig. 4.28).
4.12.2 Productivity of Shrubs
The total average biomass production of shrubby species was 2720 Kg/ha.
Punica granatum produced highest shoot biomass of 410 Kg/ha followed by Dodonaea
166
viscosa (365 Kg/ha) and Rubus fruticosus (355Kg/ha) during August while lowest biomass
was reported for Carissa opaca (32 Kg/ha) during February in the investigated area. In
subtropical scrub forest (467-919m), the highest shoot biomass was reported for Dodonaea
viscosa (365 Kg/ha) followed by Nerium oleander (190 Kg/ha) and Justicia adhatoda
(179Kg/ha) during August while lowest biomass was reported for Carissa opaca (40kg/ha)
during February. In subtropical pine forest (593-1233m), the highest biomass was observed
for Punica granatum followed by Rubus fruticosus 320 Kg/ha and Berberis lycium
(265Kg/ha) while the lowest was reported for Maytenus royleanus 55Kg/ha. In subtropical
broad leaf humid forest the highest shoot biomass was reported for Rubus fruticosu 355
Kg/ha followed by Berberis lycium 336Kg/ha and Cotinus coggyria 335Kg/ha while the
lowest was reported for Jasminum officinale and Rosa brunonii 40Kg/ha each during
february. The period from May to August was more productive while due to dryness and
low rainfall period from September to February was less productive. The biomass of each
species is also different at different altitude. It was observed that shrub biomass decreased
with increasing altitude (Table: 4.34).
The shrubby biomass showed significant positive correlation with temperature (r =
0.86) and rainfall (r = 0.52) (Table 4.35). The rainfall explained 26% (R2 = 0.26) and
temperature explained 74% (R2 = 0.74) variation in shrubby biomass (Fig. 4.29).
4.13 PALATABILITY OF VEGETATION
4.13.1 Degree of Palatability
There were a total of 202 species belonging to 71 families and 176 genera recorded
in the study area. Out of these, 71 species (35.15%) were non-palatable while 131 species
were palatable to varying degrees. These included 42 species (20.79%) highly palatable, 33
species (16.34%) moderately palatable, 32 species (15.84%) less palatable and 24 species
(11.88%) rarely palatable. The ratio of palatable to total species was 1:1.5 and non-
palatable to total species was 1:2.8.
167
Table 4.33: Seasonal and altitudinal variation in herbaceous biomass (Dry matter
Kg/ha) recorded from different forest types of District Kotli during 2014-2016.
Months
Sub-tropical
scrub forest
(467-919m)
Sub-tropical Pine
forest
(593-1233m)
Sub-tropical Broad
leaf humid forest
(1550-1897m)
January 279 264 121
February 197 172 79.3
March 511 568 353
April 655 620 443
May 772 766 568
June 959 1039 686
July 1113 1277 795
August 1014 1151 725
September 849 954 591
October 703 785 511
November 582 667 375
December 478 566 309
Average 676 735 463
168
Fig. 4.27: Seasonal and altitudinal variation in herbaceous biomass in different forest types
of District Kotli.
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
He
rbac
eo
us
Bio
mas
s (D
ry m
atte
r K
g/h
a)
Months
Sub-tropicalscrub forest(467-919m)
Sub-tropicalpine forest(593-1233m)
Sub-tropicalbroad leafhumid forest(1550-1897m)
169
Table 4.34: Seasonal and altitudinal variation in biomass (Kg/ha) of Shrubby Species of
District Kotli during 2014-2016.
Name of species
Forest
Type Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Ailanthus
altissima
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C 158 145 175 195 210 225 240 290 275 235 210 190
Astragalus
psilocentros
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C 110 85 140 160 195 210 230 270 250 210 185 145
Berberis lycium A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B 115 90 135 155 185 205 245 265 230 198 162 130
C 150 130 192 223 257 285 305 336 295 260 220 180
Carissa opaca A 45 40 60 65 75 83 90 97 80 68 65 55
B 43 32 40 55 65 77 85 90 75 65 58 50
C - - - - - - - - - - - -
Colebrookea
oppositifolia
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B 90 70 115 130 145 155 170 192 180 165 140 110
C - - - - - - - - - - - -
Cotinus
coggyria
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C 140 125 180 213 255 270 310 335 290 255 210 175
Debregeasia
salicifolia
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C 48 60 84 95 112 127 140 152 132 116 95 60
170
Dodonaea
viscosa
A 160 143 195 230 270 305 342 365 340 290 243 190
B 130 120 165 195 210 255 285 305 265 230 190 160
C - - - - - - - - - - - -
Elaeagnus
parvifolia
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C 55 43 54 65 72 87 95 102 95 85 78 65
Hypericum
perforatum
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C 90 70 110 135 150 160 175 195 170 155 140 110
Indigofera
heterantha
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C 85 77 100 117 130 149 167 176 155 130 103 92
Isodon rugosus A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C 62 50 78 95 105 115 128 145 137 122 105 72
Jasminum
officinale
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C 50 40 60 70 78 90 95 110 102 90 85 60
Justicia
adhatoda
A 85 63 90 110 125 140 155 179 160 145 120 100
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C - - - - - - - - - - - -
Lantana camara A 78 60 85 107 115 126 140 161 155 140 108 95
B 90 68 95 115 125 145 165 175 160 150 125 110
C - - - - - - - - - - - -
Lonicera
quinquelocularis
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
171
C 155 135 182 210 245 260 270 305 280 252 230 190
Loranthus
pulverulentus
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C 120 93 160 180 207 245 265 290 243 195 160 140
Maytenus
royleanus
A 80 65 90 110 130 138 160 175 160 140 120 95
B 70 55 80 98 115 130 155 165 145 130 110 85
C - - - - - - - - - - - -
Myrsine
africana
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B 85 60 80 96 105 140 163 195 170 145 127 110
C 75 55 70 85 95 130 155 180 145 130 115 95
Nerium
oleander
A 80 60 95 110 130 145 165 190 160 140 125 105
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C 67 45 72 95 115 130 140 160 140 128 110 95
Otostegia
limbata
A 65 52 75 85 93 103 110 122 105 95 85 77
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C - - - - - - - - - - - -
Punica
granatum
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B 175 150 205 243 295 330 360 410 368 310 260 210
C - - - - - - - - - - - -
Rhynchosia
pseudo-cajan
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C 60 47 60 70 90 105 120 131 125 110 95 85
Rosa brunonii A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C 53 40 65 75 80 85 92 104 90 82 68 60
Rubus fruticosus A - - - - - - - - - - - -
172
B 175 145 215 250 290 307 330 375 320 287 260 205
C 160 138 195 233 270 290 315 355 305 275 245 195
Viburnum
grandiflorum
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C 90 80 103 113 125 145 157 175 153 123 103 95
Woodfordia
fruiticosa
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C 80 60 85 95 105 120 130 148 125 110 95 90
Zanthoxylum
armatum
A - - - - - - - - - - - -
B - - - - - - - - - - - -
C 58 45 60 75 85 98 103 110 95 90 75 65
Key: A = Subtropical Scrub Forest Association (467-919m)
B = Subtropical Pine forest association (593-1233m)
C = Subtropical broad leaf humid forest association (1550-1897m)
173
Table 4.35: Correlation between herbaceous and shrubby biomass with Rainfall,
Temperature and altitude.
S. No Attributes r value Significance level
1 Temperature/Herbaceous
biomass
0.91 p<0.01
2 Rainfall/Herbaceous biomass 0.60 p<0.05
3 Altitude/Herbaceous biomass -0.61 p<0.05
4 Temperature/Shrubby
biomass
0.86 p<0.01
5 Rainfall/Shrubby biomass 0.52 p<0.05
174
Fig. 4.28: Relationship between herbaceous biomass with temperature, rainfall and
altitude.
Fig. 4.29: Relationship between shrubby biomass with rainfall and temperature.
175
Among the trees, 4 species (36.36%) were highly palatable, 2 species (18.18%)
were less palatable and 5 species were non palatable (45.45%). Among the shrubs, 6
species (21.43%) were highly palatable, 3 species (10.71%) were moderately palatable, 2
species (7.14%) were less palatable, 5 species (17.86%) were rarely palatable and 12
species (42.86%) were non palatable. Among the herbs, 22 species (15.94%) were highly
palatable, 28 species (20.29%) were moderately palatable, 24 species (17.39%) were less
palatable, 15 species (10.87%) were rarely palatable and 49 species (35.51%) were non
palatable. Among the grasses, 10 species (50%) were highly palatable, 2 species (10%)
were moderately palatable, 4 species (20%) were less palatable and 4 species (20%) were
rarely palatable while all the fern species were non palatable (Table 4.36; Fig. 4.30).
4.13.2 Preference by Animals
Among the palatable species, 105 species were used by goat including 6 (5.71%)
trees, 16 (15.24%) shrubs, 70 (66.67%) herbs and 13 (12.38%) grasses. The sheep used 69
species including 2 (2.90%) trees, 7 (10.14%) shrubs, 48 (69.57%) herbs and 12 (17.39%)
grasses. The buffalo and cows used 78 species including 10 (12.82%) shrubs, 52 (66.67%)
herbs and 16 (20.51%) grasses (Table 4.36).
4.13.3 Classification by Part Used
It was found that in 56 species (40%), whole plant /shoot were used, in 70 species
(50%) leaves were used and in 14 species (10%) the flowers or fruit were used (Table 4.35:
Fig. 4.36).
4.13.4 Classification by Condition Used
Out of 131 palatable species, 96 species (73.28%) were used only in fresh
condition, 04 species (3.05%) were used only in dry condition while 31 species (23.66%)
were used in both fresh and dry condition (Table 4.36).
176
4.13.5 Non Palatable Species
There were 71 plant species which were non palatable due to various reasons.
They included Pinus roxburghii and Quercus incana among trees, Colebrookea
oppositifolia, Dodonaea viscosa, Justicia adhatoda, Lantana camara, Nerium oleander,
Otostegia limbata among shrubs and Arenaria neelgerrensis, Bergenia ciliata, Calamintha
umbrosam, Dioscorea bulbifera, Gagea pakistanica, Gerbera gossypina, Onosma
thomsonii, Parthenium hysterophorus, Polygala abyssinica, Salvia moocroftiana, Smilax
glaucophylla, Swertia petiolata, Vernonia cinerea, Zeuxine strateumatica etc. among
herbs. Some species such as Euphorbia helioscopia, Euphorbia prostrate, Gloriosa
superba and Sauromatum venosum etc were poisonous to livestock (Table 4.36.).
177
Table 4.36: Summary of the palatability of Plants in District Kotli.
Species
Number Percentage
Classification of
plant on the basis
of palatability
Non palatable 71 35.15
Highly palatable 42 20.79
Moderately
palatable
33
16.34
Less palatable 32 15.84
Rarely palatable 24 11.88
Part Used Whole 56 40
Leaves 70 50
Infloresences 14 10
Forage Conditions Fresh 96 73.28
Dry 04 3.05
Both 31 23.66
Livestock Species Cow 73 29.55
Goat 105 42.51
Sheep 69 27.94
178
Fig. 4.30: Differential palatability of plant species in District Kotli.
Fig. 4.31: Plant parts preferred by animals in District Kotli.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
HP MP LP RP NP
Spe
cie
s p
erc
en
tage
Palatability classes
Tree
Shrub
Herb
Grass
0.00
20.00
40.00
60.00
80.00
100.00
120.00
Tree Shrub Herb Grass
Spe
cie
s p
erc
en
tage
Life form
Whole plant/Shoot
Leave
Inflorescence
179
Chapter 5
DISCUSSION
5.3 FLORISTIC COMPOSITION AND ECOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
5.3.1 Floristic Composition
Floristic diversity is the total number of plant species in an area. Diversity
can be affected by anthropogenic interactions, grazing, soil erosion and natural
disasters like earthquakes that may cause landslides. The floristic check list of
District Kotli was composed of 202 species that were distributed into 71 families
and 176 genera.
Asteraceae, Poaceae, Fabaceae, Labiatae are the leading families in the area
on the basis of the number of species. But on the basis of importance value,
Poaceae and Pinaceae are the dominant families both during surveys conducted in
the monsoon and the spring seasons. Stewart (1972) also reported these families to
be well represented in Pakistan and Azad Kashmir as did Ilys et al. (2013) from
Kabal valley of Swat, Tanvir et al. (2014) from Bagh, Azad Kashmir and Amjad et
al. (2016) from the Nikyal valley of Azad Kashmir. Mehmood et al. (2015) and
Husain et al. (2015) also observed that these families were dominant in their
respective study areas. Some other works also reported similar findings in other
regions of Pakistan (Samreen et al., 2016; Din et al., 2016) and abroad
(Muthuramkumar et al. 2006; Mendez, 2005). Our results are consistently
supported by these studies as Poaceae and Asteraceae have emerged as the
common families in the investigated area. Both these two families have also been
180
reported to contain more species as compared to other families by Ali et al. (2016)
from Chilas valley and Hussain et al. (2009) from Samhani valley, Azad Kashmir.
The member of the Poaceae and Asteraceae are found in a diverse range of habitats
due to their broad ecological amplitude.
Many species have been floristically listed from District Kolti, however
most of them have a limited distribution on a quantitative basis due to their
restricted life cycle. High species number is the indication of high species diversity
and richness in the area. Qualitative features like floristic composition alone cannot
provide the true picture of the subtropical zone of District Kotli therefore the
quantitative parameters and ecological behaviours of vegetation resources like
habit, phenology, life form and leaf spectra and ethno ecological potential should
also be studied for a full description of the plant resources of this area.
5.3.2 Life Form
The concept of life form was first introduced by Humboldt with the term
Vegetative Form. It has ranked next to floristic composition in ecological studies
(Cain, 1950) and is the outcome of the adaptation of plants to certain climatic
conditions (Mera et al., 1999). The life form of a plant reflects the climate of the
area and is also useful in comparing the geographical distribution of plant
communities. Traditionally it was used in the description of vegetation structure at
the community level (Raunkiaer, 1934). The most compact and consistent
classification of life form is that of Raunkiaer, which is based on the degree of
presence and protection of perennating buds. On the basis of life form, he
recognized three different phytoclimates on earth including the therophytic climate
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in deserts, hemicryptophytic in the temperate zone and phanerophytic in the tropics.
Mueller- Dumbois and Ellenberg, (1974) divided the plant species in to five main
life form categories based on similarity in their structure and function.
Accordingly the life form of all the species of District Kotli is recorded. The
biological spectrum of the vegetation can be developed by classifying all the
species of higher plants in to life form classes and expressing their ratio both in
numbers as well as percentages. The biological spectrum provides an indication of
the existing climatic condition and can be helpful in comparing widely separated
geographical communities. However the proportion of various life forms within the
biological spectrum may be changed due to biotic influences such as deforestation,
overgrazing, agricultural practices and trampling etc. (Malik, 2005; Badsha, 2012).
The life form of the flora and different plant communities in the study area
indicates that therophytes are dominant followed by hemicryptophytes both in the
spring and monsoon seasons. Geophytes, nanophanerophytes, lianas, chamaephytes
and megaphanerophytes are the next most important life form categories on the
basis of the number of species. Therophytes are the indicators of subtropical and
desert climates while hemicryptophytes are more characteristic of cool and humid
conditions (Amjad et al., 2016; Malik et al., 2013; Malik 2007; Cain and Casto,
1959; Shimwell, 1971). The reported life form reflects the climatic conditions in
the study area changes from the dry subtropical zone to the humid zone with
increasing altitude. These results are in line with Sher et al. (2007) who reported
the dominance of therophytes in subtropical forest in Chagharzai Bunir. Similarly
Ali et al. (2016) reported the dominance of therophytes from Chail valley in Sawat
182
which is also consistent with our findings.
The dominance of therophytes over other life forms in the study area can be
interpreted as not only a response to the harsh climate but also to anthropogenic
pressures on the flora. This might also be due to the availability of high amount of
moisture in the form of rain at the time of sampling. Qureshi (2011) also reported
similar findings from Koont. Our results are also consistent with those of Costa et
al. (2007) who reported the dominance of therophytes in south eastern Brazil. Our
findings are also supported by Kar et al. (2010) who reported the dominance of
therophytes from grassland of Odisha, India. However the dominance of
therophytes in almost all zones might also be due to habitat disturbance,
deforestation, intense grazing and trampling (Sher & Khan, 2007; Guo et al., 2009;
Hussain et al., 2009; Manhas et al., 2010; Fazal et al. 2010). Anthropogenic
pressure reduces the macroelement therefore therophytes appear to occupy the
vacant niches.
The percentage of therophytes was high in spring as compared to the
monsoon season because in spring season there is always a flush of annual plants
(Malik et al., 2007). Hussain et al. (1997) also reported the dominance of
therophytes from Girbanr and Dabargai hills due to unfavourable habitat
conditions. Many other researchers also reported similar findings form their study
areas (Kar et al., 2010; Batalha & Martins 2002; Malik et al., 2013) from certain
other parts of the world and our findings in this regard are supported by them.
Kotli is warm at the lower altitudes and climatically cool at the top altitude,
this was reflected in the number of hemicryptophytes which increased in the sub-
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tropical broad leaf humid forest association (1550m-1897m). Our findings are in
line with Saxena et al. (1987) who also reported the hemicryptophytes as dominant
life form in temperate or humid conditions.
The final life form class, the phanerophytes, decreased with altitude in the
study area. Phanerophytes are best represented as a class in open physiognomies
(Batalha and Martin, 2004). The climate of the Kotli District is suitable to support
the growth of phanerophytes but severe anthropogenic pressures in the form of
wood extraction, felling and modification of forest in term of terrace cultivation
have greatly decreased their dominance in the study area.
5.3.3 Leaf Spectra
Leaf size spectrums have been used in vegetation description and in order to
understand the physiological processes of plants and plant communities. The
current study reveals the dominance of nanophylls followed by leptophylls in the
study area. Badshah et al. (2010) reported nanophylls as the dominant leaf size in
Waziristan. Similarly Sher and Khan, (2007) reported high percentages of
leptophylls and nanophylls from the Chagarzai area. Our findings are thus in line
with these previous studies. Malik et al. (2013) and Malik (2005) reported the
dominance of microphylls in Pir Chanasi, Ganga Chotti and Bedorri hills, Azad
Jammu and Kashmir. The disagreement with their results might be due to
differences in climatic conditions and altitude.
The leaf size along with the habit and root system can be helpful in
determining the climatic zone of a study area. Small sized leaves are indicator of
184
dry and xeric conditions (Amjad et al. 2016; Malik et al. 2013; Nasir and Sultan,
2002). This is because in dry areas and particularly in mountains, the soil has a low
nutrient and water content making it difficult for plant roots to absorb moisture and
nutrients and thus encouraging the dominance of nanophyllous and leptophyllous
vegetation, as was observed in our study area. The ratio of different leaf size
classes changes during different seasons in the study area due to the presence of
annuals and rhizomatous geophytes. Malik et al. (2013) and Batalha and Martins,
(2004) also reported that leaf size is directly related to the soil conditions and the
availability of moisture. Leaf size alone could not be used to identify the climate or
specific zone of an investigated area, root system and the habit of plants might play
an equal role.
5.3.4 Phenology
According to International Biological Program (IBP) phenology refers to
“the study of the timing and causes of repeated biological phenomena with respect
to the non-living and living factors and the relationship between the phases of
different or the same species” (Lieth, 1974; Richardson et al., 2013). Small
variations in climate can have a great effect on the vegetation (Jadeja and Nakkar,
2010). For example, vegetation can be characterized by different patterns of
climate-induced phenological events (Opler et al., 1980) with flowering induced by
significant rain in the months of winter and summer, temperature differences,
change in photoperiodism, and drought (Borchert et al., 2002). In addition to
characterizing vegetation such studies can also be useful in developing effective
management strategies as well as a better understanding of community level
185
interactions and the vegetation regeneration potential.
In the investigated area, the majority of plant species initiated flowering at
the end of March which may be due to the onset of warm weather (Zhang et al.,
2007). Flower initiation, development and other growth activities are generally at
their peak during the rainy and early spring season in Caatinga (Rocha et al., 2004),
which is in line with our findings.
In the investigated area, the peak time for flowering was April-September.
Less flowering was observed from November to February. These finding are in
accordance with the Kakim and Yadava, (2001) who reported that maximum plants
flower from April to September in the sub-tropical forests of Manipur India.
However in contrast to our findings Jadeja and Nakkar, (2010) flowering was at
peak during January and February in forest of Gujrat, India. The difference might
be the result climatic and topographic conditions (altitude and latitude) of the area.
Our results are also in contrast with Malik et al. (2015) who reported that
maximum flowering occurred during July and August in the Ganga Chotti and
Beddori hills of Azad Kashmir, which again may be due to a higher altitude,
rainfall and saturation in their study area.
The flowering period of plant species can be affected due to change in the
climatic conditions. Temperature change can cause a shift in the reproductive
phenology (flowering) of plant species (Forrest et al., 2010). An increase in the
temperature advances the phenology of many plant species (Adrian et al., 2015:
Malik et al., 2015). Many herbaceous species of the investigated area were in
flowering during March when temperature was slightly increased otherwise
186
flowering occurred in the month of April. So our findings are in accordance with
previous reports.
Nautiyal et al. (2001) and Malik et al. (2015) reported that flowering in
many plant species of the alpine zone occurred after snow fall. In the investigated
area flowering started in the month of March for the majority of the woody plant
species so our findings in this regard are in accordance with this study. The
majority of tree species were in flower in April which is also in accordance with
Dar and Malik, (2009) who reported maximum flowering among the tree species
during April while working in Lawat District, Azad Kashmir. Golluscio et al.
(2005) observed that grasses, members of the Poaceace, had the majority of their
phenological activities during the autumn and winter seasons as compared to the
non-grass plant species which had different starting and ending dates of vegetative
and reproductive growth. In our case too, most of the grasses bloomed in autumn
and early winter so our finding is in line with this study.
Changes in climatic factors such as temperature and humidity can produce
changes in the phenology of the plant species which is an indicator of such
changes. The global climatic change was mainly governed by urbanization. Huang
(2009) reported that in urban areas of Canada temperature had unevenly fluctuated
through out the year which has direct impact on vegetation phenology. Similarly
situation was observed in our study as temperature was raised during March and
May which favoured the flowering of plants and further increase in temperature
during June – September caused the shift in phenology from flowering to fruiting.
Biotic factors can also have a profound influence on the plant phenological
187
events (Nath et al., 2009). This has been observed in our case as temperatures
generally decreased during October and November to promote leaf fall and in June
and July the grazing pressure increased which facilitated the second dormant phase.
The grazing of annual herbaceous plant species prior to flowering will restrict the
population because in this case seeds will be the only propagation source for
regeneration and survival. Therefore it is essential to coordinate the grazing period
with the flowering cycle in order to promote the sustainable use of plant resources.
5.3.5 Ethnobotany/Economic Use Classification
The interaction between plants and human beings is very strong because of
their obligate dependence on each other. The plant resources of any area lead to its
economic wealth. The utility and use of plants create its importance in any area
(Badsha et al., 2012). In the same context, when plants of District Kotli were
studied, it was observed that the area is best suited for medicinal plants and range
land. The highest proportion of the plants is being extensively used in the local
health system in the study area. Most of the medicinal plant species in the current
study have also been reported as having medicinal values in several other studies
including Watanabe et al. (2001) Khan et al. (2003), Wazir et al. (2004), Hamyun et
al. (2005), Shinwari et al. (2006), Ibrar et al. (2007) Ishtiaq et al. (2007), Hussain
et al. (2008), Barkatullah et al. (2009), Khan et al. (2010); Khan et al. (2012 c);
Bano et al. (2013) Ahmad et al. (2013 a), Arshad et al. (2014) and Amjad et al.
(2015) who reported these plants to be medicinal from other areas of Pakistan.
Okello and Sesgawa (2007), Meena and Yadava (2010), Safa et al. (2012), Bahar et
al. (2013), Siew et al. (2014), Vijayakumar et al. (2015) listed various plants and
188
their traditional medicinal uses from other parts of the world. Thus our findings are
in line with them.
