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Foundation Course on Air Quality Management in Asia
Foundation Course on
Air Quality Management in Asia
EditorsDr Gary Haq, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of YorkDr Dieter Schwela, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York
Module ContributorsProfessor Bingheng Chen, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai Dr Dilip Biwas, Former Chairman, Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi Dr David L. Calkins, Sierra Nevada Air Quality Group, LLC, San Francisco Bay Area, CADr Axel Friedrich, Department of Transport and Noise at the Federal Environment Agency (UBA), BerlinMr Karsten Fuglsang, FORCE Technology, CopenhagenDr Gary Haq, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, YorkProfessor Lidia Morawska, School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, BrisbaneProfessor Frank Murray, School of Environmental Science, Murdoch University, PerthDr Kim Oanh Nguyen Thi, Environmental Technology and Management, Asian Institute of Technology, BangkokDr Dieter Schwela, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, YorkMr Bjarne Sivertsen, Norwegian Institute for Air Research, OlsoDr Vanisa Surapipith, Pollution Control Department, BangkokDr Patcharawadee Suwanathada, Pollution Control Department, BangkokMr Harry Vallack, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York
Production TeamHoward Cambridge, Web Manager, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, YorkRichard Clay, Design/layout, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, YorkErik Willis, Publications Manager, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, York
FundingThe modules were produced by the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) and the University of York (UoY) as part of the Clean Air for Asia Training Programme. The programme was led by the SEI and UoY in collaboration with the Pollution Control Department (Thailand), Vietnam Environment Protection Agency (VEPA), and Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia). The Clean Air for Asia Training Programme was funded under the European Union’s Asia Urbs programme (TH/Asia Urbs/01 (91000)). Additional funding was received from the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), World Health Organization, Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU), and Force Technology.
Stockholm Environment InstituteKräftriket 2BStockholm Sweden SE 106 91 Tel: +46 8 674 7070Fax: +46 8 674 7020E-mail: [email protected]: www.sei.se
Copyright © 2008 Stockholm Environment InstituteThis publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or nonprofit purposes, without special permission from the copyright holder(s) provided acknowledgement of the source is made. No use of this publication may be made for resale or other commercial purpose, without the written permission of the copyright holder(s).
DISCLAIMERAll text, photographs, and graphics in this manual are provided for information purposes only. Whilst every reasonable effort has been made to ensure that the information is complete, correct and up-to-date, this cannot be guaranteed, and the Stockholm Environment Institute shall not be liable whatsoever for any damage incurred as a result of its use. The Stockholm Environment Institute takes no responsibility for the content of websites that are linked to this document. The existence of a link to an external website does not imply that the Stockholm Environment Institute endorses the activities or views of that organisation. In no event shall the Stockholm Environment Institute be responsible or liable, directly or indirectly, for any damage or loss caused or alleged to be caused by or in connection with the use of or reliance on any such content, goods, or services available on or through any such site or resource. The mention of specific organisations or of certain manufacturers’ products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the Stockholm Environment Institute in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.
The Foundation Course on Air Quali ty Management in Asia is for adult learners studying the issue without the support of a class room teacher. It is aimed at students with some basic knowledge of environment and air pollution issues, acquired in a variety of ways ranging from conventional study, working in an environmental related field or informal experience of air pollution issues.
The course provides you with an opportunity to develop your understanding of the key components required to develop a programme to manage urban air pollution and to achieve better air quality. By working through the six modules you will gradually achieve a higher level of understanding of urban air pollution and the measures taken to monitor air quality and to prevent and control urban air pollution.
Urban Air Pollution in AsiaUrban air pollution affects the health, well-being and life chances of hundreds of million men, women and children in Asia every day. It is responsible for an estimated 537,000 premature deaths annually with indoor air being responsible for over double this number of deaths. It is often the poor and socially marginalized who tend to suffer disproportionately form the effects of deteriorating air quality due to living near sources of pollution.
Clean air is recognised as a key component of a sustainable urban environment in international agreements and increasingly in regional environmental declarations in Asia. National and local governments have begun to develop air quality management strategies to address the deterioration in urban air quality. However, the scope and effectiveness of such strategies vary widely between countries and cities.
The aim of air quality management is to maintain the quality of the air that protects human health and welfare but also to provide protection for animals, plants (crops, forests and vegetation), ecosystems, material aesthetics, such as natural levels of visibility. In order to achieve this goal, appropriate policies, and strategies to prevent and control air pollution need to be developed and implemented.
