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The University of British Columbia

Faculty of Forestry

Forestry 351

Interior Field School

Reference Package

August 24 – 31, 2019

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Working in Groups

A Cautionary Tale…

This is a story about a team of 4 students named Everybody, Somebody, Anybody and Nobody.

There was an important FRST 211 lab project to be done and Everybody was asked to do it.

Everybody was sure Somebody would do it.

Anybody could have done it but Nobody did it.

Somebody got angry about that because it was Everybody’s job.

Everybody thought Anybody could do it, but Nobody realized that Everybody wouldn’t do it.

It ends up that Everybody blames Somebody when Nobody did what Anybody could have done.

Conclusion? This team did very poorly on their FRST 211 lab project.

How to Avoid the Fate of Everybody, Somebody, Anybody and Nobody…

Tips for Working in Groups (http://www.speaking.pitt.edu/student/groups/smallgrouptips.html)

Working together in a group can be a great experience or a terrible one. Which way it goes depends, to a large

extent, on the quality of the communication among group members and the respect they show for each other.

Here are a few guidelines for making your group work successful.

1. Work hard. For all activities, do your share and a little bit more. Be responsible, and then add a little extra to

bring the standards of the group up and make its success more likely.

2. Be inclusive. Bring every member of the group in on discussions, decision making, and activities. Give

everyone a chance to speak, listen to them, and give serious consideration to what they are saying. Cooperate.

3. Take turns. Don’t be the leader all the time. Don’t be a follower all the time. Don’t talk too much--listen to

others. Don’t just listen to others—share your opinions too.

4. Be nice. Avoid personal criticism. Make sure you understand what someone is saying before you weigh in

with your opinion about it. Give them the benefit of the doubt.

5. Be timely. Show up promptly for meetings. Meet all deadlines. When you’re late, you waste people’s time

and make them mad. People depend on you. Get it done on time.

6. Don’t be an enabler. If you’ve got somebody who isn’t doing their work, hold them responsible as a group.

Everyone needs to do their part.

7. Stay focused on the task. Make your meetings count. Don’t drift into irrelevant subjects. Be mindful about

what you need to accomplish.

8. Improve the mood of the group. Be positive. Be fun. Be appreciative of other people. Be full of good ideas.

Do your part to make the environment a good one.

9. Don’t cast blame unfairly. If there is a problem in the group, begin by asking what you have done (or not

done) to contribute to that problem—and what you might do to fix it. If there is conflict, try to work it out

through respectful talk with each other (not e-mail, a horrible conflict medium). Try to understand the other

person’s point of view as you discuss the issue.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TOPIC PAGE

Introduction to Alex Fraser Research Forest 4-5

Mensuration

Measuring basal area with a prism 6

Estimating basal area with your thumb 7

Measuring diameter at breast height (DBH) 7

Table of basal area by DBH 8

Equations for tree volume 8

Measuring tree height 9

Topographic Maps: Orienteering and Field work 10-13

Map Orientation and Declination with a Compass 13-14

Topographic Relief: Elevation, Slope Aspect and Angle 15-17

Ecology

Plants of the ICH zone at Gavin Lake 18

Synopsis of tree silvics 19

Identifying forest sites 20

Nested plots and converting plot circumference to area 21

Tree species codes 21

Tree, snag and log classification 22

Tree height classification 22

Estimating plant cover 23

Soil texture key 25

Soil order key and explanation of horizon codes 26-27

Soil humus form key 27

Terms in soil moisture and nutrient regime keys 28

Soil nutrient regime (SNR) key 28

Soil moisture regime (SMR) key 29

BEC Zones

Vegetation summary table comparing BEC zones 30

IDFxm Introduction and vegetation table 31

IDFxm Landscape profile 32

IDFxm Edatopic grid 33

IDFdk3 Introduction and vegetation table 35

IDFdk3 Landscape profile 36

IDFdk3 Edatopic grid 37

SBSdw1 Introduction and vegetation table 39

SBSdw1 Landscape profile 40

SBSdw1 Edatopic grid 41

ICHmk3 Introduction and vegetation table 43

ICHmk3 Landscape profile 44

ICHmk3 Edatopic grid 45

Fuel Hazards and Fire Severity 46

Forestry Glossary 47-49

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INTRODUCTION TO THE ALEX FRASER RESEARCH FOREST

Klinka, K. P. Varga, C. Trethewey, C. Koot and M. Rau. 2004. Site Units of the University of British

Columbia Alex Fraser Research Forest. Williams Lake, BC.

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THE KNIFE CREEK BLOCK

THE GAVIN LAKE BLOCK

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Mensuration Measuring stand basal area with a prism http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/bot440/wilsomar/Content/HTM-trees.htm

Another way to measure stand basal area is the prism method that combines tree size and tree density, the two

components of stand basal area. A stand of large trees has more basal area than a stand of small trees of the

same density. If the trees are more dense, the stand basal area is greater, even if the trees were the same size as

before. The prism method works by using angles of sight to determine contributions to stand basal area.

Check to see if a tree is a “hit” by looking at its trunk both

through the prism and just over the prism. The image

through the prism will appear offset from the image over the

prism. If the two images of the tree trunk overlap, the tree is

big or close that it is a hit. If the tree trunks do not overlap,

the tree is too small or too far away--it's a miss. Be sure

you're determining all this at "breast height" on the tree.

The process is to scan the stand by rotating around the

sample location point, counting hits (and ignoring misses).

Notice that a tree can be a hit by being very large or, if small,

very close to the measurement point.

This method is a very good estimate of stand basal area is simply the number of "hits" multiplied by a

coefficient. This coefficient is called the basal area factor, and is larger for wider angles and smaller for

narrower angles. The formula is

Stand basal area = (number of hits) × (basal area factor).

The basal area factor is shown on the prism you are using. In general, the basal area factor is reported in English

units, ft2/ac, unless it has a special code, like "4M." In that case, the units are metric, m2/ha. Most angles used

in the field have BAFs of 2-10 m2/ha.

In this example, the brownish disks represent tree trunks. The

sample location is point near the middle. Tree #1 is a "hit," but

tree #4 (exactly the same size as tree #1) is a "miss." Altogether 7

trees are hits (1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, and 11). Trees 2, 4, 6, and 7 are too

small and/or too far away to be counted as hits.