Because of the growing demands of pharmaceutical industries, medicinal
flora has been drastically exploited from these areas. This huge exploitation is
leading to the extinction of medicinally important species. As a consequence of this
over-exploitation, majority of the preferred medicinal plant species can only be
found under the thickest shrubby plant species or else at higher altitudes which are
hardly accessible to the native people of the area. The rapidly increasing population
in the area also enhanced the pressures on medicinal plants, resulting decline in
numbers as well as population of medicinal plants. At higher altitudes, nomads
collect large number of medicinal plants in a non-scientific way to escalate their
incomes. They uproot the entire plant despite of just collecting the particular
medicinal parts of the plant. In addition to over-collection, it has been identified
that deforestation, overgrazing and soil erosion are also causal factors for reduction
in the medicinal and other economically important plants in the study area. Mostly,
overgrazing of medicinal plants by the livestock of the inhabitants of Kotli District
is responsible for potential extinction from the area. Thus efficient strategies for the
conservation of medicinal plants are immediately needed. These should comprise
measures to make certain that plant collection is hormonal with their phenology.
Specially, the plants which are under the huge anthropogenic pressure due to fuel
wood collection, overgrazing or over exploitation for medical purposes have less
regeneration ability. Likewise, the plants which are exploited for underground parts
like rhizomes, roots, corm or bulbs are mostly threatened owing to the shoot of the
plants will be unable to develop flowers or seeds for propagation. Prior to the
189
present study, very little information was available on the medicinal plants of the
whole area.
The second major utility of plants in the study area is as forage for fodder
purposes which highlights that the area is well appropriate as livestock rangeland.
This mountainous area has a poor vegetation cover and a cold and moist climate at
higher altitude while drier and hotter conditions occur at lower altitudes. Thus the
area does not sustain agriculture very well and there is a huge dependence on
rangeland. Majority of fodder species in current study have also been reported as
fodder in several other studies (Ibrar et al., 2007; Barkatullah et al., (2009); Khan
et al., 2010; Khan et al. 2012c; Bano et al., 2013, Ahmad et al. 2013a; Arshad et
al., 2014; Amjad et al. 2015). Thus our findings are in line with them.
Most of the villages of District Kotli are remote, so the people of the area
are poor and lack the basic facilities. They fulfilled their fuel and timber
requirement from plants. There were twenty four plant species used for fuel and 6
plant species for timber purposes in the area. Mostly during winter season, the
native people burn huge amounts of fuel wood to heat both their home and animal
shelters. Heavy grazing and overexploitation for medicinal and fuel wood purposes
drastically hampers the regenerating capacity of these plants. The local people
uproot and collect the whole plant in addition to the particular part for the fuel
wood purpose irrespective of other uses. Thus forests become open and are further
degraded due to heavy grazing. Badsha et al. (2006), Ibrar et al. (2007), Khan and
Khatoon, (2007), Hussain and Chaudhari, (2009), Khan et al. (2010), Khan et al.
(2012 c), Ahmad et al. (2013 a), Arshad et al. (2014) and Amjad et al. (2015) also
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reported similar findings in their investigated area. Thus our findings are in line
with them.
Additionally, 22 plant species were identified during the survey that are utilized
as wild edible fruits or vegetables; however due to overexploitation, these species
have been depicting a decreasing trend in last few years Plant materials are also
been utilized for making the roofs of houses as well as animal shelters. Plants such
as Quercus incana, Pinus roxburghii, Hypericum oblongifolium, Punica granatum,
Myrsine africana are used for this purpose. The use of these plants for roof
thatching has also been reported by other workers from adjoining areas
(Barkatullah et al., 2009; Kahn et al., 2010; Ali et al., 2011). Another major
ecological issue in the area is harvesting of wood for timber purpose which also
results in the creation of barren areas. The most valuable plant species for this
purpose include Salix acomophylla, Pinus roxburghaii, Acacia modest, Quercus
incana, Ailanthus altissima, Pinus roxburghaii, and Zizyphus mauritiana owing to
their high sale price.
Rangeland is the major land use and hence effective efforts are required to
conserve the area as a major rangeland and wildlife conservation unit. This will
indirectly contribute to the conservation of the overall plant resources and
vegetation of the area. But direct efforts are required to manage the huge biotic
pressures on the vegetation in the form of rapid deforestation and severe grazing,
both resulting in soil erosion on steep slopes, and the overexploitation of fuel wood
and medicinal plant species. Awareness of these issues needs to be raised amongst
the local community with actions to support sustainable utilization, conservation
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and management of plant resources.
5.4 PHYTOSOCIOLOGY/VEGETATION STRUCTURE
5.4.1 Community Structure
Vegetation has a direct relationship with the climate and soil. A change in
climate or soil can bring about change in the vegetation structure. The
establishment and existence of plant communities strongly reflects the vegetation
type and climatic conditions under which they develop. Biotic influences including
human interaction mould the structure of a plant community or vegetation type. A
community is a collection of plant populations having mutual relationships among
themselves and with their physical environment.
The major environmental factors which affect the community structure
include deforestation, overgrazing, trampling, soil erosion, construction, felling and
other related ecological factors. The investigated area lies between the altitudinal
ranges of 467m to 1897m. The original vegetation as identified by Champion et al.
(1965) characterizes the subtropical forests in the upper mountainous region and
tropical thorny forest in plains. Beg (1965) also classified the area as subtropical to
tropical thorny type at various locations. He considers it to be degraded and
edaphic type which is present in fragment. The communities established in the
study area as a whole link up in to three major vegetational units including
subtropical scrub forest, subtropical pine forest and subtropical broad leaf humid
forest.
The present study reported that 15 different plant communities could be
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possible in both monsoon and spring seasons in the investigated area. The changes
in community structure are due to differences in seasons and sampling time.
Therefore, the community structure reflects the seasonal aspects. The perennial
trees, shrubs and herbs with only a slight change in cover remain the same but the
dominance of therophytes/annuals changes the community structure in different
seasons. The reported species also have different dominance values at different
altitude due to a change in habitat conditions. The communities established during
the current studies depict the edaphic, remnants, seral or degraded stages of main
vegetation types.
The climate of District Kotli varies from dry subtropical to humid climate
types (Champion et al, 1965, Beg, 1975). However due to the marked differences
in local climatic, edaphic and physiographic conditions they support different plant
communities at different altitudes and aspects (Ahmad, 1986). The dominant
woody components in the communities established in subtropical scrub forest (473-
919m) are Acacia modesta, Dodonaea viscosam, Justicia adhatoda and Carissa
opaca. The associated woody species are Olea ferruginea, Ziziphus mauritiana and
Flacourtia indica where as dominant perennial grasses are Themeda anathera,
Cynodon dactylon. All of these are typical characteristic elements of subtropical
scrub vegetation. Champion et al. (1965) and Beg (1975) defined it to be Acacia-
Olea forest.
Poor vegetation cover modified the habitat conditions. The nutrient content
is less in scrub forest except Kutri due to presence of graveyard. Therefore species
requiring less moisture and low fertility appeared. Acacia modesta is the typical
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plant species of the plain areas and prefers rocky and sandy soils. It associates with
Olea ferruginea and can reach up to 1000m in altitude in the mountainous regions.
The current study also confirmed the result of Malik (1986) while reporting the
vegetation of Kotli Hills. Due to severe biotic influences Olea ferruginea failed to
establish in the area (Malik, 1986). It is heavily demanded by local peoples and it
appears that rate of extraction is more than rate of regeneration. The presence of big
individual trees of Olea ferruginea in the protected area indicates that area to be
dominated by olives sometime in the past. However sever deforestation reduced the
regeneration as very few sapling of the Olea ferruginea could be seen in the area.
Therefore there is a dire need for conservation and protection of this species in the
investigated area.
Adhatoda zeylanica, a shrubby species occupied patches and open places
after the removal of native vegetation from the area (salim and shahid, 1973). It
owes its significance in the area due to its negative grazing and immunity to
removal by man.
Another important shrubby plant species in scrub forest is Dodonaea
viscosa which grows and dominates in dry and harsh climatic conditions thus
resulting in the formation of a scrub association (Salim and Shahid, 1973).
Dodonaea viscosa always appears as an important component of scrubby
vegetation across the extensive tract of dry regions. Several other studies e.g. Amin
and Ashfaq, (1982); Amin et al. (1984); Malik; (2006), also reported that
Dodonaea visosa is an important component of scrubby vegetation. It is an
unpalatable plant species and is a good source of fuel. Non palatable species
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generally increase (Hanson and Churchil, 1961) as they are not damaged by the
livestock. Adiantum-Justicia-Acacia community was reported near Bana stream as
moisture content and organic matter was high at this site.
The vegetation is shifted to a sub-tropical chir pine type at altitude between
593-1233m. This association was comprised of six different plant communities
during both monsoon and spring seasons. The upper substratum of the plant
communities were mainly characterised by Pinus roxburghii along with Mallotus
philippensis. The second substratum was characterised by Dodonaea viscosa,
Rubus fruticosus and Punica granatum. Whereas the perennial grasses were
Themeda anathera and Heteropogon contortus. All these are characteristic
elements of chir pine vegetation. At lower elevatin, Mallotus-Pinus-Duchsnea and
Mallotus-Pinus-Adiantum communities were reported which represents transitional
zone from subtropical evergreen forest to subtropical pine forest. Whereas in other
plant communities Pinus roxburghaii was reported as first dominant. It is main
characteristic element of chir pine vegetation. Local people use the pine for various
obvious reasons. This caused the degradation of woody species with hampered
regeneration. The habitat conditions were also modified with the removal of
vegetational cover. Soil moisture and litter was apparently high under the Pinus-
Dodonaea-Punica Community. Here the soil was clay loam with 12% CaCo3.
While in the degraded site beside soil moisture, organic matter was also low.
Therefore species requiring low fertility and less moisture make their appearance.
Dodonea viscosa appears as one of the dominant in such sites. The habitat
condition was apparently drier and less fertile as compared to other sites in
subtropical pine forest. Themeda anathera is a perennial grass having local
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dominance. It prefers open area which is provided after clearing of woody or
shrubby layer. It is fine fodder and seems to have quick regeneration (Amajd et al.,
2012). The majority of other dominant plant species are non-palatable thus
enhancing their abundance under grazing and increasing the chance that they will
become dominant in the area. Ahmed et al. (2009c; 2006); Ilyas et al. (2012) also
recorded similar dominant species within same altitudinal range in lower Dir. Such
forests are reported as Himalayan Pine forest by Champion et al. 1965), lower
Pine forest of the subtropical zone by Ahmed et al. (2006), and Himalayan dry
Chir-Pine and dry temperate forest by Hussain (1969) and Beg (1975), respectively.
The vegetation was shifted to subtropical broad leaf humid type at higher
elevation (1550-1897m). Myrsine-Cotinus-Pinus community (1550m). Quercus-
Indigofera-Rubus community (1704m), Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis community
(1725m) and Quercus-Myrsine- Carex community (1897m) were recognized in the
subtropical broad leaf humid forest zone (1550-1897m). The dominant tree
components in these communities were Quercus incana followed by Pinus
roxburghaii. The shrubby layer was characterised by Myrsine africana, Viburnum
grandiflorum, Berberis lycium, Cotinus coggyria, Debregeasia salcifolia, Indigofera
heterantha, Isodon rugosus and Lonicera quinquelocularis while the herb layer was
characterised by Achillea millefolium, Bergenia ciliate, Bupleurum falcatum,
Carpesium cernum, Cirsium wallichii, Clematis grata, Crysopogon aucheri, Cyperus
difformis, Geranium nepalense, Geum Canadensis, Heracleum candicans, Indigofera
linifolia, Ipomoea hederacea, Melilotus indica, Plantago lanceolata, Pteris cretica,
Salvia moocroftiana, Rumex hastatus, Smilax glaucophylla, Viola canescens,
Themeda anathera and Sorghum halepense. With slight deviations the present results
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are in line with those of Ilyas et al. (2013); Shaheen et al. (2011a,b); Ahmed
(2006); Hussain and Ilahi, (1991) and Beg (1975). The climate of these forests is of a
moist temperate type where temperature is low and rainfall is high. So the reported
plant communities might be the remnants of an original temperate forest (Malik
2005; Hussain et al., 1992; Hussain and Ilahi, 1991). The findings of this current
study are also confirmed by Hussain et al. (1992) and llyas et al. (2015) who
reported similar degraded vegetation from Sawat. The findings are also supported by
Sakya and Banya (1998); Haridasan et al. (1993) al. (1992) who reported degraded
vegetation in NW Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh, India.
The notable grasses in all the communities reported from District Kotli
during different season were Themeda anathera, Heteropogon contortus, Sorghum
halepense, Cynodon dactylon, Dichanthium annulatum and Chrysopogon aucheri.
The perennial grasses have strong root systems that help invasion and overcome
competition to such establish interference over other species (Rice, 1984) and this
might be also one of the reason for Themeda which generally one of the dominant in
most of the communities. It might have arrested the regeneration of degraded trees
and shrubs in the area. There has always been negative association of Themeda with
woody species. Cynondon dactylon has the highest importance value due to openness
of the stand which is manifested by low cumulative canopy coverage value, high
nutrient content and calcareous nature of soil may held responsible for dominance of
this species (Woodhous, 1968; Malik, 1986). The grazing and low nutrient value
may be held responsible for low importance value of Cynodon (Chghtai et al. 1978).
A number of multifarious environmental factors like topography, climate,
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soil type and biotic influence determine the composition and distribution pattern of
plant communities in the investigated area. Micro-gradients have been established
as a result of different degrees of changes and interaction among these factors
(Hanson and Churchill, 1965). Physico-chemical properties of the soil may also
influence the plant distribution pattern on small/local scale (Bakkenes et al., 2002).
Topography is also an important determinant of vegetation structuring as it alters
other environmental factors like temperature, humidity etc. Difference in altitudes,
slope and aspect also support different communities. The dominant species in
particular community might appear as co-dominants in other communities and
there is much overlap seen in the species composition. Similar findings were also
reported by Ahmed et al. (2009 a) while working on Olea ferruginea forests in
lower Dir.
5.4.2 Vegetation Classification and Ordination
The plant associations of any area reflect the available plant species and
habitat conditions under which they exist and develop (Malik, 1986). In general
terms the vegetation and climate of District Kotli is typical of a dry subtropical and
sub-tropical humid type (Champion et al., 1965; Beg, 1975; Hussain et al., 1995)
but due to the distinctive variation in altitude, climatic conditions, edaphic and
physiographic factors and slope variation, the study area supports a range of
different vegetation types (Ahmad, 1986). Based on the cluster analyses current
research work delineated three different associations with respect to micro-
environmental conditions and floristic elements which are clearly separated on a
two dimensional DCA ordination diagram. Similar finding were also reported by
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He et al. (2007) who recognized the vegetation merged in to six main associations
or vegetation types by using cluster analysis and DCA. Ahmed (2009 a,b) also
reported that cluster analysis merged different plant associations in Himalyan forest
of Pakistan. Our findings are also supported by Bokhari et al. (2016) who reported
six groups/association in pine forest of Azad Jammu and Kashmir by using cluster
analysis and ordination technique. The findings are also supported by Amjad et al.
(2014 a) who reported 13 plant communities merged in to four plant associations
by using cluster analysis and DCA. The results are also in agreement with Ahmed
et al. (2010) who reported three plant groups in coniferous forest of Azad Kashmir
by using cluster analysis and ordination technique. Our results are also in line with
Baruch (2005) who recognized many plant communities merged in to fewer groups
or associations by using cluster analysis and DCA.
The spatial distribution of the plant associations in the area and their
floristic composition are determined by a number of environmental factors
including topography, climate, biotic influences and the physico-chemical
properties of the soils. The micro-gradient established under the influence of
variation in these factors is due to interactions among them (Hanson and Churchill,
1965) that result in the formation of different vegetation groups and habitats. It is
therefore imperative to correlate the vegetation structure and composition of the
area with different environmental variables for a better understanding of the
mechanisms responsible for distribution pattern of plant species in this area
(Eriksson and Bergstrom, 2005).
Based on the results obtained from the ordination analyses (DCA and CCA)
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the plant species composition and distribution are mainly governed by altitude (P =
0.002) and aspect (P = 0.008). These findings were in accordance with Shaheen et
al. (2015) in moist temperate forest in Bagh, Azad Kashmir and Khan (2012) in
Naran valley, Sawat who reported the altitude and aspect as primary detrimental
factor for distribution pattern of plant species. Ilyas et al. (2015) came to similar
conclusions for the vegetation of Sawat, Pakistan as did Khan et al. (2013 b) for the
vegetation of Chitral, Pakistan and Song et al. (2009) for vegetation along the river
Delta in China where altitude was the main factor controlling vegetation
distribution pattern. Our findings are also in line with Naqinezhad et al. (2009) who
reported the altitude as primary detrimental factor for floristic composition in
Alborz mountains.
Altitude is a main determinant of plant species distribution patterns and
vegetation composition because of its direct impact on habitat microclimate (Ilyas
et al., 2015; Shaheen et al. 2011a,b; Singh et al., 2009; Zhang et al. 2006; Rawal
and Pangtey, 1994). In our study, the species of subtropical broad leaf humid forest
were mainly distributed at higher altitudes (1550 to 1900 m), while those of
subtropical scrub forest were found at lower altitudes (490 to 920 m), with the
subtropical pine forest association at an intermediate altitudinal range (600 to
1200m). Within the same altitudinal range, aspect and other topographical factors
like slope can also affect the distribution pattern of plant species. Slopes with a
northern aspect have higher soil and air moisture contents and experience lower
temperatures due to less exposure as compared to southern aspect slopes (Sharma
and Baduni, 2000; Shaheen et al., 2012). At our research location, the sites at lower
altitudes but with a northern aspect supported subtropical pine forest but sites at
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lower altitudes but with a southern aspect were covered in subtropical scrub forest.
Similarly Quercus incana showed a very strong relationship with aspect as it was
mainly located only on northern slopes indicating its sciophytic nature. The results
also indicate that grazing intensity is an important factor affecting the species
distribution pattern and favouring an increased dominance of rosette-forming
herbaceous plants (Shaheen, 2012). The results are in agreement with Khan (2012)
who reported that grazing intensity was a major determinant of the plant species
distribution pattern in the Naran Valley in NWFP, Pakistan.
The results depicted in species ordination diagrams suggest that several species
followed the same configuration to that evident for site. However some species do
not follow the site distribution pattern suggesting that they are largely unaffected
by the underlying environmental gradient. Comparison of site and species
ordination diagrams revealed the separation of subtropical broadleaf humid forest
as a distinct group at the end of an altitudinal gradient; this is due to relative
abundance of Quercus incana, Berberis lyceum, Cotinus coggyria, Indigofera
heterantha, Myrsine Africana, Rubus fruticosus, Viburnum grandiflorum,
Origanum vulgare, Viola canescens, Rubia cordifolia, Hedera nepalensis, Carex
sempervirens Crysopogon aucheri, Sorghum halepense Poa annua which are
either totally absent or present in very small number in rest of associations or forest
types due to difference in altitude and habitat condition. The ordination position of
Pinus roxburghaii, Punica granatum, Mallotus philippensis, Carissa opaca,
Erioscirpus comosus, Melilotus indica, Oxalis corniculata, Lespedeza juncea,
Sonchus asper, Cynoglossum lanceolatum, Heteropogon contortus, Themeda
anathera, and Taraxacum officinale indicates that these are characteristic of
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moderate-altitude habitats. Contrary to these species, Acacia modesta, Olea
ferruginea, Justicia adhatoda, Dodonaea viscosa, Otostegia limbata, Boerhavia
procumbens, Amaranthus viridis, Bidens bipinnata, Buglossoides arvensis,
Dicliptera bupleuroides, Stellaria media, and Fumaria indica are mainly restricted
to lower altitudes. The remaining species lack or have little association to the site
configuration along the gradient. These are identified as a group within the marked
boundary of figures.
5.4.3 Species Diversity and its Components
Species diversity, an important ecological characteristic is the reflection of
the productivity and health of any vegetation (Ruiz et al., 2008). Different diversity
indices measure the complexity in vegetation structure and function within the
plant community. The precise measurement of species diversity is helpful in better
understanding of processes responsible for organization and development of plant
communities. In addition diversity measure is also helpful in better understanding
the impact of different ecological factors such as deforestation, intense grazing and
different other environmental stressors on the susceptibility of the vegetation of any
area (Amjad et al. 2014 d; Badsha, 2012; Malik, 2007; Shoukat et al., 1978).
In the investigated area, the Shannon diversity values ranged from 1.83 to
3.19. These values lie within the reported range (1.16 to 3.40) for other Himalayan
forests of Kashmir (Dad, 2016, Amjad et al., 2014d; Dad and Rashi, 2013; Shaheen
et al., 2012; Malik and Malik, 2012) and the world (Jayakuma and Nair, 2013;
Kunwar and Sharma, 2004; Mishra et al., 2003, Byuan et al., 2003; Pande, 2001).
The lowest diversity values were recorded in those parts of the district which are
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highly subjected to anthropogenic disturbance in the form of deforestation, intense
grazing and the removal of medicinal plants (Kumar and Bhutt, 2006; Ram et al.,
2004; Rikhari et al. 1989).
Species diversity had a strong correlation with altitude having a high
average diversity value (3.06) for subtropical broad leaf humid association located
at higher altitude. This might be due to a number of different coexisting and
interacting plant species with overlapping niche (Saxena and Singh, 1982). The
subtropical scrub forest association had low diversity. In the investigated area
species diversity is higher in in the region of greater rainfall (subtropical broad leaf
humid forest) and low in drier in areas (subtropical scrub forest). These findings
are supported by Barros et al. (2015) who reported a positive correlation between
diversity and altitude in subtropical highland grasslands, probably due to an
increase in humidity with increasing altitude. The findings are in agreement with
Malik et al. (2003) who reported low species diversity at lower altitude and high
species diversity at higher altitude in Dao Khun, Kashmir. Our results are also in
line with Malik and Malik, (2012) who also reported significant correlation
between diversity and altitude in Ganga Chotti and Bedorri hills of Azad Jammu
and Kashmir. Other studies in Azad Jammu and Kashmir have also identified plant
species diversity as being mainly influenced by elevation, drainage, soil type and
nutrient status (Amjad et al., 2014d; Malik and Malik, 2012; Smith and Smith,
2009) and our findings are in agreement with diversity influenced mostly by
elevation, topography and soil type.
In the study area the vegetation in subtropical broad leaf humid forest was
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severely grazed by livestock such as goats, buffalo and cows which supress the
growth of the dominant species and reduces the competition between the species.
This allows the sub-dominant flora to flourish which in turn increases the species
diversity (Shaheen, 2012). The diversity value was low in the subtropical pine
forest association during both the monsoon and spring seasons which may be due to
the dominance of Pinus roxburghaii in most of the communities which supresses
the growth of associated species due to high adaptability and specialized niche
(Sharma et al. 2008) and thus reduces the species diversity. The diversity value was
also low in subtropical scrub forest which might be due to deforestation and other
biotic pressure. In degraded vegetation few species can complete the life cycle and
therefore those which require better habitat in term of shade, light and moisture are
excluded. The species which are sun-tolerant requiring low moisture and humidity
may grow. This reduces the species diversity as sciophytes completely or partially
eliminated. This fact agrees with Bazzaz (1975) and Malik (1986).
Within the plant communities of subtropical scrub forest, hump shape
pattern of diversity on elevational gradient was observed. Diversity was high at
middle altitude (667m) and then decreased both toward upper and lower altitudes.
During monsoon season, diversity decreased with increase in altitude among the
plant communities of subtropical pine forest and subtropical broad leaf humid
forest. This trend might be due to the result of species- area relationship. The
number of species is closely related to available area. Since available land area
generally decreases with altitude therefore species diversity decreased with altitude
(Gentry, 1988).
A relatively low diversity was recorded for the tree layer in the investigated
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area. Franklen and Merlin (1992) reported low tree diversity in Cook Island forests
which may be a reflection of the effect of herbivory. Malik and Malik, (2012)
reported that species diversity and richness decreased with increase in size class of
woody species from the Ganga Chotti and Bedorri hills. The results are in
consistent with them as both diversity and richness decrease with an increase in
size class (size class range = 30-300m) of tree species.