Module StructureThe foundation course consists of six modules which address the key components of air quality management. An international team of air pollution experts have contributed to the development of the course. Each module is divided into a number of sections each devoted to a different aspect of the issue, together with examples and key references.
Foundation Course on Air Quality Management in Asia
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Acid deposition A complex chemical and atmospheric phenomenon that occurs when emissions of sulphur and nitrogen compounds and other substances are transformed by chemical processes in the atmosphere and then deposited on earth in either wet or dry form. The wet forms, popularly called acid rain, can fall to earth as rain, snow, or fog. The dry forms are acidic gases or particulates (CARB, 2007).
Acid rain Rain which is especially acidic (pH <5.2). Principal components of acid rain typically include nitric and sulphuric acid. These may be formed by the combination of nitrogen and sulphur oxides with water vapour in the atmosphere (CARB, 2007).
Acute exposure One or a series of short-term exposures generally lasting less than 24 hours (CARB, 2007).
Acute health effect A health effect that occurs due to exposure over a relatively short period of time (e.g., minutes or hours) (CARB, 2007).
Adverse health effect Change in morphology, physiology, growth, development or life span of an organism which results in impairment of functional capacity or impairment of capacity to compensate for additional stress or increase in susceptibility to the harmful effects of other environmental influences (WHO, 1994).
Aerosol A suspension in a gaseous medium of solid particles, liquid particles or solid and liquid particles having a negligible falling velocity (ISO, 1994).
Aerodynamic diameter The diameter of a spherical particle of the same density that, relative to a given phenomenon or property (e.g., free-falling velocity; surface area; volume; and aerodynamic properties) would behave as the particle under investigation (Willeke & Baron 1993).
Agricultural burning The intentional use of fire for vegetation management in areas such as agricultural fields, orchards, rangelands and forests (CARB, 2007).
Air So called ‘pure’ air is a mixture of gases containing about 78 per cent nitrogen; 21 per cent oxygen; less than 1 per cent of carbon dioxide, argon, and other gases; and varying amounts of water vapour (CARB, 2007).
Glossary
2
Glossary
Air quality index (AQI) A numerical index used for daily reporting severity of air pollution levels to the public. In developing countries it is often calculated by the maximum value of the ratios of concentrations of criteria pollutants (PM, O3, CO, NO2, SO2) to their respective air quality standards.
Air quality standard A level of air pollutant such as a concentration or a deposition value which is adopted by a regulatory authority as enforceable. Unlike a guideline value, a number of elements in addition to the effect-based level and the averaging time must be specified in the formulation of a standard. These elements include the measurement strategy, data handling procedures, statistics used to derive, from measurements, the value compared with the standard. The numerical value of a standard may also include the permitted number of exceedances (CARB, 2007).
Alternative fuels Fuels such as methanol, ethanol, compressed natural gas (CNG), and liquid petroleum gas (LPG) that are cleaner burning and help to meet emission standards for mobile and stationary sources (CARB, 2007).
Ambient air The air occurring at a particular time and place outside of structures. Often used interchangeably with ‘outdoor air’ (CARB, 2007).
Area source Any source of air pollution emitted over an area, which cannot be classified as a point source. Area sources can be a large number of similar small stack point sources which can be difficult to estimate individually. Area sources might include emissions from household activities such as cooking and heating, small business activities, agricultural residue burning, waste combustion, fugitive dust from deposits and roads, forest fires, small activities from gasoline service stations, small paint shops, consumer use of solvents and biogenic (natural) sources. Waste deposits can also be a large area source.
Asthma A chronic inflammatory disorder of the lungs characterised by wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and cough (CARB, 2007).
Atmosphere The gaseous mass or envelope of air surrounding the Earth. From ground-level up, the atmosphere is further subdivided into the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and the thermosphere (CARB, 2007).
Biogenic source Biological sources such as plants and animals that emit air pollutants such as volatile organic compounds. Examples of biogenic sources include animal management operations, and oak and pine tree forests (CARB, 2007).
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Biomass Organic substance of biotic origin: either living organisms or dead substances such as wood, crop residues, or animal dung.
Bronchitis Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bronchial airways) (CMD, 1997).
Cancer A group of diseases characterised by uncontrolled invasive growth of body cells leading to the formation of malignant tumours that tend to grow rapidly and spread (CARB, 2007).
