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Food Insecurity and How It Affects Women at The
Community Level
Jebet Kiplagat
Department of Geographical and Historical Studies
University of Eastern Finland
Master’s Thesis
30th October 2017
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ABSTRACT Kenya has been experiencing food insecurity for many years now, this is due to lack of poor
resources governance, unsustainable farming methods, lack of proper institutional
frameworks and lack of proper agricultural skills and education from its population. Not only
has this brought on caused thousands of deaths, but also millions sleep hungry and lacking
a means to earn an income. Rural women, girls and infants are even more affected by food
insecurity. Their problems need to be resolved and they too need to be given a voice to speak
for themselves. With the empowerment of rural women and girls, there is a result of
improved food security within Kenya, as women within the household oversee nutrition. The
Kenyan governments has made efforts to cater for the rural women, however, are the
adequate? The analysis of the Kenyan Constitution of 2010, the Kenyan Food Security Bill
of 2014 and the Kenyan National Food Security and Nutrition Policy will be done to see
how effective these frameworks are in ensuring food security within Kenya. Other
programmes which Kenya has taken part of in conjunction with various organizations to help
empower rural people, women and awareness of gender equality will be discussed. This
study will reveal that indeed the Kenyan Government has made efforts to ensuring food
security through the empowerment of women at large and rural women. With the assistance
of the Kenyan Government, several organizations have begun making initiatives to assist in
the development of rural women towards a more food secure path. These organizations
include the USAID, Kenya Tuna Uwezo, Peace Initiative Kenya, ASAL Strategy of Vision
2030 and the Rural Development Programme. Through these initiatives that empower rural
women and girls through education, farming and agricultural skills, nutrition knowledge,
there is an increase in food stability and improved nutrition among these communities and
households. This is a key stride to eradicating hunger, malnutrition and food security. The
intentions and efforts of the Kenyan government will be considered and analysed, to see
whether they are making adequate measures and strides in the fight against food insecurity,
poverty, malnutrition and hunger. This thesis hopes to help in Kenya’s pathway to become
a nation that is food secure and that it can be done in a sustainable way.
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ACKNOWLEGMENTS To my Kenyans, in aiming to strive for a better, greener future.
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Contents
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................... 2
ACKNOWLEGMENTS ........................................................................................................ 3
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 1: ......................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 BACKGROUND ......................................................................................................... 6
1.2 INTRODUCTION OF KENYA .................................................................................. 9
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ....................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2: MAIN CONCEPTS ...................................................................................... 12
2.1 Food Studies in Social Sciences and Food Policy ..................................................... 12
2.3 How does food security affect rural women, in Kenya and in Africa as a continent?
......................................................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................... 21
3.1 Theory of Policy Cycle .............................................................................................. 21
3.2 Methodology of Policy Evaluation and Analysis ...................................................... 23
3.3 Methodology of Document Analysis ......................................................................... 25
3.4 Research Data ............................................................................................................ 28
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS ..................................................................... 32
4.1 Research Question 1: ................................................................................................. 32
What is Kenya’s role in addressing food security through rural women? ....................... 32
The Kenyan Constitution of 2010 ................................................................................ 32
National Food Security and Nutrition Policy ............................................................... 34
The Kenyan Food and Security Bill of 2014 ............................................................... 39
4.2 Research Question 2: ................................................................................................. 40
Are the Kenyan food policies in line with the International Food Policy Standards? ..... 40
4.2.1 Analysis of the Kenyan Constitution, the FSB and the NFSNP ......................... 41
4.3 Research Question 3: ................................................................................................. 46
What initiatives in Kenya help empower rural women in ensuring food security? ......... 46
4.3.1 USAID in Kenya ................................................................................................. 47
4.3.2 Kenya Tuna Uwezo ............................................................................................. 50
4.3.3 Peace Initiative Kenya (PIK)............................................................................... 51
4.3.4 Other Rural Policy Frameworks and Organizations That Are Assisting Rural
Women ......................................................................................................................... 52
4.3.5 Discussion ........................................................................................................... 55
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION ............................................................................................ 57
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................... 59
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASAD - Agriculture Sector Development Strategy
ASAL – Aris and Semi-Arid Lands
CEDAW - Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
DEVAW - Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women (DEVAW
GA – General Assembly
GBV – Gender based violence
FAO – Food and Agricultural Organization
FSB - Food Security Bill
ICESCR - International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
KC – Kenyan Constitution
MDGs – Millennium Development Goals
NFSNP – National Food Security and Nutrition Policy
SDGs – Sustainable Development Goals
RIDEP- Rural Initiatives Development Programme
VGGT - The Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land,
Fisheries and Forests in The Context of National Food Security
VGRTF - Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to
Adequate Food in the Context of National Food Security
UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
USAID – United States
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CHAPTER 1:
1.1 BACKGROUND
Food insecurity as a global issue has caused millions of deaths. There is yet to be a single
solution on how to adequately feed the growing world’s population, although many solutions
have been suggested, none totally answers the question on how to ensure food security in a
sustainable way. Solutions are being created in portions and segments, thus my thesis will
tackle the issues related to food insecurity from a policy aspect. With the research questions
discussed in this thesis, one segment of issues related to food insecurity will have advanced
in one step towards a holistic global solution to food insecurity. As an issue falling under
food studies, food security can be attained through the lenses of women empowerment. Food
security is a major challenge to the Government of Kenya, with little over 10million Kenyans
suffering from chronic food insecurity and poor nutrition (IFAD, 2016). This research paper
is important because it will show the gaps that need to be filled and fixed by the Kenyan
government to achieve food security to the required international standards. In doing so,
rural women will be given the special and much required attention, funding, education and
training to assist the Kenyan government to secure adequate food for all individuals living
within its borders. For sustainable development to be achieved, there must be strides and
efforts to have a global change in behaviour and habits, there must also be public awareness
from the environmental institutions, NGOs and even the government in helping the public
to live a more sustainable life.
In Kenya, the growing problem of food and nutrition insecurity is linked to the disappointing
growth of agricultural production over the last two decades. Only 7% of Kenya’s land
(582,000km2) has adequate and reliable rainfall, soil and topography suitable for crop
production. Another 5% of the land can sustain crops in years when there was adequate
rainfall. The remaining arid and semi-arid lands constitute over 80% of the country’s land
mass (D. M. Nyariki, 2002, p. 156). Issues such as land grabbing have been seen throughout
Kenya’s history, especially with the pastoral tribes, these issues are still seen even in modern
times. Women and children are the most affected because this deprives them of the ability
to provide for their households through agriculture.
Household food security is the ability of the household to secure enough food to provide for
all the nutrient requirements of all members of the household. The food available should be
both safe and of good quality, this includes the steps of cultivation, harvesting,
transportation, storage of the food, processing the food, marketing the food, then finally
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preparing and cooking the food (Latham, 1997). Households should therefore provide the
nutrients required for their families, throughout the whole year. Each family requires the
ability, knowledge and resources to be able to adequately provide for their household. A
household is considered to be secure when they can adequately provide for the food needed
by its family members (Smith, 1994, p. 20). Households experience food insecurity in the
most basic sense when their resources are inadequate simply to obtain ‘enough food’ to meet
the basic needs, lack of which eventually results in hunger (D. P. Keenan, 2001, p. 1).
Household food security can be threatened by increased prices, job loss, income reduction,
rent increases, larger number of dependent persons, inadequate landholdings, landlessness,
sharecropping and other causes of poverty (Latham, 1997). There are two reasons according
to Pinstrup-Anderson (2008) as to why household food security may not assure food security
for all its members:
1. Household food preferences are not considered over the acquisition of other goods
and services such as school fees and housing.
2. The intrahousehold food allocation may not be according to the needs of each
individual house member. This is evidenced by large household with both
undernourished and obese household members.
Inadequate food, be it to food shortages or to inappropriate consumer behaviour or
intrahousehold distribution is termed as household food insecurity (Latham, 1997). The
problem faced by the poor is that they are powerless to affect a change in the distribution of
income without which development is impossible (Redclift, 1984). Few human rights have
been referred to as often as the right of food (Smith, 1994, p. 8). The right to an adequate
standard of living including food is recognized in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(Latham, 1997). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the General
Assembly of the United Nations in 1948, Article 25 states that “Everyone has the right to a
standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family,
including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the
right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or
other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.” (Assembly, 1948). “We the
Ministers and Plenipotentiaries representing 159 nations…declare our determination to
eliminate hunger and to reduce all forms of malnutrition. Hunger and malnutrition are
unacceptable in a world that was both the knowledge and the resources to end this human
catastrophe.” These were the opening statements of the World Declaration on Nutrition
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(ICN) held in December 1992 in Rome (Latham, 1997). The International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights adopted by the General Assembly of the United
Nations in 1966, Article 11 of the Covenant enshrines the right of food as “The State parties
to the present Covenant, recognizing the fundamental right of everyone to be free from
hunger, shall take, individually, and through international cooperation, the measures,
including specific programmes, which are needed to improve:
To improve methods of production, conservation, and the distribution of food.
To ensure in equitable distribution of world food supplies in relation to need.” (Assembly,
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966).
The World Food Conference in 1974 proclaims that “Every man, woman and child has the
inalienable right to be free from hunger and malnutrition to develop fully and maintain their
physical and mental faculties.” (1974) Taking food security in consideration with human
rights requires the following as stated by Keenan et al. (2001):
That the human rights community recognizes the validity of economic and social rights.
That international efforts to develop supervisory mechanisms in respect of these rights be
intensified.
That States draw up frameworks for the monitoring of their own efforts.
That the international community aid households and States who are unable to realize this
right through their own efforts.
The responsibilities of the state are to respect, protect and fulfil the human rights (Smith,
1994, p. 10). Smith (1994) continues to further elaborate that states are obligated to not do
anything that will hinder individuals’ abilities to provide for their own needs, to protect
individuals from their means of livelihood as well as to aid individuals who are unable to
meet their own food needs. National food sovereignty was and is still used to as the standard
unit of measuring the extent which has made available food needed/demanded regardless if
the food was domestically grown or imported. If a country is unable to produce its own food,
it should therefore be prepared to import. If they are unable to import the required amount
demanded, they are therefore not considered as food sovereign (Pinstrup-Anderson, 2008, p.
287).
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1.2 INTRODUCTION OF KENYA
Kenya, home to more than 46 million citizens, per the World Bank 2015 statistics. It is
culturally diverse with over 40 tribes, is in the Eastern part of Africa, with the equator passing
right through it. With its neighbours being Somalia, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Uganda,
Tanzania and the Indian Ocean (in an anticlockwise direction). Kenya has only two climatic
seasons, rainy and dry. Having gained its independence from Great Britain in 1963, Kenya
is known for its wildlife, national parks and reserves and Olympic athletes. The Nobel Peace
Prize holder, the late Professor Wangare Maathai was Kenyan, she was the first African
woman to achieve this title. United Nations Environmental Programme headquarters is in
Kenya’s capital city of Nairobi. Kenya has signed and ratified the following global
environmental conventions, the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the United Nations Convention on
Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants (POPS).
Currently Kenya’s food policies are designed by the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and
Fisheries, with the guidance and advice of the UN, FAO and other international food policy
bodies. In the last two years, Kenya has produced several ministerial policies which include
Kenya Veterinary Policy for developments in the animal industry; Draft Livestock Breeding
Bill 2015 for the regulation of livestock breeding; the National Irrigation Policy Draft 2015
and the National Irrigation Bill 2015 (Ministry of Environment, 2017).
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A map of Kenya (map 1)
Source: http://www.mapsofworld.com/kenya/maps/kenya-map.jpg
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1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In this thesis, the research questions that will be asked and answered are the following below.
