Education Revision 2013

Role of Education

Education Policy

Social class & attainment

Gender and attainment

Ethnicity and attainment

In school processes

Vocational education

Gender & Subject Choice

Role of Education

Typical Questions• Explain what is meant by the ‘correspondence principle’. (2 marks)• Suggest three criticisms that other sociologists may make of the functionalist view of

the education system. (6 marks)• Explain what is meant by the term ‘meritocracy’. (2 marks)• Outline some of the functions that the education system may perform. (12 marks)• Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the view that the education

system exists mainly to select and prepare young people for their future work roles. (20 marks)

• Suggest three ways in which Marxists see school as being similar to the world of work. (6 marks)

• Suggest three functions that education may perform for individuals and/or society. (6 marks) back

Focus:What is the purpose of schools? What do they do for society and individuals? What do we learn and why? Are schools good for society or not?

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What you need to consider…

The different theories on the role/function of schools:• Functionalist• Marxist

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Functionalist

Durkheim• Integration to larger group• Teaching social rules• Specialist work schools

Parsons• Universal values• Ability judged fairly• Value consensus• Role allocation

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Davies & Moore• Meritocracy• Motivate• Reward talent

Functionalism: Evaluation• Education is a two-way process

• Shared values?

• So much learning not linked to jobs/economy

• Is school meritocratic? Inequality

• Schools ‘crush individuals’ into conformity

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Marxist

Basics• Ideological conditioning• Reproduce inequality

Bowles & Gintis• Correspondence principle• Social reproduction• Hidden curriculum• Myth of meritocracy

backevaluation

Althusser• Ideological

conditioning

Willis• Counter-school

culture

Hidden curriculum and work• School rules,detentions, merits,

prizes

• School assemblies

• Competitive games/sports day

• Respect authority of teachers

• Be punctual to lessons

• Complete boring tasks at school

• Value hard work/achievement

• Grading by ability – success and failure

• Promote conformity and encourage obedience

• Mass conformity,respect for authority

• Competitive in the work place

• Respect employers without question

• Respect time at work

• Put up with boring work

• Work hard/be industrious

• Differences in pay at work

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Social reproduction

Social function of elimination

Cultural reproduction

HOW SCHOOLS REPRODUCE THE CLASS SYSTEM

•Schools reproduce social inequality

•Success/failure is legitimated by social hierarchy

HOW SCHOOLS ‘PUSH WORKING CLASS OUT’

•working class exam failure (due to lacking dominant culture)

•Self-elimination choose to drop out/see unfair system

HOW SCHOOLS REPRODUCE DOMINANT CULTURE

•Schools reproduce dominant class

•The powerful impose their ideas on others

•Dominant culture = cultural capital

(socialization)

Bourdieu – ‘social and cultural reproduction’

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Marxism: Evaluation• Docile workers for capitalism?

• Education benefits us all (Functionalism)

• The hidden curriculum not hidden

• Many pupils rebel

• Conspiracy theory

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Education Policy

Typical Questions• Outline some of the ways in which government educational policies may have

affected social class differences in educational achievement. (12 marks)

• Identify three policies that may promote the marketisation of education. (6 marks)

• Identify three educational policies that may have contributed to social class differences in achievement. (6 marks)

• Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the claim that the main aim of education policies in the last 25 years has been to create an education market. (20 marks)

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Focus:What are the aims of different policies? How have different policies affected attainment? What are the pros and cons of different policies?

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What you need to consider…

• What are the main education policies since WW2?

• What are their aims?• How have they impacted on attainment?• What are their pros/cons?

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The main aims of policies have been…

• To meet the needs of the economy• To raise standards• Marketization – competition/accountability• To promote equal opportunities (reduce

inequality)

THESE POLICY AIMS CAN OVERLAP

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The Policies..

• 1944 Tripartite System

• 1965 Comprehensive system

• 1988 Education Reform Act

• 1997-2010 New Labour policies

• 2010-present Con-Dem policies

RECENT POLICY = 1988 Onwards!back

1944 Tripartite SystemAims To provide a free education service to meet the needs of different types

of studentsDetails Intelligence exam at age 11.