Carbon dioxide (CO2) A colourless, odourless, non-combustible gas, formula CO2. It is approximately 50% heavier than air, of which it is a normal constituent. It is formed by certain natural processes and by the combustion of fuels containing carbon. Only in the most exceptional circumstances do local concentrations of CO2 in air rise to levels that are dangerous to health, but it plays a significant role in the decay of building stones and in corrosion (WHO, 1980).
Carbon monoxide (CO) A colourless, almost odourless, tasteless, flammable gas, formula CO. It is produced, inter alia, by the incomplete combustion of organic materials (mostly in automobile engines) and normally occurs in trace amounts in the atmosphere. At concentrations exceeding about 100 ppm it is highly toxic. Its affinity for haemoglobin (with which it forms carboxyhaemoglobin) is between 200 and 300 times that of oxygen, and it has the effect of reducing the oxygen-transport capacity of haemoglobin and leading to death by asphyxiation (WHO, 1980).
Carbonaceous particles Particles consisting mostly of carbon compounds (WHO, 2002).
Cardiovascular Pertaining to the heart and blood vessels (CMD, 1997).
Case control study Longitudinal (relating to more than one point in time) epidemiological study of people with a disease or other outcome variable of interest (cases) and a suitable control group (WHO, 1999a).
Case-crossover design Case control study in which the experimental design changes case-group and control-group in the second phase of the study, to eliminate group-specific confounders (WHO, 1999a).
Chronic exposure Long-term exposure, usually lasting one year to a lifetime (CARB, 2007).
Chronic health effect A health effect that occurs over a relatively long period of time (e.g., months or years) (CARB, 2007).
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Glossary
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
A disease process that decreases the ability of the lungs to perform ventilation. Diagnostic criteria include a history of persistent dyspnea (an uncomfortable sensation associated with breathing) on exertion, with or without chronic cough, and less than half of normal predicted maximum breathing capacity. Diseases that cause this condition are chronic bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema, chronic asthma, and chronic bronchiolitis (CCMD, 1997).
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
The Kyoto Protocol establishes the CDM to enable Annex I Parties (listed in Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol) to finance emission-reduction projects in the countries of non-Annex I Parties. These Annex I Parties will receive certified emission reductions (CERs) for doing so. The goals of the CDM are: (1) to assist non-Annex I Parties in achieving sustainable development and in contributing to the ultimate objective of the convention and (2) to assist Annex I Parties in meeting their targets (EEA, 1995-2008).
Coarse particle fraction The particle size fraction between 2.5 and 10 micrometer.
Cohort study Study of the incidence (occurrence of new cases) of disease or other health outcome in a group of people (a cohort) initially free of disease or other outcome, who are classified into subgroups according to exposure to a potential cause of disease or health outcome (WHO, 1999a).
Combustion A chemical reaction in which a material combines with oxygen with the evolution of heat: “burning”. The combustion of fuels containing carbon and hydrogen is said to be complete when these two elements are all oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. Incomplete combustion may lead to (1) appreciable amounts of carbon remaining in the ash; (2) emission of some of the carbon as carbon monoxide; and (3) reaction of the fuel molecules to give a range of products of greater complexity than that of the fuel molecules themselves (if these products escape combustion they are emitted as smoke (WHO, 1980).
Confounder Variable that influences an health effect apart from air pollution. In particular, a confounder is associated with the exposure and the outcome and effect estimates would be biased if the variable would be neglected in the analyses.
Cross-sectional study An epidemiological study that measures exposure and prevalence of disease at the same time (WHO, 1999a).
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Diesel exhaust Diesel exhaust emissions contain hundreds of chemical compounds, which are emitted partly in the gaseous phase and partly in the particulate phase of the exhaust. The major gaseous products are carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, and water vapour; carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons and their derivatives are also present. Benzene and toluene are present in the lower range (percentage weight) in the gaseous part of the hydrocarbon fraction. Other gaseous exhaust compounds are low-relative-molecular-mass polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
A main characteristic of diesel exhaust is the release of particles at a rate about 20 times greater than that from gasoline-fuelled vehicles. The particles are composed of elemental carbon, organic compounds adsorbed from fuel and lubricating oil, sulphates from fuel-sulphur, and traces of metallic components. Most of the total particulate matter appears to occur in the submicrometre range, between 0.02 and 0.5 μm (WHO, 1996).