The first question is the main thesis research question.
1. What is Kenya’s role in addressing food security through rural women?
2. Are the Kenyan food policies in line with the International Food Policy Standards?
3. What initiatives in Kenya help empower rural women, adolescent girls and infants in
ensuring food security?
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CHAPTER 2: MAIN CONCEPTS
2.1 Food Studies in Social Sciences and Food Policy
Food is defined by Merriam-Webster Dictionary as:
“1. a. material consisting essentially of protein, carbohydrate, and fat used in the body of an
organism to sustain growth, repair, and vital processes and to furnish energy; also: such food
together with supplementary substances (such as minerals, vitamins, and condiments)
b. inorganic substances absorbed by plants in gaseous form or in water solution
2. nutriment in solid form
3. something that nourishes, sustains, or supplies” (Merriam-Webster, 2017).
Food is a fundamental component for human existence and is crucial for our survival, health
and well-being. (Commission) Food has been used by different communities to express their
different cultures and their beliefs. From production to consumption, the various stages
involved belong to different disciplines. Food studies being a new topic has gained
momentum over the past few years. This increased popularity in the field is due to the
growing global population and the constant need to adequately supply the demand for food.
“Food studies can be considered to constitute a new movement, not only as an academic
discipline but also to change society.” (Nestle, 2010). Almerico describes food studies as not
only as the study of food but is more concerned with food-related area of study. Previously
food studies when mentioned would automatically mean gastronomy and culinary studies
but nowadays it incorporates the production and consumption of food in different cultures
and communities worldwide. Due to food studies being a new discipline, it is highly
interdisciplinary according to (Haber, 2005), to solve the challenges faced by continuous
population growth, there must be a unification of the different disciplinaries into one unit.
Different Disciplines Involved with Food
a. Producing food Agricultural Sciences
Rural Sociology
b. Processing, preserving and packing Food Science
Technology
c. Marketing and selling of food Business
d. Shopping for food Sociology
Consumer research
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e. Cooking Culinary studies
Gastronomy
f. Division of labour in the kitchen Sociology
g. Serving the food Hospitality Management
h. Eating the food from digestion to
excretion
Medical Field
Public Health
Waste Management
(Wilk, 2012) Different Disciplines Involved with Food
Historical and contemporary society can be well understood through the study of food
according to Haber (2005, p.8). Almerico (2014) agrees that through the study of food,
researchers who apply a food studies mind-set delve deeper into the understanding of the
everyday practices of food and eating habits in various cultures. As we know, food and its
preparation and consumption are a representation of various cultures. Some communities
and cultures going to the extent of proudly claiming some delicacies as their own. For
example, the British with tea, the Indians with curry, the Japanese with sushi, the Italians
with pasta, and so on. These communities, cultures and nations have found a sense of pride
with movements spoken through multiple cultures (Nestle, 2010, p. 175).
One branch in food studies is feminine food studies which focuses on the role of women
with food. This subsection also deals with the overlooked roles of women and the
fundamental roles they play in the preparation of food. Haber (2005) notes that within work
involved with food studies generally ignored the role of women in cooking. Allen (2007)
posits that the main role of women is largely food related work such as planting but they
have very little influence over the control of resources and the decision-making process in
the food industry and food policy. All aspects of women’s role in food must be studied to
better understand the dynamics of food studies. The answers to solving our current global
food problems and the achievement of sustainability involves understanding women and
food studies. Avakian and Haber’s book titled ‘From Betty Crocker to Feminist Studies:
Critical Perspectives on Women and Food enlightens on the gradual rise of food studies in
the recent years since the 1970 up to date. The continual emergence of this fairly new studies
has helped researchers understand the dynamic aspects of food and its related research,
solving food related issues involves the researchers to look at how women in the past and
present have been handling food and its preparation during times when it is plenty and in
scarcity.
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Within the vulnerabilities of the global food system, is where climate change, environmental
issues and food security come in. The intertwining of climate change and food insecurity has
only assisted in increased hunger and malnutrition. With the multiple sub-systems in the
food system, each sub-system has its own rational thus creating a complex web of
interdependencies (P. Jokinen, 2015, p.14). These are known as wicked problems that have
no one single answer but is like a puzzle where multiple answers will lead to a solution. The
first definition of wicked problems was by Rittel & Webber (1973) and they described it as
problems that are difficult to have a scientific rational approach, due to lack of clearly
detailed definition and stakeholder’s points of view in the development of and solving the
problem (R. Grochowska, 2014, p. 824).
Jokinen et al. give the example biofuel production, land grabbing and food production. These
three intertwine when there is an increase demand for biofuels, the prices of the biofuels rise
simultaneously causing an increase in food commodities. This all results in the continued
demand for land for both sectors of food and energy production. In these examples, it is clear
to see that the issue of food insecurity is accelerated by this tug of war between these sectors.
Food policy was previously known as agricultural policy and dealt with increasing output to
guarantee sufficient food supply, taxation of farmers and preserving the rights of land
holders (P. Pinstup-Anderson, 2011, p. 30). Food Policy as defined by the Vancouver Food
Policy Council is “any decision, program or project that is endorsed by a government agency,
business, or organization which effects how food is produced, processed, distributed,
purchased, protected and disposed. Food policy operates at the global, national, provincial,
regional, local and institutional levels.” (Council, 2017). Another definition of food policy
is a plan of action designed created by one or multiple persons to accomplish a specific task,
with food policies, these are intended for food systems (P. Pinstup-Anderson, 2011, p. 29).
The governments use these policies related to food systems to control and regulate with the
intention of ensuring sufficient and healthy food for their citizens. McMillan states that there
are a complex range of variables when dealing with food policy such as age, gender, rural-
urban divisions, production, distribution patterns, social class, food aid, social and cultural
conflict, cultural biases, different types of market, consumer patterns, international food
trade competition, individual national policies, health and well-being are some of the
examples (D. McMillan, 1991, p.8). The dilemma of food security can be resolved through
increased production of food, the liberalization of the global food system and the use of
biotechnology. Both Jokinen et al and Grochowka argue that this is not the case however,
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there needs to be an increased food production on the same or smaller amounts of land and
that the approach must be sustainably, adequately and equitably. Food security as a goal in
the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the EU advocates the increase in agricultural
production and productivity. Although the CAP mainly focuses on this rather than on the
increased environmental effects that will be brought about by increased agricultural land and
productivity. Jokinen et al further continues to explain that the real issue that will arise when
sufficient food supply is achieved is the lack of equitable distribution of food and the
ineffective use of food. A challenge arising by genetically modified food, commonly known
as GM or GMO. A case study of the USA through the World Food Programme to Southern
Africa states brings to light the fear of unknown side effects associated with GM foods.
Proceeding severe dry spells in the region, the USA donated 50% of the aid in form of GM
food. This offer was rejected by Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe due to the
maize being genetically modified. They feared health effects on their citizens, livestock and
agricultural biodiversity as well as how the GM maize will affect their agricultural
commodities for export (Zerbe, 2004, p. 599). Zimbabwe continued to reject the GM maize
even after its fellow neighbours requesting that the maize be milled instead. Though they
wanted their own team of efforts to research the GM maize, they were mocked by USA
officials for this move. Although there being ample supply of maize in Kenya and Tanzania,
this move by the USA was one in their own self interest, Zerbe concludes that this was a
result of specific American policy objectives that advanced their goals of surplus disposal,
market development and foreign policy considerations.
Therefore, the solution to starting is through policies that aim to understand these wicked
problems. The basic juggle in todays food policy is the balance between environment, health
and the society, will help in forming policies that are crosscutting to the issues. The role
women play in food security must be looked at and their role is a fundamental point to
understanding what we need to do to help achieve and maintain food security. The education
of women in better methods and techniques to achieve food security is one of the main points
our governmental institutions and agricultural NGOs must consider. If the role of women in
food related would continue to be ignored and played down the result would be continued
devastating to the research of food studies.
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2.2 Food Security and Food Insecurity
The sister concepts of food insecurity and food security were formally launched at the first
World Food Conference in 1974 (Carney M. A., 2015, p. 21). Food security as defined by
the FAO exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to
sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an
active and healthy life (Summit, 1996). The lack of these factors leads to food insecurity.
Food Security is measured by the absence or the low prevalence of hunger. Hunger is
therefore defined as the uneasy and painful sensation caused by a lack of food (D. P. Keenan,
2001, p. 1). Self-sufficiency is when the country produces the food it needs or that which its
population demands (Pinstrup-Anderson, 2008, p. 282). There are four pillars of food
security as described by Nelleman (2009):
1. The Availability of Food: This is dependent on the food that a country produces or
receives through trade. It can be increased through self-sufficiency and lowering the
dependency of other regions. Availability can be increased through more investment
in agricultural research and development and using mineral fertilizers.
2. The Stability of Food Supply: This is easily affected by fluctuations in price and
conflicts. Temporary disruptions have long lasting effects.
3. Accessibility to Food: This is dependent on the physical access and affordability of
the food. Importation can make accessibility to food easier and cheaper.
4. Utilization of Food: This is how food is used through consumption, processing, food
storage, through nutrition, food safety and quality.
Food insecurity is when all people, at all times, lack secure access to sufficient amounts of
safe and nutritious that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and
healthy life (Abraham Tadesse Tantu, 2015, p. 1). This occurs when the people are not able
to have enough healthy food for their consumption, they either eat food that is not of good
quality and in extreme cases they tend to go hungry for days. It may be caused by the
unavailability of food, insufficient purchasing power, inappropriate distribution or
inadequate use of food at the household level. Food insecurity, poor conditions of health and
sanitation and inappropriate care and feeding practices are the major causes of poor
nutritional status. Food insecurity may be chronic, seasonal or transitory (The State of Food
Insecurity in the World 2015, 2015). According to Per Pinstrup-Anderson (2008) two types
of food insecurity include:
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Transitory food insecurity: describes a periodic food for example seasonal food insecurity.
Permanent food insecurity: a long-term lack of access to sufficient food.
With this understanding of the interrelations of food security and food insecurity, one sees
that food insecurity can be curbed through enhancing and enabling food security. The
literature on food security has risen since the 1970s, where food security was mostly a
national and global food supply concern. In 1972-74 there was a world food crisis, also f.
ex. in 2007-09. In the 1980s, the focus shifted then to household and individual levels, as
well as food security becoming an important organizing principle. This surge of interest was
caused by: the African famine of 1984-85, a concern with deteriorating basic needs during
structural adjustments and the fruits of an intellectual progression which stretched through
the entitlement theory in the early 1980s (Smith, 1994, p. 6). Malthus (1998, p.62) states that
any temporary boost in food production is capable of relieving food insecurity would cause
a rise in the population to a point that humanity was once again reduced to a condition of
food insecurity. There are four reasons why achieving food security is harder than in 1978
Malthus’ time:
1. The significant share on the world population today is malnourished.
2. The global population is increasing.
3. Climate change and other environmental changes threaten future food production.
The food system itself is a major contributor to climate change and other environmental
harms.
2.3 How does food security affect rural women, in Kenya and in Africa as a
continent?