Students went to school depending on if they passed or not.Evaluation Pros Cons

• Different ability students get the support they need

• Resources can be better targeted.

• Less able don’t feel inferior and more able do not get held back.

• 80% students felt like ‘failures’

• Most children develop after the age of 11.

• Exam was biased in favour of ‘middle class’ students.

• Divided children from different backgrounds.

• Some children received a ‘second class’ education.

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1965 Comprehensive EducationAims Ensure all students no matter what their ability had a similar education.

Details • No entry examinations. Schools serve their catchment areas. All students of all ability attend the same school. Both boys/girls attend the same school. Reflected catchment - locality

Evaluation Pros Cons

• One education for all – fairness!

• Brings together children from different social classes.

• No entrance exam – all treated fairly.

• Larger schools = cheaper to run.

• Serves its local catchment area.

• No choice for parents…children have to attend local school.

• The most and least able suffer as teachers ‘ teach to the middle’.

• Bright working class children cannot rise to the grammar school standard.

• They ‘dumb down’ the curriculum.• Setting divides children by ability.• Some catchments are more middle

class than others – social mixing?

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1988 Education Reform ActAims • To raise standards

• To make schools more accountable• To run schools on ‘market principles’ and improve efficiency/competition• To give parents (consumers) greater choice

Details League Tables, National Curriculum, SATS (testing), Grant Maintained Schools, Formula Funding, Open-Enrolment, Ofsted Inspections

Evaluation Pros Cons• Compare performance of schools• Continuity between schools• Central government control• Same diet for all• Specialist schools – more choice• Schools compete – raise

standards• Greater freedom for headteachers

– prioritise spending

• Political interference in education• Less choice – minority subjects gone• Quite academic• Pressure on pupils• Many students fail and feel worthless• Schools become exam factories• Do not analyse ‘value added’• Create sink schools• Some schools had more money• Entry examinations re-emerged• Too much parent power

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1997 New LabourAims Various policies to raise standards and to reduce inequality.

Details More nursery places, reduce class sizes, national literacy/numeracy, beacon schools, EMA, EAZs, Aim Higher, Surestart Scheme, After school clubs, University tuition fees. Introduce academies/specialist achools

Evaluation Pros Cons

• Early years education for all• More individual support in smaller

classes• Improved basic skills• Schools sharing best practice• Support for ‘deprived’ students• More resources in ‘deprived’ areas• Reading support/parenting skills to

‘deprived’ families• Promoted diversity/choice in

schools

• Expensive to fund small classes• Some schools valued more • Schools in wealthier areas lose out• Too biased in favour of working class• Greater competition and inequality

between schools• More selection introduced in schools• Curriculum becoming too

prescriptive/dictated to schools

Geoff Whitty = very critical of New Labour

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2010 Con-DemAims More choice for parents, Raise standards, Compensatory Education

Details Increased university fees, The end of EMA, Increased contributions from parents, Baccalaureate qualifications from 14-19, compulsory education to the age of 18, The end of coursework, Increased OFSTED inspections, Higher entry requirements for teachers, Free Schools introduced, Expansion of academies, Pupil Premium

Evaluation Pros Cons

• More competition = greater choice

• Quality of education increasing

• More academic – less suited to weaker students

• Less LEA involvement• Students ‘forced’ to stay on• University fees are expensive

back Conservative Election Promises 2010

Conservative manifesto: eduction policy • Raising the entry requirement for taxpayer-funded primary teacher

training• Requiring new graduates to have at least a 2:2 in their degree to get

state-funded training• Paying the student loan repayments for top maths and science

graduates while they remain teachers • Giving teachers the strongest possible protection from false

accusations• Strengthening home-school behaviour contracts• Establishing a simple reading test at the age of six• Reforming the National Curriculum• Overhauling Key Stage 2 tests and league tables• Allowing all state schools to offer high quality international

examinations• Extra funding for children from disadvantaged backgroundsBack

Marketization Policy

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Marketization is…The development of an ‘education market’ which includes:- Reducing direct state control over

education- Increasing competition between school- Increasing Parental Choice of schools.