Dose The amount of a pollutant that is absorbed. A level of exposure which is a function of a pollutant’s concentration, the length of time a subject is exposed, and the amount of the pollutant that is absorbed. The concentration of the pollutant and the length of time that the subject is exposed to that pollutant determine dose (CARB, 2007).
Dose-Response relationship
The relationship between the dose of a pollutant and the response (or effect) it produces on a biological system (CARB, 2007).
Dry deposition Removal of contaminants of air onto a substrate without involvement of rain, clouds or fog.
Dust Small solid particles, conventionally taken as those particles below 75 μm in diameter, which settle out under their own weight but which may remain suspended for some time (ISO 1994). National standards may be more specific and include particle diameters or a definition in terms of a sieve of specified aperture. Dust occurs in the atmosphere both naturally and as a result of the activities of man (Willeke & Baron, 1993).
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Glossary
Emission factor For stationary sources, the relationship between the amount of pollution produced and the amount of raw material processed or burned. For mobile sources, the relationship between the amount of pollution produced and the number of vehicle miles travelled. By using the emission factor of a pollutant and specific data regarding quantities of materials used by a given source, it is possible to compute emissions for the source. This approach is used in preparing an emissions inventory (CARB, 2007).
Epidemiology The science of the distribution and determinants of health-related states and events in populations, and the application of the science to the control of health problems (CMD, 1997).
Exceedance A measured level of an air pollutant higher than the national or local ambient air quality standards (CARB, 2007).
Exposure Exposure to a chemical is the contact of that chemical with the outer boundary of the human body. The outer boundary of the human body is the skin and the openings into the body such as the mouth, the nostrils, and punctures and lesions in the skin (WHO, 2000b).
Exposure assessment Quantitative or qualitative evaluation of the contact of a chemical with the outer boundary of the human body, which includes consideration of the intensity, frequency and duration of contact, the route of exposure (e.g. dermal, oral or respiratory), rates (chemical intake or uptake rates), the resulting amount that actually crosses the boundary (a dose), and the amount absorbed (internal dose) (WHO, 2000b).
Exposure factors Indicators on human behaviours and characteristics which affect exposure to air pollutants (adapted from USEPA (1997)). Exposure factors relate to source characteristics; human factors such as body weight, inhalation rate, activity levels; physical, chemical and biological properties of pollutants; time-activity patterns; outdoor and indoor states, and exposure frequency and duration.
Exposure-response relationship
Relationship between the exposure to a pollutant and the response (effect) it produces in a biological system.
Fine particles Particles with aerodynamic diameters below 2.5 micrometer.
Fog In meteorology, it refers to a suspension of water droplets resulting in a visibility of less than 1 km (ISO, 1994).
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Forced expiratory volume (FEV)
The volume of air that can be expired after a full inspiration. The expiration is done as quickly as possible and the volume measured at precise times; at ½, 1, 2 and 3 seconds. This provides valuable information concerning the ability to expel air from the lungs (CMD, 1997).
Fume Aerosol of solid particles, usually from metallurgical processes, generated by condensation from the gaseous state, generally after volatilisation from melted substances and often accompanied by chemical reactions such as oxidation. Often used in the plural, fumes for visible clouds of gases, vapours, or aerosols that have an unpleasant and malodorous smell (ISO, 1994; WHO, 1980).
Global warming An increase in the temperature of the troposphere.
Greenhouse Effect Greenhouse gases effectively absorb infrared radiation, emitted by the Earth’s surface and by clouds. Atmospheric radiation is emitted to all sides, including downward to the Earth’s surface. Thus greenhouse gases trap heat within the surface-troposphere system. This is called the natural greenhouse effect.
Atmospheric radiation is strongly coupled to the temperature of the level at which it is emitted. In the troposphere the temperature generally decreases with height. Effectively, infrared radiation emitted to space originates from an altitude with a temperature of, on average, -19°C, in balance with the net incoming solar radiation, whereas the Earth’s surface is kept at a much higher temperature of, on average, +14°C.
An increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases leads to an increased infrared opacity of the atmosphere, and therefore to an effective radiation into space from a higher altitude at a lower temperature. This causes a radiative forcing, an imbalance that can only be compensated for by an increase of the temperature of the surface-troposphere system. This is the enhanced greenhouse effect (IPCC, 2001).
