Graham - The Paradox of Prime Matter

8/20/2019 Graham - The Paradox of Prime Matter

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Journal of the History of Philosophy, Volume 25, Number 4, October

1987, pp. 475-490 (Article)

DOI: 10.1353/hph.1987.0063

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T h e P a r a d o x o f P r im e a tte r

D A N I E L W . G R A H A M

T R A DIT IO N A L I NT E RP R ET A TIO N S O F A r i s t o t l e h o l d t h a t h e p o s i t e d t h e e x i s -

t e n c e o f

p r i m e m a t t e r - - a

p u r e l y i n d e t e r m i n a t e s u b s t r a t u m u n d e r l y i n g a ll m a -

t e ri a l c o m p o s i t i o n a n d p r o v i d i n g t h e u l t i m a t e p o t e n t ia l i ty f o r a ll m a t e r i a l

e x i s t e n c e. A n u m b e r o f r e v i s io n a r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s h a v e a p p e a r e d i n t h e l as t

t h i r ty y e a r s w h i c h d e n y t h a t A r i s t o t le h a d a c o n c e p t o f p r i m e m a t t e r , p r o -

v o k i n g a n e v e n l a r g e r n u m b e r o f v i g o ro u s d e fe n s e s c la i m i n g t h a t h e d id

h a v e t h e c o n c e p t ? T h e t r a di t io n a l is t s a r e c le a r l y i n t h e m a j o r i t y , b u t s o m e

o b s ta c le s s t a n d i n t h e w a y o f a g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e o f p r i m e m a t t e r a s a n

A r i s t o t e l i a n c o n c e p t . I n a r e c e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o th e d e b a t e , W i l li a m C h a r l -

t on , a n o p p o n e n t o f p r i m e m a t t e r , h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t th e o p p o s i n g p a r t ie s

h a v e r e a c h e d a s t a l e m a t e i n l a r g e m e a s u r e b e c a u s e m o s t o f t h e r e l e v a n t te x ts

a r e a m b i g u o u s ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , " t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r o r n o t [ A r is to t le ] b e-

l i e v e d in p r i m e m a t t e r r e a l l y c o m e s d o w n t o th e q u e s t i o n h o w f a r , i f a t a ll , i t

is d e m a n d e d b y h is p h i l o s o p h y a s a w h o l e . "~

I t s e e m s t o m e t h a t C h a r l t o n is r i g h t t o s h i ft t h e f o c u s o f th e d e b a t e f r o m

q u e s t i o n s o f t e x t u a l e x e g e s i s t o q u e s t i o n s o f s y st e m a t ic r e l e v a n c e . H o w e v e r ,

w i t h in t h e c o n t e x t o f A r i s to t l e ' s g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f c h a n g e , t h e c h a l le n g e

i m p l ic i t i n h is s t a t e m e n t c a n b e m e t , f o r t h e c o n c e p t o f p r i m e m a t t e r a n d i ts

a s s o c i a t e d d o c t r i n e is t h e p r o d u c t o f a s er i es o f o n t o l o g i c a l a n d s c i e nt if ic

i Friedrich Solmsen, "Aristotle and Prime Matter," Jou rna l o f the His to ry o f Ideas 19 (a 958):

243-52 and A. R. Lac ey, "T he Eleatics and Aristotle on Some Problems of Change," ibid. 26

(1965): 451 -68; reply to H . R. King's argu m ent against prim e matter, "Aristotle Without Prime

Matter," ibid. 17 (1956): 37o-89; H. M. Robinson, "Prime Matter in Aristotle," Phronesis 19

(1974): 168-88 and C. J. F. W illiams, Aristo tle De Generatione et Corrpuptione, Oxford (1982),

Appendix reply to an appendix rejecting prime matter in W. Charlton's Aristotle s Physics Books

I - H (Oxford, 197o . See also Alan Code, "T he Persistence of Aristotelian M atter," Philosophical

Studies 29 0976) : 357- 67, who defends the traditional interpretation of matter against Barring-

ton Jones, "Aristotle 's Intro ductio n of M atter," Philosophical Review 83 (1974): 474 -5 ~ See also

Russell M. Dancy, "Aristotle 's Second Thoughts on Substance," Philosophical Review 87 (1978):

372-413 9

W illiam Charlton, "Prime M atter: A Rejoinder," Phronesis 28 (1983): a97-2a a, 197.

[ 4 7 5 ]


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76

J O U R N A L O F T H E H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y ~ 5 : 4 O C T 1 9 8 7

commitments made by Aristotle. At the same time, opponents of prime

matter have a legitimate basis for criticizing the tradition, for there is some-

thing fundame nta lly wrong with the doctrine. Given Aristotle's assumptions

and commitments, the doctrine of prime matter is not only dialectically

inevitable but also systematically incoherent . In this paper I shall not defend

the existence of a doctrine of prime matter in Aristotle's philosophy, al-

tho ugh my a rgu men t will p rovide an incidental justification for it by exhibit-

ing its function within Aristotle's system. My aim here is to explain what is

wrong with the doctrine of prime matter. (1) I shall examine a problem

concerning prime matter--a problem of which Aristotle was aware and

which he thought he had solved. (2) I shall argue that he did not solve the

problem, for the doctrine of prime matter entails a paradox for his system.

(3) I shall reply to some objections, and (4) I shall offer a tentative diagnosis

of how Aristotle could have come to embrace a paradoxical position.

1

According to Aristotle's theory of change, there is a substratum which un-

derlies every change Ph. 1. 7.19oa33ff). Whe n a thing changes its features ,

we call that accidental change and ident ify the subs tratum as substance.

When a thing comes into being or ceases to be, we call that substantial

change 3 and identify the substratum as matter. 4 The most simple bodies of

the Aristotelian cosmos are the f our traditional elements : earth, air, fire,

and water. 5 The elements are characterized by the contrary powers hot, cold,

wet, and dry. Each element has one member of the contrary pair hot-cold,

and one of the contrary pair wet-dry Gen. Corr. 2.2-3). For Aristotle, it is a

fact that the elements are transformed into one another; for instance, water

evaporates to become air. Aristotle understands this change to be a kind of

substantial change. Accordingly, there must be a corresponding substratum

for the several contraries and this is prime matter.

In his treatise on substantial change,

O n G enerat ion an d Corrupt ion ,

Aristo-

3 A r i s t o t le u s e s t h e t e r m s q u a l i f i e d a n d u n q u a l i f i e d c o m i n g - t o - b e f o r a c c i d e n ta l a n d s u b -

s t a n t i a l c h a n g e . H i s t e r m s a r e b a s e d o n a s y n t a c t i c c r i t e r i o n : d o w e sa y ' x c o m e s t o b e F '

( q u a li f ie d ) o r ' x c o m e s t o b e ' s i m p l i c i t e r ( u n q u a l if i e d ) i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e c h a n g e ? S e e

Ph . 1. 7.

t 9 o a 3 1 - 3 3 , Gen. Corr . 3 , 3 1 7 a 3 2 f t . , 3 1 9 a l 1 - 1 4 .

4 Gen . Corr .

a . 4 , 3 2 o a ~ - 5 : t h e s u b s t r a t u m o f s u b s t a n ti a l c h a n g e i s m a t t e r i n t h e p r i m a r y

s e n s e , t h o u g h a n y s u b s t r a t u m o f c h a n g e ( i .e ., in c l u d i n g s u b s t a n c e ) c a n b e c a l l e d m a t t e r .

5 A r i s to t l e i s u n h a p p y w i t h th e t r a d i t i o n a l n a m e ' e l e m e n t '

stoicheion)

f o r e a r t h , a i r , f i r e a n d

w a t e r , a n d o f t e n r e f e r s t o t h e m a s t h e s o -c a l le d e l e m e n t s

Gen. Corr.

1 . 6 . 3 ~ b l f ; ~ . a .3 ~ 8 b 3 a ,

3 ~ 9 a a 6 ). H e p r e f e r s t o ca ll t h e m ' p e r c e p t i b l e b o d i e s '

aisth~ta sOmata)

b e c a u s e t h e y a r e t h e m -

s e lv e s c o m p l e x e s o f m a t t e r a n d f o r m a n d h e n c e n o t e l e m e n t a r y ( 3 29 a 2 4f f) . H e s o m e t i m e s c al ls

t h e e l e m e n t s ' s i m p l e b o d i e s '

hapla sOmata),

e . g . ,

Cael.

1 . 1 . 2 6 8 b ~ 6 - 3 o ; h e r e t h e e p i t h e t h a s

r e f e r e n c e t o th e e l e m e n t s ' s im p l e m o v e m e n t r a t h e r t h a n t h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n (c f. C a d . 3 . 3 . 3 o 2 b 7 f ) .


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T H E P AR ADOX OF P R IME MAT T E R 4 7 7

t le n o t e s t w o p r o b l e m s f o r a n a c c o u n t o f s u b st a n ti a l c h a n g e : (1 ) i f t h e s u b-

s t r a t u m o u t o f w h i c h a s u b s t a n c e c o m e s t o b e i s n o t i t s e lf a s u b s t a n c e ,

a c c i d e n t s w il l i n h e r e i n n o n - s u b s t a n c e ; ( 2) i f t h e s u b s t r a t u m is n o t h i n g a t a ll,

s o m e t h i n g h a s c o m e t o b e o u t o f n o t h i n g . 6 P r o b l e m (1 ) is a g e n e r a l p r o b l e m

f o r a n y s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e a n d is e a s il y s o l v e d ; I sh a ll i g n o r e it. P r o b l e m ( 2)

d o e s n o t a r i s e f o r t h e c h a n g e o f s u b s ta n c e s ( c al l t h e m c o m p l e x s u b s t a n ce s )

a b o v e t h e l e v el o f t h e e l e m e n t s . F o r i n a g i v e n c a se o f s u b s t an t i al c h a n g e o f a

c o m p l e x t h i n g , a n o t h e r t h i n g c a n b e i d e n t i f ie d a s its s u b s t r a t u m . A b r o n z e

s t a tu e c o m e s t o b e o u t o f b r o n z e . B r o n z e i s le ss t h i n g -l i k e t h a n a b r o n z e

s t a t u e , b u t i t i s n e v e r t h e l e s s t h i n g - l i k e , s o t h a t i n t h i s c a s e w e f i n d a s u b s t r a -

t u m f o r c h a n g e .