The basal area factor (BAF) for this fixed angle is 6 m2/ha.

So the stand basal area in the diagram is calculated as:

SBA = (7 hits) × (6 m2/ha per hit) = 42 m2/ha.

A good practice is to select a BAF so you get 8-12 hits.

This method is advantageous because it is very fast because you

stay at one sample location point and you do not need to establish

a plot or randomly select trees to sample. Also, there are no

definite borders to the sample; big trees far away can be hits, but

small trees can be misses even if they are close.

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Estimating basal area with your thumb

Procedures for calibrating your thumb as a relascope:

1. Move to the ground marker in front of one of the calibration cards

2. Hold your arm out straight with your thumb sticking up

3. Keep your eye over the plot centre (e.g. spike in the ground 10 m away

from the calibration sign). Note: this is different from using a prism, since

a prism would be held over the plot centre

4. Compare the widest part of your thumb to the calibration sign

5. Read the Basal Area Factor (BAF) of your thumb directly off the sign.

Estimate to the nearest 0.5 m2/ha

To estimate basal area: Sweep your thumb around a plot centre. Talley the

number of trees for which your thumb is the same or narrower than the

tree trunk at 1.3m abover the ground. Multiply the number of trees you

tally by your BAF

BAF

3 4 5 6 7 8

BAF = 3Orangeline

1.3 m

IN OUT

Measuring diameter at breast height of trees http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/bot440/wilsomar/Content/HTM-trees.htm

The diameter at breast height, or DBH, is the diameter of the tree's trunk at 1.3m above the ground. Because tree

trunks are usually almost circular in cross-section, you can calculate diameter indirectly by measuring

circumference. Special measuring tapes are available that do the geometry for you. These "diameter tapes" are

marked on one side in centimeters, on the other the diameter of a circle with a given circumference.

The first step in using these diameter tapes is to calibrate "breast height" on your body – measure 1.3m from the

ground and mark this using masking tape. This will save time in the field.

Start using the tape to measure DBH by attaching its end at the proper breast-height, then stretching the tape

around the trunk at breast height. You read diameter from the point that the tape overlaps zero on the tape. The

photographs show the process, which is really very simple. The diameter of the tree below is 55.6cm.

A common mistake is using the wrong side of the tape. Remember, one side measures distance, just like any

other tape. Don't use that side! Use the side that shows diameter when the tape is wrapped around the tree trunk.

DBH can be used to calculate tree basal area, the cross-sectional area of a tree's trunk at breast height. Again

assuming a circular trunk, basal area (BA) is a simple function of diameter:

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Table of tree basal area by DBH

Basal area (m2 per tree)

DBH (tenths of cm)

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

DBH (cm)

1 0.00008 0.00010 0.00011 0.00013 0.00015 0.00018 0.00020 0.00023 0.00025 0.00028

2 0.00031 0.00035 0.00038 0.00042 0.00045 0.00049 0.00053 0.00057 0.00062 0.00066

3 0.00071 0.00075 0.00080 0.00086 0.00091 0.00096 0.00102 0.00108 0.00113 0.00119

4 0.00126 0.00132 0.00139 0.00145 0.00152 0.00159 0.00166 0.00173 0.00181 0.00189

5 0.00196 0.00204 0.00212 0.00221 0.00229 0.00238 0.00246 0.00255 0.00264 0.00273

6 0.00283 0.00292 0.00302 0.00312 0.00322 0.00332 0.00342 0.00353 0.00363 0.00374

7 0.00385 0.00396 0.00407 0.00419 0.00430 0.00442 0.00454 0.00466 0.00478 0.00490

8 0.00503 0.00515 0.00528 0.00541 0.00554 0.00567 0.00581 0.00594 0.00608 0.00622

9 0.00636 0.00650 0.00665 0.00679 0.00694 0.00709 0.00724 0.00739 0.00754 0.00770

10 0.00785 0.00801 0.00817 0.00833 0.00849 0.00866 0.00882 0.00899 0.00916 0.00933

11 0.00950 0.00968 0.00985 0.01003 0.01021 0.01039 0.01057 0.01075 0.01094 0.01112

12 0.01131 0.01150 0.01169 0.01189 0.01208 0.01227 0.01247 0.01267 0.01287 0.01307

13 0.01327 0.01348 0.01368 0.01389 0.01410 0.01431 0.01453 0.01474 0.01496 0.01517

14 0.01539 0.01561 0.01584 0.01606 0.01629 0.01651 0.01674 0.01697 0.01720 0.01744

15 0.01767 0.01791 0.01815 0.01839 0.01863 0.01887 0.01911 0.01936 0.01961 0.01986

16 0.02011 0.02036 0.02061 0.02087 0.02112 0.02138 0.02164 0.02190 0.02217 0.02243

17 0.02270 0.02297 0.02325 0.02351 0.02378 0.02405 0.02433 0.02461 0.02488 0.02516

18 0.02545 0.02573 0.02620 0.02630 0.02659 0.02688 0.02717 0.02746 0.02776 0.02806

19 0.02835 0.02865 0.02895 0.02926 0.02956 0.02986 0.03017 0.03048 0.03079 0.03110

20 0.03142 0.03174 0.03205 0.03237 0.03269 0.03301 0.03333 0.03365 0.03398 0.03431

Equations for the volume of a tree

You can estimate the volume of a tree by assuming it is cone-shaped. The formula for a cone is:

V = BAtree (0.333 height)

where, V = volume in m3, BAtree is basal area of the tree in m2 and height is measured in m

Usually DBH is measured in cm, the formula for basal area of tree (BAtree) is:

BAtree = 3.14156 (DBH/(2*100))2

You can use a similar approach to estimate tree volume per hectare:

Vha = BAha (0.333 Ht)

Where, Vha = volume per hectare in m3, BAha is basal area per hectare in m2 from a prism sweep and

Ht is the average height of the trees in the stand in m

In reality, trees are more bullet-shaped than cone-shaped. The following equations calculate gross tree volume

inside the bark from BBH measured outside the bark (D) in cm and total tree height in m. Species-specific

coefficients are used to account for differences in shape. In the final step, log10V is converted to volume in m3.

