DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 309 742 IR 013 849

AUTHOR Patterson, Janice, Ed.TITLE Computers and Complex Thinking. May 1986 and October

1986.INSTITUTION National Center on Effective Secondary Schools,

Madison, WI.PUB DATE 86NOTE 25p.

PUB TYPE Collected Works - Serials (022) -- Reports -Descriptive (141) -- Reports - Research/Technical(143)

JOURNAL CIT Computers and Complex Thinking; May,Oct 1986

EDRS PRICE MFO1 /PCO1 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Cognitive Processes; *Computer Assisted Instruction;

High Schools; Microcomputers; *Problem Solving;Videodisks

ABSTRACTThese two issues of a newsletter address the use of

computers in developing complex thinking skills. The first issue, forMay 1986, includes articles on: environmental science coL,puter'applications; computers and higher order thinking in Mineola, NewYork; a description of case study research identifying effective usesof computers in developing thinking skills; and a summary of computereducation research in science, mathematics, writing and programming.The second issue, for October 1986, includes profiles ofmicrocomputer usage in high schools in Eugene, Oregon, andPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania, as well as articles on the use cfcomputer and videodisc technologies to teach thinking skills, acomputer network in Maryland schools, and computer databases designedfor teacher training at Syracuse Uri.versity. Both issues includebrief reports of computer usage survey results, conferenceannouncements, and software descriptions. (GL)

****** ******** ********** * ******* ** ********** ****** ********* ************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document.***** ******* ***********************************************************

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andComplex

inkinINFORMATIONTh

MAY 1986

National Center on Effective Secondary Schools

U S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONCittKe of Educational Research and Improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

gThis document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it

0 Minor changes have been made to improvereproduCtiOn qua.dy

Points of view or opinions stated in this dOCuTent do not neCeSSatity represent officialOERt position or policy

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS

MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

. N m ri

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

School of Education/ University of WisconsinMadison / 1025 West Johnson Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53706(008) 263 -7575

Janice Patterson, EditorFred M. Newmann, Director Hilary McLellan, Assistant Editor

EditorialIt happened at the White House

during a ceremony- conducted byPresident Reagan and U.S. Secretaryof Education William Bennett. Theoccasion was the unveiling of WhatWorks: Research about Teaching andLearning, a 65 page booklet forparents and teachers that contains"common sense" solutions garneredfrom 20 years of educationalresearch. Following the briefing,reporters asked why the bookletdoesn't deal with the role of com-puters in schools. According to oneof the principal reviewers of thedocument, Herbert J. Walberg, pro-fessor of education at the Univer7

(N1 sity of Illinois Chicago-Circlethere was no research consensus onthe importance or effects of com-puter use in schools and, thus, it

Al was omitted.In the March 13, 1986 issue of

c) Education Week that reported theseevents, it was noted that, in spiteof many contrary opinions, thereappears to be a firm consensus that

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teaching computer programming doesnot teach problem solving skillsacross disciplines. If this istrue, then what is the rationalefor schools spending so manyresources teaching programminglanguages? Why do they use com-puters for any instructional tasks?How can problem solving and othercomplex thinking tasks best betaught to secondary schoolstudents? What strategies mcsteffectively engage high schoolersin academic work? These are thetypes of concerns that have givenbirth to the focus for this news- rletter.

In part, these questions arisefrom work underway at the newlyfunded National Center on EffectiveSecondary Schools that investigatesways to engage all students ininstructional activities that sti-mulate complex thinking. It alsobuilds on past efforts at theWisconsin Center for EducationResearch, including the into rna-

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

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tionally distributed publication,On Wisconsin Computing. Manyresponses to that newsletter askedfor greater focus on secondaryschools and, secondarily on usingcomputers to teach complex Skills.We hope that you will see thispublication as one way of makingcontact with others who share yourinterests in complex thinking,secondary schools, and computeruse.

Janice PattersonEditor

Teacher Talk:

Environmental ScienceComputer ApplicationsKenneth DowComputer coordinatorSAD 48Newport, ME 04953

The SettingSituated on 1-95, midway

between Bangor and Waterville,Nokomis Regional High School(student population of 800) islocated in Newport, Maine(population 3500) and receivesstudents from seven other smallerrural towns in Penobscot andSomerset counties. The overallcatchment area is rural in thestrictest definition with thearea's economic base being anamalgam of farming, wood harvest-ing, service industries, and scat-tered sources of small industrial

1 employment in textile, leather,shoe, and woodworking industries.

, Our curriculum is a traditionalone, offering Earth Science toninth grade, Biology to tenthgrade, Chemistry or PhysicalScience to eleventh grade, andAdvanced Biology or Physics thelast year.

The InnovationIn the Environmental Science

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Project at Nokomis High School,students are using computers toanalyze data they are collecting inoriginal environmental researchthey are conducting on a river sys-tem undergoing large scale clean-up and restoration efforts.Utilizing the processes of scienceas learning tools, students caninteract with their natural,social, and political environmentand learn to make sound environ-mental choices. We are organizing anetwork of resources to use in highschool courses and are determiningthe extent, on a continuous basis,that we can use resources from ournatural setting as teaching tools.

The ImplementationWith the richness and diversity

of rural natural environments,students are cheated by being con-strained in the classroom carryingout routine artificial exercises.Too many students report a dislikefor science courses but take anactive role when given a chance toparticipate in real and meaningfulactivities such as fieldwork.Fieldwork helps students developan understanding and appreciationof the interdependency of ecolo-gical systems and an awareness ofenvironmental problems and theirimpact on all levels of life.Students reach a level of sophis-tication that is difficult to equalwith a textbook approach.

Arrangements were made to dorunoff sampling for the Departmentof Natural Protection and streamsurvey work for the Department ofMaine Resources. Other organi-zations involved included: ScottPaper Co., The Darling MarineResearch Center, USDA's New EnglandPlant and Soils Laboratory, TheNature Conservancy, and the U.S.Bureau of Sport Fisheries andWildlife.

Students monitored spring run-off, generated river survey data,gathered fall foliage growth data,sampled fish blood for viral infec-tions, and serviced a weather

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station for the New England Plantand Soils Lab, and participated inan alewive stocking project.

To get ,a wider perspective ofuses of our natural resources,tours were taken of: fish trappingand tagging sites; hydro-generatingsites; harvesting operations onpaper company woodlands; theDarling Center's aquaculture lab;and municipal, agricultural, andindustrial pollution abatementfacilities. Speakers from privateindustry, Dept. of Maine Resources,Dept. of Environmental Protection,the Darling Marine Research Center,Maine Warden's Service, Maine Fishand Game Dept., and U.S. Fish andWildlife Service were utilized todemonstrate the complex social andpolitical interactions which impacta river system.

Students computerized andanalyzed field data to establishpatterns and changes from previousdata. They then wrote and submittedreports to the proper agencies sum-marizing the data and conclusionsreached. Classes are now startingthe second year's work on theongoing projects.

The project is funded by anInnovative Educational Grant fromthe State of Maine Department ofEducational and Cultural Servicesas a result of the Education ReformAct of 1984. The use of micro-computers has been an integral partof the project from the beginningbut it is not a course in computerapplications. Students have usedcomputers in a variety of ways:-the use of a full statisticalpackage to conduct an analysis ofthe data generated by the waterrunoff sampling students conductedfor the Department of EnvironmentalProtection. The analysis has beenused to establish base-line datathe non-point- source contributionof phosphorus to the water shed.The sampling is on-going. Thestatistical work done by ourstudents will be used to monitorchanges in the water shed broughtabout by soil conservation effortswithin the area.