B u t in t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f e l e m e n t s ( h e n c e f o r t h e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e )

p r o b l e m ( 2) is n o t r e s o l v e d , f o r n o s u b s t r a t u m is v e r i f ia b l e ( cf .

G e n . C o r r .

1 .4 ). T h e c o n t r a r i e s t h a t , b y b e i n g p r e s e n t i n p r i m e m a t t e r , c o n s t it u t e t h e

e l e m e n t s , a r e

e x h y p o t h e s i

b a s i c a n d t h e m a t t e r t h e y r e s i d e i n i s i r r e d u c i b l e .

( W h y A r i s t o t l e a n a l y z e s t h e e l e m e n t s i n t h i s w a y I s h a l l e x p l a i n l a t e r . ) F o r

e v e r y f e a t u r e F , p r i m e m a t t e r is n o t- F . B u t b e c a u s e i t is d e v o i d o f a ll c h a r a c -

t er is ti c s o f i ts o w n , p r i m e m a t t e r is i n d i s t in g u i s h a b l e f r o m p u r e i n d e t e r m i -

n a c y . A r i s t o t l e i d e n t if i e s p u r e i n d e t e r m i n a c y w i t h th e c o n c e p t o f n o t h i n g -

n e s s o f t h e P r e s o c r a t i c ( s p ec i fi c al ly : E l ea t i c) t r a d i t i o n

G e n . C o r r .

1 . 3 . 3 1 7 b 2 8 -

3 1) . T h e r e is e v i d e n c e t h a t i n d e t e r m i n a c y is j u s t w h a t P a r m e n i d e s h a d in

m i n d a s t h e p a r a d i g m c a s e o f n o t h i n g n e s s , 7 a n d A r i s t o tl e s e e m s t o a c c e p t t h e

p a r a d i g m . H e a ls o s h a r e s w i t h t h e E l ea ti c s a n a b h o r r e n c e o f e x n i h i l o c r e -

a t io n . H o w t h e n c a n A r i s to t l e e s c a p e th e c h a r g e t h a t h is e l e m e n t s a r e

c r e a t e d o u t o f n o t h i n g ? F o r i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e s o m e t h i n g w h i c h A r is t ot le

p o s i ts a s u n d e r l y i n g e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e is re a l l y n o t h i n g a t a ll. I s h a ll ca ll t h is

d i f f ic u l t y th e p a r a d o x o f p r i m e m a t t e r , s

I n a p r e l i m i n a r y d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e

G C ,

A r i s t o t l e a d v a n c e s a d i s t i n c t i o n

t h a t p r o v i d e s a t e n t a t i v e s o lu t i o n to t h e p r o b l e m : P e r h a p s t h e s o lu t i o n is

t h a t t h e i r m a t t e r i s i n o n e s e n s e t h e s a m e b u t i n a n o t h e r s e n s e d i f f e r e n t . F o r

t h a t w h i c h u n d e r l i e s t h e m , w h a t e v e r i ts n a t u r e m a y b e

q u a

u n d e r l y i n g t h e m ,

is t h e s a m e : b u t i t s a c t u a l b e i n g i s n o t t h e s a m e ( 1 . 3 . 3 1 9 b ~ - 4 , O x f o r d t r. ). 9

A r i s t o t le c o n f i r m s t h e s o l u t io n l a t e r i n t h e t re a t is e : O u r o w n d o c t r i n e is t h a t

a l t h o u g h t h e r e is a m a t t e r o f t h e p e r c e p t ib l e b o d i e s (a m a t t e r o u t o f w h i c h

t h e s o - c a l le d ' e l e m e n t s ' c o m e - t o - b e ) it h a s n o s e p a r a t e e x i s t e n c e , b u t i s a l w a y s

6 Gen . Corr. 1. 3. 317b5-13, b2 o-3 3.

7 See A. P. D. M ourelatos, Determinacy and Indeterminacy, Being and Non-Being in the

Fragments o f Parmenides,

Canadian Journal of Philosophy,

Supp. vol. 2 (1976): 45 -59 .

8 Th is p reliminary characterization o f the problem will be replaced by a mo re precise one.

9 Translations are my own except as noted.


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JOURN L OF THE HISTOR Y OF PHILOSOPH Y

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x987

bou nd up with a contrarie ty (2.1.3~9a24-96, Ox ford tr.). In other words,

prime mat ter escapes the charge of being nothing by its status as part o f a

compound of form and matter. Some form always attaches to it in fact, and

hence no pure nothingness is involved in elemental change. Some feature

imparts determinacy to the underlying matter. Nothing comes to be out of

pure indeterminacy, for there is always some preexisting determinant, even

in the case o f elemental change, namely the forms of hot or cold, wet or dry.

Aristotle's solution to the problem of prime matter is to point out that it is

never foun d ac tua l ly separate from the powers that make up the elements. In

effect, he is willing to concede that prime matter per se is nothing, but he is

not willing to concede that prime matter is ever found by itself. To bolster

his posit ion he refers ~~ to his discussions of matt er elsewhere, alluding to his

exposition of the concept in P h y s i c s 1 .6 9. But that passage does not support

his point. Rather , a study of his doctr ine there reveals the impossibility of his

solution to the paradox of prime matter.

2

In

Phys ics 1

Aristotle is faced with a challenge to a philosophical study of

nature. The Eleatics have raised the problem that the notion of change is

incoherent, for how can what-is come to be from what-is-not? The Eleatic

formulation suggests that change involves something coming to be from

nothing, an implication that appears to be absurd.

Consider an analysis (call it A1) that will avoid the devastating implica-

tions of the Eleatic challenge. We begin with an umproblematic case of

change: Socrates becomes educated. Suppose also, for purposes o f compari-

son, Socrates is pale. We might describe two successive states of affairs, S~

and S~ which obtain at times t~ and t~, respectively.

AI: S~ S~

uneducated educated

pale pale

Socrates Socrates

We notice that one element changes in the description and two remain the

same. The first item in the list has a negative, or more precisely, privative

description in S~ and a positive description in S,. What items are relevant to

explaining the change? The ordinary-language report of the change sug-

gests the answer. We say, Socrates, who was uneducated, has now become

educated or the une ducated man became educated. Paleness does not

1o 317bt3s


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T H E P R D O X O F PRIM E M T T E R 4 7 9

e n t e r i n t o s u c h a r e p o r t , a n d w e m a y f a i r l y c o n c l u d e t h a t i t is i r r e l e v a n t to

a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e c h a n g e . A s t o w h a t d o e s e n t e r i n t o t h e r e p o r t , w e n o t e

t h a t t h e r e a r e t w o a d je c t iv e s , o n e p r i v a ti v e a n d t h e o t h e r a c o r r e s p o n d i n g

p o s it iv e a d j ec t i ve , a n d a n o u n . T h i s s u r v e y s u g g e s t s t h a t in t h e c a s e b e f o r e u s

t h e c h a n g e c o n s is t s in a c h a n g e o f f e a t u r e s i n a t h i n g w h i c h r e m a i n s t h e

s a m e . C a l l t h e p r i v a t i v e a d j e c t i v e a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a privation a n d c a l l t h e

t h i n g a

substratum.

W h a t i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h e f o r e g o i n g a n l a y s i s r e l a t iv e to t h e E l e a t ic ch a l -

l e n g e i s t h a t i t p r o v i d e s t h e b a s is f o r a n a n s w e r t o t h a t c h a l le n g e . T h e

c h a n g e i n q u e s t i o n is a ca s e o f w h a t - is ( w h a t is e d u c a t e d ) c o m i n g t o be o u t o f

w h a t - i s - n o t ( w h a t i s u n e d u c a t e d , i . e . , n o t e d u c a t e d ) . B u t w h a t w e h a v e i s a

c o u n t e r e x a m p l e t o t h e i m p l i c i t i n f e r e n c e f r o m ( a) W h a t - i s c o m e s to b e f r o m

w h a t - i s - n o t t o (b ) S o m e t h i n g c o m e s t o b e f r o m n o t h i n g . F o r i n t h is c a s e

w h a t- is h a s n o t c o m e t o b e o u t o f n o t h i n g b u t o u t o f s o m e t h i n g e ls e, n a m e l y

a c e r t a in m a n . T h e r e w a s a s o m e t h i n g p r e s e n t a ll t h e t i m e , s o m e t h i n g u n -

d e r l y i n g t h e c h a n g e , n a m e l y t h e s u b s t r a t u m . N o w w e a r e in a p os i t io n to s e e

t h a t t h e E l e a t i c c h a l l e n g e i n v o l v e s a f a ll a c y : t o m a k e t h e m o v e f r o m (a ) t o (b )

i n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e is t o c o n f u s e p r i v a t i o n a n d s u b s t r a t u m . F o r i n (a ) w h a t - i s-

n o t r e f e r s t o t h e p r i v a t i o n , w h e r e a s i n (b ) n o t h i n g , w h i c h i s t a k e n a s s y n -

o n y m o u s w i th w h a t - i s - n o t r e f e r s t o t h e s u b s t r a t u m .

