General Information

Air Pollution, Climate Change and Ozone

Depletion

Fig. 19-2, p. 440

Atmospheric pressure (millibars)

Temperature

Thermosphere

Pressure

Mesopause

Heating via ozoneMesosphere

Stratopause

Alt

itu

de

(kil

om

eter

s)

Stratosphere Alt

itu

de

(mil

es)

Tropopause

Ozone “layer”

Heating from the earthHeating from the earthTroposphere

Temperature (˚C)

Pressure = 1,000 millibars at ground level

(Sea level)

Troposphere

Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, Water Vapor

Location of Earth’s weather

Temperature decreases with altitude

The Earth’s Atmosphere

Stratosphere

Temperature increases with altitude

Contains 1000x the ozone of the rest of the atmosphere

99% of ultraviolet radiation (especially UV-B) is absorbed by the stratosphere

Mesosphere

The temperature decreases with increasing altitude

Thermosphere

Temperature increases with increasing altitude

Very high temperatures

Pollution in the atmosphere

Primary Pollutants – methane, ozone, dust particles, microorganisms, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s)

Causes of Primary Pollutants – factories, cars, wind and soil, volcanoes, forest fires, pollen, decaying plants, salt particles from the sea, and refrigerants.

AIR POLLUTION

Some primary air pollutants may react with one another or with other chemicals in the air to form secondary air pollutants.

Figure 19-3Figure 19-3

Temperature Inversions

Cold, cloudy weather in a valley surrounded by mountains can trap air pollutants (left).

Areas with sunny climate, light winds, mountains on three sides and an ocean on the other (right) are susceptible to inversions.

Figure 19-5Figure 19-5

ACID DEPOSITION

Compounds in the atmosphere react to produce acidic chemicals that can travel long distances before returning to the earth’s surface.

Tall smokestacks reduce local air pollution but can increase regional air pollution.

Fig. 19-6, p. 448

WindTransformation to sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3)

Windborne ammonia gas and particles of cultivated soil partially neutralize acids and form dry sulfate and nitrate salts

Wet acid depostion (droplets of H2SO4 and HNO3 dissolved in rain and snow)

Nitric oxide (NO)Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and NO

Dry acid deposition (sulfur dioxide gas and particles of sulfate and nitrate salts)

Acid fogFarm

OceanLakes in deep Lakes in deep

soil high in soil high in limestone are limestone are

bufferedbuffered

Lakes in shallow Lakes in shallow soil low in limestone soil low in limestone

become acidicbecome acidic

ACID DEPOSITION

pH measurements in relation to major coal-burning and industrial plants.

Figure 19-7Figure 19-7

ACID DEPOSITION

Acid deposition contributes to chronic respiratory disease and can leach toxic metals (such as lead and mercury) from soils and rocks into acidic lakes used as sources for drinking water.

ACID DEPOSITION

Figure 19-8Figure 19-8

ACID DEPOSITION

Air pollution is one of several interacting stresses that can damage, weaken, or kill trees and pollute surface and groundwater.

Figure 19-9Figure 19-9

Fig. 19-10, p. 452

Solutions

Acid Deposition

Prevention Cleanup

Reduce air pollution by improving energy efficiency

Add lime to neutralize acidified lakes

Reduce coal use

Add phosphate fertilizer to neutralize acidified lakes

Increase natural gas use

Increase use of renewable energy resources

Burn low-sulfur coal

Remove SO2 particulates & NOx from smokestack gases

Remove NOx from motor vehicular exhaust

Tax emissions of SO2

Air Quality is better in US; EPA estimates since 1970

Particulate Matter (PM)- down 78%

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)- down 23%

Nitrogen Dioxide (Nox)- up 14%

Lead (Pb)- down 98%

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)- down 32%

Air quality is worse in developing countries:

Mexico City & Beijing: air exceeds WHO standards 350 days/year

INDOOR AIR POLLUTION

Indoor air pollution usually is a greater threat to human health than outdoor air pollution.

According to the EPA, the four most dangerous indoor air pollutants in developed countries are:

Tobacco smoke.

Formaldehyde.

Radioactive radon-222 gas.

Very small fine and ultrafine particles.

Chloroform

Benzo--pyrene

Styrene

Radon-222

Methylene Chloride

Tobacco Smoke

Carbon Monoxide

Asbestos

Nitrogen Oxides

1, 1, 1-Trichloroethane

Particulates

FormaldehydeTetrachloroethylene

Para-dichlorobenzene

Fig. 19-11, p. 453

INDOOR AIR POLLUTION

Household dust mites that feed on human skin and dust, live in materials such as bedding and furniture fabrics.

Can cause asthma attacks and allergic reactions in some people.