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Glossary
Greenhouse gases Those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere and clouds. This property causes the greenhouse effect. Water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4) and ozone (O3) are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. Moreover there are a number of entirely human-made greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as the halocarbons and other chlorine and bromine containing substances, dealt with under the Montreal Protocol. Beside CO2, N2O and CH4, the Kyoto Protocol deals with the greenhouse gases sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) (IPCC, 2001).
Guideline Any kind of recommendation or guidance on the protection of human beings or receptors in the environment from the adverse effects of air pollutants. As such, it is not restricted to a numerical value but might also be expressed in a different way, for example as exposure-response information or as a unit risk estimate (WHO, 2000a).
Guideline value A particular form of a guideline. It has a numerical value expressed either as a concentration in ambient air, a tolerable intake, or as a deposition level, which is linked to an averaging time. In the case of human health, the guideline value defines a concentration below which the risk for the occurrence of adverse effects is negligibly low. It does, however, not guarantee the absolute exclusion of effects at concentrations at or below the guideline value. For odorous compounds the guideline value represents an odour threshold (WHO, 2000a).
Haemoglobin The iron-containing pigment of the red blood cells which carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues (CMD, 1997).
Haze A suspension in the atmosphere of extremely small (dry) particles, individually invisible to the naked eye, but which are numerous enough to give the atmosphere an appearance of opalescence together with reduced visibility (ISO, 1994).
Health endpoint A health indicator used in an epidemiological study as the dependent variable.
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Hydrocarbons Compounds containing various combinations of hydrogen and carbon atoms. They may be emitted into the air by natural sources (e.g., trees) and as a result of fossil and vegetative fuel combustion, fuel volatilization, and solvent use. Hydrocarbons are a major contributor to smog (CARB, 2007).
Indoor air pollution Air pollutants that occur within buildings or other enclosed spaces, as opposed to those occurring in outdoor or ambient air. Some examples of indoor air pollutants are nitrogen oxides, smoke, asbestos, formaldehyde, and carbon monoxide (CARB, 2007).
Industrial source Any of a large number of sources - such as manufacturing operations, oil and gas refineries, food processing plants, and energy generating facilities - that emit substances into the atmosphere (CARB, 2007).
Lead A grey-white metal that is soft, malleable, ductile, and resistant to corrosion. Sources of lead resulting in concentrations in the air include industrial sources and weathering of soils followed by fugitive dust emissions. Health effects from exposure to lead include brain and kidney damage and learning disabilities (CARB, 2007).
Life expectancy The number of years that an average person of a given age may be expected to live, according to mortality tables (CMD, 1997).
Line source An array of pollutant sources along a defined path that can be treated in dispersion models as an aggregate uniform release of pollutants along a line. Example: the sum of emissions from individual cars travelling down a highway can be treated as a line source (Utah, 2007).
Lower respiratory symptom
Symptom in the lower respiratory tract (i.e. the respiratory tract from trachea to bronchioles) (CMD, 1997).
Lowest-observed-adverse-effect level
Lowest concentration or amount of a substance, found by observation or experiment, which causes an adverse effect (WHO, 2000a).
Lowest-observed-effect level
Lowest concentration or amount of a substance, found by observation or experiment, which causes an effect (WHO, 2000a).
Mobile Sources Sources of air pollution such as automobiles, motorcycles, trucks, off-road vehicles, boats, and airplanes (CARB, 2007).
Monitoring The periodic or continuous sampling and analysis of air pollutants in ambient air or from individual pollution sources (CARB, 2007).
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Glossary
Morbidity The number of sick persons or cases of disease in relationship to a specific population (CMD, 1997).
Mortality The death rate; the ratio of the number of deaths to a given population (CMD 1997).
Nitric acid A colourless or yellowish fuming liquid, formula HNO3. It is highly corrosive and the vapour is very hazardous. Nitric acid and nitrates (mainly ammonium nitrate) occur in the atmosphere in the form of aerosols: the acid is formed from oxides of nitrogen and then reacts with ammonia to form ammonium nitrate (WHO, 1997).
Nitrogen Oxides (Oxides of Nitrogen, NOx) A general term pertaining to compounds of nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and other oxides of nitrogen. Nitrogen oxides are typically created during combustion processes, and are major contributors to smog formation and acid deposition. NO2 may result in numerous adverse health effects (CARB, 2007).
No-observed-adverse-effect Level
Greatest concentration or amount of a substance, found by observation or experiment, which causes no detectable adverse effect. Effects may be detected at this level, which are not judged to be adverse (WHO, 2000a).
