Hegemny Final PDF

8/18/2019 Hegemny Final PDF

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MAlE HEGEMONY

The concept of 'Hegemony' deriving from Antonio Gramsci's deep

analysis of class relations refers to the cultural dynamic where a group claims

and acquires a first position in social strata. The idea was easily transferred to

the parallel problem about gender relations. The concept of hegemonic

masculinity was first proposed in reports from a field study of social inequality

in Australian high schools. According to Connell during 1982-1983, The

concept is further took a shape of serious discussion and debates about the

making of masculinities and the role of men in Australian labour politics. The

high school project provided empirical evidence of multiple hierarchies — in

gender as well as in class terms — interwoven with active projects of gender

construction. These beginnings were systematized in an article, “Towards a

New Sociology of Masculinity.” This research was undertaken by Carrigan,

Connell, and Lee in 1985, which extensively critiqued the “male sex role”

literature and proposed a model of multiple masculinities and power relations.

(Connell, Messerschmidt 830-831)

At any given time, one form of masculinity rather than others is culturally

exalted. Hegemonic masculinity can be defined as

The configuration of gender practice which embodies the currently

accepted answer to the problem of the legitimacy of patriarchy which

guarantees (or is taken to guarantee) the dominant position of men and the

subordination of women (Connell 77).

Patriarchy is a great hazard that shatters the life of women almost all over

the world. It gets control over women through different strategies like

oppression, violence, and exploitation. Indian society has deeply rooted with

these patriarchal values. It will not wrong to say that the practice of patriarchy is


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tremendously fallowed in India among other countries around the world. It

becomes powerful obstacle for women‟s liberation. Though Indian women are

educated and economically independent does not liberate their selves from the

prison of patriarchy. Having self realization, skill and earning capacity in the

modern world, women suffer gender inequality and sexual exploitation. Indian

men always look down to women and fallow any mean, ugly and violent forms

of male dominance to claim men‟s superiority over women. In India, Family is

the main centre where the patriarchal system is strongly maintained. The father

is the head of the family and all other members like wife, children and other

members are subordinated to him. Education, marriage, and career are very

important things in everyone‟s life. In Indian families the whole power is

centred in the hands of head of the family and as per rule the head is none other

than a male, may be father or grandfather. The man‟s role in the family is to

earn money while woman‟s role is limited only to kitchen and nurturing

children.

Cultural practices plays very important role to indoctrinate male as

superior. It is intentionally ingrained from childhood. It defined through male

and female characteristics, aptitudes, attitudes, abilities, desires, personality

attributes, roles and responsibilities and behaviour patterns. Religion, caste and

other influencing factors have been manipulated to insist that male are

inherently dominating, superior in every aspect of life and everyone have to

surrender before him, specially females. Moreover patriarchy allows men with

the right to dominate and rule over the weak and to maintain dominance through

various forms of psychological threats and violence.

Women‟s subordination, we may call an unwr itten law, which is found to

be seen almost across the world. In almost all religions she is put down to men.

Muslims and Christians use their own religious texts and stories of their


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legendary heroes to achieve the same end. In Bible Genesis 2 gives clear

account of woman‟s subordination to men. (a) man is created first and woman

last (2:7, 22), and the first is superior and the last is subordinate or inferior; (b)

woman is formed for the sake of man —to be his „helpmate‟ or assistant

to cure man‟s loneliness (vss. 18-20); (c) woman comes out of man (vss. 21-22),

which implies a derivative and subordinate position; (d) woman is created from

man‟s rib (vss. 21-22), which indicates her dependence upon him for life; and

(e) the man names the woman (vs. 23), which indicates his power and authority

over her.(qtd. in Davidson 260-264)

This „great event‟ contains the seed of differentiation between man and

woman, man dominates woman. James M. Arlandson in his article “Women are

inferior to men in the Quran” proves how women are treated inferior to men in

Islamic religion. In the Quran, verse 34 of Surah an-Nisa (abbreviated as 4:34)

concerns the issue of marital relations in Islam. The Quran in Sura 4:34 says:

Men are managers of the affairs of women because Allah has made the onesuperior to the other. (Maududi, vol. 1, p. 329) The verse goes on to permit

husbands to hit their wives.

Hindu religion is based on double standard in accordance to woman‟s

status, Sometimes she has been put at the place of goddess and sometimes

crushed under the feet‟s of men. The rules of „ Manusmriti‟ are full of

contradictions. In one part it is said that if the family is to be kept happy she

should be respected and at the same time in other part it is stated that she should

obey every male member of family and sacrifice her whole life to family, even

if an irrespective treatment by her husband and family. From ancient time she is

remained as silent sufferer within four walls of the home.

The Indian society it is intentionally inculcated in girl child‟s psyche thatshe is subservient to men. Throughout her life she carries the burden of family,


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Surrender herself in house chore duties. Woman is made to believe that this

secondary position is not imposed on necessarily by natural „feminine‟

characteristics but rather by strong environmental forces of social traditions and

education that have been under the control of men. They feel pride in

suffering and try to behave like mythological heroines like Sita and Kunti. This

ideology is stemmed in their mind by their mother, sister, grandmother or

female neighbours, which runs through their each and every blood vessel.