The species richness patterns of a particular region are the product of
different environmental and other inter-connected factors such as geography,
topography, species pool, productivity of the area and competition among species
(Criddle et al., 2003). Variation in altitude and physicochemical properties of soils
may also have profound influence on richness pattern (Lomolino, 2001).
Temperature, moisture content, nutrient availability also affect the distribution and
number of species in any area (Korner, 1999). The average number of species per
site ranged between 17-47, while Margalef species richness value ranged between
2.48-5.98. Our species richness data are in agreement with the reported values by
several other related phytosociological investigations from Kashmir (Dad 2016;
Amjad et al., 2014d; Shaheen et al. 2012; Malik and Malik, 2012) and other
Himalyan regions of the world (Kunwar and Bhatt, 2006; Behra et al., 2005; Ram
et al., 2004; Rikhari et al., 1997).
The species richness was high during spring but decreased during the
monsoon season. This is due to dominance of annuals and geophytes during spring
which disappear at the onset of the monsoon season (Malik and Malik, 2012).
Several phytosociological investigations have revealed a decrease in species
richness with altitude (Brown and Lomolino, 1998; Steven, 1992; Francis and
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Currie, 1998). However in contrast to this, the species richness follows the
interpolated richness pattern which is inconsistent with Shaheen, (2012) and
Bhattaria et al. (2004). The highest species richness was observed in the sub-
tropical humid forest association which may be due to diverse habitat and
favourable climatic and edaphic conditions which support the survival and growth
of species (Pant and Samant, 2007). Morever the vegetation in subtropical broad
leaf humid forest is aggregated into patches which may also be responsible for high
species richness (Malik and Malik, 2012). The high number of unpalatable herbs
due to the removal of grasses and high moisture content were also responsible for
high species richness in the subtropical broad leaf humid forest (Ghimire et al.,
2006). The species richness was low in subtropical scrub forest due to less rainfall
and higher anthropogenic disturbance (Petchy and Gaston, 2004). Some of the
recorded species such as Dichanthium (Dirvi and Hussain, 1979), Euphorbia
(Hussain et al. 1984), Cynodon (Chou and Yound, 1975) Adhatoda (Hussain, 1985)
and Themeda, exhibit allelopathy to preclude the species and thus reduce the
species richness in the area.
In contrast to species richness, equitability is more important in vegetation
analysis (West, 1993) and is the reflection of environmental stability in the area
(Shaukat and Khan, 1999). The equitability ranges between 0.65-0.89 in the study
area. This is in accordance with reported ranges for other forests in Azad Jammu
and Kashmir (Habib et al. 2011; Malik and Malik 2012; Amjad, et al 2014). This
high equitability is likely due to the prevalence of stable climatic conditions for
long periods of time. The species evenness was moderate in all the segregated plant
communities within the study area on both macro and micro scales which indicates
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that individual species did not display a uniform distribution across communities
and thus are locally rare. Our results in this regard are in line with Dad (2016) who
reported moderate species evenness in alpine grassland of Kashmir.
The maturity index value in the identified plant communities ranged
between. 32.53-53.04. All the forest stands were immature which might be due to
lesser adaptation to the microclimate of the study sites. This was further enhanced
due to high anthropogenic pressures which disturbed the natural balance of the
plant communities and prevented them from attaining maturity (Saxena & Singh,
1982: Shaheen et al., 2011a,b). Low maturity reflects the heterogeneity within the
plant communities as a result of poor adaptability to the ecological conditions of
area. Only the communities established at Pir Kalinjar and Supply had maturity
values more than 50. They were composed of few highly established species having
uniform distribution and occupying maximum space. The well established
dominant plant species supress the growth of other less adapted species resulting in
the balanced state of the community (Nautiyal and Kaechele, 2007).
5.4.4 Tree Density and Basal Area
Average tree density was (1002 ha-1
) in the area and varied between 280-
2060 ha-1
at different sites. These results are nearly in line with the reported values
of 250 – 1685 ha-1
from different forest types of the subtropical zone of Pakistan
(Ahmed et al., 2006), and 500-1700 ha-1
from dry deciduous forest in India (Joshi
et al., 2012) . These values areas very high when compared to 90 ha-1
for the moist
temperate forest of Bagh Azad Kashmir (Shaheen et al., 2012); 99-439 ha-1
for
Juniper forest in Baluchistan, (Sarangzai et al., 2015); 56-1089 ha-1
for Olea forest
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in Dir, Pakistan (Ahmed et al., 2009a); and 320-1260 ha-1
for scrub jungle to wet
evergreen forest in Kalkad, India (Parthasarathy, 1986).
The sites which were nearest to the settlements had a lower forest density
due to heavy disturbance, in line with the findings of Krishnamurth et al. (2010).
The tree density is also less in subtropical pine forest. The decreased tree density in
the moist temperate forest is due to ruthless and unchecked cutting of Pinus
wallichiana and Abies pindrow from forest stands, being most preferred and
favourite source of timber for the local communities.
The average basal area of forest stands in the investigated area was very low
at 9.63 m2ha
-1 and varied between 1.99-19.18 m
2ha
-1. These results are in line with
reported values of 1.30-13.78 m2ha
-1 from tropical forests in India (Sagar et al.,
2003), 18.09 m2ha
-1 from tropical deciduous forests in India (Krishnamurth et al.
2010); and 7.66-19.55 from dry deciduous forest in India (Joshi et al., 2012). This
value was also low as compared to 5.92-37.90 m2ha
-1 in Olea forest in Dir,
Pakistan (Ahmed et al., 2009a); 69.01 m2ha
-1 in moist temperate forest of Bagh,
Azad Kashmir; 28-49 m2ha
-1 in subtropical forests of the lesser Himalaya, Pakistan
(Ahmed et al., 2006); and 152-89 m2ha
-1 in the Central Himalayan forests of
Nainital (Shah et al., 2009).
The low basal area is an indication of high forest cutting and tree felling in
the study area (Parveen and Hussain, 2007). The average basal area recorded for
subtropical pine forest was high as compared to other forest types in the
investigated area due to the dominance of the large and bulky conifer i.e. Pinus
roxburghaii, which is supposed to have much more basal area values as compared
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to subtropical forest types colonized by relatively thinner Quercus, Acaccia and
Olea species (Kunwar and Bhatt, 2006).
5.4.5 Similarity Index
Similarity indices are not based on the relative abundance of plant species
but are mainly concerned with the presence/absence of species. The high similarity
percentage between different plant communities allowed them to be merged in to
few plant associations or habitat types. Thus this helped in reduction of data.
Fifteen plant communities were reported from the investigated area during spring
and monsoon each. Pinus-Mallotus-Heteropogon and Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda
community, Mallotus-Pinus-Duchsnea and Pinus-Themeda-Duchsnea community,
Mallotus-Pinus-Adiantum and Pinus-Mallotus- Dodonea community had more than
60% similarity among them. The present findings are in line with Malik (2005)
with slight deviation who reported that four plant communities out of fifteen had
more than 60% similarity in Ganga Chotti and Bedori hills of District Bagh, Azad
Kashmir. The findings were also supported by Malik (2007) who reported that
majority of plant communities were heterogeneous in Pir Chanasi hills of District
Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir.
The high similarity between the plant communities might be due to
similarity in altitude, soil type, habitat conditions and proximity of plant
communities to each other. The least similarity among the communities might be
due to change in climate, altitude, biotic and edaphic conditions. Our findings are
in line with Ilyas et al. (2012), Badsha et al. (2010), Malik and Hussain (2008),
Nazir and Malik (2006), Durrani et al. (2000) and Hussain et al., (1995) who
209
reported that difference in altitude, aspect, soil erosion and biotic factors are
responsible for dissimilarity among the plant communities. The high similarity
among some plant communities during the monsoon and spring seasons might be
due to the occurrence of the same shrubs, trees, evergreen perennial herbs and
geophytes while most of plant communities dominated by annuals showed least
similarity among themselves (Malik, 2005; Malik, 2007; Badsha et al., 2011).
5.4.6 Age Class
Within a population, age class is the ratio of different age groups to each
other at a particular time. This can be used as a guide for timber management. Tree
diameter at breast height (dbh) has been used as an indicator for the assumption of
age as diameter increases with age. Generally the older tree had larger the diameter
but this is not applicable to all the species. Sometimes due to nutrient or moisture
deficiencies and lack of height, the understory tree cannot gain much in diameter.
Although they look younger, they may be of the same age as an older individual
(Ahmed and Sarangzai, 1991; Smith and Smith, 2009; Malik, 2007).
Population structure can be visualized with the help of age pyramids. The
population changes along with the time due to which the number of individuals
within different age classes also changes. A growing population is characterized by
the large number of individuals in young age classes which enhance the base of the
age pyramid. While a declining population is characterized by a large number of
individuals in the old age classes which is further depressed if only few number of
individuals are present in the reproductive age class (Badsha, 2011; Malik, 2005).
In the investigated area it was observed that Pinus roxburghii was the major
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contributor in both low and high sized classes which indicated a high chance of
regeneration. The girth of this tree ranged up to 274cm. Our findings are in line
with Khan et al. (2014 b) who reported high regeneration potential of Pinus
roxburghaii from northern areas of Pakistan.
The remaining tree species such as Quercus incana, Acacia modesta, Olea
ferruginea, Mallotus philippensis, Casearia tomentosa, Butea monosperma, Prunus
persica, Flacourtia indica, Salix acomophylla and Ziziphus mauritiana had no
regeneration. The high number of individuals of Quercus incana, Acacia modesta,
Olea ferruginea and Mallotus philippensis in reproductive age classes (0-90cm)
show a high chance of regeneration of these species under the existing habitat and
climatic conditions but due to anthropogenic disturbance for fuel and timber wood,
their individuals are absent from the mature and over mature classes. Thus the
severe deforestation and other anthropogenic activities might limit their
regeneration potential. Our findings in this regard are in line with Amjad et al.
(2014 d), Khan et al. (2014 b)Ahmed et al. (2011b), Siddiqui et al. (2010) and
Saddiqui et al. (2009) \ who reported that forest wood cutting for fuel and other
purposes adversely affect the regeneration potential of trees.
Most of the tree species in the study area have less or no individuals in the
higher size class which reflects the degraded and unstable condition of these
forests. However in the case of some species, gaps were observed which may be
due to the removal of particular sized tree or no regeneration in the past (Khan et
al. 2014b; Ahmed et al. 2010).
The growth rate and age of trees varied tremendously among sites, different
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species and even within different individuals of the same species. In the
investigated area the trees with the large diameters were usually found at higher
altitudes ranged between 1590-1897m. These results are in line with Amjad et al.
(2014 d), Malik (2005) and Malik (2007) who found positive correlation between
altitude and tree growth in their study areas.
The current results depict an alarming state of degraded tree vegetation and
a lack of regeneration in the area. Mostly trees are sparsely distributed with an open
canopy. Our findings are in line with Badsha (2011), Malik (2007) and Malik
(2005) who also reported poor regeneration of most tree species from different
areas of Pakistan and Azad Kashmir. However Martinkova et al. (2004, 2006)
reported the prominent regeneration of different tree species in their study area
which is deviates from our findings. Our findings are also supported by Benvenuti
(2004) who reported that human activities adversely affect the vegetation and that
the only species capable of tolerating human disturbance reside in the urban habitat.
Similarly in our study area, the constant utilization of plants for fuel, timber, fodder
and forage hinder the regeneration capability.
Better conservation measures and sustainable management practices must
be developed and implemented in the area to reduce the anthropogenic pressure on
the forest, otherwise in the current situation the forest degradation will continue in
District Kotli.
5.4.7 Degree of Homogeneity
There were a total of 30 plant communities described during two different
seasons viz spring and monsoon. Out of which 18 communities were heterogeneous
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and only 12 were homogenous. The heterogeneity is possessed by the majority of
plant communities which might be due to habitat degradation, the predominance of
annuals, climatic and edaphic conditions, heavy grazing, deforestation and soil
erosion in the investigated area. More species are recorded in class B to D due to
disturbed conditions in the area. Our findings in this regard are in line with Badsha
(2011), Malik (2005) Malik (2007), Shiyomi et al. (2001) and Durrani et al. (2000)
who also reported that most of the plant communities are heterogeneous in their
study areas due to disturbed conditions.
With the increasing altitude (1550-1897m) heterogeneity occurred in most
of the plant communities such as Myrsine-Cotinus-Pinus, Quercus-Indigofera-
Rubus, Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis, Quercus-Myrsine-Carex communities. The
present findings are in line with Malik (2005) and Malik (2007) who reported
increasing trend of heterogeneity with altitude from District Bagh and
Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir.
5.4.8 Degree of Constancy
Constancy reflects the time of occurrence of species in particular vegetation
group. In the investigated area plant species were distributed in to five constancy
classes. Majority of plant species (41) were present rarely in the study area. They
were followed by seldomly present (35), occasionally present (13), mostly (12) and
constantly present (9) species. Deforestation, overgrazing along with altitudinal
difference were mainly responsible for low percentage of occasionally, mostly or
constantly present species. Similar findings were reported by Malik and Hussain
(2006) in Lohibehr reserve forest where grazing, urbanization, fuel and fodder
213
consumption were higher.
5.4.9 Degree of Aggregation
Within a population, individuals may be distributed randomly, uniformly or
in clumped manners. However random distribution is rare as it occurs in habitats
with uniform climatic conditions resulting in little tendency for aggregation.
Uniform distribution occurs where competition for resources is very high between
the individuals. According to Dice (1952) the climax trees forming the forest crown
have uniform pattern of distribution due to competition for sunlight and other
resources.
Aggregation in plants may occur in response to the local differences in
habitat, seasonal weather changes and reproductive processes as mobility of seeds
and spores are inversely related with aggregation. In the study area most of the
plant species showed the aggregated pattern of distribution followed by
intermediate. Dominant grasses such as Themeda anathera, Heteropogon
contortus, Saccharum spontaneum, Sorghum halepense and Chrysopogon aucheri
etc. showed aggregation due to their perennial, rhizomatous habit and enormous
number of seed output. Plants like Justicia adhatoda, Dodonaea viscosa,
Indigofera heterantha, and Zanthoxylum armatum have heavy seeds due to which
aggregation occurs among them. Some of them also grow vegetatively from below
ground parts which is also responsible for aggregation among them.
The predominance of annuals in the investigated area might also be the
possible reason for the aggregation as a short season exerts local pressure within
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the localized habitat. Soil moisture could be one reason for the aggregation of
species such as Cyperus niveus, Dichanthium, Lespedeza, Geranium, and
Ranunculus at higher altitude. The organic matter at some sites is high which also
favour aggregation. The negative interaction between the plants such as allelopathy
also contributes towards aggregation (Malik, 2005; Malik, 2007).
5.5 PRODUCTIVITY OF RANGELAND
Biomass reflects the community resources which are tied up in different
plant species. Within a community, the importance of plant species can be best
indicated by the vegetation composition based on the dry matter of species
(Bonham, 1989). In the study area, the average above ground biomass of
herbaceous species on a dry matter basis was 625 Kg/ha which was low as
compared to those reported for other areas of Azad Jammu and Kashmir by Malik,
(2005) and Malik (2007) due to low rainfall and high temperature. However this
was quite high compared with a value of 200Kg/ha reported by Badsha et al.
(2010) for South Wazirstan, Pakistan. The biomass production contributed by
different plant species was also affected by different anthropogenic activities and
changed with stand age as well (Badsha, 2012; Liddell et al., 2007; Sah et al.,
2004). An average shrub biomass production of 2720 Kg/ha was also low as
compared to the average shrubby biomass reported for other part of Azad Jammu
and Kashmir by Malik (2005) and Malik (2007) which may be due to differences in
altitude and low rainfall in the study area.
In the investigated area the productivity was high during the month of July
and August. The month of July had maximum production. This was due to high
215
rainfall in summer and early winter. The average rainfall during July and August
was 251.52mm and 217.66 mm that enhance the biomass production by promoting
the growth of vegetation. Productivity was directly related with the precipitation
along with the other factors (Socholes and Baker, 1993). The productivity was
higher in the wet season as compared to winter and dry seasons (Malik 2005, Malik
2007, Shanmugaavel and Ramarathinam, 1993). So our finding in this regards are
in line with them as there was decline in biomass production in dry and winter
season. Our findings are also in line with Hussain and Durrani (2007) who reported
high biomass of shrubs and grassed during summer. During the winter season, most
of plant species were in dormant stage. The July and August was more productive
due to high rainfall.
Temperature is also important predictor controlling the biomass production
of vegetation. The biomass or productivity is significantly positively correlated
with temperature in the investigated area. Temperature was high during the summer
which gradually decreased onward into winter which might be also responsible for
high biomass production during the summer. These results are inconsistent with
those of Sordo et al. (2011) who reported high biomass production during summer
as a result of high temperature while the low biomass production during the winter
season was due to low temperature. Similarly, Hussain and Durrani, (2007) also
reported high biomass production during summer due to high temperature and
rainfall. The results of the current study are also supported by Amjad et al. (2014
b), Moser and Leuschner, (2007), Kitayama and Aiba, (2002) Aiba and Kitayama,
(1999) and Waide et al. (1999) who reported the similar findings in their
investigated areas.
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The biomass is negatively correlated with altitude in the investigated area.
The biomass was high at lower reaches and then decreased with altitude. A similar
decreasing trend in biomass production with altitude was observed by Malik (2007)
in the Pir Chanasi hills and Malik (2005) in Ganga Chotti and Bedorri hills.
However in contrast to our findings, Haq et al. (2011) and Khane et al. (2014)
reported the highest biomass at the top of Dharbi and Takht-e-Nasrati range land
because of less grazing pressure and lowest at the base due to intense grazing. In
our case biomass was higher at the lower reaches and lower at the higher altitude
due to low temperature at high elevations.
Osem et al. (2004) reported that productivity in the range land of Israel was
low for the palatable species but high for non-palatable and rarely palatable species.
These findings are in agreement with the present case where the biomass of non
palatable and rarely palatable species such as Dodonaea viscosa, Rubus fruticosus,
Berberis lycium and Cotinus coggyria was quite high as compared to palatable
species. Similar findings were also observed by Perkins and Keith, (2003) who
recorded that defoliation due to browsing can significantly reduce biomass
production of shrubs and grasses. Kumar et al. (2011) reported an increasing trend
in biomass production with the age of plants in Rajistan India. In our study area
biomass was low due to immature vegetation which is in accordance with his
findings. Rosenschein et al. (1999) and Hussain and Durrani, (2007) also reported
that vegetation biomass was altered by browsing which is in agreement with the
present report.
5.6 PALATABILITY OF VEGETATION
Palatability, the acceptability of plant parts by grazing animals, depends upon
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different attributes of plant species such as growth stage, chemical composition,
morphological appearance and kind of plant that may either initiate a particular
response by a grazing animal or may prevent an animal from grazing (Heady,
1964).
The pastures of District Kotli are freely grazed by goat, sheep and cattle in
the form of mixed herds. The grazing season extends from the end of April to the
start of October. The vegetation of pastures is severely consumed by the grazing
animals with no management practices due to the traditional grazing system. The
grasses like Brachiaria eruciformis, Brachiaria reptans, Eragrostis japonica, Poa
annua, Setaria pumila, and Setaria viridis emerge during early spring and at the
onset of the monsoon. However they are grazed quickly by livestock within a short
time duration even before attaining maturity. Similarly large numbers of geophytes
sprout in early May and August but only a few such as Sauromatum venosum,
Erioscirpus comosus, Gagea pakistanica, Senecio nudicaulis and Sorghum
halepense can reach the flowering stage due to their poisonous nature.
Vegetation structure and physiognomy have been changed due to the heavy
grazing in the area. These findings are in line with Karki et al. (2000) who reported
that structure and function of the ecosystem was obstructed by the intense grazing.
Grazing animals reduce the vegetation cover of woody species. However the
impact depends upon the actual woody species and the grazing animal involved.
Among the tree species Casearia tomentosa, Pinus roxburghii, Quercus incana and
Salix acomophylla were seldom browsed due to their unpalatable nature and so
were least affected. The leaves of Acacia modesta, Olea ferruginea and Ziziphus
218
mauritiana were mainly preferred by goats so they were intensely affected due to
severe browsing. Akram et al. (2009) and Neal and Miller, (2007) reported that
Zizyphus was intensely affected due to intense browsing while on the other hand
Phoenix was seldom affected due to its unpalatable nature. Our findings are in line
with them as heavy grazing in the area reduced the majority of woody species to a
prostrate habit.
The livestock preferred 65% of the shrubby species to varying degree, but
Colebrookea oppositifolia, Cotinus coggyria, Dodonaea viscosa Isodon rugosus,
Justicia adhatoda, Lantana camara, Loranthus pulverulentus, Lonicera
quinquelocularis Nerium oleander, Rhynchosia pseudo-cajan and Rosa brunonii
were not damaged due to their unpalatable nature. Hypericum oblongifolium,
Viburnum grandiflorum and Indigofera heterantha were seldom grazed and so
were least affected. However, Berberis lycium, Debregeasia salcifolia, Maytenus
royleanus, Myrsine africana, Punica granatum and Woodfordia fruiticosa were
highly preferred by livestock. Their growth and occurrence was impaired due to
heavy grazing at an early stage of life. So they become stunted with a deformed or
cushion like canopy.
The range vegetation varies greatly in palatability, productivity and
nutritive value. The highly palatable species were selected first by the livestock.
Therefore poor management practices could lead to the complete replacement of
high quality forage plant by poor or non-palatable species such as Dodonaea
viscosa, Justicia adhatoda, Isodon rugosus, Lantana camara, Loranthus
pulverulentus etc. These findings are in line with Malik (2005) who reported that
219
severe grazing and deforestation lead to the replacement of palatable species with
non-palatable ones such as Sarcocca and Juniperus. The removal of vegetation also
promoted soil erosion. Eroded soil was present in the intensely grazed area of Kotli.
Palatability of given plant species for a given animal changes with the
season or maturity stage. The herbaceous species, especially grasses, are highly
palatable at an early stage of growth due to their soft texture and high nutrient
content but their nutrional content decreases as they become dry and yellow. On
other hand shrubs and trees are more palatable at a post reproductive or mature
stage. Certain trees and shrub such as Acacia modesta, Olea ferruginea and
Ziziphus mauritiana are highly palatable as they retain their leaves throughout the
year. These findings are in line with those of Watson and Smith, (2000) who
reported that the majority of grasses are preferred at an early stage of maturity
when they are young and green with a high nutritional content. The livestock
generally preferred Acacia modesta and Zizyphus mauritiana during winter and
early spring due to their young foliage.
The fragrance and nature of a plant can enable it to strongly avoid
herbiovory (Lee et al., 2000) which is in agreement with current research as 71 of
the plant species were non palatable in the investigated area due to their poisonous
or spiny nature.
The preference for herbaceous forb species was highest by sheep, while the
preference for woody species was highest by goats and preference for grasses was
highest by the cattle. These findings are in agreement with those of Badsha (2012),
Angasa and Baars, (2000), Husain and Durrani, (2007) and Malik (2005) who
220
stated that goat and sheep usually preferred forbs and shrubs while, cattle prefer
grasses. Palatability mainly depends upon the kind of grazing animal and the
available forage resources. The number of plant species reduces during the spring
so animals have to live only upon available species. Sheep and cattle have a higher
level of palatability as compared to goats as they have definite preferences (Malik,
2005; Malik, 2007).