M y a n a ly s is A 1 e m b o d i e s a h y p o t h e s i s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f

A r i s t ot l e s a n a l y s i s o f c h a n g e i n Physics 1 .7 . P r i v a t i o n i s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s w h a t

is r e f e r r e d t o b y a p r iv a t i v e a d je c t i ve i n a r e p o r t o f a c h a n g e a n d s u b s t r a t u m a s

w h a t is r e f e r r e d t o b y t h e s u b j ec t o f t h e s e n t e n c e . T h e a n a ly s is is m o t i v a t e d b y

t h e E l e a t i c c h a l l e n g e a s A r i s to t l e u n d e r s t a n d s i t a n d is s u c c e ss f u l i n r e p l y i n g t o

i t ( see

Ph .

1.8 ). H o w e v e r , i t is n o t e n o u g h f o r A r i s t o t l e t o r e v e a l t h e f a l la c i o u s -

n e s s o f t h e E l e a t ic c h a l l e n g e i n g e n e r a l . H e m u s t s h o w t h a t t h e c h a l l e n g e is n o t

v a li d fo r t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a n y t y p e o f c h a n g e . S o f a r w e h a v e c o n s i d e r e d o n l y

a n e x a m p l e o f a c c i d e n t a l c h a n g e . W h a t o f s u b s ta n t i a l c h a n g e ? H e r e is a c a se i n

w h i c h it is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e r e is a s u b s t r a t u m a n d h e n c e w h e t h e r t h e s a m e

m o v e c a n b e m a d e t o d e f e n d a g a i n s t t h e E l e a t i c o b j e c t o r .

C o n s i d e r a n o t h e r a n a ly s is o f c h a n g e , A ~ . A l u m p o f b r o n z e is t a k e n a n d

c a s t i n t o t h e s h a p e o f a m a n . T h e b r o n z e is u s e d a s a s t a t u e . A s t a t e d e s c r i p -

t i o n o f t h e c h a n g e m i g h t b e a s fo ll ow s :

A 2 : S~ S~

u n f o r m e d f o r m e d

b r o w n b r o w n

b r o n z e b r o n z e

B y a p p l y i n g a m e t h o d s i m i l ar to t h a t o f A 1 w e m a y d e t e r m i n e t h a t w e h a v e a

p r iv a t io n , u n f o r m e d , a c o r r e s p o n d i n g p o si ti ve f e a t u r e , f o r m e d , a n d a s u bs tr a -


7/17

48

JOURN L OF THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPH Y

25:4

O C T

1987

r u m , b r o n z e . T h e f e a t u r e b r o n z e i s i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e c h a n g e . W h a t is i n t r i g u i n g

a b o u t A 2 is t h a t i t m a y b e t h o u g h t o f as a

model

f o r i n s t a n c e s o f s u b s t a n t ia l

c h a n g e . T h e c o m i n g t o b e o f a n a t u r a l s u b s t an c e , s ay s S o c r at e s , m a y b e u n d e r -

s t o o d t o b e s im i l a r to t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f s h a p e o n a p r e v i o u s ly u n s h a p e d s t u ff .

W h e t h e r w e h a v e in m i n d t h e m o l d i n g i n t o h u m a n f o r m o f a n i m a t e e c t o p l as m

o r t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o a s e e d - m a t e r i a l o f t h e b r e a t h o f li fe , w e a r e a b le t o g iv e

s o m e a c c o u n t o f h u m a n c r e a t i o n in t e r m s o f th e b r o n z e s t a t u e an a lo g y . I f t h e

a n a l o g y g i v e s a re l i a b l e p a r a d i g m f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f l i vi n g t h i n g s , t h e E l e a ti c

c h a l l e n g e i s m e t f o r c a se s o f s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e .

I t a k e A ~ t o r e p r e s e n t t h e e x t e n s i o n o f A r i s to t le ' s a n al y si s o f c h a n g e t o

s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e i n Physics 1. 7 . T h e s u b s t r a t u m o f s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e is

c a l l e d matter b y a n a l o g y t o t h e c r a f t s m a n ' s m a t e r i a l a n d t h e p o s i t iv e f e a t u r e

form b y a n a l o g y to th e s h a p e t h e c r a f t s m a n i m p o s e s . H a v i n g g e n e r a l i z e d t h e

c o n c e p t s p r i v a t io n , f o r m , a n d s u b s t r a t u m t o a p p l y t o a ll i n s t a n ce s o f c h a n g e ,

A r i s t o tl e r e g a r d s t h e m a s n e c e ss a r y c o n c e p t u a l c o m p o n e n t s o f a n y t ru e

a n a l y si s o f c h a n g e . H e a c h i e v e s n o t m e r e l y a n e g a t i v e e x p o s 6 o f a l o g ic a l

f a ll a cy b u t a p o s i ti v e t h e o r y o f c h a n g e . A n e s se n t i a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h a t

t h e o r y is a t h e o r y o f m a t t e r .

F r o m A r i s t o tl e 's a n al y si s a n d e x a m p l e s w e m a y i n f e r s e v e ra l p r in c i p a l

t h e s es o f h is t h e o r y o f m a t t e r . 1' ( a) M a t t e r i s s o m e t h i n g d e t e r m i n a t e . I n t h e

c as e o f b o t h t h e u n e d u c a t e d m a n a n d t h e u n f o r m e d b r o n z e , t h e r e is a

d e t e r m i n a t e e l e m e n t t o w h i c h t h e p r i v a t i o n a t t a ch e s . T h e r e is a d i al ec t ic a l

r e a s o n f o r a s s e r t i n g t h is p r o p o s i t i o n : w i t h o u t it , A r i s to t le c a n n o t a n s w e r t h e

E l e a ti c c h a l l e n g e . T h e c h a l l e n g e c a n b e d i r e c t e d t o s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e a s w e l l

a s a c c i d e n ta l c h a n g e , a n d A r i s t o tl e m u s t b e a b le to a p p e a l t o a s u b s t r a t u m

t h a t is a r e a l b e i n g f o r s u b s t a n t i a l a s w e l l a s f o r a c c i d e n t a l c h a n g e . A c c o r d -

i ng l y , m a t t e r m u s t b e s o m e t h i n g . B u t i f i t w e r e n o t s o m e t h i n g i n p a r t i c u la r ,

t h e E l e a ti c c o u l d o b j e c t t h a t A r i s t o t le ' s p o s t u l a t i o n o f m a t t e r w a s ad hoc a n d

h i s c l a i m t h a t t h e r e is a s u b s t r a t u m f o r e v e r y c h a n g e w a s q u e s t i o n - b e g g i n g . '~

A r i s to t l e s e e m s t o c o n f i r m t h e v i e w t h a t m a t t e r is i n s o m e w a y d e t e r m i n a t e

w h e n h e s a ys t h a t m a t t e r is a l m o s t - - i n d e e d i n a s e n s e it i s - - s u b s t a n c e [ o r

r e a l b e i n g : ousia] (192a6). O n e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s o f s u b s t a n c e is t h i sn e s s ,

It has been suggested to me that the Ph. a analysis is merely an analysis of predication

and not o f physical change. I see n o ba sis in the text for invoking this distinction, Inde ed

Aristotle here as in othe r plac es seems to take fo r granted that language (w hen prop erly

understood) directly mirrors reality.

'~ A t this p oint the traditionalist wishes to s ay: what is im portan t about m atter is not its

actual nature but its potentiality. Yet Aristotle in Ph. a clearly presupposes that the Eleatic

challenge can be met

without

app eal to the potentiality-actuality distinction, which provides an

alternative solution (191b 27-29). According ly I wish to examine how m atter provides the basis

for a solution independently of any o ther scheme, I shall deal w ith potentiality below,


8/17

T H E P A R A D O X O F P R I M E M A T T E R 4 8 1

o r d e t e r m i n a c y , w h i c h A r i s t o t le a s c r ib e s t o m a t t e r i n P h y s i c s x. 'a O f c o u r s e

m a t t e r is r e l a t iv e l y i n d e t e r m i n a t e - - r e l a t i v e , t h a t is , t o t h e c o m p o u n d o r t h e

f o r m - - b u t t h a t d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t i t is c o m p l e t e l y i n d e t e r m i n a t e o r n o t h -

i n g i n t h e E l e a t ic s e n s e . M a t t e r c a n b e n o p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g , i .e ., n o c o m p l e x

s u b s t a n c e , w i t h o u t b e i n g n o t h i n g a t a ll .

(2 ) C e r t a i n f e a t u r e s o f t h e m a t t e r o f c a se A 2 h a v e e x p l a n a t o r y v a lu e . W e c a n

a c c o u n t f o r t h e c h a n g e i n s h a p e o f t h e b r o n z e i n t e r m s o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f

b r o n z e - - i t s d u c t i l it y , m a l l e a b il i ty , m e l t i n g p o i n t , e tc . T o s a y t h a t c e r t a i n f e a -

t u r e s o f m a t t e r h a v e e x p l a n a t o r y v a l u e i s n o t t o s a y t h a t al l f e a t u r e s d o . I n d e e d ,

t y p ic a l l y th e r e w i l l b e m a n y f e a t u r e s o f m a t t e r w h i c h a r e i r r e le v a n t t o ex p l a i n -

i n g a g i v e n c h a n g e . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e b r o n z e s ta tu e , t h e b r o w n c o l o r o f th e

b r o n z e is i r re l e v an t , a s is t h e p a l e c o m p l e x i o n o f t h e m a n w h o c h a n g e s f r o m

u n e d u c a t e d t o e d u c a t e d . M o r e o v e r , e v e n t h e c o n t o u r s o f t h e l u m p o f b r o n z e

b e f o r e i t w a s c a s t a r e i r r e l e v a n t t o e x p l a i n i n g i ts c h a n g e o f s h a p e . A l l t h a t is

r e l e v a n t is t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l s h a p e w a s n o t t h a t o f a s t a t u e .