Subalpine fir log10V = -4.292929 + 1.87293 log10D + 0.998274 log10H

Interior spruce log10V = -4.294193 + 1.85859 log10D + 1.00779 log10H

Lodgepole pine log10V = -4.349504 + 1.82276 log10D + 1.10912 log10H

and, volume = 10(log10V)

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Measuring tree height with a Suunto clinometer and meter tape

Sample calculation:

In case you love trigonometry… http://bigtrees.forestry.ubc.ca/measuring-trees/height-measurements/

Working on level ground

Calculating tree height requires the use of basic

trigonometry: h = Tan A x d, where h is the tree

height, d is the distance from tree, and A is the angle

to the top of the tree. Since your measurements will be

made at eye level, you need to know your eye height

(height of your eye above the ground). The equation

then becomes h = Tan A x d + eye height.

Working on steep terrain

On very steep terrain it is almost impossible to

accurately determine your horizontal distance from the

tree. In situations where the ground is sloped (up or

down) more than 6 degrees (10% slope) you will need

to measure slope distance. Once you measure slope

angle and slope distance, horizontal distance can be

calculated.

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TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS: ORIENTEERING AND FIELD WORK

OBJECTIVES

To identify and understand the kind of information available in a topographic map

To recognize and interpret standard map symbols

To apply the latitude/longitude and UTM coordinate systems to identify and describe locations

To define three types of map scales: representative-fraction, linear, and verbal

To use map scales to convert map distances to real world distances

To measure and follow directions using a compass bearing or azimuth

To differentiate between magnetic and true north and to compensate for magnetic declination when orienteering or

sailing

To use the topographic map to interpret landform relief and elevations using contour lines

To describe relief in terms of slope aspect and gradient or slope angle

To calculate and express slope angles and stream gradients in percent, degrees or m per k

INTRODUCTION

A topographic map is an essential tool for all foresters and essential when conducting field work safely and efficiently.

The intention of this exercise is to review the fundamental elements of topographic maps so that you can accurately

interpret a mapped area and orient yourself on the map.

What are topographic maps?

A topographic map is a detailed and accurate representation of cultural and natural features on the ground. National

Topographic Systems (NTS) maps have been produced for all areas of Canada and are archived by the Centre for

Topographic Information of Natural Resources Canada (http://maps.nrcan.gc.ca/).

A topographic map is a representation of both natural physical features (such as rivers, vegetation, and relief) and

features built by humans (roads, buildings). It is important to note that a map is drawn by a cartographer and therefore

differs from the kind of visual image that is given by an aerial photograph. Reference information, including map

location, scale, contour intervals, magnetic declination, publishing agency and year of publication, are provided on the

margins of the map. Cartographers use standardized symbols to make maps easy to read and to represent a large number

and variety of features. A complete list of cartographic symbols is available on the margins or the back side of the map

sheet.

USING COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Coordinate systems are used to effectively communicate locations on a map. On Canadian NTS sheets, there are two

kinds of coordinate systems:

Geographic Grid, commonly understood as latitude and longitude, which describes location in degrees, minutes and

seconds.

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM), which measures distance in metres

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GEOGRAPHIC GRID

Because the earth is a sphere, a grid system using degrees and angles (like with a circle) was designed to be able to

describe an exact location on earth. This geographic grid coordinate system is formed by parallels of latitude drawn east-

west parallel to the Equator, and by meridians of longitude drawn north-south between the North and South Poles.

Latitude: ranges from 0 (Equator) to 90N (North

Pole) and 90S (South Pole). When describing

latitude, you must specify whether a point is N or S of

the Equator.

Longitude: ranges from 0 (Prime Meridian) to 180E

and 180W (International Date Line). When

describing longitude, you must specify whether a point

is E or W of the Prime Meridian

(from Christopherson, R.W. and G.L. Hobbs. Applied Physical

Geography: Geosystems in the Laboratory 2nd ed. Prentice Hall

©1998).

Latitude and longitude are given in degrees (), followed by increasingly specific units of minutes () and seconds ().

There are 60 seconds in a minute and 60 minutes in a degree. Latitude (N/S) is always stated before longitude (E/W).

Latitude and longitude coordinates are provided for each corner of an NTS map. Black and white bars along the margins

of the map indicate minutes.

The geographic grid coordinates for Vancouver (to the nearest degree) are:

49N 123 W

The geographic grid coordinates for the UBC Forest Science Centre (to the nearest second) are:

4915’55”N 12315’58” W

UTM: Universal Transverse Mercator

An alternative coordinate system is the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM). This system was designed to accurately

project large landmasses, such as Canada, on a flat map surface. The UTM grid system is well suited for quickly

identifying points on the map, and is more accurate than latitude and longitude when depicting large areas.

The Universal Transverse

Mercator grid covering North

and South America (left)

Grid zone designation and 100

000 m square identification of

the UTM grid (right)

(from Christopherson, R.W. and G.L.

Hobbs. Applied Physical Geography:

Geosystems in the Laboratory 2nd ed.

Prentice Hall ©1998)

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The UTM system places a rectangular grid over a map and uses the metric system to precisely describe different locations

within the grid. Each rectangle, called a quadrilateral or grid zone, measures 6 longitude by 8 latitude. Nested within

the quadrilaterals are squares measuring 100,000 m by 100,000 m and 100 m by 100 m. The quadrilateral and 100,000 m

square reference codes are given on the map margins and indicate location of the map on Earth.

A 6-digit number identifies specific locations or the 100 m square reference code. Determining a location with UTM is

similar to a finding a point on a mathematical graph by using x and y coordinates. In the case of UTM, the x-coordinate

is geographically along the blue lines oriented east-west on the NTS map, while the y-coordinate is read from the north-

south blue lines. These coordinates are stated as Eastings and Northings. A UTM location is written as six digits. The

first three digits are for the Easting: the first and second digits are read from the map and the third digit is estimated. The

last three digits represent the Northing. When writing UTM locations, it may help to remember to “Read Easting First.”

Example of method used to give a UTM reference to the nearest 100m

Easting: Read number on grid line immediately left of the point = 97

Estimate tenths of a square from this line eastward to the point = 5

Northing: Read number on grid line immediately below the point = 98

Estimate tenths of a square from this line northward to the point = 4

UTM 6-digit reference code: 975984

Full UTM reference code is 11U NF 975 984

MAP SCALE

The relationship between distances on the ground and distances on a map is specified by scale. Scale can take various

forms (representative fraction, linear, verbal), but it is always a ratio between the representation on the map and the

actual distance on the ground.