The story “Bats” is all about how woman becomes puppet in the hand of

man. The story sets in Calcutta. All characters are nameless. Protagonist‟s

husband is a foreman in a printing press. He regularly comes home drunk and

beats his wife. She bears all these things because of Indian sociocultural

environment and maybe she is economically not independent. She hides the

beating marks and scars from her daughter. The little girl is caught between an

abusive and cruel father and a poor, helpless mother. At first the little girl is

unable to understand about her mother‟s weeping at every night. The dialogue

from the text will clear it. “The sound of her weeping would be all around me,

pressing in wave upon wave, until I would no longer tell where it was coming

from” ( Divakaruni 2).

Divakaruni brilliantly portrays the child‟s incapacity to understand her

mother‟s agony initially and why her mother had to share her narrow child‟s

bed. The child‟s psychological condition portrayed by Divakaruni will loseeveryone‟s heart. Her father never has any emotional affection towards her and

she always longs for his love. She says, “I didn‟t see him much. I heard him,

through shouts that shook the walls of my bedroom like they were paper, the

sounds of falling dishes” (2). The child is now well acquainted with the cruel

father and is quite mature to understand the fuzzy life and the trauma through

which her mother has been going since many years.


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As being typical Indian woman girl‟s mother is trapped in the world of

social stigma and former traditions. It is very hard for her to cut-off all social

bondage which became the reason of her suffering and to move on in the life.

But, the day comes when she decided to leave her husband‟s home. She

has been collecting money from many years for this reason. The girl says, “We

packed fast....I wonder how she had buy tickets ....She never had much money,

and whenever she asked for any, Father flew into one of his rages. But may be

she‟d been saving up for this trip for a long time” (3). Divakaruni very firmly

want to convey her massage for all women of the world through this incidence.

Economical independence is an unavoidable part of everyone‟s life. It is

woman‟s major weapon to fight and get liberated from the shackles of male

dominance. So, every woman must try to be economically independent.

The mother finally dares to leave the house of her husband. She told the

girl that they will live in grandpa‟s house in a village. She added that he lived

among fields and cattle. The water is got from the well. While travelling by

train the girl sees the difference between the rural and the urban life styles:

“narrow, smoke-streaked apartment buildings,” of the urban area and also

“fields of green…ponds with clusters of tiny purple flowers” of the rural area

(4). They reached a thatched hut, where they saw an old man. The girl happily

helped the grandfather who is an uncle to her mother. She likes to go with uncle

in the fields where she sees greenery everywhere and different sounds of

different birds. She is surprising about grandpa‟s skill of catching fishes from

the lake. Very soon she match-up with the environment of village which makes

her to forget about all the bad experiences, which her father has given.

But her happiness not remained long-lasting. As soon as returning from

field, mother stand before them holding a letter in her hand. She replies the

husband has promised that he will not do this again. But reality is not that. It


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was she who first writes to husband about returning. It is true that she doesn‟t

want to go back but she decided it because as she says,”.................couldn‟t

stand it, the stares and whispers of the women, down in the market place” (12).

The male centred customs and culture is such a way that it is a one way

cross over and there is no coming back for a married woman. The woman who

crossed “Lakshman Rekha ,” the prejudiced society never gives her place within

them. The mother is in a dilemma and finds she has no option before her except

to return husband‟s home. This is the case of most divorced women in Indian

society.

Jyotsna Sanzgiri defines Indian woman‟s condition in fallowing words.

“The wife is the property of the husband, no less so than a cow or a slave”

(190).

It is this harsh reality of Indian society where men can spoil woman‟s life

without seeking woman‟s will and still woman has no right to fight against it.

Woman‟s equality is truly speaking remained only in the law books not in

reality. Divakaruni wants to show social inequality regarding men and womenwhere wife should perform her wifely duty though her husband is better or

worse for her. Traditional or cultural bonds are very strong and it is not so easy

for a woman to break it. Still the concept of „pati- parmeshwar‟ is highly rooted

in her psyche.

The decision of mother hurts grandpa a lot. He can‟t sleep the whole

night. At the time of leaving, grandpa gives daughter a silver ring, which hefound in lake. He told her that she should keep it carefully, as it will fulfil her

all wishes. It clears that grandpa has already knew what will be happen with

these poor fellows. He warns daughter don‟t trouble her mother. As, she has

more serious things to worry.

And as we considering the things are as same as before. They again

become victim of man‟s wildness. The daughter states, “I pulled at her hand to


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hurry her along, my own shoulders still throbbing from when Father had flung

me against the wall as I tried to stop him”(16). The daughter again become

victim of cruel father. She doesn‟t like her father. Father looks her like a Villon.