Rural women and men play different roles in guaranteeing food security for their households
and communities (FAO, 2017). In the African communities, women are the homemakers,
this is the perception men and women have (S. Sithole-Fundire, 1995). Men are the providers
in the family household, they mainly go to look for work in the village and market areas,
search for menial jobs to provide them with income to support their families. The man’s
work is seen as more profitable (Garcia M. D., 2013, p. 88). Men are also responsible for the
field crops and their cultivation, they toil in the fields so they can produce food for the
markets and for his family’s consumption. The cattle and livestock are a shared
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responsibility in some African communities, herding and feeding them is sometimes
allocated to children to do instead of the adults. The role of women is normally unrecognized,
their role and situation in the rural areas depends on their geographic region, social class,
age and ethnicity (Garcia M. D., 2013, p. 88). Rural women carry out most home food
processing, which ensures a diverse diet, minimizes losses and provides marketable
products. Domestic chores like carrying water and firewood, doing agricultural and livestock
tasks, as well as selling surplus from their harvest at the local markets. Women in food
security and nutrition cultivate, harvest and prepare the food (FAO, 2017). In developing
countries, women work more hours than men in housekeeping, childcare, fetching water,
collecting firewood and in the fields. Women contribute three quarters of the labour requires
to produce the food consumed in Africa, averagely they work sixteen hours a day (Gladwin,
1991, p. 50). Women are more likely to spend their incomes on food and children's needs -
research has shown that a child's chances of survival increase by 20% when the mother
controls the household budget. Women, therefore, play a decisive role in food security,
dietary diversity and children's health (FAO, 2017).
Women are the backbone of these communities and contribute greatly towards the
agricultural sector. African women provide 60-90% of subsistence agricultural labour;
dominate food production with labour contributions of 50-85% of total agricultural labour;
engage in a high percentage of cash crop labour, thereby generating household income for
food purchases; have substantial decision-making power concerning timing, location of
crops, use of inputs and intensity of crop management; provide 90% of the labour for
collecting household water and fuel, 80% of the work in food storage and transport from
farm to village, 90% of the work in hoeing and weeding and 60% of the work in hawking
and marketing (Carney, 2015). The necessity of focusing on female famers is due to the
accelerated rise in the number of households which are female-headed and may consequently
be comprised by only female farmers and their descendants. In countries, such as Kenya and
Malawi, the poorer the household, the more likely it is to be headed by a woman. These
female-headed households include single mothers, divorced or widowed women, women
whose husbands have abandoned them, those whose husbands are away for an unspecified
amount of time including migrant labourers, those whose husbands make only a marginal
contribution to the maintenance of the household due to disability and unemployment
(Gladwin, 1991, p. 50).
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Women face additional challenges when doing their daily responsibilities, such as collecting
water and firewood, they must walk for long distances to rivers and forests on food to retrieve
the water and firewood. They must leave their children and other responsibilities behind.
Access to transportation, water, energy and finances pose challenges to the rural women
(Richardson, 2014). Majority of agricultural households across the world are largely hungry
and poor, even though their prevailing mode of life is farming, they lack access to sufficient
high quality land and other natural resources or means to seek self-employment, this
eventually leads to hunger and malnutrition thus making individuals less productive (FAO,
The State of Food Insecurity in the World, 2015). Women face financial challenges and they
do not have formal titles to their land (Richardson, 2014). Rural women are disadvantaged
and cannot access the same opportunities and resources as men, these include land, energy,
technology, loans, pesticides and fertilizers, training, information, public services, social
protection and markets (Garcia M. D., 2013, pp. 88-89). If rural women were given the same
access to these opportunities and resources, they would increase their yields up to 20-30%.
(UNIFEM) This gender discrimination shall end when the rural women are ensured avenues
to achieve and receive education and health care (Sachs, 2015, pp. 54-55).
Pietila, H. & Vickers, J. (1996) concluded in their survey named The World Survey on the
Role of Women that the survey enumerates the ways in which agricultural and rural
development programmes have been jeopardized because of the actual and potential roles of
women were not recognized. There are six main ways:
1. The workload women have is not usually taken into consideration, as well as the lack
of equipment to assist the women with their workload.
2. Women’s performance in agricultural tasks are overlooked as well as their challenges
in receiving agricultural information and training.
3. Women as independent farmers or livestock keepers was overlooked and women
were largely left out of integrated rural development and other agricultural
programmes.
4. The increase of family income is identified with an increase in women’s income.
5. Women’s labour is considered as family labour.
6. Women’s special needs and constraints as mothers and wives as small independent
farmers and as heads of the household, are not considered in their access to credit
and other services.
20
Women as well aren’t consulted on how much work they are to do and what their constraints
are (J. P. Gittinger, 1987, pp. 135-136). These are some of the multitude of challenges rural
women face.
21
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Theory of Policy Cycle
With its origins in the 1950s, policy cycle framework serves as a basic template that allows
systemization and comparison of different types of debates, approaches and models
(Wegrich, 2007, p. 43). Policy Cycle has been identified to have a sequence of stages and
phases, its conventional description of the stages in agenda-setting, policy formation,
decision making, implementation and evaluation (sometimes leading to termination)
(Wegrich, 2007, p. 43).
COMPARED STAGES MODEL OF PUBLIC POLICY
Brewer &
DeLeon (1983)
Patton &
Sawicki
(1993)
Viana (1996) Stone (1997) Birkland
(2005)
Initiation Agenda setting Agenda setting
Estimation Verify, define,
detail problem
Formulation Identify
objectives
Policy design
Establish
evaluation
criteria
Identify
alternatives
Identify
alternatives
Predict
consequences
of alternatives
Selection Evaluate
alternatives
Evaluate
consequences
Distinguish
among
alternatives
Select optimal
alternative
Implementation Implementation Implementation
Evaluation Monitor and
evaluate
Evaluation
Compared Stages Model of Public Policy, (Florida, 2016).
22
For this thesis, I will use Viana’s four stage model of Policy Cycle, because of its general
intake of the same aspects seen in the other models, Viana’s model in totality adequately
suits this thesis. It is also simpler to understand, with four well defined stages. The stages of
Viana’s model of the policy cycle include:
Stage 1: Agenda Setting – Problem Recognition and Issue Selection
This stage is seen to have the most chaos due to its great importance. “The agenda…is the
list of subjects or problems to which government officials, are paying for serious attention
at any given time.” (DeLeon, 1983, p. 3). Agenda-setting is the process of structuring the
policy issue regarding potential strategies and instruments that shape the development of a
policy in the subsequent stages of a policy cycle (Wegrich, 2007, p. 46). Initiation, used in
Brewer and DeLeon’s model of policy process, although can still fall within this stage due
to the same characteristics. Viana’s model of policy process although named as the
formulation stage follows suit.
Stage 2: Policy Formation and Decision Making
This is where expressed problems, proposals, demands are transformed into government
programs (Frank Fischer, 2007, p. 48). Policies are created and changed, this political and
social process is crucial in policy conceptualization. (Organization) Identifying the cost,
estimation of the effects of the solution, which solutions are suitable and the selection of
policy instruments are all processes in this stage (Carney, 2013).
Stage 3: Implementation
Involves actions and mechanisms through which policies are given life. (Organization)
Fischer (2007) argues that this however does not necessarily mean that the action on the
ground will follow the policy makers’ goals and outlined objectives. He continues to define
policy implementation as “what happens between the establishment of an apparent intention
on the part of the government to do something, or to stop doing something, and the ultimate
impact in the world of action” (Wegrich, 2007, p. 51). Brewer and DeLeon give a much
broader and better definition of implementation as "Implementation is an important but
frequently overlooked step in the general policy process model. Lacking proper
implementation, policy innovation and selection may end up being little more than
intellectual exercises; indeed, faulty policy implementation can invalidate the earlier,
carefully considered steps in the policy process and thereby intensify the original problem.
23
The process, then, warrants our careful attention." (DeLeon, 1983, p. 249). Key questions to
be asked in this stage include: How and by whom will programs be executed? How will
allocation of resources be done and how will decisions be carried out?
Stage 4: Evaluation
This as defined by Patton & Sawicki (1993) is when “Analysts are also called upon to
conduct quick ex-post analyses; that is, to conduct analyses of operating programs, to
determine whether they are producing the desired results, to recommend whether they ought
to be modified, and even to determine whether resources should be shifted to other programs.
Often these ex-post analyses must be conducted quickly using available data, but even quick
analyses should be designed so that their outcomes can be evaluated in rigorous, reliable
ways” (Patton, 1993, p. 6). Policy evaluation is an important, embedded and regular part of
the political process and debate. They lead to patterns of policy-learning with different
feedback systems and a potential restart of the policy process (Wegrich, 2007, p. 81).
Evaluation is known as the final stage in the policy process, it involves monitoring, analysis,
criticism and assessment of existing or proposed policies. This allows governments to
effectively and efficiently implement policies. (Organization)
Wegrich (2007, p. 71) further states that the policy process rarely has clear-cut beginnings
and endings, these stages are sometimes mixed together and reshuffled. the focus will be on
the fourth stage of the Policy Process.
3.2 Methodology of Policy Evaluation and Analysis
Policy evaluation is not a new concept, it has been used for years now among legislators,
parliamentarians, agencies, governmental and non-governmental organizations, community
members as well as other relevant policy stakeholders. Policy evaluations fulfil an important
function within contemporary democracies. They assess a public policy regarding its
effectiveness, efficiency or fitness for purpose. This information is not only potentially
interesting for the public administration, but also for other institutions (Bundi, 2017). Policy
analysis has many definitions, here are a few: Policy analysis is an applied social science
discipline which uses multiple methods of inquiry and argument to produce and transform
policy-relevant information that may be utilized in the political settings to resolve policy
problems (Dunn, 1981, p. 35); Policy analysis is client-oriented advice relevant to public
decisions and informed by social values (Schroeder); Policy analysis is a means of
24
synthesizing information including research results to produce the format for policy
decisions (the laying out of alternative choices and of determining future needs for policy
relevant information (Williams, 2011). According to Zechhauser (2011), the essence of
policy analysis is described as the systematic comparison of alternative policies in terms of
social values and in terms of systematic and rational consideration of alternatives… a
rational decision maker who lays out goals and uses logical processes to discover the most
effective way to achieve those goals. Policy analysis involves using quantitative and
qualitative techniques to define a specific policy problem, demonstrate its impacts, and
present the potential solutions. It also requires sophisticated methods to assess how the
identified policy problems are obstructed by numerous variables (Frank Fischer, 2007). Its
major goal line is to advance theories that contribute to a better understanding of society,
with the accumulation of evidence, there is an eventual influence of policy makers in their
‘worldviews’ (Zeckhauser, 2011). Policy analysis is a process of inquiry aimed at developing
and critically accessing information to understand and to improve public policies. It can be
divided into analysis of policy which explains policies and how they develop or analysis for
policy which involves formulation of policies and proposals. It can also be defined as “the
process of clarifying a messy policy challenge, analyzing relevant information – including
information on the specific context of the problem, clarifying, playing out the implications
of and weighing options for action, making recommendations, and, in some cases,
developing a strategic plan for implementation.” (Fleming, 2015). Analysis for policy is
largely used for expert advices for public policy, such as consultants, think tanks and policy
analysts, as well as information and judgments needed to solve issues. Analysis of policy
leans more towards academics and has no general universal recognized methods yet
generalizations are drawn from objectives. NGOs and governments have used the policy
cycle to review their own policies as to see their viability, effectiveness, the progress which
they have so far made as well as the retrogression. In reviewing policies, these organizations
ensure that the policies are practical, functional and beneficial for the betterment of the
world.
Evaluation research, in this case of policies, involves investigating policy programs to obtain
all the information appropriate to the assessment of its performance, both progress and result;
and reporting of such information back to policy makers, this is when evaluation is a phase
in the policy cycle. (Frank Fischer, 2007) In this thesis, policy evaluation shall be looked at
as a phase within the Policy Cycle. The Kenyan Constitution, The Food Security Bill and
25
the Kenyan National Food and Nutrition Policy are the policy instruments used in this thesis.