No-observed-effect level Greatest concentration or amount of a substance, found by observation or experiment, which causes no detectable effect (WHO, 2000a).
Outpatient One who receives treatment at a hospital, clinic, or dispensary but is not hospitalised (CMD 1997).
Oxidant (in atmospheric chemistry)
A very qualitative term which includes any and all trace gases which have a greater oxidation potential than oxygen (for example O3, peroxyacetyl nitrate, hydrogen peroxide, organic peroxides, NO3, etc.). It is recommended that alternative, more definitive terms be used which define the specific oxidant of interest whenever possible (IUPAC, 1997).
Ozone A strong smelling, pale blue, reactive toxic chemical gas consisting of three oxygen atoms. It is a product of the photochemical process involving the sun’s energy and ozone precursors, such as hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen. Ozone exists in the upper atmosphere ozone layer (stratospheric ozone) as well as at the Earth’s surface in the troposphere (ozone). Ozone in the troposphere causes numerous adverse health effects. It is a major component of smog (CARB, 2007).
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Ozone Precursors Chemicals such as non-methane hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen, occurring either naturally or as a result of human activities, which contribute to the formation of ozone, a major component of smog (CARB, 2007).
Particle Small discrete mass of solid or liquid matter.
Particle aerodynamic diameter
Diameter of a sphere of density 1 g/cm3 with the same terminal velocity due to gravitational force in calm air as the particle, under the prevailing conditions of temperature, pressure and relative humidity (ISO, 1995).
Particle size distribution The distribution of equivalent diameters of particles in a sample or the proportion of particles for which the equivalent diameter lies between defined limits (Willeke & Barron, 1993).
Particulate Matter (PM) Any material, except pure water, that exists in the solid or liquid state in the atmosphere. The size of particulate matter can vary from coarse, wind-blown dust particles to fine particle combustion products (CARB, 2007).
Phlegm Thick mucus, especially that from the respiratory passages (CMD, 1997).
Photochemical reaction A term referring to chemical reactions brought about by the light energy of the sun. The reaction of nitrogen oxides with hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight to form ozone is an example of a photochemical reaction (CARB, 2007).
Photochemical smog Result of reactions in the atmosphere between nitrogen oxides, organic compounds and oxidants under the influence of sunlight, leading to the formation of oxidising compounds or possibly causing poor visibility, eye irritation or damage to material and vegetation if sufficiently concentrated (ISO 1994).
PM10 Mass concentration of particles collected by a sampler with a 50% cut-point at an aerodynamic particle diameter of 10 micrometers, mostly particles with aerodynamic particle diameters of 10 micrometers or less.
PM2.5 Mass concentration of particles collected by a sampler with a 50% cut-point at an aerodynamic particle diameter of 2.5 micrometers, mostly particles with aerodynamic particle diameters of 2.5 micrometers or less.
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Glossary
Point source A pollutant source that can be treated in a dispersion model as though pollutants were emitted from a single point that is fixed in space. Example: the mouth of a smokestack (Utah, 2007).
Pollution Prevention The use of materials, processes, or practices to reduce, minimise, or eliminate the creation of pollutants or wastes. It includes practices that reduce the use of toxic or hazardous materials, energy, water, and/or other resources (CARB, 2007).
Polycyclic AromaticHydrocarbons (PAHs)
Organic compounds which include only carbon and hydrogen with a fused ring structure containing at least two benzene (six-sided) rings. PAHs may also contain additional fused rings that are not six-sided. The combustion of organic substances is a common source of atmospheric PAHs (CARB, 2007).
Prevalence The number of cases of a disease present in a specified population at a given time (CMD, 1997).
Primary fine particles Particles that have been emitted into the atmosphere as particles, as opposed to secondary particles, which are formed in the atmosphere from gas-to-particle conversion of gaseous precursors. Most common examples of primary particles are sea-salt, road and desert dust, soot and carbonaceous particles from combustion (WHO, 2002).
Rate The speed or frequency of occurrence of an event, usually expressed with respect to time or some other known standard. Death rate or mortality rate is the number of deaths in a specified population, usually expressed per 100 000 population, over a given period, usually 1 year. Morbidity rate is the number of cases per year of certain diseases in relation to the population in which they occur. Infant mortality rate is the number of deaths per year of live-born infants less than 1 year of age divided by the number of live births in the same year (CMD, 1997).