Sylvia Plath‟s poem “Daddy” is very apt to clarify the condition of daughter in

the story. In this poem Plath expresses her strong disapproval towards her

father . She writes:

I never could talk to you.

The tongue stuck in my jaw.

It stuck in a barb wire snare.

Ich, ich, ich, ich,

I could hardly speak.

I thought every German was you (5).

How well Plath explains her pain. She looks at her father as a universal symbol

of all men. In fact it is an attack on male‟s violence.

Divakaruni uses title of the story as “Bats”, symbolically. Bats which

surround the mango grove. Though their first batch is poisoned, the next batchcomes to the same place. Divakaruni uses bats very symbolically to bring out

the issue of inevitability of the marriage ties in India. The uncle says: „I guess

they don‟t realise what‟s happening. They don‟t realise that by flying

somewhere else they will be safe or maybe they do, but there‟s something that

keeps pulling them back here‟ (8).

Both the wife and the bats know that they are not safe and secure there

but it is an unavoidable place for them. Divakaruni exposes the cultural

degradation of women as the object of violence. The story ends on the note: „we

came back few weeks later, this time even before our bruises had faded all the

way‟ (16). And the girl looked for the ring everywhere, may be for to change

the situation and get rid of her cruel father. But the ring was lost.


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The story “Maid Servant‟s Story” is about two women. One is from

aristocratic family and other is prostitute. Their social status is different from

each other and the common thing is that they both become the victim of male

hegemony. In the Story, Divakaruni also focuses on the effect of diaspra, the

change in the attitude of immigrants which later on makes them feel that their

life is not different from their Indian counterparts. In the story, Manisha is the

character, who returns from America after completing her education and going

to be married with Bijoy. Manisha develops live-in-relationship with Bijoy, she

keeps it secret from her mother and their relatives. As, it is supposed as immoral

thing in India. Manisha visits her mother and Deepa Mashi. Deepa Mashi is

her mother‟s sister, who took care of Manisha in all her growing years. She has

more intimacy with her aunt rather than mother.

Deepa Mashi feels helpless that the American girls try to look at things

differently whereas the core never changes which they fail to comprehend. The

protagonist, Manisha ruminates of Deepa Mashi who took care of her when her

mother drifted into isolation at the death of her father and a baby in cholera.Manisha thinks of the American care free life which Bijoy asked her to lead

without getting married. First of all Manisha get angry but later she accept it as

she says, “A liberated relationship, no strings attached” (Divakaruni 114).

Manisha reflects of the diff erence between the world she is in and her aunt‟s:

“I‟m living with a man I‟m not-and might never be-married to” (114). Manisha

imagines about her marriage with Bijoy and busy with preparation. She preferssaffron colour saree for her wedding. Deepa Mashi has bitter experiences with

saffron colour. It reminds her past history of her family.

Deepa Mashi started to tell that stroy to Manisha. There was a young

educated woman who is lucky to be married in an aristocratic Brahmin family

and has a beautiful daughter. The wife becomes pregnant at second time. It has

been seen from ancient time that in Indian culture boy has great importance and


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girl has lower status. Due to her sex girl child experience feeling of rejection in

day to day life within the family. The dialogue from the story will clear it. “May

be it would be a little boy this time, like her husband wanted............ delight

their hearts and carry family name” (118).

Ernestine aptly observes:

Humanity recognizes no sex; ... Life and death, pleasure and pain,

happiness and misery recognize no sex. Like man, woman comes

involuntarily into existence; like him, she possesses physical and mental

and moral powers…like him she has to pay the penalty for disobeying

nature’s laws, and far greater penalties she has to suffer from ignorance…

like men she also enjoys or suffers with her country… Yet she is not

recognized as his equal (qtd. in Sree, Prasanna 65)

As the wife is pregnant at second time she calls her unmarried sister for

assistance before childbirth. The maid arrived soon that. She stands outside the

gate, poor woman in a coarse, green bordered sari. She is looking enough in

primitive adivasi way, but having a good personality. In search of work shereached the wife‟s home. She begs for work and promised to be loyal to her

work and house. The wife gets mercy upon her and she keeps her as servant

though there are enough servants are in house already. The husband and his aunt

angry upon her for keeping this unknown maid in house. According to them

these lower class people are worst. They may be thief or spy for gang of dacoits.

But, after long arguments the maid has allowed in the house and named asSarala.

Sarala, the maid servant worked loyally to the wife. Very soon she

becomes expert in all household chores. She is taking good care of wife and her

daughter .She gives breakfast, juice, lunch and dinner at proper time to wife.

She massaged the wife‟s swollen feet with the medicinal oil. Wife also gives her

respect and taught her to read and write.


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The maid is very aware of her dressing and never comb her hair neatly as

to avid dirty gaze of Mr. Bandopadhyay. This thing is very well noticed by

wife‟s sister. Sarala is very clever at house hold chores as well as in study.