Graphic or Linear Scale: Most maps provide a graphic (also known as bar or linear) scale to visually illustrate the

relationship between the distance on the map and the distance on the actual ground. This allows you to use a ruler to

measure the distance between two points on the map that can be taken to the graphic scale on the map to calculate the real

world distance. An advantage of the graphic scale is that its representative value holds true if the map is stretched or

enlarged due to reproduction processes. (Note: this only is true with this kind of scale.)

Verbal Scale: The scale on a map is sometimes depicted using words, such as, “One centimetre equals one kilometre.”

This means that one centimetre on the map equals one kilometre on the earth’s surface.

Representative Fraction (RF): The RF scale specifies the ratio of the units on the map to units on the real ground. For

example, all Canadian NTS maps are either 1:50,000 or 1:250,000. For 1:50,000 maps, 1 unit of distance on the map is

equal to 50,000 of the same units of distance on the Earth’s surface.

Example calculations using RF scale:

1 cm on the map = 50 000 cm on the ground

= 0.5 km on the ground (since 100,000 cm = 1 km)

OR

10 cm on the map = 500 000 cm on the ground

= 5.0 km on the ground

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Large-Scale vs. Small-Scale Maps

The scale of a map influences both the total area that it can represent, and the amount of detail the map shows. Think of

the scale as a ratio value, so that 1:50,000 is half the size of 1:25,000. The 1:50,000 map is a smaller-scale map – it

represents a larger area but less detail.

Maps with scales from 1:600,000 to 1:100,000,000 or smaller are known as small-scale maps; 1:600,000 to 1:75,000 are

medium scale maps; and 1:75,000 or larger are large-scale maps.

Map of Stanley Park and English Bay with scale of

1:50,000. In this smaller-scale map a relatively large

area is depicted but with little detail.

Map of Stanley Park and English Bay with scale of

1:25,000. In this larger-scale map a relatively small

area is depicted but great detail.

MAP ORIENTATION AND DECLINATION WITH THE COMPASS

Compass Bearings and Azimuth

All Canadian NTS maps are oriented so that north is toward the top of the map, and south is toward the bottom. For

review, the common bearings of a compass are North (N), East (E), South (S) and West (W). These compass directions

can also be equated to degrees (azimuth). Note that North is 0or 360, East is 90, South is 180 and West is 270.

Bearings and azimuth in

degrees of a compass

Magnetic Declination

In the margin of maps, you will see a

diagram that suggests that there is more than

one north. There are two lines stemming

from one common point. Pointing straight

up is True North (TN, where the meridians

of longitude lines converge), the reference

point for true geographic north. There is

another line pointing to Magnetic North

(MN) that is the north to which your

compass points. MN is located roughly in

the Northwest Territories of Canada and is

moving poleward at an average speed of 24

km per year. The amount of declination

therefore depends on the year and your

location. Magnetic declination is the

difference between TN (the north on your

map) and MN (where your compass points).

(after Christopherson, R.W. and G.L.

Hobbs. Applied Physical Geography:

Geosystems in the Laboratory 2nd ed.

Prentice Hall ©1998).

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Example calculation of magnetic declination

Based on the diagram above: in 1974, the magnetic north was 25 44’ East of TN. The amount of declination has been

decreasing by 2.8’ annually.

From 1974 to 2002 (2019 – 1974) = 45 years.

During that time, declination has decreased a total of 28 x 2.8’ = 126’ = 26’0”

Thus, the magnetic declination in 2019 = 25 44’ – 2 6’ 0” = 23 38’ East of TN

Orienteering and Field Work: Compass Azimuth Corrected for Magnetic Declination

If you want to travel from one point on the map to another using a compass, you need to compensate for magnetic

declination to be sure that you are on the right track! First you must establish what year the map was produced and

calculate the rate of declination for the current year. If the MN is to the right of the TN, you must subtract the rate of

declination from your compass bearing. If MN is to the left of TN, its value must be added to your bearing. Another

helpful way to remember when to add or when to subtract the rate of declination is,

“East is least, West is best.”

Reading compass bearings on a map using a protractor (a) and a

magnetic compass (b). (from Busch, R.M. (ed.), Laboratory Manual in

Physical Geography, 3rd Ed. MacMillan Publ. Co. © 1993)

Example determination of a compass bearing corrected for magnetic declination:

Draw a straight line from the start point (“A”) to the point where you would like to go (“B”). Extend the line to the

border of the map (recall: the edges of the map line up with TN).

At border, align the protractor or compass and calculate angle between the border of the map and the line you wish to

travel. Remember, N = 0 and E = 90. In Figure 1.10, azimuth is 42

Next you need to compensate for magnetic declination. For example, if you have calculated the magnetic declination to

be 24 25’ to the right of TN (see Figure 1.9 and calculations), then declination must be subtracted from the azimuth:

42 – 24 25’ = 1735’

In this example, you would therefore set your compass to approximately 1735’ to arrive at your desired destination.

15

TOPOGRAPHIC RELIEF

Topographic maps provide a method of expressing relief of a landform on the land surface. These land features can be

shown on a topographic map by several ways: hill shading, altitude tints, hachures, and contours. The first three methods

provide a strong visual impression of the relief. While these techniques provide the user with a sense of height they lack

a definable elevation from which the user can make measurements. Topographic contours convey both relief and

measures of elevation of landforms. In this exercise you will learn to read and interpret topographic contours.

Contour Lines

A contour is an imaginary line that joins points of

equal elevation above sea level. Contour lines on a map

are the graphic representation of ground contours,

drawn for each of a series of specified elevations, such

as 10, 20, 30, 40 metres above sea level (masl). The

resulting line pattern not only gives a visual impression

of topography, but also supplies accurate information

about elevations and slopes.

(from Strahler, A.H. and A.N. Strahler. Modern

Physical Geography 4th ed. J. Wiley and Sons, Inc.