Figure 19-12Figure 19-12

Case Study: Radioactive Radon

Radon-222, a radioactive gas found in some soils and rocks, can seep into some houses and increase the risk of lung cancer.

Sources and paths of entry Sources and paths of entry for indoor radon-222 gasfor indoor radon-222 gas.

Figure 19-13Figure 19-13

HEALTH EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Normal human lungs (left) and the lungs of a person who died of emphysema (right).

Figure 19-15Figure 19-15

Air Pollution is a Big Killer

Each year, air pollution prematurely kills about 3 million people, mostly from indoor air pollution in developing countries.

In the U.S., the EPA estimates that annual deaths related to indoor and outdoor air pollution range from 150,000 to 350,000.

According to the EPA, each year more than 125,000 Americans get cancer from breathing diesel fumes.

Air Pollution is a Big Killer

Spatial distribution of premature deaths from air pollution in the United States.

Figure 19-16Figure 19-16

PREVENTING AND REDUCING AIR POLLUTION

The Clean Air Acts in the United States have greatly reduced outdoor air pollution from six major pollutants:

Carbon monoxide

Nitrogen oxides

Sulfur dioxides

Suspended particulate matter (less than PM-10)

Solutions: Reducing Outdoor Air Pollution

There are a of ways to prevent and control air pollution from coal-burning facilities.

Electrostatic precipitator: are used to attract negatively charged particles in a smokestack into a collector.

Wet scrubber: fine mists of water vapor trap particulates and convert them to a sludge that is collected and disposed of usually in a landfill.

Solutions: Reducing Outdoor Air Pollution

There are a # of ways to prevent and control air pollution from motor vehicles.

Because of the Clean Air Act, a new car today in the U.S. emits 75% less pollution than did pre-1970 cars.

There is an increase in motor vehicle use in developing countries and many have no pollution control devices and burn leaded gasoline.

Fig. 19-19, p. 460

Solutions

Motor Vehicle Air Pollution

Prevention Cleanup

Emission control devices

Mass transit

Bicycles and walking

Less polluting engines

Less polluting fuels

Improve fuel efficiency

Car exhaust inspections twice a year

Get older, polluting cars off the road

Give buyers large tax write-offs or rebates for buying low-polluting, energy efficient vehicles

Stricter emission standards

Indoor Air Pollution

Little effort has been devoted to reducing indoor air pollution even though it poses a much greater threat to human health than outdoor air pollution.

Environmental and health scientists call for us to focus on preventing air pollution (especially indoor) in developing countries.

Fig. 19-20, p. 461

Solutions

Indoor Air Pollution

Prevention

Cover ceiling tiles & lining of AC ducts to prevent release of mineral fibers

Use adjustable fresh air vents for work spaces

Increase intake of outside airBan smoking or limit it to well ventilated areas

Change air more frequently

Set stricter formaldehyde emissions standards for carpet, furniture, and building materials

Circulate a building’s air through rooftop green houses

Prevent radon infiltration Use exhaust hoods for stoves and appliances burning natural gasUse office machines in well

ventilated areas

Use less polluting substitutes for harmful cleaning agents, paints, and other products

Install efficient chimneys for wood-burning stoves

Cleanup or Dilution

Air Quality Index (AQI)

Measures levels of 5 criteria pollutants

Forecast of daily air pollution levels

Purpose to educate and protect public- focuses on health effects

Categories: green= good, yellow= moderate, orange= unhealthy for sensitive groups, red= unhealthy, purple= very unhealthy

AgricultureAgricultureFertilizers, animal wastes, etc.Fertilizers, animal wastes, etc.

Water PollutionWater Pollution

Sewage, fertilizers, Sewage, fertilizers, dumping into drainage dumping into drainage ditches, etc.ditches, etc.

Municipal WasteMunicipal Waste

Industrial WasteIndustrial WasteChemicals left over from Chemicals left over from manufacturing, waste products, manufacturing, waste products, etc.etc.

Global Outlook: Stream Pollution in Global Outlook: Stream Pollution in Developing CountriesDeveloping Countries

Water in many of Water in many of central China's central China's rivers are greenish rivers are greenish black from black from uncontrolled uncontrolled pollution by pollution by thousands of thousands of factories.factories.

Figure 21-5Figure 21-5

Case Study: India’s Ganges River: Case Study: India’s Ganges River: Religion, Poverty, and HealthReligion, Poverty, and Health

Religious beliefs, cultural traditions, poverty, and Religious beliefs, cultural traditions, poverty, and a large population interact to cause severe a large population interact to cause severe pollution of the Ganges River in India.pollution of the Ganges River in India.