Very soon she achieved a lot of perfection in reading and writing. So, the wife

give her saffron colour saree as a prize. When one day Sarala was playing with

girl, the husband came and hugged the Sarala from the back. She struggled and

freed from Mr. Bandopadhyay‟s clutch. He pretends that it was dark and he

can‟t recognize her and supposed it was her wife. This incidence was seen by

the sister. From first day the husband has bad eye on Sarala. One day an

unknown woman outside the gate was making noise and claim that Sarala is her

daughter. A lady who claimed to be the mother of Sarala asked the maid to

forget the hatred with her husband, Biru. Sarala pleads before the wife not to

send her as her mother and husband send men to her room at night for the sake

of money. The enraged wife supports Sarala.

One night, suddenly, the wife has labour pain, the doctor advised them to

admit her in the hospital. On one such night the younger sister heard someoneknocking the door of Sarala. The sister has full doubt that it was none other but

her brother-in-law. And her doubt is true. Mr. Bandopadhyay went to Sarala‟s

room with bad intention and he tried to seduce her. But Sarla saves herself by

warning him that she will make noise and wake up all the family members.

Next day a gr oup of people with Sarala‟s mother created commotion in their

house. Mr. Bandopadhyay called Sarala and informed her of his inability tohave her in the house. The sister made many efforts to stop Sarala in house as

her sister has great attachment with Sarala.

But Mr. Bandopadhyay Didn‟t agree. Instead of feeling shame on her

won act he blamed Sarla. According to him Sarla‟s indecent background mainly

her parasite mother making her sleep with various men for the sake of money,

before her becoming the maid in the Bandopadhyay household, harmed the

reputation of the family. But the real reason however is that the Sarala had


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opposed to keep sexual relation with him. His dirty psyche towards Sarala is

that she should satisfy his sexual greed. He says, „once a whore is always a

whore‟ (145), which heart a lot to Sarala. She is a good woman. The act of

prostitution is involuntarily imposed upon her. She wants to escape from that

gutter of prostitute and expect to live a normal life. That‟s why she joined a job

in Bandopadhyay family. But one decision of Mr. Bandopadhyay sends her

back to the slum of prostitution from where she really wanted to escape.

Prostitution has become a burning issue in India. Most of the study

regarding prostitution have proved that many girls who serves as prostitute are

not accepted this profession at their will but forced involulantarily by their

family members or society, like Sarala. The sociocultural setup of India gives

men a dominant position where women are subordinated to them. Many reforms

took place in India, many social workers spent their whole life to upgrade the

status of women but still there is no noticeable change in the condition of

women. Along with prostitution superstition is such a strong debatable issue has

been seen in India. Every year, thousands of young girls offer to God by their parents. They pretend that it was a holy act but reality is far different from it.

Actually they want to be free from poverty and debts.

These innocent girls are frequently sexually abused by community.

Mostly these practices found to be seen in rural India. To earn heavy income

the parents are selling their daughters with the permission of the temple priest to

the traffickers and afterwards these women brought to big cities and forced towork as prostitutes. Many study showed that thousands of girl became victim of

such disgusting prejudice and continuously exploited. This gender-based

violence and sexual exploitations, in various forms including rape, domestic

violence, honour of killings and trafficking in women leading to a heavy toll on

mental and physical health. It becomes a major public health concern and a

serious violation of basic human rights.


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Many social reform activities and laws took place in last few years but

still reality is that women are below the men supremacy. Every day at least 12

women are dying because of violence and nearly thousand of Indian women are

exploited by this patriarchal society through various ways, where flesh trade is

one of them (UNICEF, 1997). Apart from this the constitution of India

proclaims the equality between men and women. But, the fact is different Indian

women still possess second position and supposed as object of sex. This issue is

not limited to only India but took a shape of global dimension which requires

quick and absolute solution.

When wife returns after delivery of her child, she is desolated when she

comes to know about husband‟s cruel, inhuman attitude towards Sarala. Even

though she finds that her husband is not true to her, she does not want to go

away from her husband because there is no future for a divorced women in the

society and her daughter will, “......and Khuku (her daughter) would lose all

chances for a good marriage if the scandal of a broken home stained her life”

(156). Her fear compels her to keep quite.

Again here Divakaruni explores Indian‟s psyche to judge men and

women. Sarla is stained as prostitute. It is harsh reality that her husband and

mother forced her on bad way. She is again and again victimised by society

calling s whore. On other hand Bandopadhyay who supposed as aristocratic

gentleman having a wife, raped his servant, then also he is pure, no one raise a

finger on his character. No one humiliates him as a adulterer.

Another thing to be noted is that having all these bad things in

Bandopadhyay, the wife doesn‟t take an action against him, because it will

become threat to her girl‟s marriage. In Indian marriages, before the holy fire

bride and groom took the oath of loyalty with each there. When women did a

little bad supposed as immoral then what about men? Does not our tradition go

with double standard?


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The younger sister visits the elder sister‟s house after her engagement.

When they were going out for shopping, the road was blocked due to the strike

of union leaders. So, the driver had to take a route where the prostitutes lived.