©1992)

Contour Interval

The contour interval is the vertical distance between adjacent contours. It is indicated on the margin at the bottom of an

NTS map – always check the contour interval of a map. The interval remains constant over the entire map and is selected

by the mapmaker to clearly display the dominant terrain features in the mapped area. Every fifth contour line is an index

contour. The index contours are the easiest contours to see because they are in bold print and have elevation numbers

inserted along the line.

Elevation

Knowing how to determine elevation from a topography map is essential. Exact elevation is provided for points along

contour lines, index contours and benchmarks. A bench mark is prominent landmark or peak that has been precisely

surveyed and is marked on the map with the elevation printed beside it. For points located between successive contours,

elevation is estimated by interpolation, assuming a uniform change in elevation between the two contour lines.

Examples of elevations determined from contour lines

and benchmarks. The contour interval is 100 m. The

elevation of benchmark A is 1750 masl and the

elevation of B, along the contour line, is 1300 masl.

The elevations of C and D are determined by

interpolation. C lies half way between contour lines

1100 and 1200, thus its estimated elevation is 1150

masl. D lies about one-fifth of the distance between

contour lines 1000 and 1100, thus its extimated

elevation is 1020 masl.

(from Strahler, A.H. and A.N. Strahler. Modern

Physical Geography 4th ed. J. Wiley and Sons, Inc.

©1992)

16

Slope Aspect

Most land surfaces are sloping and can be described according to the aspect and angle of the slope. Aspect is the compass

direction that a slope faces. By convention, aspect is measured from the top of the slope toward the bottom of the slope. Example: The slope aspect of the mountains on the north shore of Vancouver is south or north ? Example: The slope aspect of the Point Grey Cliffs, located between the Museum of Anthropology and Wreck Beach, is

south or north ? To measure aspect, a straight line is drawn perpendicular to the contour lines of the slope and the compass direction of

the line is measured.

Gradient and Slope Angle

Gradient measures the steepness of the landscape. Understanding gradient is critical in physical geography as slope

gradient is a critical factor underlying geomorphic processes such as mass movements, river and glacier flow. It is also

critical when choosing uphill hiking routes or downhill ski runs!!

Elevation and slope attributes of an island.

On a topographic map, steep slopes are represented by close

contour lines, while a gentle slope has widely spaced contours.

Test yourself:

Which slope is steeper B-A or B-C?

What is the slope aspect of each of the two slopes?

(after Strahler, A.H. and A.N. Strahler. Modern Physical

Geography 4th ed. J. Wiley and Sons, Inc. ©1992)

Hints for successfully interpreting contour lines:

1. The elevation value of any given contour line is the multiple

of the contour interval.

2. Contour lines never touch or cross one another, except when

the topography being portrayed is a vertical wall.

3. Every contour forms a closed polygon, either within or

beyond the limits of the map. In the latter case, the ends of

the contour will extend to the edge of the map.

4. Uniformly spaced contours indicate a uniform slope.

Widely spaced contours indicate a gentle slope. Contours

that are close together indicate a steep slope.

5. Contours form a “V” along a stream course, with the base of

the “V” pointing upstream.

6. Contours also form a “V” along a ridge or ‘spur’, but the base of the “V” points down the ridge.

7. A contour that forms a closed polygon within the limits of the map represents a hill or rise. If closed contours

are hatchured, they represent a depression. The hatches are directed into the depression.

8. The elevation of a hilltop, unless noted by a bench mark, is estimated. It is somewhere between the value of

the highest contour below the peak and the value of the next contour above the peak (that does not appear on

the map).

9. The elevation of a depression contour is the same as that of the adjacent lower contour, unless otherwise

indicated.

17

Calculating Slope Angle

Slope angle is the change in elevation per unit of horizontal distance.

It can be expressed in two ways:

Percent slope = rise x 100 = vertical distance x 100

run horizontal distance

where: vertical distance is difference between the elevations of the top and bottom of the slope, and horizontal distance is

measured on the map and converted to distance on the ground using the map scale.

Note: Always measure rise and run in the same units

Degree slope = slope angle in degrees = arctangent of the rise / run ratio

the arctangent can be determined using your calculator (arctan, invtan or tan-1 functions)

or you can use this table to determine angle in degrees from the slope tangent (rise / run)

Tangent table for determining slope in degrees

TAN TAN TAN TAN TAN TAN

1 0.02 10 0.18 19 0.34 28 0.53 37 0.75 46 1.04

2 0.03 11 0.19 20 0.36 29 0.55 38 0.78 47 1.07

3 0.05 12 0.21 21 0.38 30 0.58 39 0.81 48 1.11

4 0.07 13 0.23 22 0.40 31 0.60 40 0.84 49 1.15

5 0.09 14 0.25 23 0.42 32 0.62 41 0.87 50 1.19

6 0.11 15 0.27 24 0.45 33 0.65 42 0.90 51 1.23

7 0.12 16 0.29 25 0.47 34 0.67 43 0.93 52 1.28

8 0.14 17 0.31 26 0.49 35 0.70 44 0.97 53 1.33

9 0.16 18 0.32 27 0.51 36 0.73 45 1.00 54 1.38

Note: Both percent slope and degree slope are commonly used. For gentle terrain, where slope is 45or 100%, then

slope is usually described in percent. For steep terrain, with slopes > 45 then slope is expressed in degrees.

Example for calculating slope angle: Peak to Valley Race at Whistler, BC

The Peak to Valley race starts at the Saddle on Little Whistler Peak (2115

masl) and ends at the bottom of the Dave Murray Downhill run at Whistler

Creekside (739 masl). The vertical drop of 1443 m is more than five times the

average vertical of a GS race!!