Through the policy cycle, an assessment shall be made on its effectiveness, progress and
measures taken to ensure that they are taking steps to empower women and specifically rural
women. The advantages and shortcomings of these governmental documents are critical in
ensuring that Kenya is taking action accordingly in the fight against food insecurity, hunger,
malnutrition and poverty within its borders. The use of this policy evaluation is seen in
Huitema, et. al’s article which emerging policy evaluations are seen across the EU, in
countries such as the UK, Germany, Italy, Finland, Portugal and Poland. Policy evaluation
was used to analyse climate change policy and their evolution under the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), a total of 259 evaluations were
made. The study concluded that majority 58% of the policies were not commissioned, 34%
were commissioned and 8% undetermined, this showed that there is a significant gap
between evaluation theory and practice. Another research on the Theory-based policy
evaluation of 20 energy efficiency instruments, was based on an evaluation of 20 policy
instruments from the US, Europe and Japan. The aim being to enable harmonization of the
policy process across these countries. The research concluded that by using theory-based
policy evaluation, it is not only easy to determine the success of a policy or not but that the
reasons for its failure and success can be brought to light, and how to improve upon it.
3.3 Methodology of Document Analysis
“Document analysis is a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents both
printed and electronic (computer-based and internet transmitted) materials…it requires that
data be examined and interpreted in order to elicit meaning, gain understanding and develop
empirical knowledge.” (Bowen, 2009, p. 27). Document analysis helps one to gain insight
into a certain approach and enables the researcher to recognize patterns that might have been
unrecognized or overlooked (Uni. of Texas, Document Analysis, 2015). Data analysis
provides a wealth of information, these documents provide a means of tracking change and
development. These research methods often combined with other qualitative research
methods as a means of triangulation – the amalgamation of methodologies in the study of
the same phenomenon (Bowen, 2009, p. 28).
The following are the advantages and disadvantages of document analysis as regarded to by
Bowen (2009). Document analysis has been viewed as an efficient way to research because
of its time-saving qualities, thus causing it to be more efficient. Documents are usually very
26
easily accessible, mostly because they are in the public domain. The dawn of the internet
brought along this added advantage. Along with cost effectiveness, this is due to the reduced
amount of resources needed to gather data, when the data (contained in documents) has
previously been gathered, the remainder is to gather knowledge and evaluation of this
knowledge. Documents provide exact references and details of events which are happening
or have already passed. The coverage also provided is broad due to the long-time span, many
various settings and events. Some disadvantages expressed include the insufficient details
that may be provided by these documents, this may allow room for ambiguous guesses
because the documents being used for research were created for other purposes independent
of the researches agenda. On top of that the data provided by these documents may have a
biased view or selectivity. This incomplete collection of documents is maybe due to the
partial release of documents by organizations. All in all, the data collected and obtained from
these documents encourage the elevation of questions and situations that need to be
considered and probed upon.
As per Bowen (2009, p. 29), there are four methods which document analysis has been used.
The first function is through data collection such as in the cases of historical events. These
provide background data for the researcher like in contextualizing the data collected during
an interview. The second function is the formation of research questions, while analysing
these documents, questions come up that may need to be answered thus prompting the
researcher to develop research questions that need answering for example during interviews.
The third function is providing additional data to the interviews and observations being
conducted by the researcher. The fourth function is the documents are used for the purposes
of tracking the changes and development that have happened over a certain period. Periodic
and final reports are usually the documents analysed under this function. Lastly, the fifth
function is the use of the documents to verify findings as a means of evidence, that is
accompanied by other data that has been collected. It supplements data that needs further
investigations.
The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) has been making reviews of food and
agricultural policies in multiple countries in Africa under MAFAF Monitoring African Food
and Agricultural Policies. Their aim it to see the effectiveness of these policies within these
countries. For the purpose of this thesis, I shall focus on the reviews conducted nearby to
Kenya as well as Kenya itself. Reviews of food and agricultural policies have been
conducted in Uganda, Malawi and Tanzania. These reports mainly concentrate on the
27
commodity markets in these regions, incentives and how the producers and exporters of
major commodities are affected. In the review for Kenya’s food and agricultural policies,
one of the findings was that the budget going to agriculture and rural development has
increased by 12%. “Rural development expenditure was almost equally distributed among
rural education, health and infrastructure, with water and sanitation accounting for a much
larger share than energy and roads.” (FAO, 2013). The World Food Programme (WFP)
performed a research of Yemen’s food security and vulnerability. Their reason for using data
analysis was to identify the gaps within the secondary information that can be filled by
primary data. They mainly were faced with the challenge of irrelevant and not up-to-date
secondary data that would leave room for unanswered gaps. The research concluded that in
order to have ample research data that they would need to accompany the secondary data
with primary data, which the Government of Yemen and donor agencies had already been
providing through assessments conducted. Qualitative data and quantitative data
complement each other while also providing various types of varied data (Forche, 2009, p.
91).
In conclusion, policy cycle, policy evaluation and analysis and document analysis have
previously been used in previous works throughout the field of food studies. The World
Health Organization (WHO) has conducted a report on the Comparative analysis of food and
nutrition policies in WHO European Member States, the report aimed to collect the data
from WHO European members and their development in sound food and nutrition policies.
This study was done to see how the region had developed in their policies related to food
and nutrition as well as the emerging trends of the region. The report concluded that countries
that had previously established national food and nutrition coordination bodies were the most
effective because with the advice of these bodies, they manage to improve their policies and
processes. It continued to state that food related issues are an interdisciplinary science and
would require a holistic view to solve the issues arising from it. A few recommendations
made in the report was to advice other members of WHO to create an advisory body that
will advise policy makers, the advisory body should have guidelines established for the
monitoring and evaluation of the policies created. The WHO has been conducting such
report on food and nutrition reviews since the 1990s mainly through the analysis of
questionnaires.
28
3.4 Research Data
In this thesis, the documents intended to be used for research will be in the field of national
policy documents and international policy framework documents dealing with food and food
security/insecurity, as well as on gender and the roles played by African rural women. The
focus will mainly be on Food Policies implemented in Kenya to see whether they have
adequately addressed the issue of gender roles in food security at the national level. These
three documents are the instruments used to frame out the required guidelines that the people
of Kenya are empowered to receive their rights through, also what the Kenyan government
is required to do for its people regarding food security and women empowerment.
These documents include:
The Kenyan Constitution is the supreme law of Kenya. It was conscripted on the 27th of
August in 2010 bringing about a new dawn as the previous constitution was signed in 1963,
which had been a little outdated and greatly needed updating. Over 67% of Kenyan voters
approved the constitution in the 2010 referendum, indeed a historical moment to millions
(Unknown, Kenyan Constitution, 2017). The new 2010 Constitution of Kenya, which
establishes a devolved system of government called ‘County Government’, the new
Constitution is being hailed as promising and progressive (LANDac, 2016, p. 1).
The Kenyan Food Security Bill of 2014 is a legislative framework passed to address food
security in line with article 43(1)(c) of the Kenyan Constitution of 2010
The Kenyan National Food and Nutrition Security Policy is a policy developed by the
Ministry of Agriculture to address food insecurity in the country.
On the international level, these documents include:
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are “The eight Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) – which range from halving extreme poverty rates to halting the spread of
HIV/AIDS and providing universal primary education, all by the target date of 2015 – form
a blueprint agreed to by all the world’s countries and all the world’s leading development
institutions. They have galvanized unprecedented efforts to meet the needs of the world’s
poorest. The UN is also working with governments, civil society and other partners to build
on the momentum generated by the MDGs.” (UN, Millennium Goals, 2017).
29
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are ““The seventeen Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) are our shared vision of humanity and a social contract between the world’s
leaders and the people,” UN former Security General Ban Ki-moon said of the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development adopted unanimously by 193 Heads of State and other top
leaders at a summit at UN Headquarters in New York in September.” (UN, Sustainable
Development Goals kick off with start of new year , 2017).
Universal Declaration on Human Rights is a non-legally binding document in 1948 was
adopted, the general agreement was that the rights which were to be enshrined in the
Declaration were to be transformed into legally binding obligations through the negotiation
of one or more treaties (OHCHR, 1966).
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) aims to
“…ensure the protection of economic, social and cultural rights including: the right to self-
determination of all peoples (article 1); the right to non-discrimination based on race, colour,
sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or
other status (article 2); the equal right of men and women to enjoy the rights in the ICESCR
(article 3); the right to work (articles 6–7); the right to form and join trade unions (article 8);
the right to social security (article 9); protection and assistance to the family (article 10); the
right to an adequate standard of living (article 11); the right to health (article 12); the right
to education (articles 13–14); and the right to cultural freedoms (article 15).” (OHCHR,
1966).
The Global Strategic Framework for Food Security and Nutrition/The Five Rome Principles
for Sustainable Global Food Security was adopted in November 2009 by the World Summit
on Food Security in Rome, provides a powerful strategic underpinning for coordinated action
by all stakeholders at global, regional and country level, while embracing the twin-track
approach to fighting hunger.
The Five Rome Principles for Sustainable Global Food Security helps global, regional and
country level stakeholders to coordinating their actions and embracing the twin-tower
approach of fighting hunger. The principles include:
“Principle 1: Invest in country-owned plans, aimed at channelling resources to well-designed
and results-based programmes and partnerships.
30
Principle 2: Foster strategic coordination at national, regional and global level to improve
governance, promote better allocation of resources, avoid duplication of efforts and identify
response gaps.
Principle 3: Strive for a comprehensive twin-track approach to food security that consists of:
(a) direct action to immediately tackle hunger for the most vulnerable; and (b) medium- and
long-term sustainable agricultural, food security, nutrition and rural development
programmes CFS 2012/39/5 Add.1 11 to eliminate the root causes of hunger and poverty,
including the progressive realization of the right to adequate food.
Principle 4: Ensure a strong role for the multilateral system by sustained improvements in
efficiency, responsiveness, coordination and effectiveness of multilateral institutions.
Principle 5: Ensure sustained and substantial commitment by all partners to investment in
agriculture and food security and nutrition, with the provision of necessary resources in a
timely and reliable fashion, aimed at multi-year plans and programmes.” (CFS, 2016)
The Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate
Food in the Context of National Food Security (VGRTF) was Adopted by the 127th session
of the FAO Council, November 2004.
The objective of the Voluntary Guidelines is to provide practical guidance to States in their
implementation of the progressive realization of the right to adequate food in the context of
national food security. Its vision is to ““strive for a world free from hunger where countries
implement the voluntary guidelines for the progressive realization of the right to adequate
food in the context of national food security.” (FAO, Right to Food , 2017).
The Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and
Forests in The Context of National Food Security (VGGT) “…serves as a reference and to
provide guidance to improve the governance of tenure of land, fisheries and forests with the
overarching goal of achieving food security for all and to support the progressive realization
of the right to adequate food in the context of national food security.” (FAO, Voluntary
Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the
Context of National Food Security, 2012).
The 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW) was adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General
Assembly resolution 34/180 of 18th December 1979 entry into force 3rd September 1981
31
(UN G. A., Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women,
1979).
The 1993 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women (DEVAW) recognizes
that there is an urgent need for the universal application to women of the rights and principles
concerning equality, security, liberty, integrity and dignity of all human beings (UN G. A.,
Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, 1993).
These national Kenyan documents will be likened to the international policy documents to
see whether the Kenyan food policies that regard rural women are up to par. This policy
analysis through document analysis will question the extent to which Kenya has gone to
empower the rural women to improve their household, local and national food security,
reducing malnutrition and hunger within the country. These international and national
documents being compared against each other assist in forming a clear picture to what extent
have Kenyan food security policies fallen behind in the empowerment of rural women in the
agricultural sector.
32
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Research Question 1:
What is Kenya’s role in addressing food security through rural women?