( 3) I t is i n v i r t u e o f t h a t s u b s e t o f p r o p e r t i e s t h a t h a v e e x p l a n a t o r y v a l u e

t h a t s o m e s t u f f is t h e m a t t e r r e la t iv e t o c h a n g e . I t is

b e c a u s e

b r o n z e h a s a

c e r t a i n m e l t i n g p o i n t t h a t it h a s a s s u m e d t h e s h a p e o f a m a n a n d c a n be

u s e d a s a s t a t u e . I n g e n e r a l , m a t t e r is a d e t e r m i n a t e k i n d o f s t u f f t h a t is a p t

f o r d e t e r m i n a t e k i n d s o f c h a n g e . A r i s to t l e d e f in e s m a t t e r a s w h a t p e rs i st s i n

a c h a n g e . B u t m a t t e r is n o t j u s t a n y c h a r a c t e r i s t ic t h a t p er s is t s , f o r m a n y

i n c id e n t a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s m a y e n d u r e t h r o u g h a c h a n g e , f o r e x a m p l e th e

b r o w n c o l o r o f b r o n z e w h i c h b e c o m e s a s ta t u e. A r i s t o t le a d d s t h e r e s t i c t i o n

m Y k a t a s y m b e b ~ k o s :

I d e f i n e m a t t e r a s t h e f ir st s u b s t r a t u m o f e a c h t h i n g f r o m

w h i c h , b y i ts p e r s i s t i n g a s a n e s s e n t ia l i n g r e d i e n t o f t h e c h a n g e e n h y p a r c h o n -

t o s m Y k a t a s y m b e b ~ k o s ) ,

s o m e t h i n g c o m e s t o b e ( 1 9 1 b 3 1 - 3 ~ ) . T h e m a t t e r

r e l a t iv e t o a c h a n g e m u s t b e t h e p r o p e r s u b je c t o f t h e f e a t u r e s w h i c h c h a n g e

s o t h a t i ts o w n p r o p e r t i e s e x p l a i n i t s a p t n e s s f o r c h a n g e .

C o n s i d e r n o w a s t a t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a c a s e o f e le m e n t a l c h a n g e . S u p p o s e

t h a t s o m e w a t e r e v a p o r a t e s a n d is t r a n s f e r r e d i n to a ir :

~s 7.19ob2 4_26 C on tra ry to his usual practice (se e no te 4 above), Aristotle conflates sub-

stantial individuals and stuffs (man and gold) in the passage. In fact, Aristotle consistently uses

hyl~ to in Ph. I refe r to sustratum in general (see D. Gr aham , Aristot le 's Discovery of Matter,

Archiv fi~r Geschichte der Ph ilosophie

66 [a 984]: 37 -5 l , 49 ) . On e might objec t tha t hi s confusion

here nullifies the claim that matter is significantly like

ousia.

However , the point of the a rgu-

me nt is that ma tter, w heth er substance o r stuff, is the source of determ inacy in contrast to the

privat ion. Fu rther m ore , i t is no t clear th at wh en A ristotle sa ys that m atter is countable

arithm~t~,

19ob25) he means that instances of matter can be counted--which is clearly false for stuffs

unless they are a l ready individuated by some p r ior form . H e m ay s imply be saying tha t we can

cou nt m atter as a principle distinct fro m privat ion. Th us there is no obviously fallacious reason-

ing behind his identifying matter as substance-l ike.


9/17

48 JOUR NAL OF THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPH Y 2 5 : 4 O C T 1 9 8 7

A 3: S~ S~

c o l d w a r m

m o i s t m o i s t

p r i m e m a t t e r p r i m e m a t t e r

C o l d h a s b e e n e x c h a n g e d f o r w a r m , o r , u n d e r a n o t h e r d e s cr i pt i on , n o t-

w a r m h a s b e e n e x c h a n g e d f o r w a r m . A r i s to t le n o t e s t h a t a l t h o u g h b o t h

a i r a n d w a t e r a r e t r a n s l u c e n t , t h e t r a n s l u c e n c e i ts e l f c a n n o t b e t h e s u b je c t

o f a c h a n g e f r o m a i r t o w a t e r : i f i t w e r e t h e c h a n g e w o u l d r e d u c e t o

a l t e r a t i o n Gen. Corr. 1 . 4 . 3 1 9 b 2 1 - 2 4 ) . T h i s o b s e r v a t io n s u p p o r t s o u r

a n a l y s is o f t h e b r o n z e c a s e a n d t e ll s u s w h a t t h e s u b j e c t is n o t. B u t w e s t il l

w i s h to k n o w w h a t i t is . D o t h e p r i n c i p le s o f c h a n g e e n u m e r a t e d a b o v e

s u g g e s t a p o s i t iv e a c c o u n t o f t h e s u b j e c t, p r i m e m a t t e r ? I f (1) h o l d s ,

p r i m e m a t t e r m u s t b e a r e a l s o m e t h i n g . B u t A r is t o tl e h a s g iv e n u s n o

g r o u n d s t o t h i n k t h a t i t is. H e a t t r i b u te s n o p r o p e r t i e s t o p r i m e m a t t e r

a p a r t f r o m t h e s i m p l e p o w e r s . A s f a r a s w e k n o w , p r i m e m a t t e r per se is

c o m p l e t e l y c h a r a c t e r le s s , a n d h e n c e i t h a s n o p r in c i p l e o f d e t e r m i n a c y i n

its o w n n a t u r e a n d c a n n o t q u a l i f y a s ousia. S i n c e it h a s n o c h a r a c t e r s o f i ts

o w n , p r i m e m a t t e r c a n n o t f u l f il l (2) b y h a v i n g a s u b s e t o f f e a t u r e s w h i c h

e x p l a i n e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e . A n d s in c e (1) a n d (2) a re n o t f u l fi ll e d , p r i m e

m a t t e r c a n n o t (3) b e i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e p r o p e r s u b je c t o f t h e c h a n g e b y

v i r t u e o f t h e f e a t u r e s i t h a s i n i ts o w n n a t u r e .

D o e s A r i s to t l e s s o l u t i o n r es o l v e t h e p r o b l e m o f p r i m e m a t t e r ? W e a r e

n o w i n a p o s i t i o n t o s e e t h a t i t c a n n o t . A c c o r d i n g t o A r i s t o t le s s o l u t io n ,

p r i m e m a t t e r i s s o m e t h i n g b e c a u s e i t is a l w a ys c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s o m e p a i r o f

b a si c p o w e r s . B u t A r i s t o tl e s t h e o r y o f c h a n g e e n t a i ls t h a t t h e m a t t e r i n

q u e s t i o n i t se l f b e s o m e t h i n g , a n d r e l a ti v e t o a c h a n g e o f p o w e r s , t h e m a t t e r

is p r i m e m a t t e r i ts e l f devo id 0 f t h e p o w e r s . I n t h e s t at e d e s c r i p t i o n a b o v e, o n e

p o w e r r e m a i n e d t h e s a m e , b u t t hi s w ill n o t h e l p to c h a r a c t e r i z e p r i m e m a t t e r

s i nc e t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f m o i s t n e s s is n o m o r e r e l e v a n t to e x p l a i n i n g a c h a n g e

f r o m c o l d n e s s to h o t n e s s t h a n p a l e n e s s is t o e x p l a i n i n g e d u c a t i o n o r b r o w n -

n e s s is t o e x p l a i n i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a s t a t u e . A r i s t o t le i s r i g h t t o c l a i m

t h a t p r i m e m a t t e r i s n e v e r f o u n d w i t h o u t th e s i m p l e p o w e r s , b u t it is e q u a l l y

t r u e - - a n d e q u a l ly i r r e l e v a n t - - t h a t b r o n z e is n e v e r f o u n d w i t h o u t s o m e

s h a p e . T h e p o i n t is t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f s o m e s h a p e o r o t h e r i n t h e b r o n z e

c a n n o t a c c o u n t f o r t h e k i n d o f d e t e r m i n a c y t h a t b r o n z e h a s q u a b r o n z e . W e

m u s t e x p l a i n t h e a p t n e s s o f b r o n z e t o re c e i v e d i f f e r e n t s h a p e s b y i n v es t ig a t -

i n g t h o s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e b r o n z e . T h e s h a p e i t s e l f w i ll b e i nc i -

d e n t a l t o b r o n z e

q u a

b r o n z e - - a n a c c i d e n t o r s u p e r v e n i e n t c h a ra c te r is t ic .

B r o n z e i s a r e a l s o m e t h i n g , a n d m o r e o v e r a s o m e t h i n g t h a t is a p t t o r e c e iv e

s h a p e s , i n v i r t u e o f c h a r a c t e r is t ic s t h a t c o n s t i t u te b r o n z e q u a b r o n z e , n o t d u e

t o s u p e r v e n i e n t c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s t h a t t h e m s e l v e s n e e d t o b e a c c o u n t e d f o r .


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THE PARADOX OF PRIME MATTER 48

A r i s to t le ' s s o l u t i o n is b a s e d o n a n e r r o r o f an a ly s is . H e h a s c a st s u p e r v e n i e n t

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e r o l e o f c o n s t i t u t i v e c h a r a c t e r is t i c s .

B u t p e r h a p s t h e r e is a d e f e n s e f o r A r i s to t l e in h is d o c t r i n e o f p o t e n ti a l it y .