1. Calculate the rise = net vertical change in elevation from the highest point

(2115 masl) to the lowest point (739 masl)

Rise = 2115 – 739 = 1443 m

2. Calculate the run = the horizontal distance between the start and the finish,

the two points of interest. On my map, the distance 10 cm. The map scale is

1:50,000. Run = 10 x 50,000 = 500,000 cm = 5000 m or 5 km

3. Calculate percent slope = rise / run x 100 = 1443 m / 5000 m x 100 = 29%

4. Calculate degree slope = arctangent of the rise / run ratio = 1443 m / 5000 m = 0.29

arctangent of 0.29 = 16º (either from the table or by calculator)

18

Ecology Plant identification in the ICH zone – Gavin Lake

Scientific Name Common name SMR SNR Key Identifying Features

Shrubs

Alnus incana mountain alder wet-moist med

Cornus stolonifera red-osier dogwood wet-moist med

Linnaea borealis twinflower fresh-moist poor-med

Lonicera involucrata black twinberry wet rich

Oplopanax horridus devil's club wet rich

Paxistima myrsinites falsebox fresh poor

Ribes lacustre black gooseberry fresh-moist rich

Rubus parviflorus thimbleberry fresh rich

Rubus pubescens trailing raspberry fresh-wet rich

Sambucus racemosa red elderberry moist-wet rich

Sorbus scopulina western mountain-ash fresh-moist med

Symphoricarpos albus common snowberry fresh-moist rich

Viburnum edule highbush-cranberry moist rich

Herbs

Actaea rubra baneberry moist-wet rich

Adenocaulon bicolor pathfinder fresh-moist rich

Aquilegia formosa red columbine fresh-moist rich

Aralia nudicaulis wild sarsaparilla fresh-moist rich

Aster conspicuus showy aster fresh-moist rich

Cornus canadensis bunchberry dry-wet poor-rich

Fragaria vesca wood strawberry fresh-moist med

Galium triflorum sweet-scented bedstraw moist rich

Goodyera oblongifolia rattlesnake-plantain fresh poor

Heracleum lanatum cow-parsnip moist-wet rich

Osmorhiza chilensis mountain sweet-cicely moist rich

Petasites palmatus palmate coltsfoot wet rich

Smilacina stellata star-flowered false solomon's seal fresh-moist med-rich

Smilacina racemosa false solomon's-seal fresh-moist med-rich

Streptopus amplexifolius clasping twistedstalk fresh-moist rich

Streptopus roseus rosy twistedstalk fresh-moist rich

Thalictrum occidentale western meadowrue fresh-moist rich

Tiarella trifoliata three-leaved foamflower fresh-moist rich

Viola canadensis Canada violet fresh-moist med-rich

Ferns and allies

Athyrium filix-femina lady fern moist-wet rich

Dryopteris expansa spiny wood fern moist-wet rich

Equisetum arvense common horsetail wet medium

Gymnocarpium dryopteris oak fern moist-wet rich

Mosses and lichens

Ptilium crista-castrensis knight's plume dry-moist poor

Dicranum fuscescens curly heron's-bill moss dry-moist poor

Peltigera spp. pelt lichens dry-moist rich-poor

Pleurozium schreberi red-stemmed feathermoss dry-moist poor-med

Plagiomnium sp leafy moss moist-wet med

19

20

21

Nested Plots following the National Forest Inventory Protocol

Area of circular plots and conversion to 1 ha (10000m2): Radius (m) 1.784 3.568 3.989 5.642 7.979 9.772 11.284 12.616 13.820 14.927 15.958 16.926 17.841

Area (ha) 0.001 0.004 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.080 0.090 0.100

Multiplier 1000 250 200 100 50 33.3 25 20 16.7 14.3 12.5 11.1 10

Tree species codes used in BC, common names and scientific names (in Latin): Broadleaved trees

Act black cottonwood Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa

Acb balsam poplar Populus balsamifera ssp. balsamifera

At trembling aspen Populus tremuloides

Dr red alder Alnus rubra

Ep common paper birch Betula papyrifera

Mb bigleaf maple Acer macrophyllum

Qg Garry oak Quercus garryana

Conifers

Ba amabilis fir Abies amabilis

Bg grand fir Abies grandis

Bl subalpine fir Abies lasiocarpa

Bp noble fir Abies procera

Cw western redcedar Thuja plicata

Fd Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii

Hm mountain hemlock Tsuga mertensiana

Hw western hemlock Tsuga heterophylla

Lt tamarack Larix laricina

Lw western larch Larix occidentalis

Pa whitebark pine Pinus albicaulis

Pl lodgepole pine Pinus contorta

Pw western white pine Pinus monticola

Py ponderosa pine Pinus ponderosa

Sb black spruce Picea mariana

Se Englemann spruce Picea engelmannii

Ss Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis

Sw white spruce Picea glauca

Sx hybrid spruce Picea hybrids

Sxs hybrid Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis x glauca

Sxw hybrid white spruce Picea engelmannii x glauca

Yc yellow-cedar Cupressus nootkatensis

22

Tree, snag and log classes (after Maser et al. 1979, Bartels et al. 1985)

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5

Foliage Present Absent Absent Absent Absent

Twigs Present Absent Absent Absent Absent

Bark Intact Intact Trace Detached or absent

Detached or absent

Texture Intact Intact to

partly soft

Hard large

pieces

Small, soft blocky

pieces

Soft and powdery

Shape Round Round Round Round to oval Oval

Color of Wood Original color Original color Original to

faded

Light brown to reddish

brown

Red brown to dark

brown

Portion of tree on

ground

Tree elevated on

support points

Tree elevated on

support points but

sagging slightly

Tree sagging

near ground

All of tree on ground All of tree on

ground

Tree height classes https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/forestmeasurements/chapter/5-3-crown-classes/

Height class (aka crown class) is a term used to describe the position of an individual tree in the forest canopy.

Dominant trees Crowns extend above the general level of the canopy; largest,

fullest crowns; receive full light from above and some light from the sides.

Codominant trees Crowns make up the general level of the canopy; receive direct

light from above, but little or no light from the sides; shorter than dominants.

Intermediate trees Crowns are subordinate; receive some direct light from

above, but no direct light from the sides; crowns narrow and/or one-sided; short

Suppressed trees Crowns are below the general level of canopy; receive no direct

light; short, sparse, narrow crowns; very short

Stage 1

Live

Stage 2

Declining

Stage 3

Dead

Stage 4

Loose bark Stage 5

Clean

Stage 6

Broken

Stage 7

Decomposed

Stage 8

Down

material

Stage 9

Stump

Log Decay Class 1 Log Decay Class 2 Log Decay Class 3 Log Decay Class 4 Log Decay Class 5

23

Visually estimating plant cover http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/bot440/wilsomar/Content/HTM-perarea.htm

To estimate plant cover, use the "zone of influence" approach. Delineate an imaginary boundary around a plant's

crown, then estimate the cover of the zone instead of trying to account for each leaf, stem, and gap.