Livestock preferred the leaves of plant species as opposed to shoot/whole
plant. This is because leaves have a higher content of crude protein and
phosphorous and a lower amount of lignin and fibre than stems. Due to a higher
level of lignification, most stems have a poor palatability value. Different
morphological characteristics of plants like hairs, spines, coarse texture, rigidity,
stickiness unfavorable chemical nature and odor reduce the palatability. Our
findings are consistent with Badsha (2012), Hussain and Durrani, (2009), and
Milewsk and Madden, (2006) who reported that many plants produce long thorns in
response to intense grazing and browsing in their study area. Variation in selection
of different plant parts of the same plant is due to differences in mineral content
and nutritive value. The plant parts with a poisonous nature or less nutrient content
are generally avoided by the livestock. Leaves from shrubs and forbs are more
digestible than grasses. This is due to the accumulation of silica in the leaves of
grasses. That is why some grasses such as Saccharum spontaneum, Imperata
cylindrical, Chrysopogon aucheri and Cenchrus ciliaris are rarely palatable in the
area. (Holechek et al., 1998). The fruit and flower of some plant species are also
important seasonally in animal diet (Pfister and Malecheck, 1986) and in our study,
flowers and fruits were preferred by livestock. The reason might be that the flowers
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and fruits of shrubs and forbs have higher level of cell soluble and crude protein
than leaves. A similar preference for flowers and fruit by grazing animals was also
reported by Hussain and Mustafa, (1995) and Malik (2007) for other plant species
in Nasirabad and Pri Chanasi. This is because green herbaceous plants are more
easily digestible than dried forage. The preference for dried fodder decreases
because of taste, odor and feel (Holechek and Galt, 2000). Our findings are
supported by Knop and Smith, (2006) who reported a change in the relative
preference of plant species with decreasing condition. Similarly, Miller and
Thompson, (2005) observed that Fetuca and Agrostis were both palatable in fresh
condition during summer and dried during winter. A similar trend was noticed in
the present study as some of plant species were used in both fresh and dry condition
and Dichanthium annulatum were preferred more in fresh condition. In the present
study fresh forage drastically declined therefore the livestock owners stored dried
forage for stall feeding. The livestock use these forage even though they may not
prefer it.
There were 56 (27.3%) non palatable species like Cotinus coggyria, Isodon
rugosus, Loranthus pulverulentus, Nerium oleander, Viburnum grandiflorum,
Bergenia ciliate, Erioscirpus comosus, Euphorbia helioscopia, Gloriosa superba,
Senecio nudicaulis, Salvia etc. This may be due to unfavorable chemical
composition and textural nature of the plant species. The poor health of livestock
might be due to eating these poisonous plant species. Since there is always a
shortage of fodder, thus non-palatable or less palatable plant species were used
under compulsion because there is no other choice for grazing animals.
Overgrazing some time forces the livestock to eat the harmful plant species. Intense
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completion was observed among the less palatable and poisonous plant species at
good grazing land resulting in vigorous high producing forage plants as many plant
species are available as forage (Vallentine, 1990). The palatable species in the
present case do not face much completion as vegetation is sparse and poor. The
competition is further reduced due to removal of palatable plant species by grazing
animals. This promotes the growth and spread of undesirable non palatable
vegetation cover.
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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
This study presents the first ever ecological data on plant biodiversity of
District Kotli, Azad Jammu & Kashmir in terms of phytosociological classification
and ordination, distribution, species diversity, richness, and rangeland conditions.
The area hosts number of endemic, endangered and rare species of the Azad
Kashmir and Pakistan. Additionally, the study has quantified the ecosystem
services provided by plant biodiversity on the one hand and documented
indigenous traditional knowledge on the other. The area, host not only to present
day food, fodder, fuel, timber and medicinal plants, but also to the wild relatives of
cultivated plants which may possess useful stress and disease resistant
characteristics or provide germplasm resources. Furthermore, species which are not
important economically might and must have a significant ecological role in
controlling erosion, flood, and over all ecosystems regulating services. People use
species especially for medicinal and multipurpose uses in a non-random pattern
which indicates the prospective loss of endangered and rare species. Future work
should address assessment of conservation status according to IUCN criteria and
the long lasting consequences of the loss of plant biodiversity for the sustainability
of ecosystem services other than just provisioning services i.e., also regulatory,
supporting and cultural services. Following are some important recommendations
provided on the basis of present study to conserve the plant resources of the area:
1. The area possesses a great variety of plant species along with new floristic
elements, plant communities and association. Therefore similar studies need to
be conducted in the other area of Azad Jammu & Kashmir to compile the
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complete plant wealth and flora for future studies.
2. There is need to incorporate Ex Situ and In Situ conservation practices to
conserve the diminishing flora of the area.
3. Government policies must be implemented and laws for conservation and
species legislation should be empowered with full spirit of safeguarding the
forest ecosystems and preparing for the future effects of global warming and
climate changes.
4. To enhance the regeneration of primary producers i.e. vegetation, moderate
and rotational grazing management be enforced.
5. There is intense anthropogenic pressure on the woody plant species
especially for extraction of wood for fuel and timber purposes. Therefore,
alternate sources of fuel like natural gas, liquid petroleum gas and scientific
kilns must be provided to local inhabitants and the forest must be closed for
a period of at least 10 years to promote vegetation cover.
6. Disclimax and Retrogression of climax community is frequent. It can be
managed by regulating sustainable grazing and deforestation with the
participation of influential people and local community in the area.
7. There is an urgent need to promote awareness among the local inhabitants
that development and conservation of natural vegetation is indispensable for
soil and land management as the soil is rapidly being eroded due to poor
vegetation cover.
8. Education and awareness among the local inhabitants should be created
about the importance of biodiversity in ecosystem and habitat conservation
as well as the consequences associated with their depletion.
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9. More avenues such as exploration of new research activities should be
available for knowing the seed germination, seed production and growth
pattern for successful propagation and reintroduction of fodder, timber, fuel
wood and medicinal plants.
10. To impose an effective management plan, the cooperation and participation
local people is vital, which might be possible with the help of the prominent
people of the area.
11. Detailed socioeconomic data of local people should be recorded and steps
can be taken to raise their life standard so they can use plants wisely.
12. Marketing policies for livestock and medicinal plants should be initiated
and regulated as at present there is no such policy.
13. Phytochemical screening and assessment of biological activities of
medicinal plants should be carried to validate the uses of plants reported by
local people.
14. The balance between food and feed supply, hybrid livestock, nutrient input,
population and human influences will be critical for long life sustainability
of rangeland.
15. Strong linkages among international, regional and sub-regional research and
developmental programs are required to put in place integrated management
plans so that ecological and socioeconomic conditions can be addressed
appropriately.
16. Ecotourism could be developed in the mountainous areas especially Nikyal
valley of District Kotli. This will be an additional source of income and
may improve socioeconomic condition of the local inhabitants of the area.
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17. Long term plans are needed to ensure and improve the overall sustainable
biological production of this area, which might include rehabilitation of
degraded habitats by introducing fast growing fodder species, replacement
of low yielding livestock with improved breeds, rotational and mixed
grazing. Such long term efforts will allow the flora and fauna to revert to its
original position by reducing the biotic pressures on them.
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SUMMARY
The present research work was conducted during 2014-2016 to explore the
vegetation structure, floristic diversity, soil plant relationship, range land conditions
and people-plant interaction of District Kotli. The flora comprised of 202 species
distributed among 71 families and 176 genera. Of them 6 species were of
pteridophytes, 1 of angiosperm, 159 species of dicotyledons and 36 species of
monocotyledons. Based on species number, Asteraceae (23 Spp.), Poaceae (20
Spp.), Fabaceae (15 Spp.), Labiatae (11 Spp.), and Euphorbiaceae (7 Spp.) were the
leading families. This situation was changed drastically on FIV basiss
(Quantitatively). Poaceae, Pinaceae, Acanthaceae, Leguminosae, Euphorbiaceae,
Sapindaceae and Asteraceae were leading families quantitatively. To the best of my
Knowledge, Geum candicans is reported for first time in Pakistan. The vegetation
was dominated by therophytes, hemicryptophytes, nanophylls, leptophylls and
aggregated plant species which are well in accordance with the climate of the area.
There were four flowering seasons. The first flowering season stretches out
from March to May (spring), second season (summer) stretches out from June to
August, third season (autumn) stretches out from September to October and fourth
season (winter) stretches from November to February during which only 9.67%
species were found in blooming stage. The flowering species decreased toward
winter season.
Ethno ecological studies showed that the chief utility (36.96%) of plants
was for medicinal purposes followed by fodder/forage plant species (29.80). Other
uses were fuel, edible fruits/vegetable, agriculture tool, timber wood, hedge/fence,
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source of nectar for honey bees, roof thatching and herbal tea etc. This indicates
that the area has huge potential for medicinal plant and rangeland. There is heavy
shortage of fuel wood and timber wood species that enhanced the anthropogenic
pressure in the form of deforestation on existing woody plant species.
Phytosociological investigation and ordination analysis delineated 30 plant
communities during spring and monsoon seasons, merged in to three plant
association viz sub-tropical scrub forest association at lower altitude (473-919m),
sub-tropical pine forest association at middle altitude (593-1233m) and sub-tropical
broad leaf humid forest association at higher altitude (1550-1897m). Canonical
Correspondence Analysis (CCA) revealed that altitude and aspect were the
strongest factors responsible for controlling the distribution pattern of plant species
and classification and grouping of vegetation in to different associations. Other
important factors are grazing intensity, distance from settlement and soil erosion.
Edaphology indicated that soil texture was of loam, clay loam and sandy loam type
with pH varied between 6.02-7.51. Vegetation structure, flora diversity and
productivity of the area are also governed by variation in texture and physico-
chemical properties of the soil. The area is basically of a subtropical type, varying
from dry to humid types at different altitudes. Much of the woody biomass is being
removed for fuel and timber wood. The area has huge potential for forest
regeneration as there was a high number of seedlings of all the trees. The tree
cutting must be completed banned for fuel and timber wood purpose.
A palatability study showed that out of 202 plant species, 20.79% were
highly palatable and 16.34% were moderately palatable. Thus 37% palatable plant
229
species were preferred species which is a strong indication of non-availability of
forage/ fodder which enhances the grazing pressure on available plant resources.
The preference of livestock varied by species, part used, phenological stage and
availability of forage.
The productivity of the area was strongly influenced by season,
phenological stage and climatic condition, mainly rainfall and temperature. There
was decrease in productivity during winter. The rangelands of District Kotli are less
productive and need proper rehabilitation and management through advanced
ecological approaches. The herd size must be kept in accordance with the carrying
capacity of rangeland and rotational grazing must be enforced.
230
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Appendix 1: Floristic composition, Biological Spectrum and phenology of plant species recorded from District Kotli, Azad Jammu &
Kashmir.
Division/Family S. No Species/Voucher number Seasonality Life
Form
Leaf
Spectra
Phenology
Monsoon Spring
A. Pteridophytes
Dryopteridaceae 1. Dryopteris stewartii Fraser-Jenk./ISL-847 + + G Me May- Sep
Pteridaceae
2. Adiantum incisum Forssk./ISL-761 + + G N Jun-Oct
3. Adiantum venustum D. Don/ISL-905 + - G N Jun-Aug
4. Onychium japonicum (Thunb.)
Kunze/ISL-819 + - G L
Jun-Sep
5. Pteris cretica L./ISL-817 + + G Mi Jun-Aug
Selaginellaceae 6. Selaginella chrysocaulos (Hook. & Grev.)
Spring/ISL-902 + - G L
May-Aug
B. Gymnosperms
Pinaceae 7. Pinus roxburghii Sargent/ISL-712 + + MP L Mar-Apr
C. Angiosperms
a. Monocotyledons
Araceae 8. Sauromatum venosum (Aiton) Kunth/ISL-
795 + - G Me
Apr-May
Asparagaceae 9.
Asparagus capitatus subsp. gracilis
(Royle ex Baker) Browicz/ISL-802 + - NP L
Mar-Sep
10. Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop/ISL-846 + - G L Apr-May
Colchicaceae 11. Gloriosa superba L./ISL-813 - + L Mi Jul-Sep
Commelinaceae 12. Commelina benghalensis L./ISL-858 + + Th Mi Aug-Nov
276
Cyperaceae
13. Carex sempervirens Vill. /ISL-827 + + H L Apr-Jul
14. Cyperus difformis L./ISL-762 + - G N Jul-Sep
15. Cyperus niveus Retz./ISL-836 + + G L Apr-Aug
16. Cyperus rotundus L./ISL-771 + - G N Apr-Oct
17. Erioscirpus comosus (Nees) Palla/ISL-
759 + + G L
Mar-Apr
Dioscoreaceae
18. Dioscorea bulbifera L./ISL- 852 + - L Me Jul-Sep
19. Dioscorea melanophyma Prain &
Burkill/ISL-854 + - L Me
Aug-Oct
Juncaceae 20. Juncus articulatus L./ISL-778 + - G L Apr-May
Liliaceae 21. Gagea pakistanica Levichev & Ali/ISL-
878 - + G L
Mar-Apr
Orchidaceae 22. Zeuxine strateumatica (L.) Schltr. /ISL-
891 + - Th Mi
Mar-Apr
Poaceae
23. Aristida adscensionis L./ISL-816 + - Th Mi Jul-Oct
24. Brachiaria eruciformis (Sm.) Griseb.
/ISL-756 - + Th L
Jul-Sep
25. Brachiaria reptans (L.) C.A. Gardner &
C.E. Hubb. /ISL-773 + + Th L
Jun-Nov
26. Cenchrus ciliaris L./ISL-753 - + H L Feb-Mar
27. Chrysopogon aucheri (Boiss.) Stapf/ISL-
808 + + H L
Mar-May
28. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers./ISL-904 + + H L Round the
year
29. Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd.
/ISL-772 + Th Mi
Jul-Oct
30. Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) + + H N Mar-Oct
277
Stapf/ISL-775
31. Digitaria setigera Roth/ISL-851 - + Th L Sep-Oct
32. Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. /ISL-765 - + Th L Jun-Aug
33. Eragrostis japonica (Thunb.) Trin. /ISL-
757 + - Th N
Aug-Oct
34. Heteropogon contortus (L.) P. Beauv. ex
Roem. & Schult. /ISL-824 + + H N
Sep-Nov
35. Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv. /ISL-
792 + + G L
Apr-Aug
36. Oplismenus undulatifolius (Ard.) P.
Beauv. /ISL-818 - + H L
Aug-Sep
37. Poa annua L. /ISL-892 - + Th L Apr-Sep
38. Saccharum spontaneum L. /ISL-811 + + Ch L Jul-Sep
39. Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult.
/ISL-862 + + Th N
Jun-Oct
40. Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv./ISL-863 + + Th N Jun-Sep
41. Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. /ISL-859 + + G N May-Oct
42. Themeda anathera (Nees ex Steud.)
Hack. /ISL-867 + + H L
Jun-Oct
Smilacaceae 43. Smilax glaucophylla Klotzsch/ISL-814 + + L Mi Apr-May
b. Dicotyledons
Acanthaceae
44. Barleria cristata L. /ISL-804 + - Ch Mi Nov-Feb
45. Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees/ISL-776 + + Th L Jun-Oct
46. Justicia adhatoda L. /ISL-748 + + NP Me Jul-Oct
47. Justicia peploides (Nees) T.
Anderson/ISL-781 + - Th N
Jul-Sep
48. Pteracanthus alatus (Wall. ex Nees) + - Th Mi Jul-Sep
278
Bremek. /ISL-855
Adoxaceae 49. Viburnum grandiflorum Wallich ex
DC/ISL-740 + + NP Me
Nov-Jun
Aizoaceae 50. Zaleya pentandra (L.) C. Jeffrey/ISL-900 + - Ch N Apr-Jul
Amaranthaceae
51. Achyranthes aspera L. /ISL-784 + + Th N Mar-Aug
52. Alternanthera pungens Kunth/ISL-724 + - Th N Jun-Oct
53. Amaranthus viridis L./ISL-742 + + Th N Round the
year
54. Chenopodium album L. ISL-758 + - Th N Jan-Sep
55. Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss./ISL-818 - + Ch N Apr-Nov
Anacardiaceae 56. Cotinus coggygria Scop./ISL-718 + + NP Mi Apr-May
Apiaceae
57. Aegopodium podagrari L. /ISL-764 + - Th Mi Feb-May
58. Bupleurum falcatum L./ISL-822 + - Th L Jun-Oct
59. Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC. /ISL-
821 + Ch Me
Jun-Sep
60. Scandix pecten-veneris L. /ISL-901 - + Th L Mar-May
61. Torilis nodosa (L.) Gaertn. /ISL-870 - + Th L Mar-May
Apocynaceae
62. Carissa opaca Stapf ex Haines/ISL-704 + + NP Mi Apr-Jun
63. Nerium oleander L. /ISL-710 + + NP Mi Apr-Sep
64. Tylophora hirsuta (Wall.) Wight/ISL-899 + - L Me Jul-Sep
Araliaceae 65. Hedera nepalensis K. Koch./ISL-815 + + L Mi Jul-Sep
Asteraceae
66. Achillea millefolium L./ISL-783 + + H L Jun-Sep
67. Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Kuntze/ISL-
787 + - Th Mi
Apr-May
68. Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) Benth. and
Hook.f. /ISL-777 + - G N
Jul-Sep
279
69. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. /ISL-
817 + + Ch L
Jul-Nov
70. Bidens bipinnata L. /ISL-751 - + H Mi Dec-Mar
71. Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. &
Sherff/ISL-752 + + Th N
Dec-Mar
72. Carpesium cernum L. /ISL-755 + + Th Mi Jul-Sep
73. Cirsium wallichii DC./ISL-801 + + H N Apr-Jun
74. Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. /ISL-757 + + Th N Mar-Jun
75. Gerbera gossypina (Royle) Beauv. /ISL-
837 + + Th Mi
May-Jul
76. Lactuca dissecta D. Don/ISL-782 - + H N Mar-May
77. Launaea procumbens (Roxb.) Ramayya
& Rajagopal/ISL-788 + - Ch Me
Mar-Apr
78. Myriactis nepalensis Less./ISL-865 + - Th N Sep-Oct
79. Parthenium hysterophorus L. /ISL-838 + + Th N Apr-Oct
80. Saussurea heteromalla (D. Don) Handel-
Mazzetti/ISL- 798 + - H Mi
Mar-Aug
81. Senecio nudicaulis Buchanan-Hamilton
ex D. Don/ISL-876 - + G Mi
Apr-May
82. Serratula praealta L./ISL-861 - + H N Jul-Sep
83. Sonchus arvensis L. /ISL-850 - + Th N Feb-May
84. Sonchus asper (L.) Hill/ISL-857 + + Th Me Mar-Jun
85. Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg. /ISL-
887 + + G Mi
Feb-Apr
86. Tridax procumbens L. /ISL-890 + + H Mi Sep-Jan
87. Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less./ISL-832 + + Th L Mar-Jun
88. Youngia japonica (L.) DC. /ISL-873 - + Th N Mar-May
Balsaminaceae 89. Impatiens edgeworthii Hook. f. /ISL-791 - + Th Mi Jul-Sep
280
Berberidaceae 90. Berberis lycium Royle/ISL-703 + + NP N Apr-Jun
Boraginaceae
91. Buglossoides arvensis (L.) I.M. Johnst.
/ISL-774 + + Th L
Jan-Apr
92. Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk./ISL-
760 + + H N
Jun-Sep
93. Onosma thomsonii Clarke/ISL-877 + - H Mi Apr-May
94. Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm./ISL-889 + + Th N Mar-Aug
Brassicaceae
95. Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik/ISL-
826 - + Th L
Feb-Jun
96. Lepidium sativum L./ISL-789 - + H N Apr-Jun
97. Neslia apiculata Fisch., C.A. Mey. &
Ave'-Lall./ISL-874 - + Th L
Mar-Apr
Campanulaceae 98. Campanula pallida Wall. /ISL-825 + - Th N Apr-Jul
Caprifoliaceae 99. Lonicera quinquelocularis
Hardwicke/ISL-850 + + NP Me
Mar-Jul
Caryophyllaceae
100. Arenaria neelgherrensis Wight & Arn.
/ISL-780 + - Th L
Mar-Aug
101. Silene conoidea L. /ISL-813 - + Th N Mar-May
102. Stellaria media (L.)Vill. /ISL-860 - + Th L Jan-Apr
Celastraceae 103. Maytenus royleana (Wall. ex M.A.
Lawson) Cufod. /ISL-834 + + NP N
Feb-Apr
Convolvulaceae
104. Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. /ISL-769 + - Ch N Feb-Oct
105. Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br./ISL-841 + - L Mi Jul-Oct
106. Ipomoea hederacea Jacq. /ISL-844 + - L Mi Sep-Oct
107. Ipomoea pestigridis L./ISL-845 + - L Mi Aug-Oct
Elaeagnaceae 108. Elaeagnus parvifolia Wall. ex Royle/ISL-
736 + + NP Mi
May-Jun
281
Euphorbiaceae
109. Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.) Mull. Arg.
/ISL-705 + + MP Me
Mar-May
110. Euphorbia esula L. /ISL-766 + + H N May-Aug
111. Euphorbia helioscopia L. /ISL-810 - + Th N Jan-Apr
112. Euphorbia hirta L. /ISL-811 + + Th N Jun-Dec
113. Euphorbia indica Lam. /ISL-812 + + Th N Jun-Sep
114. Euphorbia prolifera Buch.-Ham. ex D.
Don/ISL-814 + - H L
Mar-Jun
115. Euphorbia prostrata Ait. /ISL-816 + - H L Mar-Dec
Fabaceae
116. Acacia modesta Wall./ISL-715 + + MP L Mar-May
117. Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.) DC. /ISL-
741 + - Th N
Sep-Oct
118. Argyrolobium roseum Jaub. /ISL-815 + + Th N Apr-Aug
119. Astragalus psilocentros Fisch. /ISL-702 + + NP L Mar-May
120. Astragalus leucocephalus Grah.ex Benth.
/ISL-803 - + Ch L
Mar-Jul
121. Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taubert/ISL-
717 + + MP Me
Mar-May
122. Indigofera heterantha Wall. ex
Brandis/ISL-722 + + NP L
Apr-May
123. Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz./ISL-793 + - Ch L May-Aug
124. Lespedeza juncea var. sericea F.B. Forbes
& Hemsl./ISL-790 + + Th L
Jun-Oct
125. Rhynchosia pseudo-cajan Camb. /ISL-
746 + + NP N
May-Jun
126. Lotus corniculatus L./ISL- 881 + - H L Mar-Apr
127. Medicago polymorpha L./ISL-884 + + Th N Round the
282
year
128. Melilotus indica (L.) All./ISL-886 + + Th L Mar-May
129. Trifolium repens L. /ISL- 872 + - H N Mar-Apr
130. Vicia sativa L. /ISL-831 - + L L May-Aug
Fagaceae 131. Quercus incana W. Bartram/ISL-747 + + MP Me Apr-May
Flacourtiaceae 132. Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merill. /ISL-
708 + + MP Mi
Mar-Apr
Gentianaceae 133.
Gentianodes decemfida (Ham.) Omer, Ali
& Qaiser/ISL-785 - + H N
Feb-Mar
134. Swertia petiolata D. Don/ISL-885 + - Th Mi Jul-Nov
Geraniaceae
135. Erodium cicutarium (L.) L'Hér. ex
Aiton/ISL-760 - + Th L
Mar-Apr
136. Geranium nepalense Sweet/ISL-786 + + H Mi Apr-Sep
137. Geranium ocellatum Camb. /ISL-786 - + Th Mi Mar-Apr
138. Geranium rotundifolium L. /ISL-797 + + Th N Mar-Apr
Hypericaceae 139.
Hypericum oblongifolium Choisy/ISL-
737 + + NP Mi
Mar-Aug
140. Hypericum perforatum L./ISL-800 + - Ch N Jun-Sep
Lamiaceae
141. Ajuga bracteosa Wallich ex. Benth. /ISL-
716 + + Th Mi
Mar-Dec
142. Ajuga parviflora Benth. /ISL-723 + + Th Mi Mar-Jun
143. Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze/ISL-779 + - H Mi Apr-Sep
144. Calamintha umbrosa (M. Bieb.) Fisch. &
C.A. Mey. /ISL-823 + - H N
Apr-Jul
145. Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith. /ISL-
706 + + NP Me
Jan-Apr
146. Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) + + NP L Mar-Oct
283
Codd/ISL-743
147. Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham.ex
D.Don) Benth. /ISL-864 + + Th L
Apr-Oct
148. Otostegia limbata (Bth.) Bioss. /ISL-711 + + NP L Apr-Aug
149. Origanum vulgare L. /ISL-820 + + H N Jul-Oct
150. Salvia moocroftiana Wall. ex Benth.
/ISL-812 - + Ch Me
Apr-Jun
151. Salvia plebeia R.Br. /ISL- 794 + - Ch Mi Mar-Jun
Loranthaceae 152. Loranthus pulverulentus Wall. /ISL-701 + + NP Me Dec-Apr
Lythraceae 153. Punica granatum L. /ISL-745 + + NP N Apr-Jul
154. Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz/ISL-835 + + NP N Mar-May
Malvaceae
155. Malva parviflora L. /ISL- 882 + - Th Mi Dec-Mar
156. Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.)