E v e n t h o u g h p r i m e m a t t e r d o e s n o t h a v e a n y a c tu a l c o n s ti tu t iv e p r op e r t ie s ,

i t h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l i ty t o be a n y o f t h e e l e m e n t s . T h i s p o t e n t ia l i ty is u n i q u e i n

p r i m e m a t t e r a n d is su f f ic i e n t t o d is t in g u i s h i t f r o m p u r e i n d e t e r m i n a c y . T o

t h is I r e p l y t h a t h a v i n g p o t e n t i a l it y m u s t b e a c o n s e q u e n c e o f h a v i n g s o m e

a c t u a l c o n s t i t u t iv e p r o p e r t i e s . B e c a u s e b r o n z e h a s a c e r t a i n m e l t i n g p o i n t, i t

is a b le t o b e ca s t a s a s t a tu e . T h e p o t e n t i a l it y f o r b e i n g s h a p e d d e p e n d s u p o n

s o m e a c t u a l c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s o f b r o n z e . I f w e u n d e r s t a n d p o t e n t i a li t y i n t h is

w a y , i t is a l e g i t im a t e a n d i l l u m i n a t i n g c o n c e p t . B u t i f w e d o n o t r e q u i r e t h a t

p o t e n t i a l it y b e b a s e d o n s o m e a c tu a l p r o p e r t y , w e m a k e t h e c o n c e p t a n ad

hoc

p o s i t w h i c h c a n o n l y s e r v e t o b e g q u e s t i o n s . T h i s i s M o l i ~ r e 's c a r i c a t u r e

o f p o t e n t i a li t y : W h y d o e s t h i s s u b s t a n c e p u t o n e t o s l ee p ? B e c a u s e i t h a s a

d o r m i t i v e p o w e r .

T h e p r o b l e m w i t h t a k i n g po t e n ti a l it y t o b e a n i n d e p e n d e n t p r o p e r t y c a n

p e r h a p s b e b r o u g h t o u t b y t h e k i n d o f a r g u m e n t W . D . R o ss u s e d to c la r if y

p r o b l e m s o f v a l u e t h e o r y . I m a g i n e s u b s t a n c e s X a n d Y w h i c h a r e id e n t i c a l i n

a ll p r o p e r t i e s e x c e p t t h a t X h a s a p o t e n t i a l i t y t o G a n d Y d o e s n o t . D o e s it

s e e m p l a u s ib l e t h a t s u c h a s t a te o f a f f a i r s s h o u l d o b t a i n ? I t h i n k n o t . I f w e

s h o u l d , e . g. , f i n d t w o s a m p l e s o f t h e s a m e m e t a l , o n e o f w h i c h w o u l d c o n -

d u c t e l e ct r ic i ty , o n e o f w h i c h w o u l d n o t , w e w o u l d i m m e d i a t e l y l o ok f o r

s o m e c a u s e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e - - i m p u r i t i e s , c r y s t al l in e s t r u c t u r e , e tc . B u t w e

w o u l d t r e a t t h e p o t e n t i a l i t y a s a p r o d u c t o f s o m e a c t u a l c h e m i c a l o r p h y s ic a l

d i f f e r e n c e s . A n d i n g e n e r a l w e u n d e r s t a n d p o t e n ti a l it i e s t o b e c o n s e q u e n t i a l

p r o p e r t ie s , n o t i n d e p e n d e n t f e a t u r e s .

A r i s t o t le h i m s e l f re c o g n i z e s t h e n e e d t o p u t r e s t r i c ti o n s o n t h e a s c r i p t io n

o f p o t e n t i a l it y to s u b je c t s: W e m u s t d e c i d e w h e n e a c h t h i n g e x is ts p o t e n -

t ia l ly a n d w h e n i t d o e s n o t , f o r i t d o e s n o t e x i s t p o t e n t i a l l y a t j u s t a n y t i m e .

F o r i n s t a n c e , is e a r t h p o t e n t i a l l y a m a n o r n o t ? P r o b a b l y n o t u n t i l i t h a s

a l r e a d y b e c o m e a s ee d , a n d p e r h a p s n o t e v e n th e n Met. 9 .7 . l o 4 8 6 3 7 - 8 a 3 ) .

T h e r e a s o n f o r s a y i n g t h a t n o t e v e r y t h i n g is p o te n t i a l ly a m a n is t h a t n o t

e v e r y t h i n g i s i n s u c h a s t a te o r h a s s u c h p r o p e r t i e s , t h a t b y a n o r m a l p r o c e s s

o f d e v e l o p m e n t i t m a y g r o w i n t o a m a n . T h e p r o p e r t i e s i n q u e s t io n m u s t b e

c o n s t i tu t i v e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e m a t t e r . M o r e o v e r , A r is t o tl e 's p r in c i p l e t h a t

a c t u a l i t y is p r i o r t o p o t e n t i a l i t y s e e m s t o e n t a il t h a t a t h i n g ' s p o t e n t i a l l y b e i n g

F d e p e n d s u p o n i ts a c t u a ll y b e i n g G . B u t s in c e p r i m e m a t t e r p e r s e is n o t

a c t u a l ly a n y t h i n g , i t f o ll o w s t h a t i t c a n n o t p o t e n t i a ll y b e a n y t h i n g e i t h e r .

T h e r e is a n o t h e r s e r io u s p r o b l e m f o r p r im e m a t t e r t h a t a ls o a ri se s f r o m

i ts la c k o f d e t e r m i n a c y . O n e o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r s a y i n g t h a t t h e r e is a

s u b s t r a t u m f o r c h a n g e is t h a t w e b e a b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e s u b s t r a t u m . B u t b y


11/17

4 8 4 J O U R N A L O F T H E H I S T O R Y O F P H I L O S O P H Y 5 : 4 O C T I 9 8 7

h y p o t h e s i s w e h a v e n o m e a n s o f i d e n t i f y i n g p r i m e m a t t e r b y it se lf . T h i s

p r o b l e m c a n b e p u r s u e d f r o m e i t h e r t h e s ta n d p o i n t o f e p i s t em o l o g y o r t h e

s t a n d p o i n t o f m e t a p h y s i c s . A r i s t o t le r e c o g n i z e s a n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l d i s ti n c -

t io n b e t w e e n q u a l if i e d a n d u n q u a l i f i e d c o m i n g t o b e i n G e n C o r r 1 . 4 , w h e r e

h e n o t e s t h a t n o c o n t i n u i n g s u b s t r a t u m is p e r c e i v e d i n c a se s o f u n q u a l i f i e d

c o m i n g t o b e. B u t c u r i o u s l y , h e is i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p h e n o m e n o n o n l y a s a

c r i te r i o n o f w h a t k i n d o f c h a n g e w e a r e d e a l i n g w it h . T h e e p i s t em o l o g i c a l

p r o b l e m is t h i s: h o w c o u l d w e e v e r k n o w t h a t p r i m e m a t t e r c o n t i n u e d i n a

c h a n g e ? F o r i n t h e f i rs t p l a c e , o n e c a n n o t p e r c e i v e a c o n t i n u i t y o f s u b s t r a -

t u m f o r a n y s u b st a n t ia l c h a n g e ; a n d i n t h e s e c o n d p la c e p r i m e m a t t e r h a s n o

p e r c e i v a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s a p a r t f r o m t h o s e o f t h e e l e m e n t s i t u n d e r l ie s .

H e n c e i t c a n n o t b e p e r c e i v e d b y i ts e lf e v e n b e f o r e o r a f t e r a c h a n g e . T h e

p r o b l e m is a d i f fi c u lt o n e , b u t t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l v e r s i o n is e v e n m o r e p r e ss -

i ng : w h a t w o u l d i t e v e n m e a n t o s a y t h a t a g i v e n p ie c e o f p r i m e m a t t e r a t

t i m e t , w a s i d e n t ic a l t o a p i e c e o f p r i m e m a t t e r a t t ,? I t w o u l d s e e m t h a t

t h e r e is n o p o s s i b l e g r o u n d f o r e s t a b l is h i n g c o n t i n u i t y , s in c e b y h y p o t h e s i s

p r i m e m a t t e r d o e s n o t h a v e a n y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f its o w n . ~4 W e c o u l d n o t

t h e n a p p e a l t o L e i b n i z ' s L a w o r t o a n y o t h e r p r i n c i p l e o f i d e n t i t y t o e s t a b li s h

t h a t t h e p r i m e m a t t e r w e s t a r te d w i th w a s t h e s a m e a s t h a t w h i c h w e e n d e d

w i th . T h u s , n o t o n l y w o u l d p r i m e m a t t e r b e ep i s t em o l o g i c a l l y i n ac c es si b le ,

t h e w h o l e n o t i o n o f a c h a r a c t e r l e s s s u b s t r a t u m t h a t r e t a i n s it s i d e n t i t y is

i n c o h e r e n t .

T h e m o s t r e c e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e p r i m e m a t t e r d e b a t e is a n a rt ic l e b y

S h e l d o n C o h e n w h i c h , i f i t is c o r r e c t , w o u l d n o t o n l y d e f e n d t h e e x i s te n c e o f

p r i m e m a t t e r , b u t s a v e th e c o n c e p t f r o m t h e c h a r g e o f i n c o h e r e n c e . 1~ I t w il l

b e c o n v e n i e n t t o r e p l y t o h is s t a t e m e n t h e r e , s i nc e h e e x p l ic i tl y re j e c ts c e r -

t a in k e y p o i n t s i n t h e a r g u m e n t I a m f o l lo w i n g a n d p r o v i d e s a t h o u g h t f u l

a l t e rn a t i v e t o v ie w s cr it ic a l o f p r i m e m a t t e r . C o h e n ' s b a s ic a r g u m e n t f o r

p r i m e m a t t e r is t h a t i t is n o t d e v o i d o f c h a r a c t e ri s t i c s a n d s o i t is n o t i n a n y

d a n g e r o f b e i n g n o t h i n g . H i s s t r a t e g y is t h e r i g h t o n e : i f t h e r e is a n y w a y t o

~4 Panayot Bu tchvarov pointed out the metaphy sical problem to me, See his Being Qua

Being (Bloomington, 1979), 165-69 .