The outlines show the zones of influence of two plants:

Top plant: relatively simple in outline, with a few simple leaves

clustered together. The zone and the plant border are nearly identical.

Bottom plant: Strongly dissected leaves in a fan-shape rosette are

simplified in the outline of the zone of influence. Nevertheless, estimate

the cover of the area inside the zone.

Hints for success:

Do your best to estimate to single digits (do not round to 5s or 10s)

Work as a team and cross-calibrate with one another

Practice using the visual guides below

24

25

Soil Texture Key Modified from S.J. Thien. 1979. A flow diagram for teaching texture by feel analysis. Journal of Agronomic Education. 8:54-55.

26

27

Explanation of soil horizon codes

Humus Form Classification

28

Soil Nutrient Regime Key

29

Soil Moisture Regime Key

30

Vegetation Summary Tables – Comparison among BEC Zones

31

32

IDFxm Landscape Profile

33

IDFxm Subzone and IDFxm-IDFdk3 Transition Edatopic Grid

34

35

36

IDFdk3 Landscape Profile

37

IDFdk3 Variant Edatopic Grid

38

39

40

SBSdw1 Landscape Profile

41

SBSdw1 Variant Edatopic Grid

42

43

44

ICHmk3 Landscape Profile

45

ICHmk3 Variant

46

Fuel Hazards and Fire Severity

47

Forestry and Operations Glossary

AAC – allowable annual cut, the volume of timber that can be harvested from an area of land each year

Air Tankers – either fixed or rotary winged, land-based aircraft designed specifically to drop fire retardant over a fire

Aspect – the direction the slope is facing – north, south, east or west or any point in between

ATV – All Terrain Vehicle

Bird dog – a small, fast, highly, maneuverable aircraft that precedes an air tanker drop. It consists of a pilot and an air

attack officer who assesses the fire behavior and strategizes the effective use of fire retardant.

Brown rot – decay characterized by degradation of cellulose but not lignin in cell walls of wood such that wood appears

brownish and not fibrous

Bucker – a person who cuts trees into specified lengths

Bucking – the act of cutting a felled tree into specified log lengths

BUI – Build-up Index – indicates the amount of fuel available for combustion

Cable yarding – either high-lead, in which a simple loop of cable runs from the yarder out through pulley blocks

anchored to stumps at the far end of the cut or skyline, in which a carriage, pulled by hauling cables, runs along a

skyline cable, providing vertical lift to the logs.

Candling – is a fire that temporarily runs from the ground to the canopy of a single or small group of trees

Cat (crawler tractor, bulldozer) –a tracked machine with a front-mounted blade used for pushing dirt and construction

Cattleguard – is an obstacle placed in a road’s surface to prevent the passage of livestock from a fenced enclosure

Choker – a noose of cable (or rope) used for skidding logs

Cold trailing - is the careful and methodical inspection of burned areas using bare hands to ensure no fire exists – cold to

the touch

Commercial thinning- a.k.a. “thinning from below” is a stand tending technique that removes low-vigour trees of

merchantable size from a stand. The residual stand will continue to grow until harvest at a later point in time

Control line – a combination of human caused and natural barriers from which to take control action on a fire

Conversion factor - the ratio of volume to weight expressed as m3/tonne

Cubic meter - m3

Culvert – a plastic or corrugated metal pipe that drains water from one side of a road to the other

Cut-to-Length or CTL harvest system – trees are felled and processed (topped and limbed) at the stump (location tree

is cut from)

Danger Class – using a combination of BUI and FWI indicates the potential risk of the occurrence of a wildfire for a

given area

Danger trees – any tree, for whatever reason, that has been assessed as a hazard to surrounding workers

Deck – as in ‘a deck of logs’ are logs in a pile usually sorted by species, grade, product

Drip torch – is a burning tool. It contains a mixture of diesel and gas and drips the ignited fuel onto the vegetation.

Drought Code (DC) – moisture condition in the 10 – 20 cm duff layer

Duff (forest floor)– the dead and decomposing organic layer that lies above the soil layer

Duff Moisture Code (DMC) - moisture condition in the 5 – 10 cm duff layer

ETV – Emergency Transport Vehicle (ambulance)

Excavator (hoe) – is a piece of heavy construction equipment consisting of a cab, boom and bucket on a rotating

platform over a tracked under-carriage.

Facultative parasite - an organism that may live as a parasite or lead an independent existence.

Faller – a person who cuts a tree down

Feller-buncher – a harvesting machine that cuts a tree and then piles it in bunches

Feller-processor – a harvesting machine in a cut-to-length harvest operation that cuts a tree and then processes (bucks,

sorts and piles) the tree into specified log lengths at the stump

Felling – the act of cutting down a standing tree

Fine Fuel Moisture Code (FFMC) - moisture condition in the surface litter

Fire retardant – a fertilizer-based mix of water, clay and colouring agent used to retard the growth of a fire until a

ground crew can extinguish the fire.

Fire Weather Index (FWI) – indicates potential fire intensity

Fireline - a trail cut to mineral soil to prevent the spread of a ground or surface fire

48

Forwarder – a wheeled machine used in a cut-to-length harvest operation to move logs from the bush to roadside, differs

from a skidder in that it carries the logs as opposed to dragging the logs along the ground

Free-to-grow (free-growing)- the point at which a stand meets reforestation, species composition, and height

requirements, and is free from competition. It is at this point that a forest company has met its reforestation obligations

Front-end loader – typically a wheeled (or tracked) machine that uses a grapple to load logs onto a logging truck

Fruiting body (or basidiocarps) - multicellular structure specialized for reproduction and containing spores, e.g. conks

and mushrooms

Grade – the longitudinal slope of a road surface

Grades – as in ‘log grades’ is classifying logs based on quality

Grapple – vertical, horizontal or rotating, mechanical arms that grip a tree or logs

Hand tank pump – a metal or plastic backpack tank which holds 18 liters of water. It has a manually operated pump and

is typically used for cooling hot spots.