The wife saw Sarala along with two other women. She called her by name and

introduced herself as “didi” (161), to which the woman spat in the hands of the

wife. It gives her great shock and she ordered her servants to burn Sarala‟s all

things which she put there as her memories. The wife has great attachment with

Sarala and regrets about her current bad condition but incapable to change the

social norms.

When Manisha hears the story, understands it is not just a story from

story book but is of her family‟s story. She remembered faintly the house, the

servant maid, picture of the father and the little brother. Manisha thinks of Bijoy

and her attraction towards him. “…which is only a repetition, in a different

raga, of her tragic song. Perhaps it is like this for all daughters, doomed to

choose for ourselves, over and over the men who have destroyed our mothers”

(167). There is no clear line of demarcation between old way of life and

modernity. Completing the story, Deepa Mashi remembers it becomes late and

she has to prepare dinner otherwise her husband annoyed, as how she has been

wasting time on telling stories. But she doesn‟t move and both the ladies hold

their hands tightly. The story ends with the lines: “We sit like this, two women

caught in the repeating, circular world of shadow and memory, watching where

the last light, silky and fragile, has spilled itself just above the horizon like the

paloo of a saffron sari” (168).

The word „horizon‟ is derived from the Greek verb meaning „to

circumscribe.‟ Horizon is an illusion, which is eternally retreating. In

Postcolonial Literature, horizon is the „conceptual‟ boundaries of „space‟ and

„border.‟ Such concepts have been demystified by expressing the


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meaninglessness of it. In this context, Edward Said in his “Representing the

colonized: Anthropology‟s

Interlocutors,” comments:

The fetishization and relentless celebration of difference can be seen as an

ominous trend…In short what is now before us nationally in the full

imperial panorama, is the deep, the profoundly perturbed and perturbing

question of our relationship to others- other cultures, other states, other

histories, other experiences, traditions, people and destinies. The difficulty

with the question is that there is no vantage outside the actuality of

relationships between cultures, between unequal imperial and non imperial

powers, between different others (Said 213,216).

Manisha feels that in spite of intelligence, education and skill women are mere

puppets and are mishandled by men.

In “The Ultra Sound,” Divakaruni brings out the attitudinal difference

based on gender between the immigrants and the Indians. Anju and Arundhati

are cousins. Anju lives in California with Sunil, her husband and Arundhaticalled as Runu, lives with her in-laws‟ in India. Runu and Anjali keep good

relation through phone calls and letters, though living far away from each other.

Co-incidentally they both are pregnant at the same time. Anju recalls their

friendship which started from seven years when Aunt Pratima, a widow came to

an apartment behind their house. Anju and Runu both is fatherless Child. But

the economical condition of both are differ ent. Anju‟s mother had taken overthe family business, a bookstore. Runu‟s father, dies after a long illness, had left

only debts behind, and Runu‟s mother like most genteel Indian widows, was

always struggling to make ends meet.

Anju and Runu are in the same class. They do all things together like

study, playing games, lunch, etc. Anju remembers how they race to bus stop and

the looser had to buy „ panipuris‟ for both of them. At many times Anju

purposely lost race because Runu never had much pocket money. Anju said,


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“Like good Indian girls, we both allowed our mothers to arrange traditional

marriages for us” (Divakaruni 206).

Divakaruni conveys in her “Uncertain Objects of Desire,” the prayer

ritual she was taught to chant in her family which explicates the traditional

practices of India:

May I have a husband like Rama,

May I have a father-in-law like Dasharatha,

May I have mother-in-law like Kaushalya,

May I have a brother-in-law like Lakshmana,

May I be a wife like Sita (1).

To become a wife of a good person is an ultimate aim of almost all girls

of Indian society. From childhood they have taught to live according to male

norms. The cousins plan to get the amniocentesis test in the same day. Anju is

worried about Sunil and his parents would be happy if it is girl. Though Indians

live in San Jose, America or Burdhwan in India, the attitude of being happy if

they beget a boy and sad if they have a girl is explicitly stated by Divakaruni.Once Anju came to meet Runu after marriage, where she observed

Runu‟s mother -in-law seeks Runu‟s help in the kitchen. When Anju asks Runu

the reason for her doing all the household works though there are many

servants. Runu answers like a typical Indian lady. She supports her mother-in-

law by telling that though there are servants they will have to supervise them as

they sometimes shirk the work. Anju surprises how the life of Runu changesafter marriage. The girl who is an imaginative girl and likes to be live in fantasy

becomes so practical in her life. At their young days Runu and Anju believes on

star falling and makes wishes which they strongly want to fulfil. Anju

understands that Runu tries hard to bear her current situation. Because she knew

very well that in Indian social structure there is no space for woman‟s will. Anju

understands the repression and hence questions their validity and imposition.

Such awareness involves an intense and honest perception towards


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individualism. Runu‟s character throws light on the faintly hidden and

unconscious marks of discrepancy of accepting the patriarchal burdens.