The Kenyan Constitution of 2010
The new Kenyan Constitution of Kenya brought with it some mew reforms, among which
are the stronger sense to uphold the Universal Human Rights. The whole chapter 4 is
dedicated to the Bill of Rights, this is an integral part of the Kenyan democratic state and is
the framework that guides social, economic and cultural policies. (Kenyan Constitution,
2010) in Chapter 4 Article 27 of the Kenyan Constitution states that:
(3) Women and men have the right to equal treatment, including the right to equal
opportunities in political, economic, cultural and social spheres. (4) The State shall not
discriminate directly or indirectly against any person on any ground, including race, sex,
pregnancy, marital status, health status, ethnic or social origin, colour, age, disability,
religion, conscience, belief, culture, dress, language or birth. (5) A person shall not
discriminate directly or indirectly against another person on any of the grounds specified or
contemplated in clause (4) (Kenyan Constitution, 2010, p. 23).
This section of the Kenyan Constitution originated from the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, which through this proves that the Kenyan government upholds and respects the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, along with all the other international policies. As
will be seen with the NFSNP and the FSB, they will emulate this as they are policies that
have trickled down from the Kenyan Constitution, this is articulated in the Chapter 4 Article
19(1), that states:
“1. The Bill of Rights is an integral part of Kenya's democratic state and is the framework
for, economic and cultural policies.
2. The purpose of recognising and protecting human rights and fundamental freedoms is to
preserve the dignity of individuals and communities and to promote social justice and the
realisation of the potential of all human beings.
3. The rights and fundamental freedoms in the Bill of Rights:
a. belongs to each individual and are not granted by the State;
33
b. does not exclude other rights and fundamental freedoms not in the Bill of Rights, but
recognised or conferred by law, except to the extent that they are inconsistent with this
Chapter; and
c. is subject only to the limitations contemplated in this Constitution.” (Kenyan Constitution,
2010, p. 19).
In the next few sections, the NFSNP and the FSB emulate the Kenyan Constitution to the
letter as it is required to with all Kenyan policies. The Bill of Rights within the Kenyan
Constitution also binds all laws, state organs and all persons its application. Chapter 20
Article 2 states that “Every person shall enjoy the rights and fundamental freedoms in the
Bill of Rights to the greatest extent consistent with the nature of the right or fundamental
freedom.” The NFSNP and the FSB aim to fully empower all persons to the greatest extent
to their right to food. Kenya’s food policies should be improved so that all persons within
Kenya can enjoy the right to food and adequate and sufficient food security to the greatest
extent.
With regards to the implementation of the Bill of Rights, Chapter 4 Article 21, 3 and 4 states:
“(3) All State organs and all public officers have the duty to address the needs of vulnerable
groups within society, including women, older members of society, persons with disabilities,
children, youth, members of minority or marginalised communities, and members of
particular ethnic, religious or cultural communities.
(4) The State shall enact and implement legislation to fulfil its international obligations in
respect of human rights and fundamental freedoms.” (Kenyan Constitution, 2010, p. 20).
Kenya is required to respect international treaties, among which are the MDGs, SDGs,
Universal Declaration on Human Rights, ICESCR, The Global Framework for Food Security
and Nutrition, VGRTF, VGGT, CEDAW, DEVAW and many others that are mentioned in
this thesis.
With this glimpse through the Kenyan Constitution, the rights of Kenyans can be seen, and
a better understanding of the documents content can be attained.
34
National Food Security and Nutrition Policy
The Kenyan Constitution has played a very vital role in its influence on the NFSNP, it stands
as a framework and its sentiments are echoed throughout the NFSNP. As the NFSNP aims
to achieve food and nutrition security in Kenya, the measures it encourages must be
structured in a way that will sufficiently address gender related issues as well.
In the begin of the document, in the Executive Summary, it states that:
“The new Food and Nutrition Security Policy (FNSP) provides an overarching framework
covering the multiple dimensions of food security and nutrition improvement. It has been
purposefully developed to add value and create synergy to existing sectoral and other
initiatives of government and partners. It recognizes the need for multi-public and private
sector involvement, and that hunger eradication and nutrition improvement is a shared
responsibility of all Kenyans. The policy and associated actions will remain dynamic to
address contextual changes and changing conditions over time. This policy is framed in the
context of basic human rights, child rights and women’s rights, including the universal
‘Right to Food’.” (Kenya R. o., 2011, p. 7).
This clause shows how the intention of the Kenyan government through this NFSNP to
uphold their promise to various international instruments it has signed. Kenya’s commitment
to incorporate women and gender rights within their national policies is evident. Unlike
previous national policies that did not specifically put emphasis on women’s right, this is a
step in the right direction from an international perspective. Under their obligation to the
United Nations as a member state, these standards are among many that are to be upheld.
This can be seen in the third MDG, which is to “promote gender equality and empower
women.” (UN, 2000); as well as in the fifth SDG representing gender equality. In adding
this clause to the executive summary, the Kenyan NFSNP has proved that the policy is in
line with United Nation, ICESCR article 2; and with CEDAW. The NFSNP affirms this
intent in article 1.5.7:
“The FNSP is framed in the context of the Kenyan Constitution, basic human rights, child
rights and women’s rights, including the universal ‘Right to Food’. The Government of
Kenya supports the progressive realization of the right to adequate food in the context of
national food security. This includes not only sufficient intake of calories, but also the right
to nutritious diets that guarantee health, growth and development at all stages of life and for
all citizens. This includes in particular the specific needs of all Kenyans and in particular
35
vulnerable and disadvantaged groups, and the special requirements of women and children,
which are fundamental values of the government.” (Kenya R. o., 2011, pp. 18-19).
Article 1.1.3 and article 1.1.7 of the NFSNP state respectively that:
“Lack of access to adequate and diversified diet results in various forms of nutrition
problems. Nutritional status of children less than five years of age showed no significant
change between 1998 and 2008…Inadequate and inconsistent access for households and
individuals, suboptimal care and feeding practices, particularly for children and women and
repeated infections are the other main contributors to malnutrition.” (Kenya R. o., 2011, p.
11).
“Micronutrient deficiencies are highly prevalent in Kenya, particularly at crucial stages of
the life cycle when needs for specific minerals and vitamins are high. Vitamin and mineral
deficiencies exist even among population groups with sufficient food in terms of meeting
energy requirements. Children under five years are particularly affected by deficiencies in
vitamin A (84% of children), iron (73.4%), and zinc (51%). Women, especially pregnant
women, are among the most vulnerable with a high risk of iron deficiency (60% among
pregnant woman) and vitamin A deficiency (39%).” (Kenya R. o., 2011, p. 12).
As it is known, hunger, drought and malnutrition specifically affects women, either urban or
rural, they represent the disproportionately larger share of the undernourished. (Gittinger,
1987) The NFSNP acknowledges that women along with children are the more vulnerable
to food insecurity, that the lack of adequate and nutritious diet that they require they are
unable to access. On the 10th of February 2017, the Kenyan government projects that about
1.3 million Kenyans are affected by the drought and estimated that by April 2017, the
number will have risen to 2.4 million Kenyans (Relief, 2017). Hunger and malnutrition play
a negative role in achieving food security. The Global Strategic Framework for Food
Security and Nutrition advocates that nations should “include improvement of the nutritional
status of women, adolescent girls, infants and children, including hidden hunger or
micronutrient deficiencies and obesity as a new manifestation of malnutrition, as an explicit
goal and expected outcome of agriculture, food security and nutrition-related programmes,
emergency responses, strategies and policies, from design to implementation.” (CFS, 2016).
Article 1.1.6 and 4.3.3 respectively state:
36
“Human and environmental resources, economic systems and political and ideological
factors as basic causes that contribute to malnutrition. In some cases, that environment may
have gross inequalities, disparities in access to resources and/or discriminatory elements
which effectively deny some people, based on residence status, gender, age ethnicity,
religion or other grounds. Girls and boys have different vulnerabilities in different contexts
and their parents and families may be disadvantaged or disempowered in a range of different
ways.” (Kenya R. o., 2011, p. 12).
“The FNSP recognizes that for some specific groups there is need for vitamin and mineral
supplements and a strategy is required to expand the public health sector’s role in larger well
targeted supplementation programmes for groups such as pregnant women, young children
and older persons. There is also a need for quality control as a growing demand and influx
of vitamin and mineral supplements increases the potential for poor quality products to reach
the market. Quality control will also assure supplements do not reach the consumer through
channels and persons unqualified to guide the consumer in their appropriate and safe use.”
(Kenya R. o., 2011, p. 40).
Women tend to be more disadvantaged, this can be caused by various factors that lead to
malnutrition in women and girls. These challenges have a heavier effect on women and girls
due to their special needs that should be catered for as compared to men and boys. Gender-
based discrepancies in access to assets such as land and property are the impacts of the
protracted crisis of individuals (FAO, 2015). The GSFFSN advocates for the governments
to “design agricultural investment plans, policies and programmes that provide women and
men with equal access to programme services and operations, being cognizant of women’s
and men’s commitments to household economies and to child-rearing and recognizing their
different needs” (CFS, 2016). Article 5(a) of the SDGs encourages the governments to take
on reforms that allow women to have equal right to economic resources, property, financial
services, inheritance and natural resources too.
As for pregnant women, lactating mothers and infants, the NFSNP states the consequences
of the effect of hunger and malnutrition on the pregnant mother and infant. Article 4.2.2
clearly paints the picture of what occurs in such an instance, it states:
Growing evidence shows that maternal nutrition has important direct and/or indirect
consequences o for later age phases. A typical “poor nutrition” scenario applicable to many
women in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, including Kenya, is that she enters pregnancy
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undernourished, suffers from or develops iron deficiency anaemia and is adversely affected
by other micronutrient deficiencies. Her poor micronutrient status may adversely affect
foetal development in different ways ranging from brain development (iodine deficiency)
and neural tube defects (folate deficiency). Her overall poor nutritional status is likely to
predispose the developing foetus to nutritional consequences in infancy, childhood and all
the way into his or her adult life. Poorly nourished women often give birth to a low birth
weight infant who starts life at a disadvantage that is likely to affect his or her nutritional
status and development through childhood and adolescence. Malnutrition is rooted in foetal
growth; therefore, critical window when the malnutrition problems is in the first 100 days.
The priority nutritional problems affecting maternal health are inadequate energy intake and
micronutrient deficiencies. Close birth spacing, low mother’s education, poor health seeking
behaviour, inadequate water, hygiene and sanitation and poverty are the main social
determinants of malnutrition (Kenya R. o., 2011, p. 36). This scenario allows for there to be
a better understanding of what majority of African women pass through, especially rural
women.
Having observed the dire consequences that continue to affect Kenyan pregnant women, the
NFSNP has recommended the following measures to the government. Firstly, they should
improve maternal and new born nutrition by ensure the easy access of pregnant women and
lactating women and their families to sufficient and nutritious diets as well as the knowhow
on acquiring it (Kenya R. o., 2011, p. 26). The VGRTF emphasizes the need for governments
to recognize various cultural values and dietary habits as well as establish means to
promoting food safety, positive nutrient intake which ensure equitable distribution of food
with in the communities and household with particular attention to pregnant women,
lactating mothers and children (FAO, The Right to Food, 2017, p. 38). The promotion of the
importance of adequate nutrition for young women especially before pregnancy is necessary,
healthy nutrition should begin before pregnancy so as to ensure the optimum health of both
the mother and foetus during and post pregnancy. Micronutrient supplementation
programmes should be created to educate adolescent girls in schools to edify them on the
needs of a benefits of a healthy and adequate diet (Kenya R. o., 2011, p. 37).