Garcke/ISL-883 + + Th N
Mar-Sep
157. Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borss. var.
cordata/ISL-895 - + Th L
Round the
year
158. Sida cordifolia L./ISL-897 + + Th N Apr-Aug
159. Triumfetta pentandra A.Rich./ISL- 871 + - Th Mi Jul-Sep
Menispermaceae 160. Cissampelos pareira var. hirsuta (Buch.-
Ham. ex DC.) Forman/ISL-842 + - L Mi
Jun-Sep
Nyctaginaceae 161. Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex Roxb.
/ISL-754 + + H N
Round the
year
Oleaceae 162. Olea ferruginea Royle/ISL-707 + + MP N Apr-May
163. Jasminum officinale L./ISL-744 + + L N May-Jul
Onagraceae 164. Oenothera rosea L.Herit.ex Ait. /ISL-875 + + H N Apr-Sep
Oxalidaceae 165. Oxalis corniculata L. /ISL-828 + + H N Mar-Dec
Papaveraceae 166. Fumaria indica Pugsley/ISL-770 - + Th N Feb-Jun
284
Phyllanthaceae 167. Phyllanthus urinaria L. /ISL-829 + - Th L Aug-Sep
Plantaginaceae 168. Plantago lanceolata L. /ISL-880 + + H N Mar-Aug
Polygalaceae 169. Polygala abyssinica R. Br. ex Fresen.
/ISL-893 + - Th Mi
Apr-Sep
Polygonaceae
170. Polygonum aviculare L. /ISL-894 + + H L Mar-Sep
171. Polygonum plebeium R. Br. /ISL-853 - + Th L Feb-Sep
172. Rumex dentatus L. /ISL-809 - + G Me Mar-Apr
173. Rumex hastatus D.Don/ISL-839 - + Ch N Mar-Aug
Primulaceae
174. Anagallis arvensis L./ISL-750 - + Th N Feb-Mar
175. Androsace umbellata (Lour.) Merill/ISL- + + H N Mar-Apr
176. Myrsine africana L. /ISL-709 + + NP N Mar-May
Rananculaceae
177. Clematis grata Wall. /ISL-856 + + L N Apr-Aug
178. Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex Royle/ISL-
819 + + H Mi
Apr-Aug
179. Ranunculus muricatus L. /ISL-805 - + Th Mi Mar-May
180. Thalictrum foliolosum DC. /ISL-888 + - Ch N Jul-Sep
Rhamnaceae 181.
Ziziphus
mauritiana var. spontanea (Edgew.) R.R.
Stewart ex Qaiser & Nazim. /ISL-726
+ + MP N
Jun-Sep
Rosaceae
182. Duchesnea indica (Andrews) Teschem.
/ISL-848 + + H N
Mar-May
183. Geum canadense Jacq. /ISL-799 + + H Mi Jun-Sep
184. Prunus persica (L) )Batsch/ISL-714 + + MP Mi Feb-Apr
185. Rosa brunonii Lindl. /ISL-738 + + L N Apr-Jun
186. Rubus fruticosus L. /ISL-739 + + NP Mi Apr-Oct
Rubiaceae 187. Galium aparine L. /ISL-879 + + Th L Mar-May
188. Rubia cordifolia L. /ISL-806 + + L N Jun-Nov
285
Rutaceae 189. Zanthoxylum armatum DC. /ISL-713 + + NP N Mar-Apr
Salicaceae 190. Casearia tomentosa Roxb. /ISL-719 + + MP Me Mar-Jun
191. Salix acomophylla Boiss. /ISL-725 + + MP Mi Oct-Mar
Sapindaceae 192. Dodonaea viscosa (L.) /ISL-721 + + NP N Jan-Mar
Saxifragaceae 193. Bergenia ciliata Sternb. /ISL-807 + + H Me Mar-Jul
Scrophulariaceae 194. Verbascum thapsus L. /ISL-898 - + Th Me Mar-Sep
Simaroubaceae 195. Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle/ISL-
727 + + NP Mi
Jul-Aug
Solanaceae
196. Physalis divaricata D. Don/ISL-830 + - Th Mi Aug-Oct
197. Solanum nigrum L. /ISL-820 + + Th Mi Round the
year
198. Solanum surattense Burm. f. /ISL-849 - + H Me Mar-Sep
Urticaceae 199. Debregeasia salicifolia (D. Don)
Rendle/ISL-720 + + NP Mi
Mar-Jun
Verbenaceae 200. Lantana camara L. ./ISL-749 + + NP Mi Mar-Oct
Violaceae 201. Viola canescens Wall.ex Roxb. /ISL-833 + + G N Mar-Aug
Vitaceae 202. Cissus carnosa Lam./ISL-843 + - L Mi Jul-Sep
286
Appendix II: Ethnobotanical /Economical use classification of District Kotli , Azad jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan.
Species Vernacular
Names
Part Used
for
medicinal
purpose
M F FW TW Veg/EF P RT H/F HT HS AT O others
Tree Layer
Acacia modesta Wall. Plai Fruit 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taubert Chechra Leaf 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Casearia tomentosa Roxb. Chilla --- 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merill. Kankoli Fruit 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.) Mull.
Arg.
Kamella Fruit
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Olea ferruginea Royle Kao Leaf,
Bark 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
Pinus roxburghii Sargent Chirr Resin 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Prunus persica (L) )Batsch Arru Fruit 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Quercus incana W. Bartram Erian Leaf 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
Salix acomophylla Boiss. Bains --- 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Ziziphus
mauritiana var. spontanea (Edgew.)
R.R. Stewart ex Qaiser & Nazim.
Jand-beri Fruit,
Bark
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Shrub Layer 0 0
Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle Vilayti
Draik
Bark
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Astragalus psilocentros Fisch. Tindni Leaf 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Berberis lycium Royle. Komal Root,
Stem, 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
287
Leaf,
Fruit
Carissa opaca Stapf. ex. Haines. Garanda Fruit 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith. Bansa Leaf,
Root 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cotinus coggygria Scop. Bahan --- 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Debregeasia salicifolia (D. Don)
Rendle
Sindhari Stem,
Leaf 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Sanatha Leaf,
Stem 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
Elaeagnus parvifolia Wall. ex Royle Ghowein --- 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hypericum oblongifolium Choisy Unavailable --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Indigofera heterantha Wall. ex
Brandis
Hiran Charri Leaf,
Fruit 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.)
Codd
Chitta
Manga
Leaf
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Jasminum officinale L. Chamba
Booti
---
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Justicia adhatoda L. Bhaikar Leaf,
Root 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Lantana camara L. Panchphulli Leaf,
Fruit 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lonicera quinquelocularis
Hardwicke
Phutt Leaf
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Loranthus pulverulentus Wall. Grunu Leaf 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maytenus royleana (Wall. ex M.A.
Lawson) Cufod.
Ptaki Root
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Myrsine africana L. Guggall Leaf, 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
288
Fruit
Nerium oleander L. Gandeera Leaf 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
Otostegia limbata (Bth.) Bioss. Chiti ptaki Leaf 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Punica granatum L. Druna Fruit,
Leaf 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
Rhynchosia pseudo-cajan Camb. Lahrr Leaf 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Rosa brunonii Lindl. Phulwari Root,
Flower 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
Rubus fruticosus Hk. Akhray Fruit 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Viburnum grandiflorum Wallich ex
DC
Unavailable Leaf,
Seeds 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz Tahvi Flower 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Timbar Leaf,
Stem,
Fruit 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
Herb Layer
Achillea millefolium L. Jari Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Achyranthes aspera L. Puth kanda Root,
Leaf 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Kuntze Unavailable --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Adiantum iniscum Forssk Unavailable Leaf 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Adiantum venustum D. Don Kakwa Rhizome,
Leaf 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Aegopodium podagrari L. Unavailable --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ajuga bracteosa Wallich ex. Benth. Neel Kanthi Leaf 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ajuga parviflora Benth. Unavailable Whole 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
289
plant
Alternanthera pungens Kunth Khaki buti Whole
plant 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.) DC. Jangli Phali --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Amaranthus viridis L. Ghanarr Root,
Leaf 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Anagallis arvensis L. Billi Buti Leaf 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) Benth.
and Hook.f.
Unavailable Leaf
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Androsace umbellata (Lour.) Merill Marchola --- 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Anisomeles indica (L.) O. Kuntze Kala
bhangra
Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Arenaria neelgherrensis Wight &
Arn.
Unavailable ---
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Argyrolobium roseum Jaub. Makhni
Booti
Leaf,
Fruit 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Aristida adscensionis L. Saroott --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. Chahu Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Asparagus capitatus subsp. gracilis
(Royle ex Baker) Browicz
Shah
Gandal
Root,
Fruit 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Astragalus leucocephalus Grah.ex
Benth.
Kuchani Leaf
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Barleria cristata L. Chekal Whole
plant 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. Zakham-e-
Hayat
Rhizome,
Leaf 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bidens bipinnata L. Bahangra Root, 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
290
Buti Leaf
Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. &
Sherff
Bahangra
Buti
Leaf
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex
Roxb.
It-Sit Root,
Leaf 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Brachiaria eruciformis (Sm.) Griseb. Sair --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Brachiaria reptans (L.) C.A.
Gardner & C.E. Hubb.
Sairr,
Kandeeri
---
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Buglossoides arvensis (L.) Johnston Kalu Leaf 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bupleurum falcatumL. Unavailable Whole
plant 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Calamintha umbrosa (M. Bieb.)
Fisch. & C.A. Mey.
Khori Buti Leaf
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Campanula pallida Wall. Not known Root 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik Unavailable Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Carex sempervirensVill. Unavailable --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Carpesium cernum L. Unavailable --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cenchrus ciliaris L. Leendra --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Chenopodium album L. Bathu Leaf 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Chrysopogon aucheri (Boiss.) Stapf Bari Gaas --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cirsium wallichii DC. Kandiara --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cissampelos pareira var. hirsuta
(Buch.-Ham. ex DC.) Forman
Batrarr Whole
plant 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Cissus carnosa Lam. Unavailable Root,
Leaf,
Seed 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
291
Clematis grata Wall. Tootal Leaf 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Commelina benghalensis L. Chura Leaf 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. Kali Buti Leaf 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.. Khabal Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk. Lahndara Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cyperus difformis L. Mutharr --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cyperus niveus Retz. Phuman
ghass
---
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cyperus rotundus L. Mutharr Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.)
Willd.
Madhana
ghass
Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.)
Stapf
Ghass ---
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees. Kaali buti --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Digitaria setigera Roth Pachar
Gaas
---
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dioscorea bulbifera L. Kitra --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dioscorea melanophyma Prain &
Burkill
Parkhi ---
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop Jangli Piaz Blub,
Leaf 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dryopteris stewartii Fraser-Jenk. Daid --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Duchesnea indica (Andrews)
Teschem.
Surkh
Akhra.
Leaf,
Fruit 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
292
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Madhana
ghass
---
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Eragrostis japonica (Thunb.) Trin. Bharbhuri --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Erioscirpus comosus (Nees) Palla Babya Whole
plant 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Erodium cicutarium (L.) L Her. ex
Aiton
Monijamain ---
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Euphorbia esula L. Unavailable --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Euphorbia helioscopia L. Doodal Root,
Seed 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Euphorbia hirta L. Doodal Whole
plant 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Euphorbia indica Lam. Doodal Whole
plant 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Euphorbia prolifera Buch.-Ham. ex
D. Don
Tirvi Root
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Euphorbia prostrata Ait. Dudhli Whole
plant 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. Unavailable Leaf 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fumaria indica Pugsley Papra,
Shahtra
Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gagea pakistanica Levichev & Ali Unavailable --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Galium aparine L. Lahndara Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gentianodes decemfida (Ham.)
Omer, Ali & Qaiser
Unavailable ---
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Geranium nepalense Sweet Unavailable Root 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Geranium ocellatum Camb. Jandoru Root, 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
293
Furit
Geranium rotundifolium L. Jandoru Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gerbera gossypina (Royle) Beauv Ladrun --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Geum canadense Jacq. Gul e daudi Whole
plant 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gloriosa superba L. Sanp booti Tuber 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Hedera nepalensis K. Koch. Banjali Leaf,
Fruit 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC. Unavailable --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.
Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult.
Suryalla
ghass
---
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hypericum perforatum L. Chamba, --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Impatiens edgeworthii Hook. f. Bantil --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv. Dibb --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz. Gorakh Pan Fruit 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br. Budhi bel Whole
plant 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ipomoea hederacea Jacq. Neeli bail Seed 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
Ipomoea pestigridis L. Goj Bahrwa Stem,
Leaf 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Juncus articulatus L. Unavailable Rush 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Justicia peploides (Nees) T.
Anderson
Pasmund Leaf
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lactuca dissecta D. Don Not known --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Launaea procumbens (Roxb.)
Ramayya & Rajagopal
Hund ---
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
294
Lepidium sativum L. Halyan --- 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lespedeza juncea var. sericea F.B.
Forbes & Hemsl.
Kuchani ---
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lotus corniculatus L. Sriri --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Malva parviflora L. Sonchal Leaf 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.)
Garcke
Bariar Leaf,
Flower 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Medicago polymorpha L. Sriri --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Melilotus indica (L.) All. Singi Leaf 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham.ex
D.Don) Benth.
Boine Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Myriactis nepalensis Less.. Unavailable --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Neslia apiculata Fisch., C.A. Mey.
& Ave'-Lall
Unavailable ---
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Oenothera rosea L.Herit.ex Ait. Seh Devi Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Onosma thomsonii C.B. Clarke Gao Zuban Root,
Flower,
Leaf 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Onychium japonicum (Kunze) Wall Unavailable --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Oplismenus undulatifolius (Ard.) P.
Beauv.
Unavailable ---
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Origanum vulgare L. Sahthar Leaf 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Oxalis corniculata L. Khati Buti Leaf 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Parthenium hysterophorus L. Buti --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Phyllanthus urinaria L. Chota amla Leaf,
Fruit 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
295
Physalis divaricata D. Don Hundusi Leaf,
Fruit 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Plantago lanceolata L. Isbagol Leaf,
Seed 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Poa annua L. Unavailable --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Polygala abyssinica R. Br. ex
Fresen.
Arna Root
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Polygonum aviculare L. Bandky Whole
plant 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Polygonum plebeium R. Br. Hind Raani Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pteracanthus alatus (Wall. ex Nees)
Bremek.
Unavailable ---
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Pteris cretica L. Unavailable --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss. Unavailable --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex Royle Kor-
Kandoli
Leaf,
Fruit 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ranunculus muricatus L. Kor-
Kandoli
Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Rubia cordifolia L. Lahndara
bail
Whole
plant 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Rumex dentatus L. Harfli --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Rumex hastatus D.Don Herfli --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Saccharum spontaneum L. Kai --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Salvia moocroftiana Wall. ex Benth Gurgana Leaf,
Seed 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Salvia plebeia R.Br. Samundar
Sokh
Leaf,
Seed 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
296
Sauromatum venosum (Aiton) Kunth Sanp Ki
Makai
Corm
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Saussurea heteromalla (D. Don)
Handel-Mazzetti
Kuth Root
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Scandix pecten-veneris L. Mooni
Jamain
---
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Selaginella chrysocaulos (Hook. &
Grev.) Spring
Unavailable ---
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Senecio nudicaulis Buchanan-
Hamilton ex D. Don
Unavailable Whole
plant 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Serratula praealta L. Unavailable --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. &
Schult.
Kangni,
Loomar
Gaas
---
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv. Unavailable --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borss. var.
cordata
Kangi Leaf
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sida cordifolia L. Kangi Leaf,
Fruit,
Seed 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Silene conoidea L. Dabbri --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Smilax glaucophylla Klotzsch Unavailable Whole
Plant 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Solanum nigrum L. Mako Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Solanum surattense Burm. f. Mohkri Whole
plant 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sonchus arvensis L. Dodal --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
297
Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Dodal Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Baru --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Stellaria media (L.)Vill. Gandel --- 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Swertia petiolata D. Don Unavailable --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg. Mithi Hund Whole
plant 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Thalictrum foliolosum DC. Beni Whole
plant 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Themeda anathera (Nees ex Steud.)
Hack.
Bhari ghass ---
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Torilis nodosa (L.) Gaertn. Lahndara --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm. Handusi Root,
Leaf,
Flower 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tridax procumbens L. Kuthi --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Trifolium repens L. Sriri --- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Triumfetta pentandra A.Rich. Dhamni Leaf 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tylophora hirsuta (Wall.) Wight Budhibail Leaf,
Fruit 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Verbascum thapsus L. Gidar
tobacco
Leaf,
Flower 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. Seh Devi Whole
plant 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vicia sativa L. Rawarri Flower 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Viola canescens Wall.ex Roxb. Banafsha Root,
Flower 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Youngia japonica (L.) DC. Chirotta Leaf 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
298
Zaleya pentandra (L.) C. Jeffrey Itsit Leaf 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Zeuxine strateumatica (L.) Schltr. Unavailable --- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
--- 129 104 24 6 22 9 5 6 5 6 7 7 19
Key: M= Medicinal, F =Fodder, FW = Fuel Wood, TW= Timber wood, Veg/EF = Vegetable/edible fruit, P = Poisonous, RT = Roof thatching H/F,
Hedge/fencing HT = Herbal tea, HS = Honey bee species, AT = Agriculture tool, O = ornamental
299
Appendix III: Ethnobotanical uses of plants of District Kotli , Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan.
S. No Species Vernacular
Name
Family Ethnomedicinal
Part(s)
Ethnobotanical uses
Tree Layer
01 Acacia modesta
Wall.
Plai Fabaceae Fruit Fruit gum is stimulant, aphrodisiac and tonic.
Leaves are used as fodder. Wood is a source of
fuel and agricultural tools. Branches are used
for fencing. Flowers are attraction of
honeybees. Twigs and branches are used as
Miswak
02 Butea monosperma
(Lam.) Taubert
Chechra Fabaceae Fruit Fruit gum with milk and sugar is tonic for
backache in women after pregnancy. Stem
bark powder is used as poison for fish. Leaves
are browsed by goats. Wood is used as fuel.
03 Casearia tomentosa
Roxb.
Chilla Salicaceae --- Wood is used as fuel. Fruit juice is used to
stupefy fishes.
04 Flacourtia indica
(Burm. f.) Merill.
Kankoli Flacourtiaceae Fruit The fruit is diuretic, appetizer and tonic.
Leaves are browsed by goat and sheep.
05 Mallotus
philippensis
(Lamk.) Mull. Arg.
Kamella Euphorbiaceae Fruit Fruit is carminative, anthelmintic and
purgative. Fruit powder with milk or yogurt
removes tapeworms. It is externally applied for
treatment of skin diseases. Wood is used as
fuel. Tender leaves are used as fodder.
06 Olea ferruginea
Royle
Kao Oleaceae Leaf, Bark Herbal tea of leaves along small piece of bark
of Acacia catechu is effective against cold,
flue, cough and skin diseases. Leaf decoction
is used for toothache and gonorrhoea. Wood is
used for making agricultural tools. Stem bark
300
is astringent used for curing mouth infections.
Leaves are used as fodder. Dried branches are
used as fuel. Dried branches or leaves are used
as Miswak.
07 Pinus roxburghii
Sargent
Chirr Pinaceae Resin Resin is used for tumors, cough, bleeding
wounds and in soap industry. The bark and leaf
powder mixed with cold water is used for
dysentery. Wood is used as timber and fuel.
Seeds are edible. Dried bark and leaves are
used in house thatching. Cones are used for
fuel purpose.
08 Prunus persica (L.)
Batsch
Arru Rosaceae Fruit Fruit is used to control cholesterol levels. It
helps in healthy vision, healthy teeth and
bones. It has anti-aging properties.
09 Quercus incana W.
Bartram
Erian Fagaceae Leaf The leaf decoction is used for joint pain. It is
also used for hemorrhagic septicemia in cattle.
Wood is used as timber, fuel, making
agricultural tools and roof gutters. Leaves are
browsed by cattle, sheep and goat.
10 Salix acomophylla
Boiss.
Bains Salicaceae --- Wood is used for making cooking utensils and
timber purpose
11 Ziziphus
mauritiana var. spo
ntanea (Edgew.)
R.R. Stewart ex
Qaiser & Nazim.
Jand-beri Rhamnaceae Fruit, Bark Fruit is digestive stimulant and used as blood
purifier. Stem bark mixed with honey or milk
is used for dysentery/diarrhea. Leaves are
browsed by goat and sheep. Flowers attract
honey bees. Wood is used for making
furniture. Branches are used for fencing and as
fuel.
301
Shrub Layer
12 Ailanthus altissima
(Mill.) Swingle
Vilayti
Draik
Simaroubaceae Bark Leaves are insect repellent (mosquito) and
anthelmintic. Wood is source of fuel and
furniture. Stem bark mixed with milk is used
for dysentery/diarrhea.
13 Astragalus
psilocentros Fisch.
Tindni Fabaceae Leaf Fresh leaves powder is used for stomach
problems and toothache. Leaves are used as
fodder for goat. Dried branches are used for
fuel purpose. Leaves are used in soap industry
14 Berberis lycium
Royle.
Komal Berberidaceae Root, Stem,
Leaf, Fruit
Powdered root bark paste in water is applied
on wounds and bone fractures. Root and stem
bark decoction is used in hypertension,
dyspepsia and jaundice. Fruits are astringent.
Leaves are browsed by livestock. Dried
branches are used for fuel purpose.
15 Carissa opaca
Stapf. ex. Haines.
Garanda Apocynaceae
Fruit Fruits are blood purifier. Leaves are used as
fodder for goat. Roots and dried branches are
used as fuel.
16 Colebrookea
oppositifolia Smith.
Bansa Lamiaceae Leaf, Root Root decoction is used in ulcer and epilepsy.
Leaves are antiseptic, applied on wounds,
bruises and fractures. Leaves are used in
dysentery.
17 Cotinus coggygria
Scop.
Bahan, Anacardiaceae Leaf Leaves are used for hepatitis, anemia, bacterial
and fungal infections. Dried branches are used
as fuel and Miswak (tooth brush alternative).
Plant has anti-ageing properties.
18 Debregeasia
salicifolia (D. Don)
Sindhari Urticaceae Stem, Leaf Fresh leaf powder with mustard oil is used in
skin diseases. Leaf infusion is used for
302
Rendle jaundice. Fruit is edible. Dried plant is used for
fuel. Leaves are browsed by the livestock.
Stem bark is source of fiber.
19 Dodonaea viscosa
(L.)
Sanatha Sapindaceae Leaf, Stem Leaves are used for healing burns, wounds,
buries. They are used for toothache and
headache. Bark is anthelmintic and astringent.
Wood oil is blood purifier and used in treating
paralysis. Shoots are used for making brooms.
Branches are used as fuel and fencing.
20 Elaeagnus
parvifolia Wall. ex
Royle
Ghowein Elaeagnaceae --- No apparent use
21 Hypericum
oblongifolium
Choisy
Pinli Hypericaceae Leaf, Fruit Leaves and fruits are used for lowering blood
pressure, in gastric ulcer and removing
prolepsis in cattle.
22 Indigofera
heterantha Wall. ex
Brandis
Hiran Charri Fabaceae
Leaf, Fruit Fruit and leaves are used in hepatitis and
respiratory diseases. Leaf powder is vermifuge.
23 Isodon rugosus
(Wall. ex Benth.)
Codd
Chitta
Manga
Lamiaceae Leaf Leaves are stimulant, carminative, used in
flatulence fever and mouth infections. Dried
plant is used as a fuel. Flowers attract
honeybees.
24 Jasminum officinale
L.
Chamba
Booti
Oleaceae Root Root is used for treating ring worms in
animals. It is ornamental plant.
25 Justicia adhatoda L. Bhaikar Acanthaceae Leaf, Root Leaf decoction is antispasmodic, expectorant,
arbortifacient and used in skin diseases and
diabetes. Root bark and leaves are used in
wound infections. Leavesare used for ripening
303
up of banana. Leaves smoke is insect repellent
(mosquito).