,5 Aristotle's Doctrine of Material Substrate, Philosophical Review 93 (1984): 17x-94.

Cohen considers th ree gro und s fo r rejecting prim e matter: (a) it is characterless, (b) it has no per

se

characteristics, and (c) it is not a distinct type of s tuf f even if it has

per se

characteristics (181).

My position falls under (c) with the specific interpretation that prim e m atter has no essential or

defining characteristics. I hold that Aristotle ascribes characteristics, including per se characteris-

tics or Aristotelian Properties to pr im e matter; but b ecause of (c), it is difficult to see how he can

be justified in assigning any characteristics.


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T H E P R D O X O F PRIM E M T T E R 485

save prime matter from the charge of incoherence, it must be by showing

how prime matter is a something.

Cohen recognizes that one common reason for construing prime matter

as characterless is the a ssumption that it is the matte r of all things. He rejects

this interpretation of prime matter and hence removes one strong reason for

believing that matter is characterless. Cohen is right in rejecting this inter-

pretation of prime matter, for this is a view that derives from medieval and

mod ern theories and not from Aristotle. Aristotle s notion of matter is hier-

archical: there is a matter for the elements, which in turn serve as matter for

chemical compounds, which provide the matter for homogeneous tissues,

which in turn compose heterogeneous parts, of which biological substances

are composed. There is no reservoir of purely potential matter that can

immediately be transformed into some organized object.

On the other hand, as one descends down the chain of being in the

direction of prime matter, there is a continual loss of determinacy and con-

tent at each level. The behavior of complex substances is a function of their

high-level attributes, which are, quite literally, emergent properties inh ering

only in high-level kinds of matter. For instance, life is a characteristic that

can be realized only in a certain kind of body which possesses organs

De An.

2.1.412a27-b6 ). T he real question is whether there is anything left when

one reaches the ontological cellar. Cohen does address this question, and he

offers some specific answers.

1. Contras ting the four elements with the fifth element, Cohen suggests

that the four elements possess the potentiality for rectilinear motion

(178).

2. Prime mat ter is essentially spatially extended . (179)

3. Prime mat ter is capable of motion and rest. (ibid.)

Attributes (l) and (3) are problematic because they are potentialities. But

as I have arg ued , potentialities presuppose actual attributes of some kind.

For Aristotle, a potentiality is a consequential attribute that follows from

some actual attribute. What, then, are those actual attributes? We do not

know. Contemporary philosophers of science account for dispositional pro-

perties on the basis of underlying structural properties. For instance, salt has

the dispositional property (potentiality) of being soluble in water; this pro-

perty can be explained by the crystal structure of NaC1, the ionic bonding,

the structure o f H20, etc. Obviously Aristotle cannot take this line, because it

undermines the claim that the four elements are the ultimate bodies of the

(sublunar) universe. Whatever the attributes in question, they cannot be

structural (i.e.,

formal)

attributes.

But perhaps there are mysterious attributes that do account for the po-


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4 8 6 J O U R N A L O F T H E H I S T O R Y o r P H I L O S O P H Y 2 5 : 4 O CT 1 9 8 7

t e n ti a li t ie s f o u n d i n p r i m e m a t t e r . I t h i n k t h a t t h is is u n l i k e l y t o b e th e c as e .

F o r t o a d m i t t h is p o s s i b il i ty w o u l d b e t o m a k e a c h a r a c t e r is t i c a ll y u n - A r i s t o -

t e l i a n m o v e . I s u g g e s t t h a t i t is n o t a n a c c i d e n t t h a t A r i s t o t l e a t t e m p t e d t o

s o l ve t he p a r a d o x o f p r i m e m a t t e r i n t h e w a y t h a t h e d id . T h e r e a s o n f o r

s t o p p i n g t h e r e g r e s s o f m a t t e r s w h e r e h e d i d w a s p r e c is e l y t o r u l e o u t a n y

i n a cc e s si b le a n d m y s t e r i o u s a t t r i b u te s . B y c la i m i n g t h a t p r i m e m a t t e r is

n e v e r f o u n d w i t h o u t s o m e c o n t r a r i e s h e w as a t t e m p t i n g to k e e p m y s t e r i o u s

a t t r ib u t e s a n d s u b s t r a t a f r o m b e i n g b u i l t in t o h is sy s te m . W h a t is r e m a r k a b l e

a b o u t A r i s t o t e l i a n s c i e n c e i s i ts a c c es s ib i li ty to r a t i o n a l c o g n i t i o n . A l t h o u g h

w i t h t h e a d v a n t a g e o f h i n d s i g h t w e c a n fi n d n o e n d o f u n s o l v e d p r o b l e m s

a n d a r e a s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i n A r i s to t l e ' s s c ie n ce , h e h i m s e l f t e n d s t o l o o k

a t n a t u r e a s a n o p e n b o o k t h a t c a n b e d e c i p h e r e d w i t h th e a id o f t h e f o u r

c a u s e s a n d s o m e b a s ic r a t io n a l p r i n c i p le s . D e s p i t e L o c k e ' s d e r o g a t i o n s o f

s u b s t a n c e a s a s o m e t h i n g - I - k n o w - n o t - w h a t , A r i s to t le ' s s u b s t a n c e is n o t u n -

k n o w a b l e . O f c o u r s e m a t t e r is t h e m o s t p r o b l e m a t i c o f A r i s to t le ' s c o n c e p t s in

t hi s c o n te x t , b u t e v e n m a t t e r is k n o w a b l e b y a n a l o g y P h . 1. 7 . 1 9 1 a 7 - 1 ~ ) a n d

b y v i r t u e o f p a r t a k i n g o f f o r m . A r i s t o t le w o u l d r a t h e r r e f u s e t o a l l o w p r i m e

m a t t e r t o b e s c r u t i n i z e d t h a n t o a d m i t t h e p o s si bi li ty o f u n k n o w a b l e a t t r i -

b u t e s .

W h a t t h e n o f (2 )? C a n t h e a t t r ib u t e o f b e i n g e x t e n d e d s a ve p r i m e m a t t e r ?

R o b e r t S o k o l o w s k i h a s d i s c u s se d t h i s p r o b l e m a t s o m e l e n g t h ? 6 B y e x a m i n -

i n g a s e r i e s o f t e x t s in t h e p h y s i c a l w o r k s h e f i n d s t h a t p r i m e m a t t e r is

i n d e e d e x t e n d e d . H e t h e n a s k s t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r e x t e n s i o n is a n es s en -

t ia l a t t r i b u t e o f m a t t e r :

Does m a t te r t hen acqu i re an e ssence , s ince it has som eth in g sa id o f it in it se lf?. Th is i s

n o t t h e c a s e f o r A r i s t o tl e ; h e d o e s n o t c o n s i d e r e x t e n s i o n a s a n a t t r i b u t e o f m a t t e r .

Ex t e n d e d m a t t e r i s n o t m a t t e r p l u s e x t e n s i o n ; e x t e n s i o n i s n o t c o n c e i v e d a s a p r e d i -

c a te w h i c h is r e c e iv e d b y s o m e t h i n g p r i o r t o a n d m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l t h a n i ts el f, a s o r t

o f u n e x t e n d e d m a t t e r . F o r A r i s t o tl e , m a t t e r i s i n tr i n si c a ll y s p at ia l , b u t w h e n w e h a v e

s a id t h i s m u c h a b o u t i t, w e h a v e n o t s a i d a n y t h i n g a b o u t w h a t i t is . S p a t ia l it y o r

e x t e n s io n d o e s n o t r e v e a l t h e n a t u r e o f u n d e r l y i n g m a t t e r . I t te lls u s n o t h i n g a b o u t

i t . . . . N o m a t e r i a l p r e d i c a t e s c o u l d b e a p p l i e d i f it w e r e n o t e x t e n d e d , b u t e x t e n s io n

i t s e lf is n o t a p r e d i c a t e i n A r i s t o t le ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m a t t e r . ( 2 86 )

S o k o l o w s k i is g e n e r o u s t o p r i m e m a t t e r i n d e f e n d i n g i t a g a i n s t o b j e ct i on s

t h a t e x t e n s i o n is n o t i n t r in s i c t o it . B u t e v e n s o, h e r e c o g n i z e s t h a t e x t e n s i o n

is n o t t h e e s s e n c e o f p r i m e m a t t e r . I n a s e n s e, t h e a t t r i b u t e o f b e i n g e x -

t e n d e d h a s t h e s a m e l i m i ta t io n s a s t h e a t t r i b u t e o f b e i n g p o t e n t ia l l y s o m e -

,6 ,,Matter, Elements and Substance in Aristotle, Journa l o f the His tory o f Phi losophy 8 (1970):

963-88, esp. 277ff.