Article 2.7.2, shift towards the encouragement of women to seek off-farm employment for
the benefit of increased income within the household. It states:
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“Off-farm employment is important and contributes as much as 60% of rural households’
income. Its contribution to rural income is however limited by low accessibility to energy,
and water; lack of capital and poor technology and skills. Participation of women and other
vulnerable groups in off-farm activities is limited by access and control of resources.”
(Kenya R. o., 2011, p. 27).
With the additional income brought by women to the household, there would be a 20-30%
increase in yield, as per Garcia (2013). UNESCO has called for action to help sustain rural
women economically with empowerment. Major international development frameworks
echo this same call to encourage gender equality and the empowerment of women. Some
example includes SDG 8.5 which states the promotion of sustained, inclusive and sustainable
economic growth, full and productive and decent employment for all, by 2030 governments
should target to achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and
men, including young people, disabled personalities, and equal pay for equal value of work.
(UN, Sustainable Development Goals); CEDAW advocates for the right to same
employment opportunities and same criteria selection when it comes to employment, the
right to free choice in profession and employment as women are discriminated upon in this
area and equal remuneration and benefits to women. (UN G. A., 1979)
The lack of employment or means of providing an income for women tends to lead to
domestic violence. “A woman who lacks economic independence is often more vulnerable
to violence at home, if she can’t obtain a living in her own right, it is all the more difficult
for her to leave which she is beaten and abused.” (UNIFEM,2000, p. 19). DEVAW (1993)
recognizes that violence against women occurs due to the unequal power relations between
men and women, this then causes the inability for women to fully advance. The NFSNP
further recommends the promotion of workload reduction technologies and the increment of
income-generating activities for women (Kenya R. o., 2011, p. 37).
The Kenyan Constitution is the core of the following two documents, through it they were
formulated.
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The Kenyan Food and Security Bill of 2014
The FSB was framed in line with the 2010 Kenyan Constitution, it purposes to alleviate
Kenyans from hunger and ensure that the right to adequate food of acceptable quality is
upheld. In regards to women and gender right in relation to food security, the FSB
categorises women, pregnant women and nursing mothers under vulnerable persons. The
definition of ‘vulnerable persons’ is given as,
“…infants, children, school going children, pregnant and nursing mothers, the elderly,
internally displaced persons, people with disabilities, sick persons with chronic diseases such
as HIV/AIDS, victims of conflict, rural people in precarious livelihood situations;
'marginalised populations’ in urban areas, groups at risk of social, marginalisation and
discrimination and any other group that may be identified from time to time.” (Kenya T. P.,
2014, p. 365).
The inclusion of rural people in this definition is a positive sign that the rural people are
being taken into consideration as compared to previous food security bills. Unlike the
NFSNP, it has sited rural people within the document, the NFSNP kept people classified by
gender alone rather than whether they live in urban or rural areas. In line with the MDGs,
measures must be taken in and from holistic view point including the implementation of
sustainable rural development policies (Garcia M. D., 2013, p. 84). The Convention on the
Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women is the only international treaty
that is known to have dedicated an article, Article 14 of the CEDAW, to the situation of rural
women. It stipulates that States should consider the specific problems faced by rural women
in food security including the work they; and that appropriate measures to ensure the rural
women’s’ rights are present to all women in rural areas (UN G. A., 1979, p. 5). The FSB has
indeed taken the initiative by the inclusion of rural people, however not specifically rural
women into account.
Article 9 of the FSB states that every woman has the right to adequate food during pregnancy
and lactation, this will be done through the Kenyan Health Authorities putting measures in
place ensuring special needs for pregnant and nursing women are met for and that
information about nutritional needs are promoted to these pregnant and lactating women
(Kenya T. P., 2014, p. 371). SDG number 3 is set to ensure healthy lives and promote well-
being for all at all ages, it further goes to stipulate the 2030 target to reduce the global
maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births. (UN, Sustainable
Development Goals)
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Article 10 of the FSB emphasizes the need for the national and county governments not to
discriminate directly or indirectly against any person based on any grounds, including race,
sex, pregnancy, marital status, health status, ethnic or social origin, colour, age, disability,
religion, conscience, belief, culture, dress, language or birth. It continues to state the
governments, both national and county, should take actions to correct any previous acts of
discrimination against a person or group of persons, while promoting equal opportunities
with regards to the right of food (Kenya T. P., 2014, p. 372). In Article 10, the right to non-
discrimination based on sex or pregnancy is similarly as in Article 13 of the CEDAW,
encourages the creation of appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women.
The right to non-discrimination is advocated in the Article 1 of the ICESCR and Article 2 of
the Universal Declaration on Human Rights. They all echo the same sentiment.
4.2 Research Question 2:
Are the Kenyan food policies in line with the International Food Policy Standards?
The Kenyan government since the country’s independence since 1963 has made measures
and steps towards its move to ensuring a secure supply of food to the citizens and other
residents of Kenya. This being in line with international food standard policies. These
documents show what Kenya’s government has done in the achievement and upkeep of its
food policy standards
The following are the policies and strategies that Kenya has passed since its 1963, they show:
Sessional paper no.10 of 1965 on African socialism and its application to planning in Kenya
focuses on the elimination of poverty, diseases and ignorance.
National Food Policy (sessional paper no. 4 of 1981) was the first Kenyan food policy, it
intended to help ensure self-sufficiency within the agricultural sector and that there is equal
distribution of the nutritious food stuffs.
National Food Policy (sessional paper No.2 of 1994) was Kenya’s second food policy
formulated after the 1991-1994 drought, market driven tactics were endorsed
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Kenya Rural Development Strategy (KRDS) 2002-2017, this fifteen-year strategy
emphasized on the need of putting more resources and efforts towards poverty reduction and
rural development.
Economic Recovery Strategy (ERS) for Wealth and Employment Creation, 2003 -2007
engrossed the need for the achievement of good governance, transparency and
accountability, as well as resolving issues dealing with malnutrition, hunger and poverty as
well as unemployment.
Strategy for Revitalizing Agriculture (SRA 2004-2014) provide a framework to increase
agricultural productivity, to promote investment and encourage private sector involvement
in agriculture.
Kenya Vision 2030 launched in 2007, intends to be focussing funds toward communities
that have high prevalence in poverty, unemployment, and vulnerable groups, while putting
more investment in the less arid areas of Kenya.
The Agriculture Sector Development Strategy (ASDS), 2009 is in line with Kenya’s 2030
vision.
The National Food Security and Nutrition Policy (NFSNP) of 2009 aims to achieve food
security within Kenya while bringing various entities to see the fulfilment of this plan.
Other policy instruments that support national food security initiatives include; The National
Agricultural Sector Extension Policy (NASEP), Land policy, Environment, Water and
Irrigation, livestock, Oceans and Fisheries Policy, and ASAL Policy among others.
4.2.1 Analysis of the Kenyan Constitution, the FSB and the NFSNP
Having analysed the Kenyan Constitution, the FSB and the NFSNP, it is clear to see that the
Kenyan government is making a great stride to uphold and respect human right especially
women’s rights, this is evidenced by the inclusion of women within and throughout these
three documents. Kenya being a member to the United Nations is expected to respect and
comply with the UN Charter where Chapter 2 Article 4 (1) dictates that “Membership in the
United Nations is open to all other peace-loving states which accept the obligations
contained in the present Charter and, in the judgment of the Organization, are able and
willing to carry out these obligations.” (UN, United Nations Charter, 1942, p. 4). Failure of
which leads to its suspension as well as denial of a members rights and privileges by the
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General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. The compliance of
Kenya as a member state is reflected in the development and enforcement of the Kenyan
Constitution, the FSB and the NFSNP.
Of the eight MDGs, the FSB and NFSNP has aimed to eradicate hunger and poverty through
the development of these two food security policies, which prove the Kenyan government’s
intent along with other nations to addressing extreme poverty, dimensions-income poverty,
hunger, disease, promote gender equality, education and environmental sustainability. These
two policies intend to: eradicate hunger and poverty, promote gender equality and empower
women, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health and ensure environmental
sustainability while ensuring food security within Kenya is achieved through education the
people with special care to women, on the proper nutritional diets and the ways to attain and
obtain. Also through women empowerment by allocating resources to improving their
livelihoods and skills when it comes to ensuring food security while also encouraging their
fair and equal treatment is both the household and in the society. By teaching household
members especially women on better, environmentally friendly farming techniques and
storage methods as well as providing technology that will assist them.
The Kenyan government will see these goals are achieved through the national and county
governments with assistance from non-governmental organizations.
The FSB and NFSNP has incorporated the following SDGs within the policies: to end
poverty in all its forms everywhere; to end hunger, achieve food security and improved
nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture; to ensure good health and promote well-being;
achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls; ensure sustainable consumption
and production patterns; take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts; protect
restore and promote sustainable use of land, combat desertification and halt and reverse land
degradation and halt biodiversity loss. All these are in one aspect or another included with
in the FSB and NFSNP, proving that the government has enforced the SDGs within its food
policies.
The Universal Declaration on Human Rights has been merged in the Kenyan Constitution,
under Chapter 4. Kenya adopted this non-legally binding document and it is enshrined within
the Kenyan Constitution showing that the government highly respects and upholds the rights
of every person or individual in Kenya. The ICESCR, like the Universal Declaration on
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human Rights which echoes the same key points, is included under Chapter 4 of the Kenyan
Constitution.
As for The Global Framework for Food Security and Nutrition/The five Rome Principles for
Sustainable Global Food Security, the use of the twin-track approach to food security is seen
in the Kenyan Constitution, FSB and NFSNP policies through their use of short and long-
term strategies. The twin-tower approach is defined as an approach that “requires specific
and urgent attention to both short- and longer-term interventions to address food insecurity
and malnutrition. In this approach, it is important to emphasize “long-term” does not mean
action to be started in the future, or after completion of short-term action. Rather, both kinds
of interventions, or “tracks”, need to be undertaken simultaneously and in a coordinated
manner in order to successfully fight hunger and progressively realize the right to adequate
food.” (CFS, Global Strategic Framework for Food Security and Nutrition (5th Version),
2016, p. 16).
The FSB and NFSNP has taken its initial steps to meeting the food and nutrition
requirements of the Kenya and people, first of all the existence of these food policy
documents is a sign that they are improving the current situation. Attention should be paid
to the special needs of women, pregnant women, lactating women and children in the
struggle against poverty, malnutrition and hunger. The FSB and NFSNP have paid attention
to these women and children who are classified under vulnerable persons. The Anti-Hunger
Programme describes the key requirements on how to address the root causes of hunger as:
“Improve agricultural productivity and enhance livelihoods and food security and nutrition
in poor rural communities; promote productive activities and decent employment; develop
and conserve natural resources; ensure access to productive resources; expand rural
infrastructure, including capacity for food safety, plant and animal health; and broaden
market access; strengthen capacity for knowledge generation and dissemination (research,
extension, education and communication).” (CFS, Global Strategic Framework for Food
Security and Nutrition (5th Version), 2016, p. 16). The expanse of rural infrastructure,
however, is not included in the Kenyan food policies. This is one are the Kenyan government
needs to allocate more resources and set up measures ensuring the needs of the rural people
are taken into consideration, women especially.
The VGRTF provides guidance to the nation of Kenya in its implementation of the
progressive realization of the right to adequate food in the context of national food security.
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The framework’s influence is seen on Kenyan food policies in that human rights such as
participation, accountability, non-discrimination, transparency, human dignity and the rule
of law. The nation’s governance is based on these principles.
The VGGT also provides guidance in the improvement of the governance of tenure of land,
fisheries and forests with the goal of achieving food security. Both the VGRTF and VGGT
are frameworks that nations are encouraged to use within their legislation with regards to
ensuring that the right to adequate food is achieved through ensuring food security.