Regional Haze The haze produced by a multitude of sources and activities which emit fine particles and their precursors across a broad geographic area. Supra-national regulations require states to develop plans to reduce the regional haze that impairs visibility in national parks and wilderness areas (CARB, 2007).
Residence time The average time a molecule or aerosol spends in the atmosphere after it is released or generated there. For compounds with well defined sources and emission rates, this is estimated by the ratio of the average global concentration of a substance to its production rate on a global scale. It is a function of not only the emission rates but the loss rates by chemical and physical removal processes (IUPAC, 1997).
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Respirable particulate matter
Mass concentration of particles of sizes below 5 micrometer, most likely to be deposited in the pulmonary portion of the respiratory tract (adapted from SRA, 2007).
Risk assessment A conceptual framework that provides the mechanism for a structured review of information relevant to estimating health or environmental outcomes (WHO, 1999b).
Sampling The collection of a representative portion for analysis and testing. Continuous sampling is sampling, without interruptions, throughout an operation or for a predetermined time. Grab sampling or spot sampling is the taking of a sample in a very short time (WHO, 1980; ISO, 1994).
Secondary fine particles Particles which are formed in the atmosphere from gaseous precursors (gas-to-particle conversion). They are usually formed from gases in three ways: Nucleation (i.e, gas molecules coming together to form a new particle). Condensation of gases onto existing particles. By reaction of absorbed gases in liquid droplets (WHO, 2002).
Smog A combination of smoke and other particulates, ozone, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and other chemically reactive compounds which, under certain conditions of weather and sunlight, may result in a murky brown haze that causes adverse health effects (CARB, 2007).
Smoke A form of air pollution consisting primarily of particulate matter (i.e., particles released by combustion). Other components of smoke include gaseous air pollutants such as hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and carbon monoxide. Sources of smoke may include fossil fuel combustion, agricultural burning, and other combustion processes (CARB, 2007).
Source Any place or object from which air pollutants are released. Sources that are fixed in space are stationary sources and sources that move are mobile sources (CARB, 2007).
Source apportionment Method of assessment of the contributions to air pollution concentrations of individual emitting source types.
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Glossary
Standard A level of an air pollutant, e.g. a concentration or a deposition value, which is adopted by a regulatory authority as enforceable. Unlike a guideline value, a number of elements in addition to the effect-based level and the averaging time must be specifies in the formulation of a standard. These elements include the measurement strategy, data handling procedures, statistics used to derive, from measurements, the value to be compared with the standard. The numerical value of a standard may also include the permitted number of exceedances (WHO, 2000a).
Stakeholders Citizens, environmentalists, businesses, and government representatives that have a stake or concern about how air quality is managed (CARB, 2007).
Stationary source Non-mobile sources such as power plants, refineries, and manufacturing facilities which emit air pollutants (CARB, 2007).
Submicrometer particles Particles with aerodynamic diameters smaller than one micrometer.
Sulphate A salt of sulphuric acid, H2SO4 (WHO, 1980).
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) A strong smelling, colourless gas that is formed by the combustion of fossil fuels. Power plants, which may use coal or oil high in sulphur content, can be major sources of SO2. SO2 and other sulphur oxides contribute to the problem of acid deposition (CARB, 2007).
Susceptible individuals Exposed individuals exhibiting disease signs and symptoms earlier than the general population.
Time series study Epidemiological or ecological study of the health state of a population exposed e.g. to air pollutants (WHO,1999a).
Total suspended particulate matter (TSP)
Mass concentration of particles of all sizes collected on a glass fibre filter by a high volume samplers (WHO, 1987).
Toxicology Division of medical and biological science concerned with toxic substances, detecting them, studying their chemistry and pharmacological actions, and establishing antidotes and treatment of toxic manifestations, prevention of poisoning, and methods for controlling exposure to harmful substances (CMD 1997).
Ultra-fine particles Particles with aerodynamic diameters below 0.1 micrometer (WHO, 2002).
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Uncertainty factor A factor that allows for a variety of uncertainties, for example, possible undetected effects on particularly sensitive members of the population, synergistic effects of multiple exposures, the adequacy of existing data, the extrapolation from animals to humans and the extrapolation from a small group of individuals to a large population. Uncertainty factors are based on scientific judgements in a complex decision process, involving the transformation of mainly non-quantitative information into a single number (WHO, 1987).