-use of computer assisted graphingsoftware to graph the data from therunoff sampling project and theweather station. The graphs areused in the analysis of the data.-use of data base management soft-ware to develop a data base from afield study of fish within thewater shed. Students conducteddetailed data collection studies bycatching fish and performingmeasurements and preserving labsamples of blood, scales, etc. Weare told that this is the firsttime a data base of this kind hasbeen developed. It will be used todevelop background data on thecondition of fish species in thearea.-as a spin-off of this data basemanagement project some of ourstudents have been involved withthe Newport Historical Society in aproject designed to catalog localhistorical documents. In thisinstance students took some of ourcomputers to the Society and demon-strated how the software could beused to catalog the documents andthen did the data base work for theSociety.-wordprocessing software has beenused extensively by all studentsinvolved to produce reports andcorrespondence. Word processing iscentral to the storage and filingof all the work that has been done.-spreadsheet software has been usedto organize, present, and analyzedata.-students have used quiz generationsoftware to write quizzes for thewater safety component of thedetailed river study that wasconducted by our students.- students have used a locallywritten piece of software tocompile the science departmentbudget for the school year and toprint the purchase orders from thatbudget.

The computer equipment we haveand the expertise that exists inour students have put us in aposition to offer manpower andcomputer facilities to the stateagenciea we are involved with. Much

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of the work would be impossiblewithout the microcomputer equipmentto handle the data.

Mineola Union FreeSchool District:Computers andThinkingAri-Zev Anolic, PhD.Director of Computer EducationMineola Union Free School District200 Emory RoadMineola, NY 11501(516) 741-1242

The emphasis in the Mineola,New York School district is on theuse of computers as a tool. We havebeen consciously moving from teach-ing about the computer (literacy)and programming languages (Basic,Pascal) to utilizing the computerin all subject areas. It is verydifficult to separate what we do onthe secondary level from the goalsand objective of our entire K-12program. Our district maintains anapproach to computer education thatincludes k-12 planning of programsthat are integrated in a sequentialfashion. For example, one of ourmost exciting uses of computers asa tool is in the area of teachingthinking skills via Logo and writ-ing skills utilizing the word pro-cessor. These applications werebegun on the elementary level andgradually phased upward into thesecondary schools. With experiencein using the computer as a tool inthese areas, students and facultywere better able to begin usingcomputers as a tool in variousother subject areas as well.

On the secondary level, aboutfour years ago we insti.tuted a com-puter applications lab. This was inaddition to an existing computerprogramming lab. We began theapplications lab on the assumptionthat individual teachers wereeventually going to have to learnto use computers' in their subject

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areas as they currently use text-books and overhead projectors. Assuch there were no formal expec-tations for this lab use with theexception of courses in literacy tointroduce all our students to thebroad issues and implications ofcomputers. At the same time, anextended period of staff awarenessand training was begun. Facultymeetings were addressed; inservicecourses were offered throughout theyear in areas of interest to thestaff. Some of these courses wereone-day workshops where teacherswere given release time. Some ofthem were 15-hour after schoolworkshops where teachers receivedcourse credits. Software review andqcquisition procedures were set upand centralized. Software demon-strations from various vendors wereset up in the applications lab.

After the first year, teachersbegan to exhibit an Jncreasedinterest in using the computers invarious subject areas. As eachteacher came to me, I attempted tomeet their needs in implementingcomputer use in their area. Forexample, when the chairperson ofLanguage Ar,s expressed an interestin using word processors, Iarranged for her to visit our"Writing skills via computerprogram" on the elementary level tosee the potential. We then selectedthe appropriate word processingsoftware for her students and wearranged for an 8-session inservicefor her entire department. Theinservice was geared toward usingthe word processor in Language Artsand developing materials forclassroom use. A significant numberof our Language Arts students atthe High School are now writing andcomposing using the word processorin the applications lab. Thisapproach integrates and enhancesour existing writing skills curri-culum with the word processor.

Another example: our Draftingteacher was interested in usingcomputer assisted drafting (CAD) inhis class. After much research anappropriate software package and

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the necessary peripherals wereacquired. Based on this experience,this teacher and his supervisorinitiated a grant proposal and wereceived a $10,000 grant for 4 verysophisticated CAD stations. Af'.erappropriate set up and training,our high school will have one ofthe most sophisticated computerassisted drafting setups in NassauCounty.

In an attempt to keep thisbrief, I will highlight some of theother uses to which computers arebeing put in our secondary schools.In Math and Science the computersare used for demonstrations andsimulations of concepts that arehard to present in a static way;graphing, science tool kits withtemperature probes, pendulum sen-sors, etc.). In Foreign Languages,the word processor is used forvarious applications. In Business;Eaucation, in addition to WordProcessing, the emphasis is onintegrating databases and spread-sheets into the Business curri-culum. We are currently trainingstaff and writing curricula thatintegrates the use of databases inSocial Studies and Science withword processors in Language Arts.In this way, in addition to expo-sitory writing on word processors,students will also be able to usethe word processor to write reportsin Social Studies and Science usinginformation that they have pre-viously set up on integrated databases. Art students use sophis-ticated graphics tablets fordrawing and design.

In addition we are involved inregional teacher resource andcomputer training centers and arecurrently implementing telecom-munications and interactivevideodisc technology into varioussubject areas (Earth Science, Art,Research Skills). The implemen-tation of this diverse program hasnot always been a straight upwardcurve. However I have enjoyedstrong support of the centraladministration, especially ourSuperintendent, Dr. Robert Ricken,

and the School Board. As a resultcomputer use has always been inte-grated into our existing curricu-lums, and issues regarding staff,location and equipment have beenthought and planned out well inadvance.

Our thinking skills program hasbeen recognized by New York Statein Thinking Skills Across the Cur-riculum: A Compendium of Think-ing Skills Practices K-12, and thethinking skills and writing skillsprograms have been cited in theNADCO publication, Ideas andPrograms of Merit - District ModelPractices Exchange.

Research Notes:

Computers andHigher Order Thinking

The University of Wisconsin-Madison has received a grant fromthe Office of Educational Researchand Improvement, U.S. Department ofEducation to establish the NationalCenter on Effective SecondarySchools. We are one of ten centerswhich have been recently estab-lished at universities across thecountry to conduct wide rangingresearch for the purpose of impro-ving education. The grants toestablish these centers wereawarded on a competitive basis fora five year term. This articleprofiles our computer research onidentifying exemplary practices inhigh schools to determine condi-tions that support the use ofcomputers for higher orderthinking.

For several reasons, computershave special potential for stimu-lating and monitoring higher orderthinking by high school students.Computer.. we the flexibility,often Jugh simulations, topresent challenging and complexproblems (Linn, 1985; Patterson &Smith, 1986) to students workingalone or with companions -- in wayswhich allow all students (not onlythe most verbally and mentally

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facile) the opportunity to engagein problem solving (Bork, 1981).The facility of the computer of thevery near future to assist studentsin posing problems, gaining accessto new information, and testingpossible solutions createstremendous opportunities forincreasing students' engagement incomplex cognitive processes. Suchactivites may even help studentslearn to monitor their own thinking(see Papert, 1980). In addition,the ability of the computer to keepa record of student experiences andto tailor material to the level ofthe student makes possible a newrange of testing situations whichare not feasible in the conven-tional classroom environment(Fredericksen, 1984a, 1984b; Linn,1985; Patterson & Smith, 1986;Pogrow, 1985). In short, a varietyof observers have argued that theinherent power of the computer toprovide individualized learningexperiences can engage students inmore complex academic activitiesthan are routinely practiced inschools (see also Carr & Goldstein,1977; Champagne,. K2.opfer, &Anderson, 1980; Lesgold & Rcdf,1983). Each of these pot2ntialstrengths of computer use couldalso be expected to enhance thegeneral level of studentengagement.

Unfortunately, these potentialuses seem to occur only rarely inschools. Recent survey data indi-cate that the single largestcategory of computer use insecondary schools is devoted to"computer literacy" activities,followed by drill and practiceactivities in mathematics. Use inother content areas is minimal.Computer literacy classes focus oninstruction in programminglanguages and emphasize acquisitionof information about computers(Becker, 1984). Although some arguefor the inclusion of programming asone way of teaching reasoningskills (e.g., Linn, 1985; Olson,1985), these classes focus on lowlevel programming tasks that don't

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challenge students' thinkingskills. Further, the problemremains that most high schools arenot using computers as an instru-ment for teaching higher orderthinking in programming classes oracross subject areas.