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Marketization PoliciesPolicy Whe

n?Details Pros Cons

League Tables

1988 Annual publication of exam results Raise standards.Compare schools.Increase accountability.

Sink schools.‘creaming off’ able.Not measure value added.Too focused on competing.

Open enrolment

1988 Parental choice over desired school (consumers)

Choice for parents. Expensive advertising.Sink schools.

Grant maintained schools

1988 Opt out of LEA control – responsible for own finances

More efficient spending.

Reintroduced entrance exams.Unequal funding.

Formula Funding

1988 Schools paid per student on roll Competition to be successful.

Marketing and competition.

Specialist Schools

1997 Offer choice of ‘specialist schools’ to parents

More choice for parents.

Entrance exams.

Business sponsorship

1997 Businesses as partners, funding in schools

Business interference Unfair competition

Ofsted 1988 Inspections of schools and grading ‘quality’

Quality assurance. Pressure on schools and students.

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Evaluation of Marketization

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For Against

New Right Increase efficiency A free market means that

schools can compete against each other = the best will succeed.

Parentocracy = consumer rights/choice

Greater variety of schools for different students

Raise standards

Chubb & Moe• Reduce state control• Power to parents• Raise standards for all

• Parentocracy = myth (Gerwitz)..• Sink schools• ‘survival of the fittest’ (inequality)

Ball• Middle class exploit the ‘education

market’ (not free choice/fair)• Middle class move catchment area.• Working class have limited choice.• Schools keen to attract able students• Less attention to SEN students• ‘entry exams’ (selection)• Schools stopped co-operating.• Schools portrayed more academic image

Gilborn et al• Educational ‘triage’+ labelling

Bartlett• Cream skimming/silt-shifting

Exam considerations…If a question asks about impact on social class, keep in mind:

• How compensatory education has aimed to reduce inequality (New Labour)

• How ERA policy focused more on competition and increased inequality (Conservative)

• Marketisation policies increase competition to raise standards (but do not deal with inequality)

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Exam considerations…If a question asks about marketisation:• Look back at different policies since 1988 • Discuss aims – their benefits/pros• Note Functionalist/New Right support

EVALUATE:• Note disadvantages/downside• Theoretical views against (Marxists)

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Social Class & Attainment

Typical Questions• Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the importance of cultural

factors in causing social class differences in educational achievement. (20 marks)• Explain what is meant by the term ‘immediate gratification’. (2 marks)• Explain what is meant by the term ‘cultural deprivation’. (2 marks)• Outline some of the ways in which cultural deprivation may lead to educational under-achievement for working-class pupils. (12 marks)• Explain what is meant by the term self-fulfilling prophecy. (2 marks) � �• Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the view that working-class under-achievement in education is the result of home circumstances and family background. (20 marks)

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Focus:Why do working class students underachieve? To what extent is it due to factors outside/inside school?

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The debate….Working class students do not do so well because of..

• Home background factors• In-school factors

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Home-Background FactorsThis is about:

• Cultural Factors

• Material factors

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Cultural Factors – Cultural Deprivation Norms and values/Socialisation

• Immediate gratification• Fatalism• Collectivism

M/C Parental attitudes/pre school socialization:• Reward effort • Visit school more• Go to museums/educational visits• Educational toys/books (stimulating

environment• Focused on ‘future success’• Praise

Language codes• Elaborate language & teachers/learning

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Evaluation• Ethnocentric

• Is social class so distinct today?

• Vacuum?

• Poverty not values

• Hard to research culture

• Victimisation

• The working class is not just one group – it is not a homogenous mass…so inaccurate to treat it as such.

• School are biased in favour of middle class

Marxist cultural Factors- Cultural CapitalPierre Bourdieu

• ‘Cultural capital’ - How middle class ‘dominant culture’ converts into educational success and gives advantage to the middle class.

Cultural capital = knowledge, attitudes, values, language, tastes and abilities of the middle class.

This is because the culture, knowledge and language of the school fits more closely to middle class culture, therefore middle class students have an in-built advantage.

Cultural deficit = working class culture that school does not value.