Hauling – refers to the transportation of logs from the bush to the mill

Hectare – a unit of area, 10,000 m2 or 100 m x 100 m

House logs- are logs used for building log homes

Hypersensitive reaction (in trees) – compartmentalization of wounds (mechanical or insect) or fungal infection with

resin and natural chemicals

Hyphae - threads of structurally and nutritionally connected cells of fungi

Infection centre – small pockets to larger assemblages of trees demonstrating symptoms of pathogenic fungi. Trees may

be dead or symptomatic in the centre while trees along the perimeter show symptoms of initial infection

Initial Spread Index (ISI) – relative fire spread after ignition

Inoculum – spores or mycelia (in the case of fungi) that initiate infection

Ladder fuels – any fuel which will carry a ground or surface fire to the canopy e.g. long grass/dead branches

Landing – a cleared area used for processing and loading of logs

Leave tree- is a tree planned to be left after harvest for a variety of reasons including seed source and wildlife habitat

Log loader – a high mounted cab, boom and grapple mounted on a tracked under-carriage used specifically to load logs

Mop-up – is the suppression task as soon as the fire, or any part of it, is under control

Mycelium – filamentous mass of fungal hyphae

Obligate parasite - An organism that lives in or on another species (host) from which it derives nutrients and cannot lead

an independent nonparasitic existence

OSB-Orientated stand board-chips that are glued and pressed to form a sheet (similar to plywood)

Pathogen - an agent that causes disease. Some fungi are pathogenic to trees

Pathogenicity - ability of an organism to cause disease in its host

Peelers or veneer logs – are logs that will be used for the manufacture of veneer (thin sheets when glued together form

plywood)

Population – is the aggregate of all loads of timer scaled at a scale site owned by the same holder within a forest region

to be sampled in a 12-month period for which estimates of volumes for timber marks, grades and species can be made.

PPE – personal protective equipment

Provincial Crown land- public land, land owned by the people of British Columbia and is the source of most timber in

this province. Forest license holders are charged with forest management and are regulated according to provincial

legislation

Precommercial thinning- a.k.a. “spacing” is a stand tending technique that removes non-merchantable trees in order to

reduce competition and improve the spacing of a stand

Pulaski – a fire fighting tool that is a combination of an axe and grubbing tool

Pulp – a low value log that is mechanically or chemically reduced to its cellulose fibres—typically for paper production.

Relative Humidity (RH) - is the ratio of actual to maximum amount of water vapor in the air at a given temperature

Rhizomorph- root-like organization of hyphae that allows greater potential for environmental exploration and nutrient

transport (looks like black shoelaces).

Right-of-way, also R/W or RoW – is a cleared strip of land through which a road, fence, hydro or gas transmission line,

etc extend

Roadside – the area adjacent to a road used for sorting and loading of logs, alternative to using a landing

Salvage – as in ‘salvage logging’ is the harvesting method to recover dead or dying timber that will still yield a forest

product

49

Sample load – a randomly chosen weight sample that will be piece scaled to derive a conversion factor to be applied to

that stratum

Sawlogs – logs that will used for the manufacture of dimension lumber

Scaling – measuring the length and diameter of logs and calculating defects to determine the firmwood content (volume)

Signs – the physical appearance of a pathogen, e.g. fungal fruiting body, rhizomorph, mycelial fan

Skid trail – a temporary trail for repetitive use by skidders or forwarders to remove trees or logs from the stump to a

landing or roadside. Stumps are cut low but not removed.

Skidder – a wheeled or tracked machine (line or grapple) that drags whole trees or logs from the stump to a processing

area

Skidding – the act of dragging logs or trees from the bush

Slash – debris left on the ground after harvesting once the logs are removed

Slashing – cutting of damaged and unwanted specimens remaining in the understorey immediately following harvesting

Sleeper – a smouldering fire hidden in deep duff or rotten wood, roots, etc that may remain undetected for days or weeks

with no visible smoke or flame

Slope – the angle of the ground measured from the horizontal

Snags – dead or dying standing trees

Sorts – piles of logs sorted by any of species, grade, length and product or any combination of these

Spore – a single- to multi-cellular reproductive body in a fungus often persistent for long durations and distributed by

wind

Spot fires – small fires < 0.1 hectare in size or fires (of any size) caused by dropped embers ahead of a large, fast moving

fire

Spur road – a branch of a main or secondary road

Stratification- is the classification of an area into defined zones based on microclimate and stand structure

Stratum – a subdivision of a weight scale population into groups of truckloads that have similar qualities (e.g., timber

mark, stumpage value, and ownership or quality)

Stem decay – wood decay in stems of living trees, including root and butt rot. Trees that have stem decay located within

the inner wood can survive for many years but will die quickly if infected by pathogenic fungi that kill the cambium.

Stumpage – the price that must be paid to the provincial government for trees harvested on Crown land.

Symptoms – change in appearance of host tissues in response to disease, e.g. tree crown thinning, resinosis, and decay in

response to stem decay

Tenure – The agreement with the government that allows a private company, community, or individual to harvest timber

or range livestock on public land.

Timber mark – identifies the specific cutting authority or geographic location where the timber was harvested

Timber type- a group of trees that differs from surrounding trees in species composition and/or stand structure

Tonne – a unit of mass, 1000 kg

Tracks – a continuous tread of steel plates (caterpillar track) driven by two or more wheels (sprockets) providing traction

on heavy equipment. A pair of tracks with driving mechanism (but not engine) is known as the under-carriage.

Value added Log (Specialty log) – a high value log sorted for its quality features-typically a round house log or timber

log for the manufacture of squared timbers.

Weigh scaling – is a sampling method where all truckloads are weighed and samples are selected at random to determine

volume and grade.

White rot – decay characterized by degradation of all components in cell walls of wood such that the wood appears

whitish and fibrous

Widowmaker – an over-head hazard consisting of a dead branch or tree top that has broken off the main stem of the tree

and remains suspended in the branches – may become dislodged with a gust of wind or movement of the tree

Wildlife tree patches- are groups of trees within or adjacent to a cutblock that are selected to be left for wildlife habitat

and to maintain stand-level biodiversity

Windthrow, also blowdown – trees blown over (uprooted) by strong winds

Yarder - is a piece of harvesting equipment which uses a system of cables to pull or fly logs from the stump to the

landing or roadside

Yarding – moving logs from the stump to a landing or roadside by means of a cable system – can also be applied to

winching and helicopter logging.