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T H E P R D O X O F P R I M E M T T E R 87

t h i n g: i t s e e m s t o r e q u i r e s o m e f u r t h e r s p e c if i ca t io n as a g r o u n d . T o b e

p o t e n t i a l l y F s e e m s t o r e q u i r e t h a t t h e s u b j e c t b e a c t u a l ly G , w h e r e G is s o m e

s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t y w h i c h m i g h t b e a p t t o b e c o m e F. S i m i la r ly , t o b e e x-

t e n d e d s e e m s t o p r e s u p p o s e h a v i n g s o m e a t t r i b u t e G w h i c h it s e l f c a n b e

d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h s p a c e. T h u s , i t m a k e s s e n se t o s ay t h a t N e w t o n i a n m a t -

t e r i s e s s e n t ia l l y e x t e n d e d b e c a u s e i t h a s m a s s . I t m a k e s s e n s e t o s a y o f t h e

e l e m e n t h y d r o g e n t h a t i t is p o t e n t i a l l y w a t e r b e c a u s e i t ha s a c e r t a in v a l e n c e

w h i c h i n t u r n is t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f i ts a t o m i c s t r u c t u r e . B u t it d o e s n o t

m a k e s e n s e t o s a y t h a t p r i m e m a t t e r is e s se n t i a ll y e x t e n d e d o r e s se n ti a ll y t h e

p o t e n c y t o b e o n e o f t h e f o u r e l e m e n t s i f w e c a n n o t a s c r ib e t o i t s o m e b as ic

a t t r i b u t e a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f w h i c h i t h a s t h o s e o t h e r a t t r i b u t e s .

I f A r i s t o t l e h a d w a n t e d t o d e f e n d p r i m e m a t t e r b y s a y i n g t h a t it w a s

e s s e n ti a l ly e x t e n d e d , h e c o u l d h a v e s a i d so . I n f a c t , w h a t h e d o e s i s t o s a y

t h a t p r i m e m a t t e r i s n e v e r f o u n d b y i t se lf . I n s t e a d o f s t r e s si n g th e s u b s ta n t i -

a l it y o f p r i m e m a t t e r , h e e m p h a s i z e s t h a t i t is i n s u b s t a n t ia l . I t w o u l d b e

i n t e r e s t in g t o d e v e l o p a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f p r i m e m a t t e r a l o n g t h e l in e s

s u g g e s t e d b y C o h e n , w h i c h m i g h t w e ll p r o v i d e a c o h e r e n t a n d a t t r a c t i v e

a c c o u n t ; b u t i t w o u l d c o n s t i t u t e a r e v i s i o n a r y p r o p o s a l , n o t A r i s t o t le s c o n -

s i d e re d r e s p o n s e t o t h e p r o b l e m o f Gen . Corr . a . 3 . A r i s t o t l e g o e s s o f a r a s t o

i n d ic a t e w h y p r i m e m a t t e r c o u l d n o t h a v e a c h a r a c t e r o f i ts o w n . H e a r g u e s

t h a t i f t h e r e w e r e a s in g l e ( i n d e p e n d e n t ) m a t t e r o f th e e l e m e n t s , i t w o u l d

d e t e r m i n e t h e m a ll e i t h e r t o b e h e a v y o r l i g h t Cael. 4 . 5 . 3 x 2 b ~ o - a 3 ) . B u t

s in c e s o m e a r e h e a v y a n d s o m e l i g ht , th is c a n n o t b e . O n e o f t h e c a n d i d a t e s

f o r i n d e p e n d e n t m a t t e r h e n a m e s is m e g e t h o s - - e x t e n s i o n . T h u s i t a p p e a r s

t h a t t h e d i s p a r a t e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e f o u r e l e m e n t s e f f e c t iv e l y r u l es o u t a

c o m m o n n a t u r e f o r p r i m e m a t t e r : f o r t h e y h a v e n o p h y s ic a l a t t r i b u t e s i n

c o m m o n a n d t h u s t h e m a t t e r c a n n o t h a v e a n y ph y si ca l a t tr ib u te s . W e r e

e x t e n s i o n a p h y s i c a l a t t r i b u t e c o n s t i t u t i v e o f m a t t e r , i t w o u l d l i m i t t h e p o t e n -

t ia li ty f o r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e e l e m e n t s . 17

W e g e t a g l im p s e o f t h e d i f fe r e n c e b e t w e e n A r i s t o te l ia n p r i m e m a t t e r

a n d e s s en t ia l ly e x t e n d e d m a t t e r b y c o m p a r i n g A r i s to t le w it h D e s c a r te s . F o r

D e s c a r t e s , m a t t e r is e s s e n t ia l l y e x t e n d e d . S i n c e m a t t e r h a s i ts o w n e s s e n c e, it

c a n e x i s t i n d e p e n d e n t o f a n y h i g h e r- l e v e l su b s t an c e s . I n f a ct , D e s c a r t es

,7 Th e mo st interesting kind o f revisionary account w oul d be one attributing not just

extendedness but a certain quantity of extension to prime m atter. This quantity could then

form the basis of a law of conservation of m atter. Note, however, how difficult the law would be

for Aristotle to conceive; since two elements are heavy and two are light, and o f each pa ir one is

extremely heavy/light while the other is moderately heavy/light, the quantity in question have to

be deter min ed independently of weight. Th us Aristotle would have to come up with a concept

of mass; yet the m odern not ion of mass as a measure of

inertia

wou ld be extraordinarily difficult

to handle in Aristotelian physics.


15/17

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JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY 5 :4 OCT

1 9 8 7

s p e a k s a s i f b o d i e s w e r e m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f a n i n f in i te l y e x t e n d e d m a t t e r a n d

t h u s d e p e n d e n t s o f m a t t e r , w h e r e a s f o r A r i s to t le p r i m e m a t t e r is u n t h i n k -

a b l e a p a r t f r o m t h e e l e m e n t s . D e s c a r t e s t e n d s t o r e if y e x t e n s i o n '8 a n d t o

t h i n k o f it a s a n a d e q u a t e g r o u n d f o r a ll p h y s ic a l p r o p e r t i e s , f o r w h i c h

e x t e n s i o n h o l d s t h e p r o m i s e o f a q u a n t i t a t i v e d e r i v a t i o n . A r i s to t le , o n t h e

o t h e r h a n d , s e es t h e b a si c p o w e r s e x h i b i t e d b y t h e e l e m e n t s a s t a ct il e c h a r a c -

t er is ti cs , a n d h e n c e a s q u a l i t i e s - w h i c h c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d q u a n t i t a t iv e l y

G e n . C o r r . ~ . 2 ) . T h u s D e s c a r t e s d i ff e r s f r o m A r i s to t le in tw o f u n d a m e n t a l

w a y s: f o r D e s c a r t e s t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n b o d y a n d m a t t e r is s o m e t h i n g l ik e

t h a t b e t w e e n p a r t a n d w h o l e w h i l e f o r A r i s to t l e i t is t h a t b e t w e e n a c o m p o -

s it e s u b s t a n c e a n d its s u b s t r a t u m ; a n d f o r D e s c a r t e s t h e re l a t i o n is d e t e r -

m i n e d q u a n t i t a t i v e l y w h i le f o r A r i s t o t le i t is d e t e r m i n e d q u a l i t a ti v e ly a n d

c a t e g o ri a l ly . B y a s s i g n i n g m a t t e r a n e s s e n c e o f i ts o w n , D e s c a r te s c o n s t i t u te s

it a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t t y p e o f s u b s t a n c e . B y a s s i g n in g it a n e s s e n c e f r o m w h a t

A r i s t o t l e w o u l d c al l t h e c a t e g o r y o f q u a n t i ty , h e g r o u n d s p h y s ic s i n q u a n t i t a -

t iv e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s . A n d f in a ll y b y a v o i d i n g s t r o n g v e rt ic a l f o r m - m a t t e r

d i st in c t i o ns i n b o d y - - a n d a ls o b y r u l i n g o u t p h e n o m e n a l p r o p e r t i e s as n o n -

p h y s i c a l - - h e s a v es h i m s e l f f r o m h a v i n g t o e x p l a i n p r o p e r t i e s e m e r g i n g

f r o m a c h a ra c t e r le s s s u b s t r a t u m .

O f c o u r s e D e s c a r te s d o e s n o t b an i s h p h e n o m e n a l o r s e c o n d a r y q u a l i t i e s - -

h e s i m p l y a s si g n s t h e m t o t h e r e a l m o f s o u l. T h i s p a v e s t h e w a y f o r a r a d i c a l

d u a l i s m o f s u b s t a n c e t y p e s . B e c a u s e o f t h e d u a l i s m w e d o n o t c al l D e s c a r t e s

a m a t e r i a l i s t . B u t f o r A r i s t o t l e h is m o v e is a m a t e r ia l i s ti c m o v e , a n d t h e

r e s u l t i n g t h e o r y i s m u c h t o o m a t e ri a li s ti c t o b e s a ti s fa c to r y . F r o m a n A r i st o -

t e l ia n p e r s p e c t i v e , C a r t e s i a n m a t t e r s e e m s t o b e g i v e n a l i fe o f its o w n a p a r t

f r o m f o r m , a n d t h e A r i s t o t e li a n f o c u s o n m i d d l e - s i z e d b i o lo g i ca l o b j e ct s

d i s a p p e a r s i n t o a m e c h a n i s t i c m a t e r i a l i s m o n t h e o n e s i de , o p p o s e d b y a

d e t a c h e d i d e a l i s m o f so u l o n t h e o t h e r . I n D e s c a r t e s t h e t e n u o u s u n i t y o f

A r i s t o t e l ia n n a t u r a l i s m d i ss o lv e s i n t o t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l e x t r e m e s A r i s to t l e

o p p o s e d i n t h e P r e s o c r a t i c s a n d P l a t o .

4 .

W h y d i d A r i s t o t l e t r e a t p r i m e m a t t e r a s s o m e t h i n g i n d e t e r m i n a t e i n i t s e l f ? .