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Evaluation• This view doesn’t criticise

working class culture

• Emphasises bias in school and curriculum

• Social class cultural differences are not so distinct

Material FactorsRaymond Boudon

• Lack of resources and inequality in unfair society

• Social class position (stratification)

Primary effects of stratification: subculture/values

Secondary effects of stratification

• Social effects – cost/benefit, rational choice, demotion/promotion, class & pressures

• Material effects - poverty

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Evaluation

• Social mobility rates• Decline of traditional w/c

culture

Smith & Noble (1995)

They note :

1. Marketisation – ‘creaming’ off the middle class ‘talented’

2. Money = educational toys, books, healthy diet, space, travel, private tuition

3. Schools now charge for much

In School FactorsLabelling/stereotyping: • Teacher expectations• Judge on background not ability

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:• Biased treatment• Influence self-concept and performance

Setting/banding:• Lower sets = working class• Poorer quality teacher• Mass labelling

Pupil subcultures:• Low status = frustration• Rebellion = anti-schoolback

Evaluation

• Teacher training prevent bias

• Teachers judged by grades so want all to do well

• Students reject labels

• Too deterministic

• Can all teachers label students identically

Criticisms of SFP

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Deterministic = 1 way process

Some students resist/challenge label

Small scale studies…representative?

How can all teachers share a consistent label?

Gender & Attainment

Typical Questions• Outline some of the ways in which factors outside the education system have

resulted in improved educational achievement for girls. (12 marks)

• Suggest three reasons for boys’ educational under-achievement. (6 marks)

• Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the claim that gender differences in educational achievement are primarily the ‘result of changes in wider society’ (Item A, lines 6 – 7). (20 marks)

• Outline some of the reasons for the educational under-achievement of boys. (12 marks)

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Focus:Why do girls do better than boys? Is it due to factors inside/outside of school?

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Girl’s attainment

Boy’s attainment

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Girl’s Attainment

• External Factors • In-School Factors

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EXTERNAL FACTORS• Impact of feminist movement

• Gender role socialisation

• Successful female role models

• Women’s careers (non-manual jobs)

• Independence = less dependency on men

• Literacy levels

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EVALUATION OF EXTERNAL FACTORS• Working-class girl’s still ‘traditional’• Mainly middle-class girls with highest aspirations• Socialisation still having effect on expectations

(ie, few girls in science/engineering)• Ethnic differences in socialisation/expectations• Many feminist ideas seen as radical by many• Careers ‘on hold’ for motherhood

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INTERNAL FACTORS• Introduction of national curriculum

(same subjects + coursework)• Girl’s better at coursework• Teacher expectations• Equal opportunities in schools• Less sexist resources/books etc• Teacher training + anti-sexism• WISE/GIST• Mature, motivated, positive behaviour

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EVALUATION OF INTERNAL FACTORS• Still a subject divide• Class/ethnic differences• Primary schools still traditional/sexist

stereotyping• Working class girls’ behaviour• Budget + resources

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Boy’s Attainment

• External Factors • In-School Factors

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EXTERNAL FACTORS• Changing job market (decline of

manual jobs)• Gender role socialisation and

expectations• Macho subculture• Leisure + active (literacy impact)• Identity crisis (undermined by

‘new woman’)

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EVALUATION OF EXTERNAL FACTORS

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• Social class differences

• Middle class boys more ‘focused’

• Ethnic differences

INTERNAL FACTORS

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• Teacher expectations/labelling

• Schools do not ‘differentiate’ enough for boys

• National curriculum works against boys (literacy/organisation)

• Poor behaviour/can’t concentrate

• Teachers less strict with boys

• Boys are over-confident (and unrealistic)

• Schoolwork seen as ‘cissy’

• Lack of male role models in Primary

EVALUATION OF INTERNAL FACTORS

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• Teacher training – combat stereotypes/support all

• Social class differences

• Teachers do differentiate for boys

• Coursework phased out

• Boys are ‘naughtier’

Gender & subject choice

Typical Questions• Outline some of the reasons for gender differences in subject choice. (12 marks)

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Focus:Why do girls choose different subjects to boys?