26 Lantana camara L. Panchphulli Verbenaceae Leaf, Fruit Crushed leaves are antidote against snake
bite. Leaf and fruit infusion is used for
tetanus, malaria, inflammation and
rheumatism.
27 Lonicera
quinquelocularis
Hardwicke
Phutt Caprifoliaceae Leaf The leaf extract is used for improving vision
and cataract. Leaves are used for wound
healing.
28 Loranthus
pulverulentus Wall.
Grunu Loranthaceae --- No apparent use
29 Maytenus royleana
(Wall. ex M.A.
Lawson) Cufod.
Ptaki Celastraceae Root Root extract is abortificent. Whole plant is
used as fuel. Leaves are used as fodder for goat
and sheep.
30 Myrsine africana L. Guggall Primulaceae Leaf, Fruit Fruit is laxative and anthelmintic. Leaf juice is
used in diabetes and is blood purifier.
31 Nerium oleander L. Gandeera Apocynaceae
Leaf The plant is an ornamental plant. Leaf paste is
externally applied in skin diseases. Leaf extract
is pest repellent (aphid and beetles etc.) in
crops.
32 Otostegia limbata
(Bth.) Bioss.
Chiti ptaki Lamiaceae Leaf The leaf extract is orally taken for treating skin
and eye diseases and mouth ulcer. Leaves are
used as fodder for goat. Branches are used for
fuel purpose and in fencing.
33 Punica granatum L. Druna Lythraceae Fruit, Leaf Fresh fruit and leaf juice is tonic and used in
treating dysentery. The fruit epicarp is used for
cough. The ground fruit rind is mixed with
sugar and used in diarrhea. Stem and root bark
304
is anthelmintic. Leaves are browsed by goats.
Wood is used as fuel wood. Mature dried seed
“Anardana”, fruit of Zanthoxylum alatum and
leaves of Mentha longifolia is used in making
chatani.
34 Rhynchosia pseudo-
cajan Camb.
Lahrr Fabaceae Leaf The plant bundles are made to clear the wheat
threshing ground. Leaves are used in treating
stomach.
35 Rosa brunonii
Lindl.
Phulwari Rosaceae Root, Flower Root is aphrodisiac and externally massaged
for treating scabies. Petals of flowers are used
in digestive disorders and heart problems.
Flowers mixed with rice are used for purging.
It is ornamental plant.
36 Rubus fruticosus
Hk.
Akhray Rosaceae Fruit Fruit has cooling effect and is carminative.
Fruit extract is tonic. Branches are used for
fencing.
37 Viburnum
grandiflorum
Wallich ex DC/ISL-
740
Guch Adoxaceae No apparent use
38 Woodfordia
fruticosa (L.) Kurz
Tahvi Lythraceae Flower Flowers powder is used for local to ease
menstrual cycle and for abortion. It is also used
in general bleeding on body. Leaves are used
as fodder. Wood is used for fuel purpose.
39 Zanthoxylum
armatum DC.
Timbar Rutaceae Leaf, Stem, Fruit Whole dried plant is used as fuel. Leaf powder
is used for digestion. The fruit is carminative
used in stomach pain, dyspepsia and piles.
Straight branches are used in making walking
305
sticks. Young shoots are used as Miswak,
effective in gum diseases. It is also used as a
hedge plant.
Herb Layer
40 Achillea millefolium
L.
Jari Asteraceae Whole plant The plant is stimulant, astringent, and
effective for treating piles and leucorrhoea.
Whole plant is used as fodder for animals
41 Achyranthes aspera
L.
Puth kanda Amaranthaceae Root, Leaf Leaf and root decoction is used in digestive
disorders. Leaf paste is externally applied on
insect bite. The root powder is used in bloody
diarrhea. Whole plant is used as fodder.
42 Adenostemma
lavenia (L.) Kuntze
Pasir Asteraceae --- No apparent use
43 Adiantum iniscum
Forssk
Pershoofa Pteridaceae Leaf Leaf infusion is used in cough and bronchitis
and for general weakness of body.
44 Adiantum venustum
D. Don
Kakwa Pteridaceae Leaf, Rhizome The leaves are astringent, diuretic, and tonic.
They are used in headache and snake and
scorpion stings. The rhizome paste is used to
heal cuts and wounds.
45 Aegopodium
podagrari L.
Unavailabl
e
Apiaceae --- No apparent use
46 Ajuga bracteosa
Wallich ex. Benth.
Neel Kanthi Lamiaceae Leaf Leaf decoction is used for treating intestinal
ulcer, jaundice, throat infection and lowering
blood pressure. Leaves are grazed by animals
47 Ajuga parviflora
Benth.
Unavailable Lamiaceae --- No apparent use
48 Alternanthera
pungens Kunth
Khaki buti Amaranthaceae Whole plant The plant powder is used to treat malaria,
jaundice and urinary infections. Plant is used
306
as fodder for cattle.
49 Alysicarpus
bupleurifolius (L.)
DC.
Jangli Phali Fabaceae Plant is used as fodder.
50 Amaranthus viridis
L.
Ghanarr Amaranthaceae Root, Leaf Leaves are antidote against scorpion and
snake bite. Root controls menstruation. Plant
is used as vegetable as “Saag ghanarr”. Leaves
are grazed by animals
51 Anagallis arvensis
L.
Billi Buti Primulaceae Leaf Plant is used as fodder for cattle. Leaves are
used in stomach inflammation. Leaves
antifungal and wormicidal. Plant is grazed by
animals.
52 Anaphalis
margaritacea (L.)
Benth. and Hook.f.
Unavailabl
e
Asteraceae Leaf Leaves are grazed by animals.
53 Androsace
umbellata (Lour.)
Merill.
Marchola Primulaceae --- No apparent use
54 Anisomeles indica
(L.) O. Kuntze.
Bengali Lamiaceae Whole plant The whole plant extract is blood purifier. It is
used to treat jaundice, hepatitis and cancer.
Plants are grazed by animals.
55 Arenaria
neelgherrensis
Wight & Arn.
Unavailable Caryophyllaceae --- No apparent use
56 Argyrolobium
roseum Jaub.
Makhni
Booti
Fabaceae Leaf, Fruit Plant is used as fodder for cattle. Leaf and
fruit powder is used for treating ulcer and
appetite. Leaves are used for treating stomach
disorders and jaundice. Plant is grazed by
307
animals.
57 Aristida
adscensionis L.
Saroott Poaceae --- Branches are used to make wipers and mates.
Plant is grazed by animals.
58 Artemisia scoparia
Waldst. & Kit.
Jhau Asteraceae Whole plant Whole plant is used for fever, cough and heart
disorders.
59 Asparagus capitatus
subsp. gracilis
(Royle ex Baker)
Browicz.
Shah
Gandal
Asparagaceae Root, Fruit Fruit and root is aphrodisiac. The root extract
is used to treat diarrhea/dysentery. Young
shoots are used as vegetable. Leaves are
grazed by animals
60 Astragalus
leucocephalus
Grah.ex Benth.
Kuchani Fabaceae Leaf Leaves are in stomach pain. Whole plant is
used as fodder.
61 Barleria cristata L. Chekal Acanthaceae Whole plant The bent roots are bind on animals to stop
abortion especially in goat. The whole plant
extract is used in prolepses in cattle.
62 Bergenia ciliata
(Haw.) Sternb.
Zakham-e-
Hayat
Saxifragaceae Leaf Rhizome and leaf powder is used in wound
healing. Leaf extract is used in liver disorders,
fever, jaundice and muscular pain. It is used as
tonic.
63 Bidens bipinnata L. Bahangra
Buti
Asteraceae Leaf Leaf juice is febrifuge.
64 Bidens biternata
(Lour.) Merr. &
Sherff.
Bahangra
Buti
Asteraceae Leaf, Root Leaf juice is febrifuge, used in sore throat.
Root paste is used in toothache. Plant is grazed
by animals.
65 Boerhavia
procumbens Banks
ex Roxb.
It-Sit Nyctaginaceae Root, Leaf Root powder mixed with honey is used in
cough and asthma. Leaf paste is externally
applied for wound healing. This plant is an
ornamental. Leaves are grazed by animals.
308
66 Brachiaria
eruciformis (Sm.)
Griseb.
Sair Poaceae --- Used as fodder for animals
67 Brachiaria reptans
(L.) C.A. Gardner &
C.E. Hubb.
Sairr/Kande
eri
Poaceae --- Used as fodder for animals
68 Buglossoides
arvensis (L.)
Johnston.
Kalu Boraginaceae Leaf Leaf infusion is sedative. Plant is used as
fodder for animals.
69 Bupleurum falcatum
L.
Gill Apiaceae Whole plant The powder of dried plant is taken with warm
water for stomach problems. The plant has
anti-tumor, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory
properties.
70 Calamintha
umbrosa (M. Bieb.)
Fisch. & C.A. Mey.
Khori Buti Lamiaceae Leaf Leaf extract is used for wound healing
71 Campanula pallida
Wall.
Beli Campanulaceae Root Root is laxative. Leaves and flowers are used
in heart problems and as tonic.
72 Capsella bursa-
pastoris (L.) Medik
Kangani Brassicaceae Whole plant The whole plant is used in dropsy. Seeds are
used in cough, cold and fever. Plant is grazed
by animals.
73 Carex
sempervirensVill.
Unavailabl
e
Cyperaceae --- No apparent use
74 Carpesium cernum
L.
Unavailable Asteraceae --- No apparent use
75 Cenchrus ciliaris L. Leendra Poaceae --- Used as fodder for animals
76 Chenopodium
album L.
Bathu Amaranthaceae Leaf Leaves are anthelmintic and laxative. Seeds
are used for unconsciousness. Leaves are used
309
as vegetable commonly. Plant is used as fodder
for animals.
77 Chrysopogon
aucheri (Boiss.)
Stapf.
Bari gass Poaceae ---- Used as fodder for animals
78 Cirsium wallichii
DC.
Kandiara Asteraceae --- No apparent use
79 Cissampelos
pareira var. hirsuta
(Buch.-Ham. ex
DC.) Forman.
Batrarr Menispermaceae Whole plant Whole plant is used for treating dropsy,
diarrhea and stomach diseases. The leaves are
applied on snake-bites and wounds. Leaves are
used as fodder.
80 Cissus carnosa
Lam.
Daakh Vitaceae Root, Leaf, Seed Poultice of roots, leaves and seeds is applied
on boils and ulcers. Root is used in stomach
diseases, anemic condition and as astringent.
Its paste is antidote in snake bite.
81 Clematis grata
Wall.
Tootal Rananculaceae Leaf Leaf extract is used to kill worms in wounds
of cattle.
82 Commelina
benghalensis L.
Chura Commelinaceae Leaf Leaves are used in curing leprosy,
inflammation and are laxative. Plant is used as
fodder for cattle. Leaves are used as vegetable.
83 Conyza bonariensis
(L.) Cronq.
Kali Buti Asteraceae Leaf Leaves have healing properties.
84 Cynodon dactylon
(L.) Pers.
Khabal Poaceae Whole plant The plant extract mixed with salt is bandaged
on bone fracture. Plant decoction is used to
remove poison from body and is diuretic. Plant
is used as fodder for animals.
85 Cynoglossum
lanceolatum Forssk.
Lahndara Boraginaceae Whole plant Plant is used for curing cough, asthma, fever,
constipation and heart disorders. Plant is
310
grazed by animals
86 Cyperus difformis
L.
Mutharr Cyperaceae --- Rarely grazed by livestock
87 Cyperus niveus
Retz.
Phuman
ghass
Cyperaceae --- Excellent fodder for cattle.
88 Cyperus rotundus L. Mutharr Cyperaceae Whole plant The plant extract is used to treat nausea, fever
and inflammation. It is tonic used for muscle
relaxation. The plant is also used as fodder for
animals.
89 Dactyloctenium
aegyptium (L.)
Willd.
Madhana
ghass
Poaceae Whole plant Plant extract is used in wound healing. Plant is
used as fodder for animals.
90 Dichanthium
annulatum (Forssk.)
Stapf.
Ghass Poaceae --- Plant is used as fodder and forage for cattle.
91 Dicliptera
bupleuroides Nees.
Kaali buti Acanthaceae --- It is used as fodder for cattle.
92 Digitaria setigera
Roth.
Pachar
Gaas
Poaceae --- Used as fodder for animals
93 Dioscorea bulbifera
L.
Kitra Dioscoreaceae --- No apparent use
94 Dioscorea
melanophyma Prain
& Burkill.
Parkhi Dioscoreaceae --- No apparent use
95 Drimia indica
(Roxb.) Jessop.
Jangli Piaz Asparagaceae Blub, Leaf Leaves and bulbs are used in treating cough,
asthma, bronchitis and edema. It is heart tonic,
used as expectorant, abortifacient, emetic,
diuretic, and rodenticidal.
311
96 Dryopteris stewartii
Fraser-Jenk.
Daid Dryopteridaceae --- No apparent use
97 Duchesnea
indica (Andrews)
Teschem.
Surkh
Akhra.
Rosaceae Leaf, Fruit Leaves are diuretic and astringent used in sore
throat. Leaves and fruits are used in stomach
diseases. Fruits are edible. Fruit extract is
slightly laxative, astringent and nerve tonic.
The plant is grazed by animals.
98 Eleusine indica (L.)
Gaertn.
Madhana
ghass
Poaceae --- Used as a fodder for animals
99 Eragrostis japonica
(Thunb.) Trin.
Bharbhuri Poaceae --- Used as fodder for animals
100 Erioscirpus
comosus (Nees)
Palla.
Babya Cyperaceae Whole plant Dried plant is fired and ash is used in
abdominal and kidney pain. Leaves are used
for making ropes.
101 Erodium cicutarium
(L.) L Her. ex
Aiton.
Monijamain Geraniaceae --- Used as fodder for animals.
102 Euphorbia esula L. Doodal Euphorbiaceae --- No apparent use.
103 Euphorbia
helioscopia L.
Doodal Euphorbiaceae Root, Seed Roots are anthelmintic. Seeds are eaten in
constipation. Seed oil is purgative. Latex
causes skin irritation.
104 Euphorbia hirta L. Doodal Euphorbiaceae Whole plant The extract of whole plant is expectorant,
diuretic, used for curing pulmonary
complaints. Plant powder is mixed with water
and used in diarrhea. Its heavy dose cause
vomiting.
105 Euphorbia indica
Lam.
Doodal Euphorbiaceae Whole plant Plant extract is expectorant and diuretic, used
in curing pulmonary disorders and ringworms.
312
106 Euphorbia prolifera
Buch.-Ham. ex D.
Don.
Tirvi Euphorbiaceae Root Root is useful for abdominal diseases.
107 Euphorbia prostrata
Ait.
Dudhli Euphorbiaceae Whole plant Whole plant with roots used in abdominal
diseases and chronic fevers. It is blood purifier
used in treating skin diseases. It is also a nerve
tonic.
108 Evolvulus alsinoides
(L.) L.
Sunkhpushp
i
Convolvulaceae Leaf Leaf extract is taken indigestion and
constipation. Used as fodder for animals.
109 Fumaria indica
Pugsley
Papra,
Shahtra
Papaveraceae Whole plant Whole plant infusion is diaphoretic,
antipyretic and blood purifier. It is used as
fodder for cattle.
110 Gagea pakistanica
Levichev & Ali
Unavailable Liliaceae --- No apparent use
111 Galium aparine L. Lahndara Rubiaceae Whole plant Whole plant juice is diuretic. It is used in
curing cancer, dropsy, urinary bladder and
kidney infections. Plant is grazed by animals.
112 Gentianodes
decemfida (Ham.)
Omer, Ali & Qaiser
Unavailable Gentianaceae --- No apparent use
113 Geranium
nepalense Sweet
Jandorunu Geraniaceae Root, Fruit Root poultice is used for rheumatic pain. Fruit
juice is used for kidney disease, cut and wound
healing.
114 Geranium ocellatum
Camb.
Jandoru Geraniaceae Whole plant Whole plant juice is astringent and diuretic.
Plant is used as fodder.
115 Geranium
rotundifolium L.
Jandoru Geraniaceae Whole plant Plant juice is astringent and diuretic. Plant is
used as fodder for animals.
116 Gerbera gossypina Ladrun Asteraceae --- No apparent use
313
(Royle) Beauv
117 Geum canadense
Jacq.
Gul e
daudi
Rosaceae Whole plant The plant is used to stop inflammation and
bleeding of mouth. It is used for curing
constipation and skin irritation.
118 Gloriosa superba L. Sanp booti Colchicaceae Tuber Tubers are sexual stimulant and antidote to
cobra bite. It is planted as ornamental plant
119 Hedera nepalensis
K. Koch.
Banjali Araliaceae Leaf, Fruit Leaves and berries are cathartic, stimulant,
diaphoretic and used for curing febrile
disorders and rheumatism.
120 Heracleum
candicans Wall. ex
DC.
Unavailable Apiaceae --- No apparent use
121 Heteropogon
contortus (L.) P.
Beauv. ex Roem. &
Schult.
Suryalla
ghass
Poaceae --- Used as fodder for animals.
122 Hypericum
perforatum L.
Chamba, Hypericaceae --- Plant is grazed by animals
123 Impatiens
edgeworthii Hook.
f.
Bantil Balsaminaceae --- Plant is grazed by animals
124 Imperata cylindrica
(L.) P. Beauv.
Dibb Poaceae --- Plant is used as fodder for animals.
125 Indigofera linifolia
(L.f.) Retz.
Gorakh Pan Fabaceae Fruit Fruit is tonic and used in treating skin
disorders.
126 Ipomoea eriocarpa
R.Br.
Budhi bel Convolvulaceae Whole plant Powder and extract of the whole plant are used
for skin disorders and cancer.
127 Ipomoea hederacea Neeli bail Convolvulaceae Seed It is an ornamental plant. Seeds are purgative,
314
Jacq. anthelmintic, tonic, aphrodisiac.
128 Ipomoea pestigridis
L.
Goj Bahrwa Convolvulaceae Stem, Leaf Leaves and stem are used in skin and eye
diseases
129 Juncus articulatus
L.
Rush Juncaceae --- Used as a fodder for animals.
130 Justicia peploides
(Nees) T. Anderson
Pasmund Acanthaceae Leaf Plant is used as fodder for cattle. Leaves are
diuretic and effective in gastrointestinal
complaints.
131 Lactuca dissecta D.
Don
Unavailable Asteraceae --- No apparent use
132 Launaea
procumbens (Roxb.)
Ramayya &
Rajagopal
Hund Asteraceae --- The plant is used as fodder for cattle.
133 Lepidium sativum L. Halyan Brassicaceae --- Cooked as vegetable
134 Lespedeza juncea
var. sericea F.B.
Forbes & Hemsl.
Kuchani Fabaceae --- Plant is used as fodder for animals
135 Lotus corniculatus
L.
Sriri Fabaceae --- Plant is grazed by animals
136 Malva parviflora L. Sonchal Malvaceae Leaf Leaves and flowers are aphrodisiac. Leaf
decoction is used for cough, fever and
constipation. Plant is grazed by animals.
137 Malvastrum
coromandelianum
(L.) Garcke
Bariar Malvaceae Leaf, Flower Leaves and flowers are aphrodisiac. Flower
decoction is used to reduce fever and leaves
are used in wound healing.
138 Medicago
polymorpha L.
Sriri Fabaceae --- Plant is used as fodder for animals
315
139 Melilotus indica
(L.) All.
Singi Fabaceae Leaf Leaf decoction is used for abdominal pain,
dysentery/diarrhea and bronchial disorders.
Plant is used as fodder.
140 Micromeria biflora
(Buch.-Ham.ex
D.Don) Benth.
Boine Lamiaceae Whole plant Plant decoction is diuretic, used for vomiting,
constipation and headache.
141 Myriactis
nepalensis Less.
Unavailabl
e
Asteraceae --- No apparent use
142 Neslia apiculata
Fisch., C.A. Mey. &
Ave'-Lall
Unavailabl
e
Brassicaceae --- No apparent use
143 Oenothera rosea
L.Herit.ex Ait.
Seh Devi Onagraceae Whole plant Plant is used to reduce thrombosis and
menopause. It is used as fodder for cattle.
144 Onosma thomsonii
C.B. Clarke
Gao Zuban Boraginaceae Root, Flower,
Leaf
Root is laxative. Flowers and leaves are tonic
for cardiac disorders.
145 Onychium
japonicum (Kunze)
Wall
Unavailabl
e
Pteridaceae --- No apparent use
146 Oplismenus
undulatifolius (Ard.)
P. Beauv.
Gass Poaceae --- Used as fodder for animals
147 Origanum vulgare
L.
Sahthar Lamiaceae Leaf Fresh leaf juice is used to treat epistaxis,
toothache, skin infections, cough, asthma,
urinary tract infections, sexual weakness,
backache, liver and digestive tract disorders.
148 Oxalis corniculata
L.
Khati Buti Oxalidaceae Leaf Fresh leaf juice is used for jaundice, wound
healing, dysentery and fever. Leaves are used
as vegetable. Plant is used as fodder for
316
animals
149 Parthenium
hysterophorus L.
Buti Asteraceae ---- No apparent use
150 Phyllanthus
urinaria L.
Chota amla Phyllanthaceae Leaf, Fruit The fruit and leaf juice is anti-inflammatory,
diuretic and tonic. Plant is grazed by animals
151 Physalis divaricata
D. Don
Hundusi Solanaceae Leaf, Fruit The leaf extract is applied on wounds to stop
bleeding and healing foot and heel cracks.
Fruit is diuretic and tonic. Plant is used as
fodder.
152 Plantago lanceolata
L.
Isbagol Plantaginaceae Leaf, Seed Leaf infusion mixed with sugar is used in
dysentery. Leaf extract is used for treating
wounds, sores and bruises. Seeds are
purgative. Plant is grazed by animals
153 Poa annua L. Gass Poaceae --- Used as fodder for animals.
154 Polygala abyssinica
R. Br. ex Fresen.
Arna Polygalaceae Root Root is antidote for snakebite
155 Polygonum
aviculare L.
Bandky Polygonaceae Whole plant The whole plant is purgative, anthelmintic,
astringent and anodyne. The plant juice is
expectorant, diuretic and vasoconstrictor.
156 Polygonum
plebeium R. Br.
Hind Raani Polygonaceae Whole plant Plant is used as fodder for cattle. Plant extract
is tonic and used to cure bowel complaints, and
pneumonia.
157 Pteracanthus alatus
(Wall. ex Nees)
Bremek.
Unavailable Acanthaceae --- No apparent use
158 Pteris cretica L. Unavailable Pteridaceae --- No apparent use
159 Pupalia lappacea
(L.) Juss.
Unavailabl
e
Anacardiaceae --- No apparent use
317
160 Ranunculus laetus
Wall. ex Royle
Kor-
Kandoli
Rananculaceae Leaf, Fruit Leaves and fruits are useful on rooted tumors
and bursts. Leaves are grazed by goats.
161 Ranunculus
muricatus L.
Kor-
Kandoli
Rananculaceae Whole plant Plant decoction is used in cough and asthma.
Plant extract is antidote for snake and scorpion
bite. Fruits and leaves are effective in rooted
tumors and bursts. Leaves grazed by goats
162 Rubia cordifolia L. Lahndara
bail
Rubiaceae Whole plant Whole plant juice is used in amenorrhea,
menstruation, convulsion and febrifuge.
163 Rumex dentatus L. Harfli Polygonaceae --- Plant is grazed by animals
164 Rumex hastatus
D.Don
Herfli Polygonaceae --- Plant is grazed by animals
165 Saccharum
spontaneum L.
Kai Poaceae --- Dried plant is used as fodder for animals. It is
used for making ropes and roof thatching.
166 Salvia moocroftiana
Wall. ex Benth
Gurgana Lamiaceae Leaf, Seed Leaves are vermicidal, used as poultice for
itches and skin burns. Seeds are emetic used in
dysentery and piles and applied to boils.
167 Salvia plebeia R.Br. Samundar
Sokh
Lamiaceae Leaf, Seed Leaves are used in digestive disorders. Seeds
are anti-inflammatory, aphrodisiac, used in
gonorrhea and urinary tract infections.