In addition, case studies ofsecondary school computer useindicate a number of factors thatprevent even the most dedicatedteachers from using computers.These include: (1) unreliabledelivery of hardware and software,(2) inadequate teacher training,(3) lack of time to integratesoftware into the curriculum, (4)insufficient principal involvementand training, and (5) constraints

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of mandated curriculum (Cannings,McManus, & McCall, 1985).

These factors combine to impedethe educational uses of computersin general, and for enhancinghigher order thinking in parti-cular. We are preparing a paperthat analyzes these factors andsuggests ways schools can overcomethem. This analysis will be basedon relevant research literature aswell as knowledge gained frompractitioners. We are particularlyinterested in the ways in whichschools and individual teacherscone with various intellectual,cultural and institutional barriersto the use of computers for stimu-lating higher order thinking, andthe ways that different uses ofcomputers affect student engage-ment.ReferencesBecker, H.J. (1984). School uses ofmicrocomputers: Reports from anational survey. Baltimore, MD:Center for Social Organization ofSchools, The Johns HopkinsUniversity.Bork, A. (1981). Learning withcomputers. Bedford, MA: DigitalPress.Cannings, T.R, M'-Manus, J.F., &McCall, C.H. (1985). Using thecomputer as a tool in the secondarycurriculum - Seven case studies.Paper presented at the annualmeeting of the American Educational

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Research Association, Chicago,Illinois.Carr, B., & Goldstein, I. ?.,(1977). Overlays: A theory ofmodeling for computer aidedinstruction. MIT AI Memo 406: LOGOMemo 40. Cambridge, MA: ArtificialIntelligence Laboratory,Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology.Champagne, A., Klopfer, L.E., &Anderson,J.H., (1980). Factorsinfluencing the learning ofclassical mechanics. AmericanJournal of Physics, 48, 1074-1079.Fredricksen,N., (1984a).Implications of cognitive theoryfor instruction in problem solving.Review of Educational Research, 5,363-407.Fredricksen,N., (1984b). The realtest bias. American Psychologist,39, 193-202.Lesgold, A., & Reif,F., (1983).Computers in education: Realizingthe potential. Chairman's Report ofa Research Conference.Washington,D.C.:U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, June, 1983.Linn,M.C., (1985). The cognitiveconsequences of programminginstruction in classrooms.Educational Researcher, 14(5),14-16, 25-29.Olson, D.R., (1985). Computers astools of the intellect. EducationalResearcher, 14(5).Papert,S., (1980). Mindstorms:Children, computers and powerfulideas. New York: Basic Books.Patterson,J., & Smith,M., (1986)Pogrow,S., (1985). Helping studentsto become thinkers. ElectronicLearning, 4(7), 26.

A Summary ofComputer EducationResearch in Science,Math, Writing, andProgramming: Part IIGerald Kulm and Sylvia ShaftoLearning & Instruction Division OERI

This paper presents part II ofa summary of recent and currentresearch in content areas which hasimplications for higher orderthinking. ?art I of Kulm andShafto's summary, presented in theprevious issue of the newsletter,covered research in mathematics andin cognition and learning. In thisissue, the second part of thesummary will be featured, coveringresearch in computer programming,science, and writing. This summaryis by no means comprehensive; itincludes only research that theauthors Yave been directly involvedin monitoring or reviewing. Thissummary is organized around threetypes of work with computers.

Computer ProgrammingNIE has supported several kinds

of research on teaching and learn-ing computer programming. Thisresearch includes initial investi-gations of the feasibility ofteaching programming to children ofall ages, cognitive research onlearning of general problem solvingstrategies while learning to pro-gram, and teaching research oneffective uses of programminglanguages as a problem solvingtool. Underlying most of thisresearch is the question of whethercomputer programming can be taughtin such a way that the studentlearns transferable problem solvingskills.

Prototype software designed toenhance teaching programming tochildren has been developed throughNIE research. Both enriched pro-gramming environments in LOGO(Papert,1982), and simplified pro --

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gramming "microenvironments" suchas Rocky's Boots (Learning Company,1980) and Spiderworld (Dalby, 1983)have been developed.

NIE-supported research byRichard Mayer (1982) demonstratedthat students understand the prob-lem and the solution better if theystate the solution using more thanone means of expression, such as acomputer programming language, aflow chart, and a natural languagedescription.

The Bank Street College ofEducation (Kurland, et al.,1984)has addressed the issue of prere-quisite and consequent knowledge inthe context of students' learningto program solutions to problemsusing LOGO. Their research hasincluded observations of studentslearning to use LOGO in a"discovery-learning" classroomenvironment, as well as a classroomenvironment using more structuredteaching. An important conclusionof this research is that in boththe typical discovery-learningsetting and the more structuredprogramming class, students do notlearn to solve complex problemsvery well, nor do they appear todevelop generalized problem solvingskills as measured by tests design-ed to parallel the type of proces-ses found in computer programs.Even at its best, the current peda-gogy for computer programming isnot teaching students how to solvecomplex programming problems and isnot teaching any evident generalproblem solving skills.

The ACCEL Project (Linn,1985)has looked at cognitive prerequi-sites and consequences of students'learning to solve problems usingRocky's Boots, Spiderworld, andBASIC in classroom and non-class-room settings. Using standardizedtests this project has evaluatedstudents' cognitive skills beforeand after instruction in the usesof these specific problem solvingtools. If planning strategies aretaught explicitly, then studentswill show some evidence of improved

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general problem solving skills. Theresearchers further suggest that ifstudents learn to use more than oneprogramming language to solve agiven problem they may more readilylearn to generalize the process ofproblem solving. By solving thesame problem in more than onelanguage the student would differ-entiate the language of the solu-tion from the solution itself.This argument is supported byMayer's research mentioned above.

Current research at theEducational Technology Center (ETC)of the Harvard Department ofEducation (Perkins,1985) is focusedon developing a model of theproblem solving strategies used bystudents who are successful atlearning to program solutions totypical classroom problems. Class-room experiments are being conduc-ted which are designed to teachthese strategies explicitly tostudents learning LOGO and.BASIC.Although some of the identifiedsuccessful strategies are specificto computer programming, many ofthem may prove to useful forstudents confronting complexproblems in other problem domains.

Perlmutter and others (1985)are examining a different aspect ofpedagogy which may affect students'success at learning to program.Child : -en observed in classroomsenjoy using computers more whenthey work in pairs rather thansingly. The researchers are inves-tigating the importance of peer/peer interactions in cognitivedevelopment in the context ofchildren learning to program inLOGO. It may be that workingtogether helps children remainfocused on a new problem domainwhen first beginning to work withcomputers, and working together onlater, more difficult problemsimproves the students' chances ofsuccessful problem solving.

Much of the research incomputer programming proposes thatthis is a unique medium in whichstudents can solve complex problems

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in an organized way, receiveimmediate feedback on their work,and eventually succeed at solvingabstract problems while becomingcognizant of the process of solvingthe problem. While little experi-mental evidence supports this yet,it is still reasonable to expectthat the research will yield valu-able information on how studentscan be taught to solve complexproblems.

ScienceNIE-sponsored research and

development in the uses of compu-ters in teaching science hasfocused primarily on softwaredevelopment for simulations andrelated learning research.

Prototype materials weredeveloped at the University ofPittsburgh Learning Research andDevelopment Center (Champagne, etal, 1980) for simulating experi-ments in mechanics. Thesesimulations were subsequentlydistributed to schools by acommercial publisher and given aBest Microcomputer Software of theYear Award in 1982 from theLearning Periodicale Group. Thesoftware was developed to doteaching and learning research onstudents' misconceptions (naivetheories) in mechanics. Thecomputer simulation allows thestudents to test their naivetheories against Newtonian andAristotelian mechanics whilesolving a few specific problems.Ongoing classroom research isinvestigating effective ways ofusing this computer simulation ofnatural phenomena to teach correct,but possibly counterintuitivetheories.