CEDAW is well represented within the Kenyan Constitution, FSB and NFSNP. The right to
non-discrimination based on sex, men and women are to be treated equally especially in
terms of equal political, economic, cultural and social aspects. In the three Kenyan
legislations, this right has been emphasised, encouraging all persons within public offices
and in society to abide by this. Women in the FSB are referred to as ‘vulnerable persons’
which states that they will guarantee incorporate their food and nutritional needs to the
national legislations and policies. Gender equality is the remedy to previous acts of
discrimination, the Kenyan Constitution as well recants any previous acts of discrimination
done towards any persons previously in Chapter 4 Article 27 (6) which states it will “give
full effect to the realisation of the rights guaranteed under this Article, the State shall take
legislative and other measures, including affirmative action programmes and policies
designed to redress any disadvantage suffered by individuals or groups because of past
discrimination.” (Kenyan Constitution, 2010, p. 23).
Convincingly, the Kenyan Constitution, FSB and the NFSNP have proven to be in
compliance with international food policies and frameworks, they have met the required
standards that have been stipulated and ultimately respected and abided by the United
Nations Charter. The three legislations encourage respect of the human rights, encourage
sustainable methods to ensuring food security, ensure a continuous update of policies in
respect to food security, and aim to totally eradicate hunger, malnutrition and poverty within
Kenya’s borders.
However, what seems to be lacking from the FSB and NFSNP is the inclusion of rural
women’s needs. The FSB has included rural people under the category of ‘vulnerable
persons’ who are defined as,
“…infants, children, school going children, pregnant and nursing mothers, the elderly,
internally displaced persons, people with disabilities, sick persons with chronic diseases such
45
as HIV/AIDS, victims of conflict, rural people in precarious livelihood situations;
'marginalised populations’ in urban areas, groups at risk of social, marginalisation and
discrimination and any other group that may be identified from time to time.” (Kenya T. P.,
2014, p. 365).
It is clear to see that in previous legislation this was not included, the inclusion recognizes
that there are special challenges faced by rural people. Although it has not narrowed down
to rural women, this generalization of rural people and recognition that they are more
vulnerable as compared to urban people is a great achievement. In the future, it is
recommended that the Kenyan legislators find a way to deeper recognize the needs of rural
women in doing so there will be a strengthening of their abilities. Their role in the economy
should be recognized and respected. Elimination of any discrimination towards rural women
should be advocated for. In Article 14 of the Convention of the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women stipulates the required measures to be taken:
“States Parties shall take into account the particular problems faced by rural women and the
significant roles which rural women play in the economic survival of their families,
including their work in the non-monetized sectors of the economy, and shall take all
appropriate measures to ensure the application of the provisions of the present Convention
to women in rural areas.
States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women
in rural areas in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, that they
participate in and benefit from rural development and shall ensure to such women the right:
To participate in the elaboration and implementation of development planning at all levels;
To have access to adequate health care facilities, including information, counselling and
services in family planning;
To benefit directly from social security programmes;
To obtain all types of training and education, formal and non-formal, including that relating
to functional literacy, as well as, inter alia, the benefit of all community and extension
services, in order to increase their technical proficiency;
To organize self-help groups and co-operatives in order to obtain equal access to economic
opportunities through employment or self-employment;
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To participate in all community activities;
To have access to agricultural credit and loans, marketing facilities, appropriate technology
and equal treatment in land and agrarian reform as well as in land resettlement schemes;
To enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to housing, sanitation, electricity
and water supply, transport and communications.” (UN G. A., 1979, pp. 5-6).
The minimum wage should also be considered in that there should be equal minimum pay
to all genders. The United Nations General Assembly has recognized the fundamental role
that rural women play in the food security, in agriculture and in the economy. They have
approved a resolution A/RES/62/136 encouraging Member States to improve the situation
of rural women by ensuring their political and socioeconomic empowerment and
mainstreaming the gender perspective in the rural domain into the planning, application,
monitoring and assessment of development policies, as well as ensuring that rural women
have access to social services. (Garcia M. D., 2013, p. 86) When rural women’s needs are
recognized and catered for, there shall be a great improvement in the agricultural sector and
in the whole economy of the country.
4.3 Research Question 3:
What initiatives in Kenya help empower rural women in ensuring food security?
The Kenyan government over the past few years has increased the amount of funding they
allocate to cater for women’s right and their empowerment. Thus, poverty in Kenya has
begun to reduce per the UN factsheets, with this increasing amount of benefits from
economic growth, resources have not been fairly distributed to the more much needed
sectors, i.e. rural development. It has been seen that property rights, freedom from
discrimination, gender equality, equitable access to education, better health care especially
to pregnant and lactating mothers are all enshrined in the Kenyan Constitution. For there to
be successful gender equality within Kenya, the government must work hand in hand with
the men in the society. Through teamwork the results will be seen throughout the community
and in the work places.
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The Kenyan government has taken some initiatives to see these plans through, after having
enshrined women’s rights within the Kenyan Constitution, the FSB and NFSNP, it must have
put its words into action. The following section will discuss the initiatives Kenya has taken
up to achieve food security and gender equality throughout Kenya, with the assistance of
various organizations and the county government. The new Kenyan Constitution of 2010
brought with it decentralization of the government, bringing the government closer to the
communities at the county level. With the assistance of the USAID, several programmes
have been started to ensure rural development is achieved.
4.3.1 USAID in Kenya
In full, it is known as the United States Agency for International Development is the lead
United States government agency that aims to end extreme poverty globally and empower
buoyant democratic societies to comprehend their potential. (USAID, 2017) Some
programmes set up in Kenya by USAID include: Feed the Future Kenya Innovation Engine,
Kenya Agricultural Value Chain Enterprises (KAVES), Kenya Resilient Arid Lands
Partnership for Integrated Development, Partnership for Resilience and Economic Growth
(PREG), Resilience and Economic Growth in Arid Lands - Improving Resilience (REGAL
IR), Resilience and Economic Growth in Arid Lands – Accelerated Growth (REGAL-AG),
Tegemeo Agricultural Policy Research and Analysis and Kenya Integrated Water,
Sanitation, and Hygiene Project (KIWASH).
The organization plays a critical role in helping the poorest and most vulnerable nations in
the world, this is done through:
“Investing in agricultural productivity so countries can feed their people.
Combating maternal and child mortality and deadly diseases like HIV, malaria and
tuberculosis.
Providing life-saving assistance in the wake of disaster.
Promoting democracy, human rights and good governance around the world.
Fostering private sector development and sustainable economic growth.
Helping communities adapt to a changing environment.
Elevating the role of women and girls throughout all our work.” (USAID, 2017).
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Millions of men, women and children benefit from these initiatives from the USAID. Per the
UN Factsheet around 800million go to bed hungry every night, this even includes farmers.
The growing need to ensure food security is now more than ever. Women are a majority of
these farmers. “A spike in world food prices in 2008 hurt economies across the world and
led to destabilizing riots in over 30 countries. In order to feed a population expected to grow
to 9 billion people by 2050, the world will have to double its current food production, all
while with less water and land.” (USAID, 2017) In the fight against hunger and achieving
food security, USAID is showing its contributions through the following steps so as to
achieve poverty reduction in the world,
“Investing in cutting-edge scientific and technological agricultural research to develop
stronger seeds and greener fertilizers so farmers can grow more.
Developing agricultural markets, expanding trade and using mobile phones to provide real-
time prices, so farmers can sell what they grow at a profit.
Helping farmers access capital, so they can expand their farms and buy equipment.
Offering extension services, so farmers can learn the best techniques to grow and store their
crops.
Developing sustainable agriculture strategies, so countries can feed their populations
without depleting their natural resources.
Providing emergency food assistance, so vulnerable populations and malnourished can
survive and quickly bounce back in times of crisis.” (USAID, 2017)
Kenya participates in the USAID's Women and Girls Lead Global Partnership. In gender
equality and women empowerment, USAID believes that it is the core part of development,
this is per their USAID strategy. It is said that 98 million girls globally aren’t in school, while
one in every three women are prone to domestic violence. Child marriages are still ongoing
currently, child brides usually start from the age of eight. 287,000 women and 99% of them
from developing countries die from pregnancy and child related problems (USAID, 2017).
This is the challenge that the world faces. With more than 80 different countries with gender
programmes. Developing countries are persuaded by USAID to continue advancing policy
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changes to a more gender sensitive way, in food security as well as access to resources such
as land and finances. The critical steps taken by the USAID organization to end extreme
poverty globally includes:
“Investing in cutting-edge scientific and technological agricultural research to develop
stronger seeds and greener fertilizers so farmers can grow more.
Developing agricultural markets, expanding trade and using mobile phones to provide real-
time prices, so farmers can sell what they grow at a profit.
Helping farmers access capital, so they can expand their farms and buy equipment.
Offering extension services, so farmers can learn the best techniques to grow and store their
crops.
Developing sustainable agriculture strategies, so countries can feed their populations without
depleting their natural resources.
Providing emergency food assistance, so vulnerable populations and malnourished can
survive and quickly bounce back in times of crisis.
Leverage existing development capacities and priorities towards ending extreme poverty -
such as increasing food security, promoting child survival, adapting to climate change
through climate resilient growth, strengthening health systems, expanding access to
renewable energy, and improving education.
Invite new ideas and fresh perspectives to development efforts, to find innovative solutions
to longstanding and seemingly intractable development challenges.
Bolster economic growth and connect people to the global economy and more effectively
engage in fragile contexts, where we project extreme poverty will become increasingly
concentrated in the coming decades.
Strengthen the underlying mechanisms of voice and accountability through the promotion
of democracy, human rights and governance.
Priorities the intersection between extreme poverty and fragility - and, in particular, building
on our leadership on the New Deal for Engagement in Fragile States and on resilience to
recurrent crises.” (USAID, 2017).
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Through family planning, maternal and child health care and nutrition, USAID is aiming to
reduce less child and maternal death. They also aim to reduce the deaths caused by infectious
diseases. The Kenyan government is working alongside USAID to eradicate poverty,
unnecessary deaths, hunger. The following section will name some of the programmes
initiated towards gender equality and women empowerment.
4.3.2 Kenya Tuna Uwezo
Translated from Swahili, this programme means ‘We have power’ and it aims to reduce
politically motivated conflict, interethnic violence and sectional violence (Uwezo, 2017).
Their target group are the slum dwellers Nairobi, including Kiambu, Kibera, Korogocho,
Babandogo, Mathare, Dandora, Kangemi, Majengo, Makuru and Eastleigh. These slum
dwellers are extremely poor and lack essential resources, they highly encourage the
participation of the young people ad women. Through dialogue, the citizens are engaged to
help air their complaints as well as find solutions to them, the approach is known as people
to people approach. Kenya Tuna Uwezo partners with various other organizations like
PeaceNet, Kituo Cha Sheria, The Youth Banner, and Youth Arts Entrepreneurship Network.
This programme is funded by the USAID. The funding for this project is more than 4.91
million USD according to Uwezo, Kenya Tuna Uwezo We Have Power (2015). The
programme aims to expand and synthesize knowledge of the new Kenyan Constitution to
the common citizen to empower them to make informed decisions. The activity goals
include:
“Enhance ability of local institutions to lead and implement people-to people peace building
independently.
Reach 150,000 people directly through trainings and community events and 400,000 people
indirectly through messaging and public awareness campaigns on civic education.
Strengthen social networks of community members and civil society groups to collaborate
productively on community issues and address grievances.” (Uwezo, Kenya Tuna Uwezo
We Have Power, 2015).
The goals achieved are as follows:
“1,706 Kenyans reached directly through public information campaigns and 180,239
indirectly via Radio Jambo, to support peaceful resolution of conflicts.
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403 events, trainings, or activities were supported to encourage peace or reconciliation.