168 Sauromatum
venosum (Aiton)
Kunth
Sanp Ki
Makai
Araceae Corm The corm powder mixed with butter is used
for tumors in body and snakebite. Fresh corm
is used for hemorrhagic septicemia and
hemoglobin urea in buffalos.
169 Saussurea
heteromalla (D.
Don) Handel-
Mazzetti
Kuth Asteraceae Root Root is tonic and effective in skin diseases.
170 Scandix pecten- Mooni Apiaceae --- Plant is grazed by animals.
318
veneris L. Jamain
171 Selaginella
chrysocaulos
(Hook. & Grev.)
Spring
Unavailabl
e
Selaginellaceae --- No apparent use
172 Senecio nudicaulis
Buchanan-Hamilton
ex D. Don
Unavailabl
e
Asteraceae --- No apparent use
173 Serratula
praealta L.
Unavailable Asteraceae --- Plant is grazed by animals.
174 Setaria pumila
(Poir.) Roem. &
Schult.
Chirchira,
Barchitta
Poaceae --- Used as fodder for cattle.
175 Setaria viridis (L.)
P. Beauv.
Kangni,
Loomar
Gaas
Poaceae --- Used as fodder for cattle.
176 Sida cordata
(Burm.f.) Borss.
var. cordata
Kangi Malvaceae Leaf Leaf powder is applied on cuts and bruises.
Leaf extract is used in diarrhea.
177 Sida cordifolia L. Kangi Malvaceae Leaf, Fruit, Seed Leaves are cooked and eaten in case of
bleeding piles. Leaf decoction is effective in
fever. The leaves and fruits are diuretic,
demulcent, astringent and used for gonorrhea.
Seeds are aphrodisiac and laxative.
178 Silene conoidea L. Dabbri Caryophyllaceae --- Used as fodder.
179 Smilax glaucophylla
Klotzsch
Smilacaceae Whole plant Whole plant is used to treat skin problems and
as tonic.
180 Solanum nigrum L. Mako Solanaceae Whole plant Whole plant extract is abortifacient. Powdered
319
shoot is used in dropsy and jaundice. Leaf
extract is effective in kidney disorders, wound
healing and tumors. Leaves are grazed by
animals.
181 Solanum surattense
Burm. f.
Mohkri Solanaceae Whole plant It is expectorant, diuretic and antigonorrhea.
The plant is used as stomachache, against
cough, fever and chest pain.
182 Sonchus arvensis L. Dodal Asteraceae --- No apparent use
183 Sonchus asper (L.)
Hill
Dodal Asteraceae Whole plant Fresh plant is used as fodder for cattle, sheep
and goat. Dried plant powder is applied on
wounds.
184 Sorghum halepense
(L.) Pers.
Baru Poaceae --- Used as fodder for cattle.
185 Stellaria media
(L.)Vill.
Neeli Buti Caryophyllaceae --- The plant is used as a fodder for cattle.
186 Swertia petiolata D.
Don
Unavailabl
e
Gentianaceae --- No apparent use
187 Taraxacum
officinale F.H.
Wigg.
Mithi Hund Asteraceae Whole plant Plant decoction is diuretic. It is tonic used in
jaundice, constipation, chronic disorders of
kidney and liver. Root tea is effective in heart
diseases. Plant is used as fodder for animals
188 Thalictrum
foliolosum DC.
Beni Rananculaceae Whole plant The whole plant juice is blood purifier and
used in curing fever.
189 Themeda anathera
(Nees ex Steud.)
Hack.
Bhari ghass Poaceae --- Plant is used as fodder for animals. Clums are
used in making brooms.
190 Torilis nodosa (L.)
Gaertn.
Lahndara Apiaceae --- Used as fodder
320
191 Trichodesma
indicum (L.) Lehm.
Handusi Boraginaceae Root,
Leaf,Flower
Flower extract is tonic for refreshment of
brain. Leaves and roots are diuretic, emollient,
depurative and effective against snakebite.
192 Tridax procumbens
L.
Kuthi Asteraceae --- No apparent use
193 Trifolium repens L. Sriri Fabaceae --- It is used as fodder for livestock.
194 Triumfetta
pentandra A.Rich.
Dhamni Malvaceae Leaf Leaf decoction is used against diarrhea.
Whole plant is used as fodder.
195 Tylophora hirsuta
(Wall.) Wight
Budhibail Apocynaceae
Leaf, Fruit Leaves and fruits are used in treating skin
diseases and tumors
196 Verbascum thapsus
L.
Gidar
tobacco
Scrophulariaceae Leaf, Flower Poultice of leaves and flowers is used in
pulmonary diseases. Seeds are aphrodisiac.
197 Vernonia cinerea
(L.) Less.
Seh Devi Asteraceae Whole plant Plant is used in amenorrhoea, gonorrhea and
female sterility. Seeds are used in pulmonary
and skin infections.
198 Vicia sativa L. Rawarri Fabaceae Flower Flowers are febrifuge and diaphoretic,
effective in nervous disorders. Whole plant is
used as fodder for sheep, goat and cattle
199 Viola canescens
Wall. ex Roxb.
Banafsha Violaceae Root, Flower Roots are laxative and diuretic. Flowers are
diaphoretic, antipyretic and febrifuge. Flowers
are effective in nervous disorders.
200 Youngia japonica
(L.) DC.
Chirotta Asteraceae Leaf Leaves are blood purifier and effective in
treating constipation.
201 Zaleya pentandra
(L.) C. Jeffrey
Itsit Aizoaceae Leaf Leaf extract is used for stomach disorders. It is
antidote against snake bite. Plant is used as
fodder.
202 Zeuxine
strateumatica
Unavailable Orchidaceae --- No apparent use
321
Appendix IV: Importance value of plant species recorded from different communities during spring.
Species DTJ JAS PMH CDG MPD JAO PMT PTM DTM PTD PDT MCP QIR QMB QMC
Altitude (m) 473 587 593 667 687 757 847 850 919 1125 1233 1550 1705 1725 1897
Tree Layer
Acacia modesta Wall. 4.71 40.9 0 17.8 0 32 0 0 9.19 0 0 0 0 0 0
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taubert 14.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Casearia tomentosa Roxb. 0 0 4.53 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merill. 0 0 0 8.06 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.)
Mull. Arg. 4.74 32.41 12.43 0 16.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Olea ferruginea Royle 0 14.57 0 12.9 0 1.51 0 0 27.4 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pinus roxburghii Sargent 0 0 52 0 44.9 0 76.4 77.3 0 45.5 45.6 26.4 18.2 8.89 14.91
Prunus persica (L) )Batsch 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.18 0 0
Quercus incana W. Bartram 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.87 24.4 22.98 49.37
Salix acomophylla Boiss. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.88
Ziziphus mauritiana
var. spontanea (Edgew.) R.R.
Stewart ex Qaiser & Nazim. 22.97 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.14 0 0 0 0 0 0
Shrub Layer
Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.86 0 0 0
Astragalus psilocentros Fisch. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.95
Berberis lycium Royle. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.65 12.3 9 26.14 9.7
Carissa opaca Stapf. ex. Haines. 0 0 6.58 0 0 0 25.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Casearia tomentosa Roxb. 6.22 6.18 0 25.4 2.99 6.1 0 8.39 4.8 8.47 12.1 0 0 0 0
Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith. 0 0 0 0 10.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
322
Cotinus coggygria Scop. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 35 0 14.17 0
Debregeasia salicifolia (D. Don)
Rendle 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.17 5.4 0 0
Dodonaea viscosa (L.) 57.80 0 0 0 12.2 5.87 0 35.8 48.7 26.3 26.2 0 0 0 0
Elaeagnus parvifolia Wall. ex
Royle 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.55 0 0
Hypericum oblongifolium Choisy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.47 0
Indigofera heterantha Wall. ex
Brandis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 28.4 0 0
Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.)
Codd 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.59 0 0
Jasminum officinale L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.68 0
Justicia adhatoda L. 32.85 43.43 0 19 0 39.6 0 0 27 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lantana camara L. 0 0 15.33 3.29 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lonicera quinquelocularis
Hardwicke 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11.1 0 0 0
Loranthus pulverulentus Wall. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.29 0 0
Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.)
Mull. Arg 0 0 22.86 0 28.7 3.92 50.2 36.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maytenus royleana (Wall. ex M.A.
Lawson) Cufod. 0 2.59 0 0 10.1 0 0 0 0 13.4 0 0 0 0
Myrsine africana L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 22.8 46.5 0 39.65 28.49
Nerium oleander L. 2.57 5.86 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.42 0 4.91
Otostegia limbata (Bth.) Bioss. 0 0 0 0 0 2.88 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Prunus persica (L) )Batsch 0 0 0 0 2.99 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.89 0 0
Punica granatum L. 0 0 0 0 1.84 1.72 0 0 0 0 23.8 0 0 0 0
323
Quercus incana W. Bartram 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.97 10.8 20.6 5.68
Rhynchosia pseudo-cajan Camb. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.89 0 8.21 0
Rosa brunonii Lindl. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.42
Rubus fruticosus Hk. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.54 22.5 0 25.7 0 0
Viburnum grandiflorum Wallich ex
DC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17.4 0 15.78 0
Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.31 0 0 10.44
Zanthoxylum armatum DC. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.63 0 0
Ziziphus
mauritiana var. spontanea (Edgew.)
R.R. Stewart ex Qaiser & Nazim. 7.04 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Herb Layer
Achillea millefolium L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.69 2.55 0
Achyranthes aspera L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.85 0 0 0
Ajuga bracteosa Wallich ex. Benth. 1.77 0 3.77 0 0 1.47 8.67 0 2.35 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ajuga parviflora Benth. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.73
Amaranthus viridis L. 4.73 0.97 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Anagallis arvensis L. 1.95 0 3.97 14.9 1.22 7.89 3.01 0 3.1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Androsace umbellata (Lour.) Merill 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.28 1.55 0
Argyrolobium roseum Jaub. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 32.3 0 0 0 0 0 8.99
Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. 0 0 0 3.08 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Astragalus leucocephalus Grah.ex
Benth. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.25 0
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.38 0
Bidens bipinnata L. 0 0 0 0 0 1.32 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
324
Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. &
Sherff 0 0 0 0 0 24.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex
Roxb. 16.93 0 2.74 0 0 0.85 0 0 2.87 0 0 0 0 0 0
Buglossoides arvensis (L.) I.M.
Johnst. 0 0 2.25 5.09 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik 0 0 0 5.09 0 1.38 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Carex sempervirensVill. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8.05 1.1 2.89 24.56
Carpesium cernuum L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.56 0 2.31
Chenopodium album L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cirsium wallichii DC. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.25 0 3.51 2.96
Clematis grata Wall. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.62 4.54 0 0
Commelina benghalensis L. 0 6.58 0 2.72 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. 0 0 0 0 3.41 0 2.21 0 0 3.14 0 0 1.66 0 0.73
Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk. 0 0 2.32 0 0 0 2.62 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cyperus niveus Retz. 22.98 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.58 12.7 0 3.16 0 0 0 0
Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees. 0.9 14.86 0.87 0 0.77 15.4 0 2.67 3.1 13.3 6.43 0 0 0 0
Duchesnea indica (Andrews)
Teschem. 0 1.73 0 0 30.7 0 0 9.81 0 29.3 10.1 7.41 5.15 0 17.18
Erioscirpus comosus (Nees) Palla 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Erodium cicutarium (L.) L'Hér. ex
Aiton 0 0 1.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Euphorbia helioscopia L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Euphorbia esula L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.66 4.3 0
Euphorbia hirta L. 11.07 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Euphorbia indica Lam. 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.31 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
325
Fumaria indica Pugsley 0 0 0 11.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gagea pakistanica Levichev & Ali 0 0 2.49 0 0 0.77 4.13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Galium aparine L. 0 20.37 0 14.6 5.52 14.7 0 0 0 0 3.23 14.2 13.9 9.73 4.44
Gentianodes decemfida (Ham.)
Omer, Ali & Qaiser 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.64 0.62 0 0.94
Geranium nepalense Sweet 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.95 2.68 1.49
Geranium ocellatum Camb. 0 0 0 0 0.87 0 2.42 0 0 1.95 1.21 0 0 0 0
Geranium rotundifolium L. 0 10.03 0 22 1.64 19.9 0 2.34 0 9.01 3.04 0 0 0 5.45
Gerbera gossypina (Royle) Beauv 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.22 6.74 0
Geum canadense Jacq. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.59 2.2
Gloriosa superba L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.42 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hedera nepalensis K. Koch. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.52 0 0 18.57
Impatiens edgeworthii Hook. f. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.55
Lactuca dissecta D. Don 0 0 17.71 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.83 0 0 0 0 6.15
Lepidium sativum L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.73
Lespedeza juncea var. sericea F.B.
Forbes & Hemsl. 0 0 4.71 0 0 0 0 4.06 0 3.02 14.2 3.09 2.52 6.4 7.24
Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.)
Garcke 0 5.87 7.13 17.9 4.28 19.9 1.3 0 1.42 0 0 0 0 0 0
Medicago polymorpha L. 0 0 1.38 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Melilotus indica (L.) All. 2.27 0 0 6.59 1.98 2.3 0 0 0 0 0 1.18 0 0 0
Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham.ex
D.Don) Benth. 0 0 11.3 0 15.6 6.25 0 0 32.6 9.27 11.9 2.17 12.2 7.94 0
Neslia apiculata Fisch., C.A. Mey.
& Ave'-Lall 0 0 0 7.53 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Oenothera rosea L.Herit.ex Ait. 0 0 0 0 3.02 0 1.12 0 1.68 5.64 0 0 0.56 0 1.36
326
Origanum vulgare L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9.01 19.3 4.22 6.11
Oxalis corniculata L. 9.34 6.04 21.19 3.03 15.8 25.9 24.5 14.6 2.87 15.4 1.6 2.26 13.3 0 5.12
Parthenium hysterophorus L. 16.07 0 7.2 0 0 3.22 0 0 2.99 0 0 0 0 0 0
Plantago lanceolata L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11.5 3.05 0 6.38
Polygonum aviculare L. 0 0 0 0 0 1.38 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Polygonum plebeium R. Br. 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.31 6.88 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss. 4.98 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex Royle 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.56 0 5.84 0
Ranunculus muricatus L. 0 0 0 3.39 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Rubia cordifolia L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.82 0 7.56 1.28 0 0.99 0
Rumex dentatus L. 0 0 0 1.06 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Rumex hastatus D.Don 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.91 0 0
Salvia moocroftiana Wall. ex Benth 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.94 0.76 9.03 0
Scandix pecten-veneris L. 0 1.64 0 2.57 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Senecio nudicaulis Buchanan-
Hamilton ex D. Don 0 0 0 0 0.77 0 0 6.99 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Serratula praealta L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.85 0
Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borss. var.
cordata 0 0 0 22.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sida cordifolia L. 0 0.78 2.25 0 0 0.77 2.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Silene conoidea L. 0 0 0 0.59 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Smilax glaucophylla Klotzsch 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.02 0
Solanum nigrum L. 0 0 0 2.64 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Solanum surattense Burm. f. 0 0 0 0.59 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sonchus arvensis L. 0 0 0 11.5 0 0 0 0 0 18.4 0 0 0 0 0
327
Sonchus asper (L.) Hill 0 0 5.77 0 1.74 0 4.01 10.4 0 0 8.64 0.6 0 0 0
Stellaria media (L.)Vill. 0 39.85 0 8.9 0 0.83 1.71 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg. 0 6.98 11.3 8.79 5.43 19 2.21 0 0 7.56 0.79 6.79 1.17 7.19 3.89
Torilis nodosa (L.) Gaertn. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.94
Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm. 0 0 2.49 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tridax procumbens L. 10.86 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.51 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vicia sativa L. 0 2.42 0 3.38 10.1 0.77 0 0 1.2 0 0 0 0.69 0 0
Verbascum thapsus L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.56 0 0
Viola canescens Wall.ex Roxb. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.07 0 16.6 20.2 11.5 5.7 10.39 5.89
Youngia japonica (L.) DC. 0 0 0 4.79 3.17 0 0 0 0 1.57 0 0 0.56 0 0
Grass 12 13 19 24 17 20 17 12 13 14 13 20 25 21 24
Brachiaria eruciformis (Sm.)
Griseb. 0 0 0 0 11.4 0 0 0 3.93 3.24 0 0 0 0 0
Brachiaria reptans (L.) C.A.
Gardner & C.E. Hubb. 0 3.3 0 5.37 0 0 8.87 4.23 0 0 0 0 0 0 9.14
Cenchrus ciliaris L. 4.1 0 0 0 0 0 3.27 0 0 3.51 0 0 0 0 0
Chrysopogon aucheri (Boiss.) Stapf 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.29 16.2 0 0
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.. 0 7.78 2.49 7.86 0 0 0 0 19.8 0 0 1.69 0 0 0
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.)
Willd. 0 0 0 0 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.)
Stapf 3.1 0 0 12.3 0 5.22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Digitaria setigera Roth 1.77 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. 0 0 11.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
328
Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.
Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. 0 0 28.45 0 13.1 6.52 29.8 3.47 14.1 20.9 0 0 0 0 0
Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv. 3.35 0 4.86 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Oplismenus undulatifolius (Ard.) P.
Beauv. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.69 4.26 5.36 0
Poa annua L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.24 0 2.42
Saccharum spontaneum L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16.5 0 0 0 0
Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv. 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.62 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. &
Schult. 0 0 0 3.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.34 3.21 0
Themeda anathera (Nees ex Steud.)
Hack. 30.15 0 24.7 0 27.1 14 29.9 40.4 39 31.6 24.5 19.6 15.2 24.82 8.96
Ferns
Adiantum iniscum Forssk 0 24.86 1.5 0 11.6 11 0 0 0 5.06 9.2 0 0 0 0
Dryopteris stewartii Fraser-Jenk. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.29 0 3.51 2.52 0.6 3.85 0 0.83
Pteris cretica L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.79 2.12 0 0 0
Key: DTJ= Dodonaea-Themeda-Justicia community; JAS = Justicia- Acacia- Stellaria community; PMH = Pinus-Mallotus-Heteropogon community
; CSG= Carissa-Sida-Geranium community; MPD= Mallotus-Pinus-Duchsnea Community; JA0= Justicia- Acacia- Oxalis Community; PMT= Pinus-
Mallotus-Themeda community, PTM = Pinus- Themeda- Mallotus community, DTM= Dodonaea- Themeda- Micromeria Community, PTD = Pinus-
Themeda-Duchsnea Community, PDT= Pinus-Dodonaea-Themeda community, MCP = Myrsine-Cotinus-Pinus community, QIR = Quercus-Indigofera-
Rubus Community, QMB= Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis community, QMC = Quercus-Myrsine-Carex Community
329
Appendix V: Importance value of plant species recorded from different plant communities of district Kotli, during monsoon.
DTJ AJA PMO CC
J MPA
JA
T
PM
T
PM
D
DO
J PTD PDP
MC
P QIR
QM
B
QMB
a
473 587 593 667 687 757 847 850 919 1125 1233 1550 1705 1725 1897
Tree Layer
Acacia modesta Wall. 4.99 45.53 0 24 0
48.
3 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0
Butea monosperma (Lam.)
Taubert 15.48 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Casearia tomentosa Roxb. 0 0 4.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.)
Merill. 0 0 0 10.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.)
Mull. Arg. 5.02 38.05 13.34 0 16.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Olea ferruginea Royle 0 18.21 0 17.1 0
2.1
1 0 0 34 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pinus roxburghii Sargent 0 0 50.81 0 42 0
62.9
5 71.57 0
39.4
4 38.6
20.4
4 13.1 7.69 15.35
Prunus persica (L) )Batsch 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.58 0 0
Quercus incana W. Bartram 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.86 18.1 19.1 50.15
Salix acomophylla Boiss. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.94
Ziziphus
mauritiana var. spontanea (Edge
w.) R.R. Stewart ex Qaiser &
Nazim. 24.34 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.9 0 0 0 0 0 0
Shrub Layer
Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.47 0 0 0
330
Swingle
Astragalus psilocentros Fisch. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.07
Berberis lycium Royle. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.4 9.58 7.03 21.2 9.87
Carissa opaca Stapf. ex. Haines. 6.38 7.69 0 33 2.89
8.5
8 0 7.83 5.8 7.37 10.3 0 0 0 0
Casearia tomentosa Roxb. 0 0 6.61 0 0 0
20.6
5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Colebrookea oppositifolia
Smith. 0 0 0 0 10.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cotinus coggygria Scop. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 27 0 11.6 0
Debregeasia salicifolia (D. Don)
Rendle 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.03 4.2 0 0
Dodonaea viscosa (L.) 59.38 0 0 0 11.7
8.1
8 0 33.34 58
22.8
5 21.8 0 0 0 0
Elaeagnus parvifolia Wall. ex
Royle 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.77 0 0
Hypericum oblongifolium
Choisy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.17 0
Indigofera heterantha Wall. ex
Brandis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20.9 0 0
Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex
Benth.) Codd 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.08 0 0
Jasminum officinale L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.07 0
Justicia adhatoda L. 33.58 49.84 0 24.5 0
56.
1 0 0 33 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lantana camara L. 0 0 15.66 4.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lonicera quinquelocularis
Hardwicke 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8.63 0 0 0
331
Loranthus pulverulentus Wall. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.65 0 0
Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.)
Mull. Arg 0 0 23.34 0 27.4
5.4
5
40.1
2 34.18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maytenus royleana (Wall. ex
M.A. Lawson) Cufod. 0 3.05 0 0 9.65 0 0 0 0
11.6
3 0 0 0 0 0
Myrsine africana L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 19
35.9
5 0 32 28.9
Nerium oleander L. 2.63 7.09 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.01 0 5.01
Otostegia limbata (Bth.) Bioss. 0 0 0 0 0
3.9
9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Prunus persica (L) )Batsch 0 0 0 0 2.89 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.63 0 0
Punica granatum L. 0 0 0 0 1.76
2.3
2 0 0 0 0 19.5 0 0 0 0
Quercus incana W. Bartram 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.53 8.37 16.7 10.67
Rhynchosia pseudo-cajan Camb. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.71 0 7.16 0
Rosa brunonii Lindl. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.56
Rubus fruticosus Hk. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.22 18.5 0 19.1 0 0
Viburnum grandiflorum Wallich
ex DC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
13.4
7 0 12.9 0
Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.62 0 0 5.81
Zanthoxylum armatum DC. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.31 0 0
Ziziphus
mauritiana var. spontanea (Edge
w.) R.R. Stewart ex Qaiser &
Nazim. 7.47 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Herb Layer 0 0 0 0
Achillea millefolium L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.44 0
332
Achyranthes aspera L. 0 0 0 0 0
3.4
9 0 0 0 3.63 3.8 0 0 0 0
Adenostemma lavenia (L.)
Kuntze 5.18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Adiantum iniscum Forssk 0 63.54 0 0 33.2
12.
1 0 9.04 0
12.0
8 0 0 0 0 0
Aegopodium podagrari L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.21 0 3.7 0
Ajuga bracteosa Wallich ex.
Benth. 0 0 9.55 0 2.26
15.
2 5.81 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ajuga parviflora Benth. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.76
Alternanthera pungens Kunth 0 2.87 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.)
DC. 4.43 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Amaranthus viridis L. 0 0 0 1.87 0.76 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Anaphalis margaritacea (L.)
Benth. and Hook.f. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.58 0
Androsace umbellata (Lour.)
Merill 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.31 0 10.9 0
Anisomeles indica (L.) O.
Kuntze 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.81 0 0 0 0 0
Argyrolobium roseum Jaub. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.6 0 0 0 0 0 0
Aristida adscensionis L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.79 3.12 0 0
Artemisia scoparia Waldst. &
Kit. 0 0 0 1.87 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Asparagus capitatus subsp.
gracilis (Royle ex Baker)
Browicz 0 0 0 0 3.18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
333
Barleria cristata L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.63 1.1 0 0 0 0
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.73 0
Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. &
Sherff 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.47 0 1.26 1.82 0 0.97
Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex
Roxb. 28.84 0 2.87 11.4 0
11.
8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Brachiaria reptans (L.) C.A.