NIE and NSF have supporteddevelopment of laboratory tools(temperature, pH, light, and soundprobes) which can be interfaced tomicrocomputers and augmented withreal-time graphing software (seeWiser,1985). Through organizationssuch as the American Association ofPhysics Teachers, workshopsthroughout the country are show-

ing teachers how to use these toolsin science courses. The tools areintegrated into one set or instruc-tional materials for the Voyage ofthe Mimi.

The temperature probe andgraphing software is part of an ETCresearch project on teaching andlearning the concepts of heat andtemperature (Wiser,1985). Classroomexperiments have demonstratedimproved understanding of theseconcepts when standard laboratoryexperiments are augmented with thecomputer software and probes. Theaccuracy and quickness of thecomputer's response and data repre-sentation apparently allows thestudents to distinguish clearlybetween the intensive (temperature)and extensive (heat) properties ofa system in a way that conventionallaboratory thermometers do not.

Related research at ETC uses acomputer simulation of two dimen-sional density to teach youngstudents about density of threedimensional objects (Smith, 1985).From experimental work, childrenearn about density properties ofiron vs. aluminum bars more effi-ciently after they have worked witha computer simulation of two dimen-sional objects with differentdensities. A teaching unit is beingdeveloped using the simulationmaterials in classroom settings.

Another unit is being developedat ETC about the generation andempirical testing of scientifictheories (Chomsky, 1985). Commer-cially available software is beingused at certain points in theteaching unit. The software simu-lates a natural phenomenon, and thestudent performs a few experimentson the simulation, with resultsthat are clear-cut and not confusedby experimental error. A cognitivemodel for the student is beingtested, and the software representsan important tool in addressingstudent needs at an early stage ofthe learning process.

While the science projects des-cribed above all seem to address

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the teaching of isolated concepts,these concepts are all complex andimportant in the individual scien-tific disciplines. As such theymost likely represent essentialcomponents of a problem classifi-cation system which is necessaryfor successful problem solving(Chi, and others, 1980).

WritingResearch in teaching and

learning of writing includesprototype development of wordprocessors for students (BankStreet Writer, Quill) and othersoftware tools designed to simplifythe task. The assumption forteaching and learning research isthat if the computer eases thetasks of revision, spelling andgrammatical construction, thestudent will be able to learn morequickly about the higher ordertasks such as organization andargument (Butler, 1985).

Emerson and Stern Associates(1985) are developing an on-linespelling and grammar checker toaugment a word processor. Thesewill provide a student with imme-diate feedback on common errors atthe word and sentence level. Theresearchers are currently develop-ing these software tools inclassrooms and are exploring waysthey can be used effectively toteach spelling, grammar andwriting.

At the Wisconsin Center forEducational Research (Dickson,1985) a combination of software andvoice synthesizer is being used togive students feedback on what theytyped using a word processor. Expe-rimental work to date suggests thatstudents are greatly helped infinding spelling and grammaticalerrors using these tools.

In related work on computeraugmented writing, Dickson hasdeveloped software which allows ateacher to select images off avideodisc which a student can thenuse.to inspire and illustrate awriting composition using a wordprocessor. Preliminary work shows

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that students are productivelyworking with the system.

The above new softwareprototype work has not been usedyet to address questions aboutstudent cognition and the teachingof writing. However, there isresearch addressing issues of howteachers are using computers andword processing software. Forexample, Gazden and others (1985)are evaluating the role of theteacher and the process of assi-milation of the computer and theQuill into teaching writing. Theyare also analyzing writing samplesfrom the students to determine ifuse of Quill is associated with anychanges in writing style or produc-tivity. Similar research is beingconducted by Mehan (1985) withpreliminary observations notingthat teachers do not change teach-ing styles noticeably in the firstyear of using word processors toteach writing; when a teacher isgiven the responsibility of inte-grating the tool into a regularclass setting it is not clear ifthere are readily observablechanges in teaching and learning.

Research in uses of computersin teaching writing is only begin-ning to adress questions of cog-nition and teaching. The softwaretools are only now being developed,and the implementation research isstill to be done.

SummaryIn all three areas, mathe-

matics, science, and writing,prototype software has beendeveloped which is already beingused in schools to teach complexproblem solving. Uniformly, thedesign of the software and teachingmaterials places the student incharge4of interacting with thecomputer in an open-ended context.In addition, the use of thesoftware is designed to beintegrated into the class by theteacher.

The ongoing research associatedwith evaluating the utility andeffectiveness of the software is

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shaped by the knowledge that thematerials will be used in a normalclassroom setting. Most of theresearch described above has inclu-ded teachers at all stages of de-velopment or testing. The teacherwill ultimately decide how thesenew tools are to be used.

Teachers are usually involvedin the development and teachingresearch. Their interest and par-ticipation has often been theimpetus for the research.

The ResearchInto Practice Digest

The Research Into PracticeDigest provides educators withreadable rgvaews of educationalresearch. Each issue of The Digestcontains a summary of over 100research studies in a particularcontent area, along with concretesuggestions for how that researchcan be applied in the practicalschool setting. Each 30 to 60 pageissue of The Digest is preparedafter reviewing from 100 to 200research articles on a single topicand then summarizing the data.

It is written in lively, non-technical language that makes itaccessible to the Professional andlay audience alike, includingteacher educators, school boardmembers and classroom teachers.

The issue on Computers inEducation (Vol. 1, No. 3) covers:* Research on Computer-assistedinstruction.* Is CAI the most cost-effectiveapproach to providing drill andpractice?* Programming skills and the jobmarket - is there really a demand?* Does programming develop thinkingskills? - A look at the research* What can you do to improveprogramming instruction? -Research- based suggestions.

All issues of The Digest thatwe have seen contain in-depthsummaries of topics that willinterest computer educators who

want to use computers as one way tostimulate complex thinking skills.For more information: The Centerfor Research Into Practice,' Suite310, 1718 Connectik;ut Avenue, N.W.,Washington, D.C. 20009; (202)537-1620. Subscriptions are $38.00per year.

Top Software for 1985The Sky Travel program, by

Commodore Business Machines, hasbeen selected by Science 86magazine as one of the topinstructional science softwarepackages of 1985. Other winnersinclude:* Adventure Writer, by CodewriterCorp.* Algebra Word Problems I: Motion,II: Area, perimeter and Lever, III:Mixture, Coin, and Investment, andIV: Percent, Mixture and Age, byMicrocomputer Workshops Courseware.* Bank Street Storybook, byMindscape, Inc.* Bataille des Mots, Batalla dePalabras and Wortgefecht, byGessler Educational Software.* Dinosaur Dig, by CBS.* Educalc, by Grolier ElectronicPublishing Inc.* Exploring Tables and Graphs, byWeekly Reader Family Software.* Fischertechnik Computing Kit, byFischer America Inc.* Kid Pro Quo, by Softsync Inc.* Magic Sate, by SunburstCommunications Inc.* Newsroom, by Springboard SoftwareInc.* Quations, by Scholastic Inc.* Remember!, by Designwara.* Road Rally U.S.A., by BantamBooks.* Where in the World is CarmenSandiego?, by Broderbund.* Wilderness: A Survival Adventure,by Electronic Arts.* Writing Adventure, by DLMTeaching Resources.

A more comprehensive guide tocurrent educational software is the1986 edition of Only the Best: The

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Discriminating Software Guide forPreschool-Grade 12, an annualreport by the editors of School-TechNews that covers some 7,800program evaluations and over 200software programs that received themost favorable reviews. Copies ofthe 1986 Only the Best guide cost$19.95 prepaid, or $21.95 forbilled orders. To order a copy,contact Education News Service,P.O. Box 1789, Carmichael, CA.95609; ph. 916/483-6159.