Unit risk The additional lifetime cancer risk occurring in a hypothetical population in which all individuals are exposed continuously from birth throughout their lifetimes to a concentration of 1 μg/m3 of the agent in the air they breathe (WHO, 1987).
Vital capacity The volume of air that can be quickly and forcibly breathed out (CMD, 1997).
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
Carbon-containing compounds that evaporate into the air (with a few exceptions). VOCs contribute to the formation of smog and/or may themselves be toxic. VOCs often have an odour, and some examples include gasoline, alcohol, and the solvents used in paints (CARB, 2007).
Wet deposition Removal of pollutants from the air through the processes of wash-out, rain-out, fog, and dew.
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Glossary
CARB (2007) Glossary of Air Pollution Terms. California Environmental Protection Agency, Air Resources Board, Sacramento, CA. http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/gloss.htm
CMD (1997) Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, edition 18, FA Davis Company, Philadelphia
EEA (1995-2008) EEA Glossary – Clean Development Mechanism. European Environmental Agency, Copenhagen. http://glossary.eea.europa.eu/EEAGlossary/C/Clean_Development_Mechanism
IPPC (2001) Climate Change 2001: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis. Appendix I – Glossary. International Panel on Climate Change, United Nations environment Programme, Nairobi, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva. http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/518.htm
ISO (1994) ‘International Standard 4225: Air quality – General aspects – Vocabulary’, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva
ISO (1994) Air quality – General aspects – Vocabulary. ISO 4225:1994. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva
ISO (1995) Air Quality - Particle size fraction definitions for health-related sampling. International Standard ISO 7708:1995. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva
IUPAC (1997) Compendium of Chemical Terminology – IUPAC Recommendations, compiled by McNaught, A. D. and Wilson, A. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford
SRA (2007) Glossary of risk analysis terms. Society for Risk analysis, McLean, VA. http://www.sra.org/resources_glossary.php
USEPA (1997) Exposure Factors Handbook. Office of Research and Development, National Center for environmental Assessment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-front-gloss.pdf
Utah (2007) Mountain Meteorology: Fundamentals and Applications. Department of Meteorology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT. http://www.met.utah.edu/Members/whiteman/Glossary.html
Willeke, K. and Baron, P. A. (1993) Aerosol measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York
References
17
WHO (1980) Glossary on Air Pollution. WHO Regional Publications, European Series No. 9. World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen
WHO (1987) Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. WHO Regional Publications, European Series No: 23. World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen
WHO (1994) Assessing Human Health Risks of Chemicals: Derivation of Guidance Values for Health-based Exposure Limits, Environmental Health Criteria 170, World Health Organization, Geneva
WHO (1996) Diesel Fuel and Exhaust Emissions. Environmental Health Criteria 171. International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization, Geneva. http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc171.htm
WHO (1997) Nitrogen Oxides. Environmental Health Criteria 188. International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization, Geneva. http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc188.htm
WHO (1999a) Environmental Epidemiology: A Textbook on Study and Public Health Applications. World Health Organization, Geneva.
WHO (1999b) Principles for the assessment of risks to human health from exposure to chemicals. Environmental Health Criteria 210. International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization, Geneva. http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc210.htm
WHO (2000) Guidelines for Air Quality, WHO/SDE/OEH/00.02, World Health Organization, Geneva. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OEH_00.02_pp1-104.pdf , http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OEH_00.02_pp105-190.pdf
WHO (2000b) Human Exposure Assessment. Environmental Health Criteria 214. International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization, Geneva. http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc214.htm
WHO (2002) Guidelines for Concentration and Exposure-Response Measurement of Fine And Ultra Fine Particulate Matter for Use in Epidemiological Studies (Schwela D, Morawska L, Kotzias D, Eds.), World Health Organization, Geneva, European Commission Joint Research Centre, Ispra
The Foundation Course on Air Quality Management in Asia is for adult learners studying the issue without the support of a class room teacher. It is aimed at students with some basic knowledge of environment and air pollution issues, acquired in a variety of ways ranging from conventional study, working in an environment related field or informal experience of air pollution issues. It provides the opportunity to develop an understanding of the key components required to manage urban air pollution and to achieve better air quality.
The course consists of six modules which address the key components of air quality management. An international team of air pollution experts have contributed to the development of the course. Each module is divided into a number of sections devoted to a different aspect of the issue together with examples and key references.
www.sei.se/cleanair