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Gender and subject choice

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Girls and boys choose different subjects because…

• Gender role socialisation• Gendered subject images• Parental expectations• Careers guidance at school• Sexism in ‘subject’ gender

domains• Peer pressure

Evaluation• Pupils in single sex

schools make less traditional choices – no opposite-sex peer pressure

• Some subjects are becoming less gendered

• Changing ideas about gender ‘being a woman’ today – less stereotypical (postmodernism)

• More female science teachers and less exist stereotypes in resources (equal opps etc)

Ethnicity & Attainment

Typical Questions• Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess sociological explanations for

ethnic differences in educational achievement. (20 marks)

• Suggest three factors within schools that may lead to the educational under-achievement of pupils from some minority ethnic groups. (6 marks)

• Explain what is meant by the term ‘ethnocentric curriculum’. (2 marks)

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Focus:Why do students from Pakistani/Bangladeshi and West Indian backgrounds do least well in examinations? Is it due to out of school or in-school factors?

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Ethnicity & Attainment

• External Factors • In-School Factors

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EXTERNAL FACTORS

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• Subcultural values/socialisation

• Language barriers

• Social class factors (see notes)

• Family type

• Material deprivation (racism)

EVALUATION OF EXTERNAL FACTORS

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• Social class is more significant than ethnicity

• Language does not hold back Indian and Chinese students

• Evidence of high expectations and support for Afro-Caribbean students

INTERNAL FACTORS

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• Racist stereotyping/expectations by teachers

• Racist stereotypes in resources

• Ethnocentric curriculum

• Setting

• Pupil subcultures

• Lack of black teachers (role models)

EVALUATION OF INTERNAL FACTORS

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• Teacher training and anti-racism

• Modern resources are less biased

• Gender/class affect attitudes and experience of school

In School Processes

Typical Questions• Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the view that factors and

processes within the school are the main cause of differences in the educational achievement of different social groups. (20 marks)

• Outline some of the ways in which the labelling process may lead to educational under-achievement for some pupils. (12 marks)

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Focus:What happens inside schools? How do interactions and relationships within schools (teacher-pupil relationships etc) affect students?

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In school processes

Include focus on:• Labelling and the SFP• Banding and streaming• Subcultures

And how these affect:• Social class• Gender• Ethnicity

General Focus for QuestionsBack

Labelling and SFP Setting/banding Subcultures

• Stereotypical expectations

• Negative judgements

• Influence the self concept and performance

• Different quality of learning

• Mass labelling

• Low expectations of certain groups

• Poorer behaviour becomes the norm

• Students respond to being in lower sets

• Frustration and rebellion

• Alternative culture to ‘win’ (boost self esteem)

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Social class• Ideal pupil –middle class• Judged by family background/father’s

occupation• Working class in lower sets = lower

expectations• Lower standard of teaching to lower sets• Low sets = feel inferior• Working class students denied access to

‘higher level’ learning opportunities• Working class students in low sets =

rebellious• Seeking status and overcome frustration

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Evaluation

• Students reject labels

• Teachers want all students to do well

• Teacher training and less prejudice

• Marxists see schools as anti-working class supporting capitalism (hidden curric.)

• Research based on small samples

Gender

• Boys labelled negatively = low confidence

• Teachers expect less of boys• Boys are more

‘troublesome’ than girls• Girls rebel but respond to

discipline

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Evaluation

• Middle class boys don’t fit label

• Some girls don’t fit label

• Can’t ignore impact of ethnicity and class

Ethnicity• Teachers have lower expectations of

‘black’ boys

• Self-fulfilling prophecy = failure

• Racist resources/ethnocentric curriculum impact

• Educational triage = low sets = poor educational opportunities/denied higher level of work

• Low sets = feel inferior

• A range of subcultural responses, ie) macho lads, academic achievers etc

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Evaluation

• Students reject labels

• Teachers want all students to do well

• Teacher training and less prejudice

• Research based on small samples

• Can’t ignore gender/class

Vocational Education

Typical Questions• Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the view that the education

system exists mainly to select and prepare young people for their future work roles. (20 marks)

• Explain what is meant by the term ‘vocational’ education. (2 marks)

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Focus:What is the relationship between education and employment? What initiatives have been introduced to prepare young people for work? Is vocationalism the only aim of schools today?