Toward Sex Equityin ComputerEducation

......."...........,

A project funded by the Women'sEducational Act Program, U.S. Dept.of Education, is planning todevelop an institutional self-studyguide to assist elementary, secon-dary, and postsecondary educatorswho seek to identify and eliminatebarriers to computer education forgirls and women.

At thin stage, input from edu-cators is needed. To contributeinformation, write for a packet ofmaterials from Dr. Judith E.Jacobsc/o HERS/Mid-America, University ofDenver, Colorado Women's ColllegeCampus, Denver, CO 80220.

Software-TextbookSkills Matrix

The Learning Company andAddison -Wesley have published askills matrix that shows how theireducational courseware packages arerelated to material presented inAddison-Wesley textbooks. Thematrix is available free toeducators. To receive a copy, sendLc. The Learning Company, Suite170, 545 Middlefield Road, MenloPark, CA 94025; ph. 415/328-5410.

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Robot InvasionDean SeiwertSchool of EducationUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison

They're here. This isn't somescience fict4 story. The robotsare invading -ar world! Every daythere are more to be found. Theyhave adopted an incredible varietyof forms. Some are very unassuming,almost unnoticeable to theuntrained eye. Others demand yourattention, weighing tons and ableto lift crushing weights.

Yes, the robots are here andthey will stay. They can perform awide variety of tasks, at work aswell as at home. A robot, simply,is a device capable of effectingthe physical environment in whichit works in some defined manner.It's easy to spot the mechanicalarm in action at thousands of fac-tories across the country. Butthere are more subtle robots thatbecome part of our homes. There aremany computerized thermostats onthe retail market, which wheninstalled can control your furnaceand air conditioning to maximizecomfort while minimizing cost.Other systems will monitor yourproperty while you are gone orasleep, watchful for intruder,fire, power outage or other emer-gencies.

One prob:em with these devicesis that for most of us, they arequite foreign in nature. Not sureof how they work, they are blackboxes full of wonder and mystery.

School House Robotics is aproject through the University ofWisconsin-Extension designed toclarify the nature of robots foreducators and students. This pro-ject focuses on computer inter-facing and robotics using inex-pensive, widely available material.The basic principles presentedunderlie the mechanical functioningof all robots and computer con-trolled devices.

The manual for this project,Schoolhouse Robotics* is dividedinto four units with a fifth in

es'

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development. Each unit covers oneaspect involved in the connectionof the computer to the outsideworld. The first unit introducesthe output of information used tocontrol a simple circuit. Nextcomes the control of motors, theinput of information into thecomputer from the environment, andthe combination of several func-tions into a single controller. Thefifth module will discuss theconversion of information fromdigital (a measurement used by thecomputer based on discrete steps)to analog (a measure along acontinuous range of values). Allactivities are hands-on and includedescriptions of the circuits andcomponents involved.

The Schoolhouse RoboticsProject has been conducting classessince the summer of '85 that focuson introducing teachers torobotics. The classes have beenorganized through the WisconsinExtension and are offered forcredit. These courses have beenoffered both on the University ofWisconsin campus as /ell as remotesites around the state, with thenumber of sections dependent on thenumber of interested people.

For further information aboutSchoolhouse Robotics, contact:

M. Vere DeVaultRoom 476Teacher Education Building225 N. Mills StMadison, WI 53706

* Published by UW EducationExtension, University of Wisconsin,160 Education Building, Madison, WI53706.

icrocomputerTypographyBy A.L. DivineWisconsin Center

for Education Research

Microcomputers havefound their. way increasingly,

into almost every aspect of ourculture and our private lives. Newapplications are found and adoptedalmost daily. As hardware andsoftware begin to mature, so rel-atively speaking, do the forms ofcommunication we use (particularlyin the schools), change and mature.With rec nt improvements ingraphics capabilities of severalbrand name microcomputers there arepowerful implications for educatorsover the long range in terms ofeducational materials.

PPLE. was at one timealone, on the cuttingedge of microcomputingtypesetting technologywith its Mac Intosh andhigh res dot matrix andlaserjet printers and

MACWrite software.Since then othersoftware devel-

opers haveinventoried a

variety of typesettingquality word processor

utilities for IBM and IBM-compat-ibles using an EPSON or other dotmatrix or laserjet printer. Notonly do these software packagesallow the user to design documentsand the type they will use in them,but they permit the mixing ofmusical notation, ancient hebrewand Gaelic Ogam scripts, and mathnotation, on the same line. And asSoftCraft of Madison, Wisconsinadvertises in regard to their'Fancy Font' system, near-typo-graphic quality can be obtainedfrom an ordinary dot matrixprinter.

he days when commercialprinters and the typo-graphic industry(consisting principallyof three or four majorypographic firms),

controlled the design ofeducational materials, may be at anend. Type, ever since its inventionby Gutenberg, has been cast inmetal (in 'stone' as it were), and

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stored and maintained.as though itwere of gold. Some type designs arenearly 500 years old, and in spiteof the knowledge educationalresearchers have £massed concerningreadability and comprehension someof the least legible typefaces seemto keep appearing in texts. Evenwith the advent o4 phototypesettingsystems, the educator end-user hashad only limited access to theletterforms and page design whichare selected to be used in produc-ing their printed document or book.It would nice to believe the recentdevelopment in software-basedmicrocomputer typography mayeventually give rise to a sig-nificant growth in typographicexpression in a way that has notoccurred since the invention oftype, i.e., the prodUction of amodern sort of... microcomputergenerated 'BOOK OF KELLS. forstudents in school.

raphics and headlinesfor this issue ofComputers and ComplexThinking, as well asthe text, have beenformated and printedusing several brandname

microcomputers and dot matrixprinters.

For a list of availablemicrocomputer typographic software,sere the May 12 1986 issue ofCOMPUTER GRAPHICS TODAY. It has acomprehensive listing of thesoftware, addresses and phonenumbers of the manufacturer, andthe current pricing for eachparticular typeographic softwar-epackage.

COMPUTERS AND COMPLEX THINKING NEWSLETTERJanice Patterson, EditorNational Center on Effective Secondary

SchoolsSchool of Education'University of Wisconsin-Madison1025 West Johnson StreetMadison, WI 53706

ADDRESS CORRECTION REQUESTED

1 5

Nonprofit Organization

U. S POSTAGE

PAIDMadison. Wisconsin

Permit No. 1622

4 4:41

Computersand

C mpolexThinking

OCTOBER 1986

National Center on Effective Secondary SchoolsSchool of Education/ University of Wisconsin-Madison / 1025 West Johnson Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53706

(608) 263-7575Janice Patterson, Editor

Fred M. Newmann, Director Hilary McLellan, Assistant Editor

EditorialWe regret that this will be the

last issue of the Computers andComplex Thinking Newsletter. Thenewsletter began as a way to bridgea former newsletter, OnWisconsin Computing, establishedunder the previous Center with themandate of the new Center onEffective Secondary Schools.When funding for the prior Centerterminated, the newsletter mighthave died, but it found some hopefor continuing in an initial, butonly provisionally approved,research project on the use ofcomputers in high schools withinthe new Secondary Center. TheSecondary Center has a broadmission that extends beyond the useof technology to *prove highschools. The Center's work isreviewed each year, and thisbroader mission, plum a scarcityof resources led to a decision todiscontinue the study of computersin high schools of which the news-letter was one part.

The Center will continueresearch on higher order thinkingin the high school curriculum,focusing initially on issues ofadolescent development, organiza-tional constraints, and the studyof history and social studies. Itwill also publish two generalnewsletters and two resourcebulletins per year on secondaryschool issues, same of which maydeal directly with technology. Ifyou wish to be placed on thegeneral mailing list, please let usknow.