As Rani Dharker explains:

“The woman learns to adopt certain strategies in order to survive within

marriage. These strategies conceal her true self to survive much like a

purdah hides the line of the body” (54).

After marriage the cousins has to face difficult situations and

circumstances with their husbands and family in different regions and

circumstances. The dilemma of Runu comprises of disrespect by her family

members and husband as well as the huge burden of household chores. “The

way one of Runu‟s brothers-in-law had made a rude comment when she‟d burnt

the rice pudding. The way Ramesh, who‟d returned from his business tour had

scolded her, his voice rising in irritation, Arundhati, how many times have I told

you not to mess up the newspaper before I‟ve read it” (Divakaruni 210-13).

Apart from that Runu has no freedom even to call her mother. When she needs

something she has to take money from her mother-in-law. When Runu wants togo station to say bye Anju, mother-in-law not allowed her. She said, “It wasn‟t

fitting that the wife of Bhattacharjee family should come to the station where

common people could stare at her.”(209).

This condition of woman is still not changed. Sometimes Protection is a

form of repression too. They are made to be worms in the cocoon. It is an unfair

custom of culture imposed from ages which go results in psychologicalhabituation of women. It degrades one group and upgrades another. Sexual

Stereo-typing is more dangerous because the victims voluntarily submit for their

own oppression, unconsciously internalizing the norms which entrap them

based on the ideals followed through the centuries.

On the other hand, Anjali enjoys free life in America with her husband‟s

support. He supports and encourages her to take higher education. He never

mind fixing dinner when Anju went evening classes. He cares for Anju and


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gives more attention during her pregnancy. As she says, “When Sunil comes

from work he takes one look at my legs........ he massages them with pine oil

until I feel much better.”(208). Sunil is not just a husband of Anju, he is also a

good friend to her.

The woman‟s issue in the western world is mostly on identity, job

equality and sexism. But in India, it is a question of survival. Though having

higher education and good opportunities, women are obliged to submit to the

abasement imposed on them by patriarchal norms. Indian women accept it as

their fate and remains passive. According to an Indian tradition, at every stage

of woman‟s life she is subject to three forms of obedience‟s first to her father

before marriage, second to her husband after marriage and third to her son or

other kinship in her widowhood.

The scanning report says that Anjali will have baby boy and Runu will

have baby girl. In Indian culture the woman is send to her parent‟s home for

delivery, where as in America allows husband in labour room to share pain and

happiness while the baby is born. Anju is thankful to her baby for coming to hereasily. In India the situation is different. As soon as the couple get married elder

family members have hurry about their children. If due to some reasons it got

late to become pregnant, women are chastised, even beaten, because they

couldn‟t have children. The dialogue from the text will clear it. “.....Runu‟s

mother-in-law had taken her to the shrine of Shasthi, goddess of child

birth...They‟d taken her for a medical checkups to make sure there were no„problems‟ with her system” ( 217).

Divakaruni shows the difference between the treatments of Runu before

she became pregnant and after she became pregnant. Runu had a bitter

experience as four years had passed since she got married. The various methods

tried by Runu‟s mother -in-law to see that she gets a grandson made. It made

Anju angry. Anju asked Sunil that if he behaved like Indian people like Runu‟s

she would have left home. But, Anju was shocked to find Sunil‟s remark that


18/34

things happen according to the dictates of men in India and hinted of Anju‟s

freedom. She pinched Sunil for being male-chauvinistic to consider woman as

“a baby machine” (218). Sunil replied her sarcastically to be grateful for the life

that he has given her which only stirred the helpless feelings in her.

Nagendra Kumar points out that:

“Indian Characters in search of American citizenship retain sufficient

Indianness to be exotic but gloat gleefully into American materialism” (23).

Anju dreams of her son, drowning and his face beginning to disappear.

Runu tells Anju that her mother-in-law want to abort her child because it was

girl child. According to them “It is not ..........Fitting that the eldest child of the

Bhattacharjee household should be a female” (224).And her husband Ramesh

also remain passive against his mother‟s wish. He replied Runu that he would

protest next time if the foetus was girl. It gives us a clear account of practice of

female infanticide in India. Divakaruni throws light on such an accursed reality

of some Indian families. The female infanticide is extensive in the Indian

society after the amniocentesis tests. Though gender identification is banned bythe government, manipulations are there. “Divakaruni conveys that in America,

amniocentesis is considered as beneficial, as it gives clear account of baby‟s

health but in India it is means of gender bias.

Still in India girl is supposed as curse in some areas of India, especially in

villages. Their birth was taken as a burden. So in past times they were killed as

soon as they were born. In some of the Rajput clans of Rajasthan newly borngirl child was dropped in a large bowl of milk and was killed. Today with the

help of developed science, through amniocentesis tests sex determination is

done and if it is girl then it is aborted. Many cases found to be seen. In recent

years the law is strictly fallowed but still some clinics are their which does sex

determination secretly and earn double fees. In all this procedure women remain

silent sufferer though she doesn‟t want to abort child. They look towards her as

reproducing thing of a family and nurturing them. The society neglects what


19/34

woman wants? what she desires? what her wishes and aspirations? She is

supposed as an object, a thing is to be used and objects existence has purpose

only in relation to its use.