Very little of the sewage is treated.Very little of the sewage is treated.Hindu believe in cremating the dead to free the soul Hindu believe in cremating the dead to free the soul and throwing the ashes in the holy Ganges.and throwing the ashes in the holy Ganges.

• Some are too poor to afford the wood to fully cremate.Some are too poor to afford the wood to fully cremate.• Decomposing bodies promote disease and depletes DO.Decomposing bodies promote disease and depletes DO.

Case Study: India’s Ganges River: Case Study: India’s Ganges River: Religion, Poverty, and HealthReligion, Poverty, and Health

Daily, more than 1 Daily, more than 1 million Hindus in million Hindus in India bathe, drink India bathe, drink from, or carry out from, or carry out religious ceremonies religious ceremonies in the highly in the highly polluted Ganges polluted Ganges River.River.

Figure 21-6Figure 21-6

POLLUTION OF POLLUTION OF FRESHWATER LAKESFRESHWATER LAKES

Dilution of pollutants in lakes is less effective than in Dilution of pollutants in lakes is less effective than in most streams because most lake water is not mixed well most streams because most lake water is not mixed well and has little flow.and has little flow.

Lakes and reservoirs are often stratified and undergo little Lakes and reservoirs are often stratified and undergo little mixing.mixing.

Low flow makes them susceptible to runoff.Low flow makes them susceptible to runoff.

Various human activities can overload lakes with plant Various human activities can overload lakes with plant nutrients, which decrease DO and kill some aquatic nutrients, which decrease DO and kill some aquatic species.species.

Oil SpillsOil SpillsWhen a tanker accident happens, it gets lots of When a tanker accident happens, it gets lots of publicity. publicity.

But, more oil is released by normal operation of But, more oil is released by normal operation of offshore wells, washing tankers & from pipeline offshore wells, washing tankers & from pipeline or storage tank leaks. or storage tank leaks.

One estimate says that oil companies spill, leak, One estimate says that oil companies spill, leak, or waste per year an amount of oil equal to that or waste per year an amount of oil equal to that shipped by 1000 huge Exxon Valdez tankers.shipped by 1000 huge Exxon Valdez tankers.

Floating OilFloating Oil

Oil coats the feathers of birds (especially Oil coats the feathers of birds (especially diving birds) and the fur of marine animals, diving birds) and the fur of marine animals, destroying the animals’ natural insulation and destroying the animals’ natural insulation and buoyancybuoyancy

Many drown or die of exposure from loss of Many drown or die of exposure from loss of body heat.body heat.

Reducing Water Pollution through Reducing Water Pollution through Sewage TreatmentSewage Treatment

Primary and Secondary sewage treatment.Primary and Secondary sewage treatment.Figure 21-16Figure 21-16

Safe Drinking Water ActSafe Drinking Water Act

It required the EPA to determine the maximum It required the EPA to determine the maximum contaminant level, the max permissible amount of contaminant level, the max permissible amount of any pollutant that might adversely affect human any pollutant that might adversely affect human health.health.

Water LegislationWater Legislation

Water Quality ActWater Quality Act

•controlling toxic pollutant discharges

•control non-point sources of pollution

•authorized $18 billion for wastewater treatment

•address problems such as coastal estuaries, the Great Lakes, and the Chesapeake Bay

Is Bottled Water the Answer?Is Bottled Water the Answer?

Some bottled water is not as pure as tap Some bottled water is not as pure as tap water and costs much more.water and costs much more.

1.4 million metric tons of plastic bottles are 1.4 million metric tons of plastic bottles are thrown away.thrown away.

Fossil fuels are used to make plastic bottles.Fossil fuels are used to make plastic bottles.• The oil used to produce plastic bottles in the U.S. The oil used to produce plastic bottles in the U.S.

each year would fuel 100,000 cars.each year would fuel 100,000 cars.

Love Canal — There Is No “Away”

Between 1842-1953, Hooker Chemical sealed multiple chemical wastes into steel drums and dumped them into an old canal excavation (Love Canal).

In 1953, the canal was filled and sold to Niagara Falls school board for $1.

The company inserted a disclaimer denying liability for the wastes.

Core Case Study: Love Canal — There Is No “Away”

In 1957, Hooker Chemical warned the school not to disturb the site because of the toxic waste.

In 1959 an elementary school, playing fields and homes were built disrupting the clay cap covering the wastes.

In 1976, residents complained of chemical smells and chemical burns from the site.

Core Case Study: Love Canal — There Is No “Away”

President Jimmy Carter declared Love Canal a federal disaster area.

The area was abandoned in 1980 (left).