If your interests are particu-larly focused on computer use toteach complex thinking, watch for aNCESS report to be released inJanuarly, 1987. Barriers to usingcomputers to teach thinking will beidentified that include and gobeyond the usual hardware andsoftware acquisition and evalua-tion, teacher training and curri-culum integration. This broadenedconceptualization includes know-ledge about school culture andother organizational features ofschools that promote or inhibit

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educational change as well asresearch on the effects of techno-logy on teachers. Please contact mefor more information or to let meknow what you may be doing thatrelates to this project. You areencouraged to continue your

involvement and interest in ourwork.

Best Wishes,

Janice PattersonEditor

TEACHER TALKHigh School Profile:South Eugene High School

Tom LaytonComputer CoordinatorSouth Eugene High School400 East 19th AvenueEugene OR 97401-4190

South Eugene High School islocated in Eugene, Oregon at thesouthern end of the WilliametteValley midway between the CascadeMountains and the Pacific Ocean.Using computers" as tools in thecontent areas is one of SouthEugene High School's highestpriorities. Three years ago Southhad only one Apple computer whichwas used for instruction within thebuilding. Today it has over 90 inuse by faculty and students. Nextyear will see an increase of aboutanother 20. This is particularlysignificant when one considers thatless than 15 of the machines werethe result of grants and awards.The majority of the computers camefrom the budget that supportstextbooks and supplies. Since thesemonies are controlled by thefaculty council, one can sense thestaff's commitment to computers ineducetiou. This commitment extendsinto teachers' homes because nearly70% of the faculty own their ownpersonal computer. Furthermore, 1 7

South is the only high school inthe area whose computer specialistis not required to teach regularlyscheduled classes. My dutiesinclude staff training, consultingin curriculum, hardware/softwaredevelopment and maintenance.

In 1982 South initiated amicrocomputer lab for programminginstruction and open student use.In 1983 programming and computerliteracy instruction were moved toother parts of the building and theComputing Center was established toprovide free access to computersfor students and as a teachingstation for the English department.All 10th grade English studentscame to the Computing Center fortwo weeks of composition and used aword processor. In 1984 theComputing Center extended its hoursfor students and staff to the fullacademic day (7:30 - 4:00) andbegan to attract teachers fromother content areas which includedmath, science, foreign language(German word processing) and socialstudies; as well as classes forHearing Impaired Learning Disabled,English as a Second Language, andthe Trainably Mentally Retarded. Itbecame obvious to the contentteachers that too much time in theComputing Center was spent teachingstudents how to use the hardwareand software and not enough timewas left for teaching the subjectarea. As a result, in 1986, allfreshmen will be advised to take anew Computer/Keyboarding Core classdesigned to teach students to typeand to use the hardware andsoftware necessary to successfullyparticipate in the content coursesat South. Six sections of thecourse will be offered.

The growth of the ComputingCenter for computing in the contentareas contrasts sharply with thehistory of programming in thebuilding. Four sections of computerprogramming had been offered atSouth originally. As of next year,however, only one programming classwill be offered in PASCAL forstudents who wish to prepare for

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the advanced placement exam inprogramming.

As an aside, it is interestingto note that the problem of sexequity in computer use that was sofrustrating with programmingclasses, seems to have disappearedcompletely when computers are usedin content areas. The ComputingCenter originally was dominated bymales. Today, the center leansslightly to more use by females.

The overriding use of computersat South is as a tool rather thanas a drill nester. Those earlydrill-and-practice programs wepurchased mostly gather dust. Mostcomputer use seems to center aroundone all-purpose programAppleNbrks. Of course the EnglishDepartment found the wordprocessing portion of the programlong ago. More recently, thescience department and socialstudies department have discoveredthe data base. Both departmentshave developed their own databasesfor their students (one on theperiodic table and one onstatistical information of thenations of the world). In fact onedatabase created by same of South'ssocial studies teachers willprobably be published by Scholasticthis coming year and another may bepublished by Sunburst. In the nextfew years we hope to attract morecontent teachers into the ComputingCenter and to begin to explore theuse of spreadsheets and other"tool" software with students andstaff.

There are numerous "pockets" ofcomputer use throughout thebuilding. Briefly, some are asfollows:* The journalism classes currentlypublish the school newspaper andwill publish the yearbook next yearusing Macintoshes, a LaserWriter,and a Pagemaker.* A group of Global Studiesstudents developed a database onInternational Terrorism using aMacintosh and the visual database

* The lustiness department currently

teaches accounting, businessmachines, advanced word processing,and typing using computers.* The teacher for weight liftinghas developed a spread sheet tohelp manage the exercise regimenfor athletes.

Computer Usage atGeorge Washington High School

Carol A. WackerPrincipalBustletonAve./Verree RoadPhiladelphia PA 19116

George Washington High Schoolis regarded as a pace setter incomputer utilization in the cityand surrounding suburbs. About twoyears ago we began to emphasizeusing the computer as a tool forproblem solving throughout thecurriculum.

Art Major classes are given atleast a week's instruction oncomputer graphics on the Macintosh(MacPaint). In music, students haveworked on instrumentation andwriting original music on thecomputer. Students in IndustrialArts are given a week's instructionon Mechanical Drawing on theMacintosh (MacDraward MacDraft).Microcomputer repair is a yearcourse in the basics of systemmaintenance and repair taught bythe Industrial Arts department.

Many English classes are taughtword processing, mainly inconnection with learning thewriting process. Prewriting is donedirectly on the machine. Writing,editing, revising, publishing areall completed directly on thecomputer. Some classes have beentaught creative writing with anaccent on layout and design.Journalism students write theirarticles directly on the Macintosh(using MacWrite and Ready - Set -Go).

The school has adopted the policyof presenting all printed materialsin the most professional stylepossible. This has led to the useof the computer as a tool for desk

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top publishing. The schoolnewspaper, yearbook, dailybulletin, and all school related

announcements are created with thecomputer. All school newslettersand informational booklets are alsodone on the computer. Page layoutand design have become underlayingcurricular objects that are trulymulti-disciplinary. Remediationskills are taught to students whohad low scores on a standardizedreading test. SAT test takingskills were taught both on theMacintosh and the Apple Ile.

In mathematics, students havebeen taught speadaheets, databases, drill and practice routineson both the Macintosh and AppleIle. And in science, students havelearned to interface Apple He'sand peripheral devices to measureapproximately 20 differentquantities or qualities. They havealso been taught to meke charts andgraphs from the statisticalinformation. We have a very activeprogram of science research at theschool that has generated manyaward winners in local and statecompetitions.

In Social Studies classes,students have worked withsimulations for economic models.They have worked with a simulationgame for world politics calledBalance of Pcwer. Graphs and "clipart" have been used to enhanceindividual reports.

Di Business Education, alltypia; students receive instructionin word processing. Accountingstudents learn sprheets andspecial accounting programs ortemplates. We have recently addedprograms for checkbook simulation,inventory control, electronicfiling, accounts receivable andaccounts payable.

Students in grades 10 -12 havethe option to select half yearcourses in applications software.The emphasis of these courses is onusing a word processor, a database, and a spread-sheet. Studentsin grades 9 - 12 have the option toselect full year programming

rl

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courses from the following list:A. Basic 1B. Basic 2C. Pascal (rapid)D. Pascal APE. Assembly LanguageF. Computer Literacy (1/2 year

survey course that containsBasic and an introductionto software applications)

Telecommunications is taught asa half year major to the HighTechnology Track students in the10th grade. The course Involves theuse of public access systems andcaimercial services (BRS,Compuserve, and Dow Jones.). Aspecial 9th grade software

applications course is taught as afull year major to students in theHigh Technology Track Program.

George Washington High Schoolhas 3 labs of Apple IIE andFranklin computers (approx. 100systems) and a Macintosh labcontaining 33 computers. The schoollibrary contains 5 Apple IIecomputers and there is a Scienceclassroom containing 5 Apple Ilecomputers. Students are learningelectronic searching skills throughthe BRS program in the library.