Anju advised Runu to go her mother ‟s house. But Runu adds that her

mother has asked her to abide by the mother-in-law‟s instructions to avoid being

disfavoured or out casted by the society. Mother says as “abortion is lesser of

the two evils” (Divakaruni 225). An Indian woman is yet to seek identity as a

human being with equal status in the family in which she is born and in the

family to which she is given in marriage. It is imposed on her psyche from

childhood that parental home is her temporary domain. She has to leave her

parent‟s after marriage, though she wants it or not. In husband‟s family she is at

the bottom of the hierarchical steps. She is expected to adjust in new family. To

fallow all the norms, customs of the family. She should be perfect in all house

hold chores and respect each of male member of the family though he may

younger to her. Runu‟s brother-in-laws are younger than her but always

humiliate and disrespect her. A central foundation of these hierarchical

relationships is a traditional cultural value system that is conveyed to the young

mainly by the older women of the family like mothers, grandmothers, aunts,

servants and others. This value system insists on solidarity and co-operation,

affection and understanding, observation of the traditional norms and customs

of the family.

In this regard Celly Anu‟s remark is very relevant:

“Self -abnegation, surrender of personal will, dependability and denial of

the right to individuality are made to be her lot. Not self-assertion, but self-

denial, not self awareness, but role-fulfilment are expected of her by

society, with its entrenched ideas of male dominance (6)..

When Anju directed Runu to go to her mother‟s house, Sunil

explicitly states harsh reality of Indian culture that it never allows a woman, a


20/34

secure life if she left her husband‟s home. For instance Indian society may

shows their sympathy towards a widow but always looks doubtful the woman

who left her in-laws home. Runu has also the same fear . She says, “They‟ll

never take me back if I move out, and then what would happen to me? People

will think they threw me out because I did something bad. They will think my

baby‟s a bastard.”(Divakaruni 225). This phenomenon is well explained by

psycho analyst Jean Baker Miller. She analyses gender attitudes as part of

attitudes common to all dominant and sub-ordinate groups:

Subordinates are described in terms of, and encourage to develop,

personal psychological characteristics that are pleasing to the dominant

group. These characteristics form a certain familiar luster: submissiveness,

passivity, docility, lack of initiative, inability to act, to decide, to think and

to the like…If subordinates adopt these characteristics they are considered

well-adjusted (Miller 6,7).

Now, Runu is in dilemma whether to leave husband or live in it. If she

lives obviously they kill her baby and if leaves, what is about her and her girl.People will think in-laws threw her out because she has bad character, and

supposed her baby as bastard. She is very well known about the bad effects of

her fully aware of the consequences of her leaving. Abandoned wife has no

respect, no social status and always become the victim of unwanted criticism.

Simon de Beauvoir vehemently argues that: The tragedy of marriage is not that

it fails to assure women the promised happiness, there is no such thing asassurance in regard to happiness-but that it mutilates her; it dooms her to

repetition and routine (496).

Male establishes his control over female in all aspect of her life like her

mobility, her productive and reproductive powers, her sexuality and morality,

and her political, legal, social, economic rights. From ancient time her role is

limited inside the four walls and made a strict follower of „ Manusmriti‟.


21/34

Manusmriti‟ states that woman must not do anything independently though she

may be young girl or married woman or a widow. Though independent India

can be proud of the most advanced legislation protecting the rights and status of

women, the manifestation is proven failed in actual social terms. Indian

government has labour legislation, the Prohibition of Dowry Act, the

Suppression of Immoral Traffic Act and bills legalizing abortion. Instead of all

these laws many girl foetus are killed in her mother‟s womb, many of married

women becomes victim of dowry death, numerous girls are dying under

mysterious circumstances. The contradiction is that Indian society on one side,

worships goddesses more than the gods. Contradiction can be explained by

saying that either man worships woman or treat her like dirt but is never willing

to treat her as an equal.

Woman is one and other way always becomes victim of man‟s sexual

desire. In the story “The Word Love,” protagonist‟s mother has told her

childhood story, in her growing up years. There was a girl who was friend of

protagonists‟ mother. They played together. Her father was roof Thatcher invillage. She was an only child pretty in a dark skinned way and motherless. So,

her father loves her so much and takes good care of her. He let her run wild,

climbing trees, swimming in the river. Let he go to her school even after she

reached the age when girls from good families stayed home, waiting to be

married.

An old woman from village has warned father that he should marry her

daughter as early as possible. According to her “An unmarried girl is like a

firebrand in a field of ripe grain” (Divakaruni 66). This dialogue shows the

Indians psychology towards a young girl child. They are always in hurry to be

marrying them and want to be free from burden. If the girl crosses the limit of

marring age, she is considered as there is some fault in the girl.