Figure 22-1Figure 22-1

Core Case Study: Love Canal — There Is No “Away”

It still is a controversy as to how much the chemicals at Love Canal injured or caused disease to the residents.

Love Canal sparked creation of the Superfund law, which forced polluters to pay for cleaning up abandoned toxic waste dumps.

WASTING RESOURCESSolid waste: any unwanted or discarded material we produce that is not a liquid or gas.

Municipal solid waste (MSW): produce directly from homes.

Industrial solid waste: produced indirectly by industries that supply people with goods and services.

Hazardous (toxic) waste: threatens human health or the environment because it is toxic, chemically active, corrosive or flammable.

WASTING RESOURCESSolid wastes polluting a river in Jakarta, Indonesia. The man in the boat is looking for items to salvage or sell.

Figure 22-3Figure 22-3

WASTING RESOURCES

The United States produces about a third of the world’s solid waste and buries more than half of it in landfills.

About 98.5% is industrial solid waste.

The remaining 1.5% is MSW.• About 55% of U.S. MSW is dumped into landfills,

30% is recycled or composted, and 15% is burned in incinerators.

Electronic Waste: A Growing Problem

E-waste consists of toxic and hazardous waste such as PVC, lead, mercury, and cadmium.

The U.S. produces almost half of the world's e-waste but only recycles about 10% of it.

Figure 22-4Figure 22-4

Definition

Solid waste is placed in a hole, compacted, and covered with soil.

Reduces the number of rats associated with solid waste, lessens the danger of fire, and decreases the odor.

Landfills

Definition

Conservation of resources by converting them into new product.

Recycling

Problems

Recycling does have environmental costs. It uses energy and generates pollution.Ex. the de-inking process in paper recycling requires energy, and produces a toxic sludge that contains heavy metals.

Benefits

Conserves our natural resources

Has a positive effect on the economy by generating jobs and revenues.

Specific Recycled Items

Glass

U.S. recycles about 36% of its glass containers.

It costs less to recycle glass than to make new glass.

Mixed color glass “cullet” is used for glassphalt, a glass/asphalt mixture.

Aluminum

This is the most recycled material in the U.S. because of $.Making a new can from an old one requires a fraction of the energy than to make a new can from raw materials. Approximately 2/3 of cans are recycled each year, saving 19 million barrels of oil annually.

Paper

U.S. currently recycles 40% of its paper and paperboard. Denmark, recycles about 97% of its paper. Many U.S. mills are not able to process waste paper. Many countries like Mexico, import a large amount of wastepaper from the U.S. We export about 19% of our recycled paper.

Recyclable Plastics

#1 - PET (Polyethylene terephthalate)

PET is used to make soft drink bottles, peanut butter jars, etc.

PET can be recycled into fiberfill for sleeping bags, carpet fibers, rope, and pillows.

#2 - HDPE (High-density polyethylene)

HDPE is found in milk jugs, butter tubs, detergent bottles, and motor oil bottles.

HDPE can be recycled into flowerpots, trashcans, traffic barrier cones, and detergent bottles.

#3 - PVC (Polyvinyl chloride)

PVC is used in shampoo and cooking oil bottles & fast-food service items.

#4 - LDPE (Low-density polyethylene)

LDPE is found in grocery bags, bread bags, shrink-wrap, and margarine tub tops.

LDPE can be recycled into new grocery bags.

#5 - PP (Polypropylene)

PP is used in yogurt containers, straws, pancake syrup bottles, and bottle caps.

PP can be recycled into plastic lumber, car battery cases, and manhole steps.

#6 - PS (Polystyrene) PS is found in disposable hot cups, packaging materials (peanuts), & meat trays.

PS can be recycled into plastic lumber, cassette tape boxes, and flowerpots.

#7 - Other

A mixture of various plastics, like squeeze ketchup bottles & “microwaveable” dishes.

Solutions: Reducing Solid Waste

Refuse: to buy items that we really don’t need.Reduce: consume less and live a simpler and less stressful life by practicing simplicity.Reuse: rely more on items that can be used over and over.Repurpose: use something for another purpose instead of throwing it away.Recycle: paper, glass, cans, plastics…and buy items made from recycled materials.

HAZARDOUS WASTE

Hazardous waste: is any discarded solid or liquid material that is toxic, ignitable, corrosive, or reactive enough to explode or release toxic fumes.

The two largest classes of hazardous wastes are organic compounds (e.g. pesticides, PCBs, dioxins) and toxic heavy metals (e.g. lead, mercury, arsenic).

Making the Transition to a Low-Waste Society: A New Vision

Everything is connected.

There is no “away” for the wastes we produce.

Dilution is not always the solution to pollution.

The best and cheapest way to deal with wastes are reduction and pollution prevention.