The Mentally Gifted officecontains 6 Apple Ile and 6Macintosh computers. The MentallyGifted Program has served as theforum for testing new software andnew hardware. Through the use ofthis advanced field testingdecisions can be made about

implementation throughout theschool. Topics such as page layout,2 dimensional and 3 dimensionaldigitizing, scientific interfacing,and telecommunications haverecently evolved from the testingstages into "regular" classroominstruction. The Eagle's Net BBS -an interactive bulletin boardsystem - is operated as part of theMentally Gifted Program.

The school counselor's officeis connected by 2 terminals to theVICS service which provides databases for career, college andscholarship information.

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Research Notes:Computers, Videodiscs and theTeaching of Thinking

John Bransford, Robert Sherwood, &Ted Hasselbring,Learning Technology CenterVanderbilt UniversityNashville, Tennessee

(This is an excerpt from theConference on Computers and HigherOrder Thinking, October 1985,sponsored by the Wisconsin Centerfor Education Research. The fullpaper will appear in theproceedings of the conference, tobe published soon.)

Several programs have beendesigned at the Learning TechnologyCenter at Vanderbilt University toenhance students' abilities tothink and solve problems byproviding computercontrolled-access to informationstored on videodiscs. Simplecomputer programs allow people toaccess segments from random-accessvideodiscd. Using this technology,we can quickly backtrack andre-examine events in the videomedia -- a luxury that heretoforewas reserved only for texts. Thistechnology also permits thegeneration of graphics and textoverlays over the video. Theseprograms are prototypes that arebeing developed for researchpurposes; they are not products

reedy for ommsercial distribution.These prototypes create cnntextsfor problem solving by usingsegments from intact movies such asRaiders of the Lost Ark, Star Wars,and King Kano.

Movies provide extremely richcontexts that can be "mined" foropportunities to help studentsimprove their abilities to thinkand solve problems. A major goal ofour research is to explore theconcept of idealized learningenvironments -- "Havens" -- thatcan facilitate learning.

Ware attempting to identifyways that videodisc technology canhelp teachers recreate the kinds of

20

advantages that tend to occur innatural learning environments. Weare especially interested inpromoting transfer of thinking andproblem solving skills by providingstudents with rich opportunities tonotice or identify potentiallysolvable problems in video segmentsand "everyday life segments", andto define these problems from avariety of perspectives. Whenconcepts and procedures arediscussed in the context of aspecific video segment, thatsegment can be replayed andstudents can attempt to generatethe information that was relevantto that video segment. Eventually,we plan to produce our ownvideodiscs, but first we need tolearn how to use computers andvideodiscs most effectively, usingcommercially produced films.

Our projects are designed toenhance thinking and learning byconsidering two levels ofgenerality:

1. An emphasis an generalprocesses of 'problem solving that

occur in a wide variety ofsettings. For example, an emphasison Identifying problems, onDefining and representing them withprecision; on Exploring plans forsolving problems; on Acting on thebasis of plans and Looking at the

effects (e.g. see Bransford andStein's IDEAL Problem Solver, 1984;Bransford, Sherwood and Sturdevant,in press; Bransford, Stein, Delclosand Littlefield, in press. Otherdescriptions of general approachesto teaching thinking and problemsolving can be found in Brown,Bransford, Ferrara and Campione,1983; Segal, Chipmmn and Glass,1985; Sternberg, 1981).

2. An emphasis on theacquisition of specific conceptsthat take the form of conceptualtools that students can think withrather than mere facts that theycan only think about (e.g. seeBransford, in press; Bransford andNitsch, 1978).

When concepts and pemechwesare discussed in the context of a

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specific video segment, thatsegment can be replayed andstudents can attempt to generatethe information that was relevantto the video segment. Coupled withour emphasis an general as well asspecific factors underlyingeffective problem solving is ourattempt to provide opportunitiesfor both (1) receptive and (2)productive or generative learning.Some of our videodisc software isdesigned to facilitate receptive,

comprehension-besed learning. Othersoftware is designed to enablestudents to become producers ofhigh-quality stories and leaaonsthat involve a combination of textplus video. Videa can provide acontext for helping studentsgenerate their own problems andlessons, hence they learn byteaching.

As an initial step inconceptualizing Havens - ideallearning environments - we focusedon young children's remarkableabilities to learn despite a numberof disadvantages such as lack ofknowledge, lack of sophisticatedlearning strategies and possiblelimitations on working memory. Theefficiency of children's learningseems to stem, in part, from theadvantages of learning in context.Furthermore, children are helpedconsiderably by the presence ofmediators who arrange environmentalconditions and provide feedback andinstruction that is uniquely suitedto the performance level of thechild. Mediators also help childrenrecreate mutually familiar contextsso that discussion and instructioncan more readily take place. Incontrast to these advantages ofeveryday learning in childhood,children's formal educationalsettings are often forced to learnout of conbszt, in part becausetheir teachers may have littleknowledge of the types ofexperiences that each child coulduse in order to better understandthe intended instruction. By usingtechnology to make instruction moresimilar to the experiences normally

21 ,

available to children, we hope toincrease the speed and ease withwhich learning takes place informal educational settings such asschools.

A rich context for learningcombined with an effective mediatorprovides a major advantage tochildren. Since they learn in thecontext of everyday activities,they can understand the functionsof information for solving Jverydayproblems. In short, they are helpedto acquire conceptual tools thatthey amuse to think. Incontrast, in the decontextualizedenvironment of many academic

settings, students often learn onlyfacts to be memorized rather thanrich, conceptual tools. We aretrying to recreate the advantagesof natural learning environmentswith computer and videodisctechnology.

References

Branford, J.D. (in press).Enhancing Thinking and Learning.New York: W.H. Freeman & Co.

Bransford, J.D., & Nitsch, K.E.(1978). Coming to understand things

we could not previously understand.In J.F. Kavanaugh, & W. Strange(Eds.) Speech and Language in theLaboratory, School and Clinic.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Bransford, J.D., Sherwood, R.D., &Sturdevant, T. (in press). Teachingthinking. In J. Baron & R.Sternberg (Eds.), Thinking and itsAssessment. New York: W.H. Freeman& Co.

Bransford, J.D., & Stein, B.S.(1984). The IDEAL Problem Solver.New York: W.H. Freeman & Co.

Brown, A.L., Bransford, J.D.,Ferrara, R., & Campion, J. (1983).Learning understanding andremembering. In J. Flavell & E.Mark men (Eds.) Kasen Handbook ofChild Psychology, 1. 2nd Ed.Somerset, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

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BITS 'N BYTES

TWIST-A-PLOTCONTEST

Scholastic Software issponsoring a contest through AppleComputer Clubs International. Kidscan win up to $280 worth ofsoftware.

The contest invites youngstersin grades two through eight tocreate an original project based onthe Twist-A-Plot adventure programsfound in each edition of ScholasticSoftware's =AMINE softwareseries. These adventure programsare designed to reinforce criticalthinking, problem-solving andcomputer literacy skills.Twist-A-Plots are interactivefiction-writing exercises designedso that users can choose a varietyof plot options to create their ownadventure stories.

To enter the contest, childrencan select from a variety ofprojects based on any Wist-A-Plot/MICROZINE program: they canillustrate the plot, or a scenefrom it, in a poster, picture,picture book, cartoon or computergraphic program. They can create anew ending to an adventure or evenan original board game based on theadventure.

Twenty-four winners will beselected to receive MICROZINEsoftware and Apple Computer Clubmerchandise. Children must bemembers of Apple Computer ClubsInternational to enter, and entriesmust be postmarked no later thanNovember 15, 1986. Contact: AppleComputer Clubs International,MICROZINE Contest, 175 MiddlesexTrnpk., Redford, MA 01730, (800)343-1425 Or (617) 271-0040.