2,343 at risk groups vulnerable to radicalization were reached with opportunities to engage
in constructive dialogue that addresses their frustrations and needs.
403 young people trained and supported on entrepreneurship, bringing the program total to
date to 1,829 (91.45% of the target).
40 new trainings or activities held to address violent extremism.
3,379 people reached through partnership with IRI on civic education activities.
134 civil society organizations trained in conflict-sensitive programming.” (Uwezo, Kenya
Tuna Uwezo We Have Power, 2015).
The Kenya Tuna Uwezo programme has made great efforts to empowering the Kenyan
people through the avocation of peace and less political violence, there is increased stability
in the country to enable there to be increased food security.
4.3.3 Peace Initiative Kenya (PIK)
Is a programme that aims to stop gender based violence, which runs through specific county
governments and works through improved policy implementations. implementation. “At the
national level, the activity contributed to the process leading to the enactment of the PADV
Act 2015 which provides for the protection and justice of victims/ survivors of gender based
violence.” (USAID, 2015, p. 2). The victims are able to get immediate get medical and legal
assistance. It also purposes to improve frameworks both national and county level in gender
based violence.
This programme is a partnership between the Kenyan government and USAID. The
programme commenced in 2012. The programme is funded by the USAID and is being by
International Rescue Committee with local partners as Coalition on Violence against Women
(COVAW), Rural Women's Peace Link (RWPL), Sauti ya Wanawake Pwani, Health Care
Assistance Kenya (HAK) through gender based violence Hotline 1195 and African Woman
& Child Feature Service (AWCFS, 2017). Some project activities include: county peace and
gender based violence forums, 16 days of activism against gender based violence, national
summit on gender based violence and peace, radio programs on gender based violence and
peace, early warning and early response on gender based violence, legal aid on gender based
52
violence issues, trainings on peace and gender based violence, advocacy for peaceful and
gender based violence free elections, development of referral mechanisms for gender based
violence, provision of small grants to local women organizations, liaise with government
programs supporting peace building and gender based violence. Taita Taveta, Kwale,
Mombasa, Kisumu, Migori, Kisii, Uasin Gishu, Nandi, Trans Nzoia are among the counties
participating in this programme.
Through reduction of gender-based violence, there is a better environment at the household
level to ensure safety and stability for the women and girls. They are therefore enabled to
better educate themselves on improvement of food security within their homes and
communities, and the girls are in an environment that advocates for their continual studies.
4.3.4 Other Rural Policy Frameworks and Organizations That Are Assisting Rural Women
4.3.4.1 “ASAL Annex” (or ASAL Strategy of Vision 2030)
This is a framework developed by the Kenyan government in November 2009 and the main
purpose was disaster risk reduction in arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL). Northern Kenya
being a major trade route to Kenya’s neighbouring countries, its arid lands provides a
limitless supply for solar renewable energy, but also this area is highly insecure and the lack
of adequate resources to the region is clearly evident, from the poor dilapidated roads to the
low quality medical facilities and schools. With these special qualities in the region, the
Kenyan government can use then to formulate policy implementations to ensure a
sustainable way of ensuring food security. The following table shows the regions
characteristics and how it can provide policy implications:
Reality Policy Implications Relevance
A remote region, with
rudimentary transport,
energy and communications
systems
1.Incentives to attract
investors and public servants
to the region
Strategies to strengthen
national cohesion
2.More conscious efforts
regarding public
information and extension
Northern Kenya
53
A dispersed population,
scattered across a large area
in relatively small
settlements
1.Higher per capita cost of
service delivery
2.Alternative approaches to
extension and
community organisation
3.Potential for technology to
overcome
the challenges of distance
Northern Kenya, some
semi-arid counties
A mobile population, for
whom mobility is a rational
response to environmental
conditions
1.Innovation in service
delivery methods
2.Flexibility within the
design of national
projects, such as the census,
household
surveys and elections
3.Frameworks to negotiate
mobility across
borders, both domestic and
international
Northern Kenya and all
pastoral counties
A social system which
places a premium on
communal patterns of
decision-making and
ownership and which is
driven by customary
institutions
1.Decentralised
management of land and
natural resources
2.Alternative/hybrid
systems of justice
3.Reconciling individual
and group rights
(e.g. with respect to gender)
Northern Kenya and all
pastoral counties
An arid environment, with a
distinct livelihood system
(pastoralism), and a
population vulnerable to
drought and the impact of
climate change
1.Environmental and social
impact assessments of all
interventions
Investment in risk reduction
(drought & conflict
All ASALs
54
management), social
protection
and insurance programmes
2.Adaptation strategies for
climate change
Table 3 (Kenya, 2011, p. 14). Kenya’s regions characteristics and how it can provide policy
implications
These characteristics will help create income for the rural people in these areas while
empowering them at the same time. Sustainable methods of agriculture will be employed
while rehabilitating the arid lands than can be. The government also intends to promote
formal and informal jobs, self-employment and entrepreneurship; expand the number of
schools, learning institutions to provide research and services relevant to the ASAL regions;
expand adult education programmes for the nomadic and settled communities; increase the
amount of individuals absorbed to the national public service, especially women and
minority group; promote environmental education and awareness; identify, promote and
teach indigenous knowledge and technologies; advocate for more agricultural technological
development; increase financial services to people in ASALs; address issues that affect the
health, nutritional and social status of women and vulnerable groups, just to name a few.
(Kenya, 2011, p. 54)
4.3.4.2 Rural Initiatives Development Programme (RIDEP)
Located in Tharaka Nithi, Trans Nzoia, West Pokot, Embu, Isiolo, and Meru towns in Kenya,
the organization aims to improve the food and the livelihood security of the rural people.
Their work is through the restoration of ecological agricultural practices in the rural
communities, with the encouragement and enablement of the communities to make the most
indigenous crop varieties available to them (Rural Initiatives Development Programmes,
2014). The following are their main focuses:
“Building the capacity of rural communities to improve food production;
Promoting environment and cultural biodiversity conservation including seed security;
Promoting the principles and practices of sustainable organic agriculture and
Promoting natural resource management through environmental protection and
55
Conservation and use of renewable energy.” (Rural Initiatives Development Programmes,
2014).
This organization helps to empower the rural people to be able to be food secure through
their farming methods and techniques, improving the farming process through educating the
rural people will ensure a positive outcome in ensuring food security.
All these organizations, USAID, Kenya Tuna Uwezo, Peace Initiative Kenya, ASAL
Strategy of Vision 2030 and Rural Initiatives Development Programme all have the same
end goal which is to ensure that they empower, educate and uplift the rural men, women,
and children who are disadvantages by the problems that come with food insecurity which
grips thousands of Kenyans. In doing so, they work in conjunction with the FSB and the
NFSNP in targeting this minority group that feeds nearly 20-30% of Kenyan households
through agriculture. In their various initiatives, they work with the Kenyan government,
other organizations and the communities. Without these initiatives, the rate of hunger,
malnutrition, unsustainable agricultural methods and gender inequality would continue
rising. The most critical part of the process is empowering the rural women; this is more
important than creating awareness. Ignoring the needs of the rural women and the significant
roles they play in the assurance of food security will cost the government of Kenya heavily
to repair the future damages, if they possibly can.
4.3.5 Discussion
With the previously mentioned organizations that are taking the initiative to enable and
enhance the community and the nation of Kenya in the fight against food insecurity.
Collectively they are advancing Kenya a step closer towards a more sustainable life
holistically. Their initiatives, actions and roles are not only helpful and beneficial but as well
inspiring to the communities. Food security, gender empowerment and rural women have
been places as a priority in the Agricultural Ministry in Kenya, as well as the NGOs in the
related fields. With the global discussions around these three themes, Kenya is under the
microscope of UNEP due to its location in Kenya to be among the countries that will ensure
food security is achieved in a sustainable way. However, there should be an increase in
upcoming rural initiatives seen in the foreseeable future due to the rising demand to empower
the rural women in the ensuring of food security. Properly equipping and educating the rural
56
women now will help Kenya achieve the 2030 Sustainable Goals. Citizens and organizations
should be encouraged and supported by the Kenyan Government on starting such initiatives.
The ability and initiatives begin as just an idea but eventually become big programmes. This
is the right path that Kenya as a country is taking.
57
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION Climate change has been defined as a wicked problem, with food insecurity a portion to the
pie. Food insecurity is a major problem that is not only affecting Kenya as a country but it
affects all the countries in the world and with the increasing global population, drastic
measures must be taken to ensure that we will be able to sustain the growing population in
an environmentally friendly manner while aiming to achieve women and gender
empowerment and similarly uplifting rural women and development. Seeing that this can
only be solved through improvement of our environmental and food policies due to the
complexity and intertwining of factors, there is a need for increased research in the field.
The global problem of climate change has been on the research table awaiting a holistic
solution, without a single complete answer. However, there are multiple micro-solutions to
the problem, it must be dealt with in chunks and segments. Food studies comprising of
multiple aspects such as food security, land issues, food production, GM foods and gender
issues in the food system. These single aspects fall under environmental and climate issues
that are affecting our population. Achieving food security involves the continual efforts of
all countries teaming together to resolve the growing issue.
Kenya has made efforts to achieve food security through the use of policy documents such
as the Kenyan Constitution, the Kenyan Food Security Bill and the National Food Security
and Nutrition Policy. These national documents have made strides to ensure that the needs
of women and the rural population regarding agriculture are met and a way set to help in the
achievement of food security. The Kenyan Constitution has been used as the referral point
to the other documents. Through these documents, Kenya has encouraged rural development
initiatives to crop up and assist to empower and educate women, the girl child and the rural
communities on the how to ensure household food security. In the long run, through these
initiatives food insecurity shall be eradicated.
Through Policy Evaluation, the KC, FSB and NFSNP have been scrutinized to see their
effectiveness as instruments to eradicate food insecurity through women and gender
empowerment with special emphasis on the rural women. These three policy documents
have adequately met the international standards required for food policies. Nevertheless, a
further step would be encouraged from the Kenyan government through the in-depth
continued empowerment of rural women in the policy documents, by doing so they will be
ensuring a secure future that is food secure and that women’s specific needs are catered to.
58
The initiatives and programmes that have been started in Kenya in conjunction with the
Kenyan government are to help educate and empower the rural communities in Kenya.
Although they do not mainly target rural women and girls, they generally target the rural
communities. These initiatives include USAID, Kenya Tuna Uwezo, Peace Initiative Kenya,
ASAL Strategy of Vision 2030 and Rural Initiatives Development Programme. They have
so far achieved educating and empowering some communities, this is a slow but sure step in
the right direction for Kenya. The Kenyan government is therefore encouraged to continue
enabling such initiatives to crop up and assist to eradicate food insecurity, hunger,
malnutrition and gender inequality.
This thesis aimed to question the effectiveness of Kenya’s food security policy and whether
it is up to par with international food security policies. It has been found that it is indeed up
to international standards although there is still much more room to see improvement in the
agricultural sector and in the households. The rural women and girls needs need to also be
more clarified in detail as well as having these needs met and catered to. Through more
initiatives and community development programs this can be achieved. The Kenyan
government should also pass more laws that will help empower and facilitate the education
of rural women and girls. If these needs are met, then the ensuring of food security in Kenya
is easier attained.
This thesis plays the role of advancing research within food studies and food policy, as it has
identified of the need to improve upon current, existing policies within Kenya but show the
lack of specialization in rural women. With this improvement, it contributes to the global
move in the achievement of food security for all of mankind. The Kenyan Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries should also benefit from this academic paper to narrow
upon the existing food insecurity within the country.
"I've always believed that when you educate a girl, you empower a nation." Queen Rania of
Jordan
59
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