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Vocational educationThink back to theories on the ‘Role of Education’

Note how:• Functionalists supported schools helping the

economy (specialist skills, role allocation, meritocracy)

• Marxists are opposed to schools supporting the capitalist economy (hidden curriculum, correspondence principle, social reproduction)

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Aims of vocational education

A government policy to make education/training link to the economy and world of work:

• To reduce youth unemployment

• To help get school-leavers ‘off welfare’ and into work (train the unemployed)

• To teach ‘core skills’ linked to specific jobs

• To record skills/qualities and achievements

• Prepare young people for work (socialisation/attitudes)

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Vocational Education focused on:

• Reducing youth unemployment

• Developing a curriculum to fit the economy

• Making young people into ‘effective workers’ (via the above two initiatives)

Evaluation of vocational education polices

Reducing unemployment• YOP (1970s) – Youth Opportunities Programme – college training and work

placement

• YTS (1983) – Youth Training Scheme – 1 year foundation course and work placement. Became 2 years in 1985. A basic wage £25/week in 1983

• These were funded local by TEC’s

Research • LEE (1990) – Noddy jobs – dogsbodies• Buswell (1987) – trainees ended up in low skill jobs• Gleeson (1989) – mainly followed by low attaining students – low skilled

jobs – stigmatised• ALSO SEE LATER CRITICISMS FROM MARXISTS

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Developing the curriculum for the economy• GNVQs (1980s) – later ‘Applied A-levels’ – specific practical based courses –

hands on experiences and developing skills/knowledge

• National Curriculum (1988) – core subjects/technology /languages

• WISE/GIST (1990s) – encourage girls to follow science

• ICT in schools (1990s) – technology and how to use

• TVEI (1983) – promoted school-employment links. Local funding.

• NRA (1990s) – National Record of Achievement

• Young Enterprise (1990s) – set up small-scale businesses

• Work Experience (1980s) – work placements in year 11

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EVALUATING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

• Arguments FOR

• Arguments AGAINST

Arguments for…• Testing in schools has raised standards and competencies (skills)

• Work experience is valuable for developing behaviour/attitudes

• TVEI projects, etc, have developed links between economy and curriculum

• Post-16 training has provided opportunities for developing skills and work-based experience

• All students now study science and ICT

• Enterprise culture is promoted – awareness of business and the economy

• Young people learn transferrable skills for lifeback

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Arguments against..• The National Curriculum has too much content.

• Work experience can be irrelevant and time-wasting.

• The link between economy and school is too great.

• Problems of society do not lie with schools but a poorly managed economy.

• Post-school schemes only exist to reduce unemployment statistics amongst youth.

• Post-school schemes are low paid.

• Post-school schemes keep the young in ‘suspended animation’ as a cheap pool of labour for exploitation.

• Such schemes are ‘deskilling’ and not ‘reskilling’.

• Concern for growing academic-vocational divide.

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Theoretical criticisms (MARXIST)Dan Finn• The post-16 schemes divert attention from the fact there are no jobs• The schemes help to ‘hide unemployment’ figures• Many students have work experience already• Courses are poor standard• Training schemes do not create jobs

Clarke and Willis• Help keep young people in ‘suspended animation’• Provide a ‘cheap pool of labour’

Philip Cohen• Schemes are ‘de-skilling’ not re-skilling• Mainly designed to ‘condition’ young people – develop obedience and

attitudes/behaviour (Marxist – hidden curriculum)

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Marxists focus on:• How schools are serving capitalism more and more – producing

obedient/docile workers (hidden curriculum) – links back to Bowles and Gintis

• They prepare working class children for working class jobs (Willis)

Roberts (1989) • Need real jobs.. Not schemes (Finn – economy is failing – not young people)

• Schools should develop free-thinking individuals (not zombies)

CohenThe idea of vocationalism blames young people – idea that youth need changing.

Feminists focus on:• See schemes as sexist and encouraging traditional gender roles

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