MICROCHIPSAND WATER QUALITY

Microchips and Water QualityThe Microchips and Water: Menu

for Tomorrow project, funded by agrant from the Education Affairs

division of Apple Computers, Inc.,is in its first year of operationat Moses Lake High School, a smallagricultural community (population12,000) in the middle of Washingtonstate. Under the direction ofteacher Dennis Lundeen, students ofagriculture and the sciences willuse Apple computers in an ongoingstudy of how agriculturalchemeicals are affecting MosesLake. Two soil beds have beenestablished as test sites andaquariums have been set up toexplore the impacts of agriculturalchemicals introduced to theexperimental soil beds. Tissuesamples from fish in the aquariumswill be examined in addition towater quality monitoring.Researchers from Washington StateUniversity will be assisting inthis project. Moses Lake HighSchool was in the process ofupdating its curriculud, withassistance frown Washington StateUniversity, when teacher Lundeenconceived of developing a programin conjunction with the local CleanLakes Project. An Apple EducationGrant provided computers foranalyzing the data collected. TheMicrochip project was one of thefirst programs to introducecomputers to Moses Lake HighSchool.

COMPUTER NETWORKIN MARYLAND

The Maryland EducationalTelevision (METH) is conducting apilot project in seven schools,with non-material assistance fromIBM. This project, designed toprovide a network between schoolsand also local area networks withinindividual schools is based onthree goals for implementingcoriputers in the schools:1. equity2. efficiency3. economyThe funding has come from thedistricts where pilot sites arelocated. Districts were asked tovolunteer for the pilot project

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which required a pledge of $50,000in financial commitment. Sevensites were selected from 28applicants, based on need. Not allpledge money has been spent, but$10,000 was required to financesoftware support, substituteteachers for teachers who went infor teacher training, and roanremodeling to house the computerlabs. One school spent only$17,000; another spent $100,000,Bach site is equipped with 30computers, IBM Jrs and PCs, linkedto a teacher control station in alocal area network. Each schooldecides ham to organize thecomputers: most have a singlecomputer lab but one school hasdistributed the computers indifferent departments within theschool.

The state Department ofEducation provides coordination andaccess to resources but notcontrol; the districts decide howto use the computers as they seefit. Services provided by the stateDOE include:(1) The Express newswire.

This service costs $20.00 month to

lease, plus communication costs,which the state helps to support.This newswire system includes UPI,TASS, and the Mexican news service(in Spanish) among other services.(2) The Gateway -EZE database

service frau Addison-Wesley.This service provides 78 databases;most are general interest with somespecialized databases geared to anonprofessional audience.(3) Network coordination.The state provides the network huband system operation of communica-tion between the different schoolsthat are linked via computer andmodem.

(4) Software distribution.The METV network, in its secondyear, she great diversity ofimplementation in the eleven pilotsites. Teachers in a variety ofsubject areas (social studies,lailgueoe arts, science, specialeducation, etc.) have designed

23

creative ways to integrate thecomputer resources into thecurriculum. Initial results arepromioIng.

REGIONAL CONSORTIUMFOR EDUCATIONAND TECHNOLOGY

The Regional Consortium forEducation and Technology (RCET) isproviding leadership for usingtechnology in education in the St.Louis area. RCET is a rapidlygrowing organization, working tobuild a strong educational networkin the St. Louis County, FranklinCounty, Jefferson County, and St.Charles County in Missouri. RCET isa membership organization made upof public school districts, privateschools, school affiliates,colleges and universities, non-profit organizations, andbusinesses. Its current membersinclude 34 school districts, 9universities/colleges, 11 not-for-profit educational organizations,and 4 businesses. RCET providesleadership by recognizing, support-ing, and encouraging technologicalapplications which have proven tobe successful and by seeking outthe pionnnering efforts which holdthe promise of becoming the educa-tional standards of the future.Therefore, RCET's primary goal isto serve the present and futureneeds of its members by providinginformation about the present usesof educational technology and bypromoting the development and useof new technologies.

The Consortium provides theseresources and services for itsmembers:

Annual Technology ConferenceInservice ProgramResource CenterClassroom FacilitiesNewsletterRepair ServiceMember Purchasing of HardwareMember Purchasing of SoftwareTechnical Phone Support

R

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MECC MembershipBusiness/School PartnershipProgramsRoundtablesColloquiaElectronic Bulletin BoardFor more information about

RCET, call (314) 991-3447 or writeto RCET10601 Clayton RoadSt. Louis, MC) 63131

COMPUTER USE INTEACHER TRAINING

Computer Use in Teacher TrainingA 1984 survey, based on a

random sample of 428 colleges anduniversities found that about 90percent of schools of educationoffer p'ospective teachers sanetype of computer training. For moreinformation contact: Douglas WrightOffice for Educational Research andImprovementCenter for StatisticsU.S. Department of EducationWashington D.C. 20208

COMPUTER DATABASESDESIGNED FORTEACHER TRAINING

At Syracuse University in NewYork student teachers can practicetheir skills on databases program-med with pupils' academic recordsbefore facing a classroom of realChildren. The software containingthe databases, developed byProfessor Greta Marine Dershimer,permits elementary educationstudents to try out decision makingon simulated pupils, placing thenin reading and math groups, design-ing lessons and selecting teachingmaterials. The software also givessimulated information on testscores, social behavior and parent-teacher conferences. This softwarewas developed with funding fromSyracuse University and the U.S.Department of Education.

PATHWAYS TO ARTTHROUGH NUMBERS

At McKinley High School inBaton Rouge, Louisiana, sixteenApple Ile computers, on loan fromthe Education Division of AppleComputers, Inc. are being used in aspecial project to restructure andintegrate mathematical content intoconventional art and design cur-ricula. Researchers fran the Schoolof Design at Louisiana StateUniversity are collaborating withteachers at this inner city highscly )1 to develop a course incomtater graphic design, usingLOGO, aril to train the teachers inmethods of inte6-nting computergraphic design into the schoolcurriculum. For further informa-tion, contact Jeanie Bowlin, MathSupervisor, Baton Rouge ParishSchool District, (504) 922-5442.

NEW MATH SOFTWAREFRGM SCHOLASTIC

Over the next four years,Scholastic Software will publishthirty new software packagesdesigned to make mathematics con-cepts concrete and understandablefor students by using a discoverylearning methodology to clarifyconcepts. These packages will beproduced under the direction ofLudwig Braun of the New YorkInstitute of Tecnnology with fund-ing from the National ScienceFoundation and from ScholasticSoftware. "The Math Lab Project"will create software packages inalgebra, geometry, trigonometry,statistics and calculus forsecondary school math classes.

The first package, due out inJanuary, will be The Math Lab:Algebra. For more informationcontact:

Scholastic SoftwareScholastic, Inc.730 BroadwayNew York NY 10003(212) 505-3000

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RECENT RELEASESTime for Results: The Governors'1991 Report on Education. Report ofthe Task Force on Technology.Available for $6.00 from:National Governors AssociationSuite 250444 North Capitol St., N.W.Washington, D.C. 20001(202) 624-5300

Computer Lab Tools for Science: AnAnalysis of Commercially AvailableScience Interfacing Software forMicrooamputers. $12.65. NorthwestRegional Education LaboratoryDocument Reproduction Service300 S.W. Sixth AvenuePortland OR 97204

Solomon, Cynthia (1986). Computerenvironments for children: Areflection on theories of learningand education. MIT Press. $22.50.

Winkler, John D., Stasz, Cathleen,& Richard Shavelson (July 1986).Administrative policies forincreasing the use of micro-computers in instruction.Rand Corporation1700 Mein StreetP.O. Box 2138Santa Monica CA 90406-2138

National Directory of BulletinBoardsMeckler Publishing11 Ferry Lane WestWestport CT 06880(203) 226-6967

This directory, available for$9.95, references about 1,000bulletin boards with topics rangingfrom avocational and personal areasto professional applications andreference sources.

COMPUTERS AND COMPLEX THINKING NEWSLETTERJanice Patterson, EditorNational Center on Effective Secondary

SchoolsSchool of EducationUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison1025 West Johnson StreetMadison, WI 53706

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