Gardner & C.E. Hubb. 3.44 33.19 7.78 18.4 5.98 0 0 5.7 0 7.16 0 0 4.14 0 23.93
Buglossoides arvensis (L.)
Johnston 0 0 1.58 0 0 0
15.4
4 0 3.9 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bupleurum falcatumL. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.38 0 2.4 0
Calamintha umbrosa (M. Bieb.)
Fisch. & C.A. Mey. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11.5 0 0
Campanula pallida Wall. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.35 0
Carex sempervirensVill. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.72 9.02 18.92
Carpesium cernum L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.09 1.33 0 5.38
Chenopodium album L. 0 0 0 4.04 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Chrysopogon aucheri (Boiss.)
Stapf 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10.9
8 8.6 9.11 0
Cirsium wallichii DC. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.63 0 1.6 1.52
Cissampelos pareira var. hirsuta
(Buch.-Ham. ex DC.) Forman 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cissus carnosa Lam. 0 2.63 0 6.59 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 0 0 0
Clematis grata Wall. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.76
Commelina benghalensis L. 0.95 0 0 2.64 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. 0 0 0.79 0 1.62
1.9
4 1.92 0 0 8.06 0 1.91 4.95 0 0.76
334
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.. 0 8.34 0 26.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.65 0 4.48 0
Cynoglossum lanceolatum
Forssk. 0 0 4.58 0 3.02 0 0 0 1.5 1.83 0.93 0.87 0 0 0
Cyperus difformis L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.93 0 0 0
Cyperus niveus Retz. 10.4 0 4.97 3.95 0
3.7
3 7.11 0 28 0 0 2.59 0 12 0
Cyperus rotundus L. 0 0 1.98 0 0
7.3
2 0 0 0 0 0 2.16 0 0 0
Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.76 0 0
Dichanthium annulatum
(Forssk.) Stapf 4.35 0 3.56 11.3 0 3.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees. 0 0 4.35 0 18.5
0.9
9 5.22 17.61 19 5.48 10.6 0 0 0 0
Dioscorea bulbifera L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dioscorea melanophyma Prain
& Burkill 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
15.4
9 0 0 0 0 0
Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop 0 0 1.43 0 0.76 0 1.43 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dryopteris stewartii Fraser-Jenk. 0 0 0 0 1.74 0 0 4.6 0
13.8
4 18.4 5.27 6.74 0 1.19
Duchesnea indica (Andrews)
Teschem. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
16.7
3 10.7
11.2
8 2.24 0 12.11
Eragrostis japonica (Thunb.)
Trin. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.06
Erioscirpus comosus (Nees)
Palla 0 0 0 0 4.2 0 4.33 4.82 0 3.77 9.89 0 0 0 0
Euphorbia esula L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.34 2.63 0
Euphorbia hirta L. 4.11 0 3.01 7.23 0 0 0 0 0 3.77 0 0 0 0 0
Euphorbia indica Lam. 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.92 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
335
Euphorbia prolifera Buch.-Ham.
ex D. Don 0 0 3.14 0 0 0 2.79 1.57 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Euphorbia prostrata Ait. 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.06 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. 1.86 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Galium aparine L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10.9
17.9
1 18.1 13.9 4.32
Geranium nepalense Sweet 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.01 0 3.25
Geranium rotundifolium L. 0 2.13 0 0 1.92 0 0 0 0 8.51 4.36 0 0 0 0
Gerbera gossypina (Royle)
Beauv 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.39 0 0 0.49 0 0
Geum canadense Jacq. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.45 2.04 0
Arenaria neelgherrensis Wight
& Arn. 10.99 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hedera nepalensis K. Koch. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.98 2.74 0 22.08
Heracleum candicans Wall. ex
DC. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.19
Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.
Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. 0 0 19.87 0 29.5
15.
5
13.0
8 26.72 12
20.4
1 8.11 0 0 0 0
Hypericum perforatum L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.09 0 0 0
Imperata cylindrica (L.) P.
Beauv. 0 0 4.08 0 0
5.5
9
12.1
8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br. 3 0 0 2.17 2.34 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ipomoea hederacea Jacq. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.3 0 0.91 0.93 0 0
Ipomoea pestigridis L. 0 0 0 5.32 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Juncus articulatus L. 0 0 0 1.64 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Justicia peploides (Nees) T.
Anderson 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.81 0 0 1.4
336
Launaea procumbens (Roxb.)
Ramayya & Rajagopal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lespedeza juncea var. sericea
F.B. Forbes & Hemsl. 0 0 0 0 0 0
19.3
5 2.43 0
16.3
8 8.5 4.01 6.35 9.99 5.84
Lotus corniculatus L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.59
Malva parviflora L. 0 0 0 1.87 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Malvastrum coromandelianum
(L.) Garcke 0 2.37 8.64 14.1 0
10.
9 0 0 3.9 0 0 0 0 0 0
Medicago polymorpha L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.18
Melilotus indica (L.) All. 0 0 1.43 0 2.92 0 0 0 0 0 2.12 8.27 0 0 0
Micromeria biflora (Buch.-
Ham.ex D.Don) Benth. 0 0 11.73 0 1.74 0 0 5.84 16 8.06 8.88 2.49 7.26 10.4 0
Myriactis nepalensis Less.. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.77 0 0
Oenothera rosea L.Herit.ex Ait. 0 0 0 0 1.4 0 2.66 0 0 0 1.69 0 0 0 0
Onosma thomsonii C.B. Clarke 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.69 0 0 0 0 0
Onychium japonicum (Kunze)
Wall 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.3 0 0
Oplismenus undulatifolius (Ard.)
P. Beauv. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Origanum vulgare L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8.39 12.7 4.4 0
Oxalis corniculata L. 3.36 3.38 22.56 0 17.4
11.
5
11.6
8 0 6.4 5.95 2.95 5.09 12.7 0 5.19
Zaleya pentandra (L.) C. Jeffrey 5.73 0 8.98 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Parthenium hysterophorus L. 8.05 0 12.44 15.4 0
11.
7 0 0 6.4 0 0 0 0 0 0
Adiantum venustum D. Don 0 0 0 7.23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Phyllanthus urinaria L. 0 0 9.9 1.64 0 6.5 14.9 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0
337
3 2
Physalis divaricata D. Don 1.86 0 0 0 0 0 5.26 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Plantago lanceolata L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.51 0 0 0
Polygala abyssinica R. Br. ex
Fresen. 0 0 4.43 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Polygonum aviculare L. 0 0 0 0 6.28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pteris cretica L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.16 0 0 3.03
Pteracanthus alatus (Wall. ex
Nees) Bremek. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 21.22
Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex
Royle 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.53 0
Rubia cordifolia L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.94 1.78 16.4 2.39 0
Saccharum spontaneum L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16.5 0 0 0 0
Selaginella chrysocaulos (Hook.
& Grev.) Spring 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10.3 0 0
Salvia plebeia R.Br. 0 0 0 0 3.02 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sauromatum venosum (Aiton)
Kunth 0 0 0 0 3.56 0 0 0 0 3.57 3.81 0 0 0 0
Saussurea heteromalla (D. Don)
Handel-Mazzetti 0 0 2.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. &
Schult. 0 0 0 3.73 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sida cordifolia L. 0 10.71 11.53 4.26 4.12
8.3
3 0 0 7.6 0 0 0 0 0 0
Smilax glaucophylla Klotzsch 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.84 0 0 0 2.26
Solanum nigrum L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.12 0 0 0
Sonchus asper (L.) Hill 0 0 3.79 0 0.76 0 1.92 12.58 0 4.77 5.69 2.66 0.45 0 0
338
Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
17.1
6 6.14 15.8 0
Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.87 0 0 0 5.79 0 0 0
Swertia petiolata D. Don 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.14 3.36 0
Taraxacum officinale F.H.
Wigg. 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.66 1.03 2.9 4 0 7.79 0.45 1.19 0
Thalictrum foliolosum DC. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.02 0
Themeda anathera (Nees ex
Steud.) Hack. 35.96 0 10.4 14.9 24.9
34.
5
38.6
6 33.28 17 25.5 10.1 6.73 12.1 12.7 0
Trichodesma indicum (L.)
Lehm. 0 0 3.71 0 0 0 0 9.34 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tridax procumbens L. 8.22 1.38 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Trifolium repens L. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.71 0 0 4.18 0
Triumfetta pentandra A.Rich. 0 0 0 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tylophora hirsuta (Wall.) Wight 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.36 0 0 0 0 0
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Viola canescens Wall.ex Roxb. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.41 0
10.8
1 18.5 5.79 16.2 11.6 12.77
Zeuxine strateumatica (L.)
Schltr. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.03 0 0 0 0 0 0
Key: DTJ= Dodonaea-Themeda-Justicia community; AJA = Adiantum-Justicia-Acacia community; PMO = Pinus-Mallotus-Oxalis
Community; CCJ= Carissa-Cynodon-Justicia community; MPA= Mallotus-Pinus-Adiantum community; JAT= Justicia-Acacia-Themeda
community; PMT= Pinus-Mallotus-Themeda community; PMD = Pinus- Mallotus- Dodonea community; DOJ= Dodonaea-Olea-Justicia
community; PTD = Pinus-Themeda-Dodonaea Community; PDP= Pinus-Dodonaea-Punica Community; Myrsine-Cotinus-Pinus
community; QIR = Quercus-Indigofera-Rubus Community; QMB= Quercus-Myrsine- Berberis community; QMBa = Quercus-Myrsine-
Brachiaria community
339
Appendix VI: Palatability and animal preference of forage plant in rangeland of District Kotli.
Species Palatability class Part Used Condition Live Stock
NP P HP MP LP RP W L I F D B C G S
Tree Layer
Acacia modesta Wall. 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taubert 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Casearia tomentosa Roxb. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merill. 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.) Mull.
Arg. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
Olea ferruginea Royle 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Pinus roxburghii Sargent 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Prunus persica (L) )Batsch 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Quercus incana W. Bartram 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Salix acomophylla Boiss. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ziziphus
mauritiana var. spontanea (Edgew.)
R.R. Stewart ex Qaiser & Nazim. 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Shrub Layer
Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Astragalus psilocentros Fisch. 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
Berberis lycium Royle. 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
Carissa opaca Stapf. ex. Haines. 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cotinus coggygria Scop. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Debregeasia salicifolia (D. Don) 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
340
Rendle
Dodonaea viscosa (L.) 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Elaeagnus parvifolia Wall. ex Royle 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
Hypericum oblongifolium Choisy 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Indigofera heterantha Wall. ex Brandis 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Jasminum officinale L. 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Justicia adhatoda L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lantana camara L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardwicke 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Loranthus pulverulentus Wall. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Maytenus royleana (Wall. ex M.A.
Lawson) Cufod. 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
Myrsine africana L. 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Nerium oleander L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Otostegia limbata (Bth.) Bioss. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Punica granatum L. 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Rhynchosia pseudo-cajan Camb. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Rosa brunonii Lindl. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Rubus fruticosus Hk. 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
Viburnum grandiflorum Wallich ex DC 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Zanthoxylum armatum DC. 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Herb Layer
Achillea millefolium L. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
341
Achyranthes aspera L. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Kuntze 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Aegopodium podagrari L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ajuga bracteosa Wallich ex. Benth. 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Ajuga parviflora Benth. 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Alternanthera pungens Kunth 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.) DC. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
Amaranthus viridis L. 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Anagallis arvensis L. 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) Benth. and
Hook.f. 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
Androsace umbellata (Lour.) Merill 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Arenaria neelgherrensis Wight & Arn. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Argyrolobium roseum Jaub. 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Asparagus capitatus subsp. gracilis
(Royle ex Baker) Browicz 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Astragalus leucocephalus Grah.ex
Benth. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Barleria cristata L. 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bidens bipinnata L. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex Roxb. 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Buglossoides arvensis (L.) I.M. Johnst. 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
342
Bupleurum falcatumL. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
Calamintha umbrosa (M. Bieb.) Fisch.
& C.A. Mey. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Campanula pallida Wall. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Carex sempervirensVill. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
Carpesium cernuum L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Chenopodium album L. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Cirsium wallichii DC. 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Cissampelos pareira var. hirsuta
(Buch.-Ham. ex DC.) Forman 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cissus carnosa Lam. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Clematis grata Wall. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
Commelina benghalensis L. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk. 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
Cyperus difformis L. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Cyperus niveus Retz. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Cyperus rotundus L. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees. 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Dioscorea bulbifera L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dioscorea melanophyma Prain &
Burkill 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Duchesnea indica (Andrews) Teschem. 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
Erioscirpus comosus (Nees) Palla 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
343
Erodium cicutarium (L.) L'Hér. ex
Aiton 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Euphorbia esula L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Euphorbia helioscopia L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Euphorbia hirta L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Euphorbia indica Lam. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Euphorbia prolifera Buch.-Ham. ex D.
Don 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Euphorbia prostrata Ait. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
Fumaria indica Pugsley 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
Gagea pakistanica Levichev & Ali 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Galium aparine L. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Gentianodes decemfida (Ham.) Omer,
Ali & Qaiser 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Geranium nepalense Sweet 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Geranium ocellatum Camb. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Geranium rotundifolium L. 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Gerbera gossypina (Royle) Beauv 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Geum canadense Jacq. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Gloriosa superba L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hedera nepalensis K. Koch. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Hypericum perforatum L. 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Impatiens edgeworthii Hook. f. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz. 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
344
Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
Ipomoea hederacea Jacq.a 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Ipomoea pestigridis L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Juncus articulatus L. 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Justicia peploides (Nees) T. Anderson 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Lactuca dissecta D. Don 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Launaea procumbens (Roxb.) Ramayya
& Rajagopal 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Lepidium sativum L. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Lespedeza juncea var. sericea F.B.
Forbes & Hemsl. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Lotus corniculatus L. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Malva parviflora L. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.)
Garcke 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Medicago polymorpha L. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Melilotus indica (L.) All. 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham.ex
D.Don) Benth. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
Myriactis nepalensis Less.. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Neslia apiculata Fisch., C.A. Mey. &
Ave'-Lall 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Oenothera rosea L.Herit.ex Ait. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Onosma thomsonii C.B. Clarke 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Origanum vulgare L. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Oxalis corniculata L. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
345
Parthenium hysterophorus L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Phyllanthus urinaria L. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Physalis divaricata D. Don 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Plantago lanceolata L. 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
Polygala abyssinica R. Br. ex Fresen. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Polygonum aviculare L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Polygonum plebeium R. Br. 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Pteracanthus alatus (Wall. ex Nees)
Bremek. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex Royle 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
Ranunculus muricatus L. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
Rubia cordifolia L. 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Rumex dentatus L. 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
Rumex hastatus D.Don 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
Saleginella crassa 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Salvia moocroftiana Wall. ex Benth 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Salvia plebeia R.Br. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sauromatum venosum (Aiton) Kunth 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Saussurea heteromalla (D. Don)
Handel-Mazzetti 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Scandix pecten-veneris L. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
Senecio nudicaulis Buchanan-Hamilton
ex D. Don 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Serratula praealta L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borss. var. 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
346
cordata
Sida cordifolia L. 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Silene conoidea L. 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Smilax glaucophylla Klotzsch 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Solanum nigrum L. 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Solanum surattense Burm. f. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Sonchus arvensis L. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Sonchus asper (L.) Hill 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Stellaria media (L.)Vill. 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
Swertia petiolata D. Don 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
Thalictrum foliolosum DC. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Torilis nodosa (L.) Gaertn. 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm. 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
Tridax procumbens L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Trifolium repens L. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Triumfetta pentandra A.Rich. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Tylophora hirsuta (Wall.) Wight 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Verbascum thapsus L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vicia sativa L. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Viola canescens Wall.ex Roxb. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Youngia japonica (L.) DC. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Zaleya pentandra (L.) C. Jeffrey 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Zeuxine strateumatica (L.) Schltr. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
347
Grasses
Aristida adscensionis L. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
Brachiaria eruciformis (Sm.) Griseb. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Brachiaria reptans (L.) C.A. Gardner &
C.E. Hubb. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Cenchrus ciliaris L. 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Chrysopogon aucheri (Boiss.) Stapf 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Digitaria setigera Roth 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Eragrostis japonica (Thunb.) Trin. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
Heteropogon contortus (L.) P. Beauv.
ex Roem. & Schult. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv. 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Oplismenus undulatifolius (Ard.) P.
Beauv. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Poa annua L. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Saccharum spontaneum L. 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv. 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Themeda anathera (Nees ex Steud.)
Hack. 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
Ferns
348
Adiantum iniscum Forssk 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Adiantum venustum D. Don 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Dryopteris stewartii Fraser-Jenk. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Onychium japonicum (Kunze) Wall 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pteris cretica L. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Key: P = Palatable; NP = Non palatable; HP = highly palatable; MP= Moderatly palatable; LP = Less palatable; RP = rarely palatable;
W = Whole; L= Leave= I = Infloresence; F= Fresh; D = Dry; B = Both; C = Cattle; G = Goat, S = Sheep
349
Appendix VII: Pre prepared sheet for recording the phytosociological attributes of plant species.
Site/locality Name: ____________, Altitude: ________________, Aspect: ______________
Coordinates: ____________N: _____________E, Grazing class: ____________
Erosion class: _________
S.No
Botanical
Name
Local
Name
Number of individual and cover of plant species per Quadrat
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q11 Q12 Q13 Q14 Q15
Tree Layer
1
2
3
4
So on
Shrub layer
1
2
3
4
5
So on
Herb Layer
1
2
3
4
5
350
6
7
8
9
11
So on
351
Appendix VIII: Sample of questionnaire used for collection of ethnobotanical informations.
Name:__________, Gender:_____________ Age:_______________ Education level:_________Profession:__________________,
Tribe:_______________
How long you are living in the area:________________________________
Botanical
Name
Local
Name
If Medicinal
M F FW TW Veg/EF RT H/F HT HB AT O Other Part used Uses
Key: Key: M= Medicinal, F =Fodder, FW = Fuel Wood, TW= Timber wood, Veg/EF = Vegetable/edible fruit, P = Poisonous, RT = Roof thatching
H/F, Hedge/fencing HT = Herbal tea, HS = Honey bee species, AT = Agriculture tool, O = ornamental
352
Appendix IX: Sample of questionnaire used for collection of paltatbility informations in relationto animals.
Name: __________, Gender: _____________Age:_______________, Education level______________
Profession___________, Tribe________.
Key: P = Palatable; NP = Non palatable; HP = highly palatable; MP= Moderatly palatable; LP = Less palatable; RP = rarely palatable;
W = Whole; L= Leave= I = Infloresence; F= Fresh; D = Dry; B = Both; C = Cattle; G = Goat, S = Sheep
Botanical Name
Local
Name
P
NP
Palatability level
Part used
Conditions
Livestock
HP MP LP RP W L I F D B C G S
353
Appendix X: Phenologicial diagram (Red color represent flowering period).
Species Name JAN FEB MAR APR May JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Tree Layer
Prunus persica
Flacourtia indica
Pinus roxburghii
Acacia modesta
Butea monosperma
Mallotus philippensis
Casearia tomentosa
Olea ferruginea
Quercus incana
Ziziphus mauritiana
Shrub Layer
Dodonaea viscosa
Colebrookea oppositifolia
Maytenus royleana
Zanthoxylum armatum
Astragalus psilocentros
Myrsine africana
Woodfordia fruticosa
354
Debregeasia salicifolia
Lonicera quinquelocularis
Hypericum oblongifolium
Isodon rugosus
Lantana camara
Cotinus coggygria
Indigofera heterantha
Berberis lycium
Carissa opaca
Rosa brunonii
Punica granatum
Otostegia limbata
Nerium oleander
Rubus fruticosus
Loranthus pulverulentus
Elaeagnus parvifolia
Rhynchosia pseudo-cajan
Jasminum officinale
Viburnum grandiflorum
Ailanthus altissima
Justicia adhatoda
Herb Layer
Buglossoides arvensis
355
Chenopodium album
Euphorbia helioscopia
Stellaria media
Amaranthus viridis
Boerhavia procumbens
Sida cordata
Solanum nigrum
Anagallis arvensis
Gentianodes decemfida
Taraxacum officinale
Aegopodium podagrari
Sonchus arvensis
Capsella bursa-pastoris
Fumaria indica
Polygonum plebeium
Polygonum plebeium
Polygonum plebeium
Androsace umbellata
Achyranthes aspera
Ajuga bracteosa
Ajuga parviflora
Arenaria neelgherrensis
Asparagus capitatus
356
Astragalus leucocephalus
Bergenia ciliata
Conyza bonariensis
Erioscirpus comosus
Erodium cicutarium
Gagea pakistanica
Geranium ocellatum
Geranium rotundifolium
Launaea procumbens
Lotus corniculatus
Rumex dentatus
Rumex dentatus
Trifolium repens
Zeuxine strateumatica
Duchesnea indica
Galium aparine
Lactuca dissecta
Melilotus indica
Ranunculus muricatus
Scandix pecten-veneris
Silene conoidea
Torilis nodosa
Youngia japonica
357
Euphorbia prolifera
Salvia plebeia
Sonchus asper
Vernonia cinerea
Plantago lanceolata
Rumex hastatus
Saussurea heteromalla
Trichodesma indicum
Viola canescens
Malvastrum
coromandelianum
Solanum surattense
Verbascum thapsus
Euphorbia prostrata
Oxalis corniculata
Adenostemma lavenia
Drimia indica
Juncus articulatus
Onosma thomsonii
Sauromatum venosum
Senecio nudicaulis
Smilax glaucophylla
Cirsium wallichii
358
Lepidium sativum
Salvia moocroftiana
Calamintha umbrosa
Campanula pallida
Carex sempervirens
Zaleya pentandra
Argyrolobium roseum
Clematis grata
Cyperus niveus
Ranunculus laetus
Sida cordifolia
Anisomeles indica
Geranium nepalense
Oenothera rosea
Polygala abyssinica
Cyperus rotundus
Micromeria biflora
Neslia apiculata
Parthenium hysterophorus
Pupalia lappacea
Gerbera gossypina
Euphorbia esula
Indigofera linifolia
359
Vicia sativa
Dioscorea bulbifera
Achillea millefolium
Cissampelos pareira
Cynoglossum lanceolatum
Euphorbia indica
Geum canadense
Heracleum candicans
Hypericum perforatum
Alternanthera pungens
Bupleurum falcatum
Dicliptera bupleuroides
Lespedeza juncea
Rubia cordifolia
Euphorbia hirta
Anaphalis margaritacea
Carpesium cernuum
Cissus carnosa
Cyperus difformis
Gloriosa superba
Hedera nepalensis
Impatiens edgeworthii
Justicia peploides
360
Pteracanthus alatus
Serratula praealta
Thalictrum foliolosum
Triumfetta pentandra
Tylophora hirsuta
Ipomoea eriocarpa
Origanum vulgare
Artemisia scoparia
Swertia petiolata
Phyllanthus urinaria
Dioscorea melanophyma
Ipomoea pestigridis
Physalis divaricata
Commelina benghalensis
Alysicarpus bupleurifolius
Ipomoea hederacea
Myriactis nepalensis
Tridax procumbens
Barleria cristata
Bidens bipinnata
Bidens biternata
Malva parviflora
Medicago polymorpha
361
Grasses
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers
Cenchrus ciliaris
Chrysopogon aucheri
Dichanthium annulatum
Evolvulus alsinoides
Imperata cylindrica
Poa annua
Sorghum halepense
Eleusine indica
Setaria viridis
Setaria pumila
Themeda anathera
Brachiaria reptans
Brachiaria eruciformis
Saccharum spontaneum
Aristida adscensionis
Dactyloctenium aegyptium
Oplismenus undulatifolius
Eragrostis japonica
Digitaria setigera
Heteropogon contortus
Ferns
362
Selaginella chrysocaulos
Dryopteris stewartii
Adiantum iniscum
Adiantum venustum
Onychium japonicum
Pteris cretica
363
Measurement of Environmental Variable
Plant Collection and Identification
364
Sampling by using Quadrat Method
Soil Sampling
365
Questionnnaire survey
Shrubby Biomass Estimation
366
Subtropical Scrub Forest of District Kotli
367
Subtropical Pine Forest
368
Subtropical Broad Leaf Humid Forest