O u r p r e v i o u s d i sc u s s io n p r o v i d e s s o m e g r o u n d s f o r a n a n s w e r . I n t h e f ir st

p la c e, w e h a v e n o k n o w l e d g e o f a n y c h a ra c te r is t i c s w h i c h a c c o m p a n y t h a t

:s S ee Louis E. Loeb,

From Descartes to H ume

(Ithaca,

1981 ,

93, who claims that Descartes

tends to identify m aterial substance w ith extension rath er than w ith the subject of extension.

How ever, I think that ultimately the m ost plausible reading ma kes extension an essential pro-

perty o f an underlying subject; see Richard J. B lackwell, D escartes' Concep t of Matter, in E.

M cMullin, ed.,

The C oncept of Matter in M odern Philosophy

(Notre D ame, 19 63), 6o -64 . I t is not

surprising that Descartes should focus on the essence rath er than the subject since the subject

without the essence would be something like a bare p articular.


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T H E P R D O X O F P R I M E M T T E R 89

m a t t e r o f e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e . F u r t h e r m o r e , i f p r i m e m a t t e r w e r e s u p p o se d to

h a v e c e r t a i n c o n s t i t u t iv e c h a r a c t e r i st i c s o f i ts o w n , t h e r e w o u l d b e a d a n g e r

t h a t i t m i g h t t u r n o u t t o b e a n e n t it y w h i ch e x i s te d i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f th e

c o n t r a r y p o w e r s . A n d i f i t d i d e x is t i n d e p e n d e n t l y , p r i m e m a t t e r w o u l d

p r o v e t o b e a s u b s t a n c e m o r e b a s ic t h a n t h e e l e m e n t s , w h i c h c o n t r a d i c ts

A r i s t o tl e 's i n t u i t i o n t h a t t h e e l e m e n t s a r e b a s ic . M o r e o v e r , p r i m e m a t t e r

w o u l d b e m y s t e r i o u s - - i t w o u l d c o n s t i t u t e a s u b s ta n c e o f w h ic h w e c o u l d

h a v e n o a c q u a i n t a n c e . T h e s e s c i e nt if ic a n d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s

p r o v i d e a s t r o n g p r e s u m p t i o n a g a in s t r e i fy i n g p r i m e m a t t e r . B u t a s w e h a v e

s e en , t h e r e i s a m o r e c o m p e l l i n g m e t a p h y s i c al p r e s u m p t i o n a g a in s t p r i m e

m a t t e r . F o r o n t h e g i v e n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p r i m e m a t t e r w o u l d p r o v e t o b e

i n d e p e n d e n t o f h i g h e r - l e v e l e n ti t ie s a n d i n v i r t u e o f i ts u l t im a c y w o u l d b e a

s e r i o u s c o m p e t i t o r f o r t h e t it le o f p r i m a r y s u b s t a n c e - - t h r e a t e n i n g t o c ol -

l a p s e A r i s t o t l e ' s i d e a l i s t i c m e t a p h y s i c s i n t o a m a t e r i a l i s m .

F r o m a n o t h e r p o i n t o f v ie w th e p a r a d o x o f p r im e m a t t e r m a y b e se e n to

r e s u l t f r o m a t e n s i o n i n A r i st o tl e 's c r i te r i a o f r e al it y . O n t h e o n e h a n d r e a l it y

is a f u n c t i o n o f d e t e r m i n a c y a n d c o n c r e t e n e s s : t o b e is t o b e a ' th i s' , a

p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g ? 9 O n t h e o t h e r h a n d r e a li ty c o ns is ts in b e i n g a s u b j e c t f o r

p r e d i c a t i o n s , b u t n e v e r a p r e d i c a t e ? ~ A s o n e a p p r o a c h e s t h e l im i ts o f b e i n g

i n d e s c e n d i n g t h r o u g h t h e c h a i n o f b e i n g t o s i m p l e s u b s ta n c e , t h e su b s t a n ce s

b e c o m e m o r e r e a l o r a t le a s t n o l es s r e a l a s s u b j e ct s ; a t t h e s a m e t i m e th e y

b e c o m e l es s r e a l as d e t e r m i n a t e p a r t ic u l a r s . A t t h e p o i n t w h e r e o n e m e e t s

p r i m e m a t t e r t h e d i v e r g e n c e h a s b e c o m e c o m p l e t e . P r i m e m a t t e r is b o t h a n

u l t i m a t e l y r e a l s u b s t r a t u m a n d a n u l t i m a t e l y u n r e a l p a r t i c u la r .

T h e p r o b l e m c o n c e r n i n g p r i m e m a t t e r is a p a r a d o x i n t h e s t ro n g lo g ic al

s e n s e t h a t i t y i e ld s a c o n t r a d i c t i o n ( s ee a p p e n d i x ) . T h e i n c o m p a t i b l e p r e -

m i se s t h a t g e n e r a t e t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s e e m t o b e d e e p l y - r o o t e d p ri n c ip l e s o f

A r i s t o tl e 's w o r l d v ie w . O n e w a y t o b l o c k t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n w o u l d b e to r ev i s e

A r i s to t le ' s s c ie n ti fi c a s s u m p t i o n s ; b u t t hi s e x p e d i e n t w o u l d n o t u l t im a t e l y

r e s o lv e t h e t e n s i o n i n A r i st o t le ' s c r it e r i a o f r e al it y . W e m u s t c o n t e m p l a t e a

m o r e r a d i c a l r e v i s i o n o f p r i n c i p l e s to s av e A r i s t o t le n o t o n l y f r o m t h e p a r a -

d o x o f p r i m e m a t t e r , b u t f r o m t h e c au s es o f th e p a r a d o x ? ~

B r i g h a m Y o u n g U n i v e r s i t y

,9 Met.

5.8.1o17b24-26, 7.3.xo~9a27f.

so Met. 5.8.1ot7b~3f; 7.3.1o~9alf; Cat. 5.2al 1-13.

2, M y interpretation of Aristotle's concept o f matter is developed furth er in Graham, Aris-

totle's Discovery (note t3). Versions of this pap er were read at the Io w a Philosophical Society

(Nov., 19 81), the Conference on Aristotle's Metaphysics and Epistemology Florida State U.,Jan.,

1983) and the 17 th W orld Con gress of Philosophy (Mo ntreal, Aug ., 1983), at which I received

helpful sug gestions. I also received constructive criticisms from two anonymou s referees. T he

themes o f th is paper are deal t wi th fur ther in my

Aristotle s Two Systems

(Oxford, 1987).


17/17

.

4 .

~176

A p p e n d i x

D e d u c t i o n o f

T h e P a r a d o x o f P r im e M a t t e r

1. T h e r e is a s u b s t r a t u m f o r e v e r y c h a n g e .

Ph.

: - 7- 1 9 o a 3 3 f , b l - 3 )

2 . I n a c h a n g e t h e n e w s t at e o f a f fa i r s c o m e s t o b e d i re c t ly f r o m t h e

s u b s t r a t u m a n d i n d i r e c tl y f r o m t h e p r iv a t io n . Ph. : . 9 . 1 9 2 a 3 : f ; 8 .

1 9 x b a 5 f )

A s u b s t r a t u m i s r e a l ( 0 u s/ a) . Cat. 5 . 2 b 1 5 - : 7 ; c f . Ph. : . 9 . 1 9 2 a s f )

A P r i v a t i o n i s n o t r e a l . Ph. 1 . 9 . 1 9 2 a 5 f )

I n a c h a n g e t h e n e w s t a te o f a f fa i rs c o m e s t o b e d i re c t ly f r o m s o m e -

t h i n g r e a l a n d o n l y in d i r e c t ly f r o m s o m e t h i n g n o t r ea l. (2 ,3 ) Ph. x.8.

1 9 1 b 1 3 - 1 6 )

6 . T h e r e is s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e . ( f a c t)

9 . 7 - T h e r e is a s u b s t r a t u m f o r s u b s t a n c e . ( 1, 6)

Ph.

a . 7 . 1 9 o b l - 3 )

8 . T h e s u b s t r a t u m f o r su b s t a n c e i s m a t t e r . ( d ef .) Gen. Corr . 1 . 4 . 3 2 o a 2 f )

9 . 9 . M a t t e r i s r e a l . ( 3 , 8 )

ousian pOs [einai] t~n hyl~n: Ph.

1 . 9 . 1 9 2 a 5 f )

: o . T h e r e i s e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e . (f a ct ) Cael . 3 . 6 )

1 1. T h e e l e m e n t s a r e t h e m o s t b a s i c s u b s t a n c e s . ( f ac t) Cael. 3 . 3 )

. 'a 2 . T h e r e is a s u b s t r a t u m f o r e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e . ( 1 ,1 o ) G en . Corr. 1. 3.

3 1 9 b 2 - 4 ; 2 . 1 . 3 ~ 9 a 2 4 - ~ 6 )

.'.1 3. T h e s u b s t r a t u m f o r e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e i s m a t t e r . (8 , 1 1 ,1 2 ) Gen. Corr.

~ . l . 3 2 9 a 2 4 f )

1 4. T h e s u b s t r a t u m f o r e l e m e n t a l c h a n g e i s p r i m e m a t t e r . ( d e f. ) ( cf . i b id . ,

3 2 9 a 2 9 f )

.'.x 5 . P r i m e m a t t e r i s r e a l . ( 9 , 1 3 , 1 4 )

1 6 . P r i m e m a t t e r h a s n o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f it s o w n . ( c f. a l ) (i b i d ., 3 2 9 a 2 5 f )

1 7 . W h a t h a s n o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is n o t r e a l. ( a s s u m p t i o n )

m ~ d e n :

i b i d . ,

x . 3 . 3 1 7 b 2 7 - 3 x )

9 a 8 . P r i m e m a t t e r i s n o t r e a l . ( 1 6 , 1 7 )

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Graham - The Paradox of Prime Matter

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