22/34

The father had arranged her marriage with fine carpenter from the next

village. But a few days before wedding her body was discovered in the lake. All

villagers supposed it was an accident until they heard about the rocks she had

tied in her saree. People whisper that she was pregnant. They had seen her with

a man a travelling actor, who had come village some time back. He raped her

and left the village and poor girl had to do suicide. There was no option before

her in this men‟s world. It‟s very unfortunate that from ancient time woman has

become victim of men‟s sexual desire. He used her and throws whenever he

wants. The consequences of such relations has to bear only woman. She has

been out casted from the society or she will commit suicide or accept the gutter

of prostitution.

It is painful to notice that the view towards women is stemmed in ancient

social structure has not basically changed but has been continuing in twenty first

century. We are often said that in ancient India, women are treated respectfully.

Very proudly the names of Maitreyi and Gargi are put before us as they are

literate even in those days. Another example is always put before us to prove

women enjoy freedom that is in ancient time girls have right to chose their

husband by arranging „Swayamvar‟ . But the reality is that to whom the

invitations should be send is decided by male not by the girl who is going to be

married. It explores the fact that at no stage of her life a woman enjoyed

freedom; man was her master and exercised his rights.

Rao and Vaidya, in their article “Rape Society and State” gives an

account of woman‟s usefulness centres on her sexuality, stated in ancient Hindu

religious book Rigveda. After creating man, the great Prajapati “Lord of

creatures” created woman: “Come let me provide him with a firm basis! So, he

created woman. When he had created her he revered her from below,.....He

stretched out for himself the stone that projects with that he impregnated

her”(Brahadaranyak Upanishad Brahmana IVii) The rape was not merely


23/34

permitted but encouraged, is cleared from the verse that fallows. Should a

woman not yield despite flattery and bribes the man is advised that, “He should

hit her with a stick or with his hand, and overcome her, saying „With power,

With glory I take away your glory, Thus she becomes inglorious” ” (ibid Vii).

No stigma was attached to the rapist. Thus the great preceptor of the Gods

Brahaspati, suffered no punishment for raping a married pregnant woman. The

punishment fell on her child who was born blind. For the woman however the

rules were different. There is the example of Ahalya. For no reason, fault of her

own she was placed under a curse by her husband, the sage Gautama, and

turned to stone. Though Gautama knew well that she had been deceived by the

God Indra who had taken his shape and had intercourse with her. In fact, the

slightest suspicion that a woman had severed from the path of sexual purity-

however unwillingly — could lead her dissertation by her husband and society.

Recent news of Gang Rape in New Delhi 23 Year girl was raped by 6

people in a Moving Bus in New Delhi in December, 2012. The girl was

hospitalized for several days and was also taken to Singapore for advanced

Treatment. But can‟t be saved. Rape is the fastest growing crime in India

compared to murder, robbery and kidnapping. Though the status of women in

India, both historically and socially, has been one of the respect and reverence,

but the hard truth is that even today, they are struggling for their own identity,

shouting for diffusion of their voices and fighting for their own esteem. Every

day, they cross among the fears and fraught for individuality. In a male

dominated society it is the woman who is punished for a crime committed

against her by men. This social injustice is still continuing. The rape victim

loses her social respectability forever. No one is likely to marry her, if married

she is likely to be disowned by her family. At times violation of family „izzat ‟ or

„abru‟ is so strongly felt that the rape victims mostly do suicide, as happens

with the girl in the story.


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It is the condition of the women who lives in India. Those who are settled

in foreign land have not escaped from the cultural bonds. They also become the

victims of these patriarchal norms. Divakaruni is a committed writer whose

first preference is to explore the real situations faced by the immigrant women

and women in traditional Indian society.

Divakaruni, has keen interest in showing the life of immigrant women

after marriage who are deprived emotionally as well as geographically. They

become institutions of passive suffering both in India and abroad alike.

Marriage mostly demolishes woman‟s life under patriarchal control in India.

For those who settled abroad find themselves trapped in two worlds. The

cultural differences between own land and new land made them furious. As a

result of having in this in-between space, the Indian women living in America

develops an altered consciousness in accordance to lessen the complication

which rose through hypocrisy. As the women of these stories fight to define

themselves as South Asian and American, they expect a conflict of

consciousness. In the private realm, the traditional Indian culture requiresspecific duties of women and strict norms of morality.

Though immigration brings many changes in immigrated people, the

Indian families expect from women to preserve their tradition and culture in

new country. The idea of home involves the preservation of traditions and

heritage. The home is the centre of tradition for South Asian diasporic families.

And within the home with all their traditions the role of male hegemony is duly practiced. Geographical and cultural difference doesn‟t impact on some of the

Indian women. They fallow all rules of wifely duty like a typical Indian women.

Aunt Pratima in the story “Silver Pavements and Golden R oofs” is an

example of such married Indian woman living in America. She becomes the

victim of the patriarchal norms. The victimisation of her starts from her

arranged marriage. She married with Bikram, who was told as the owner of an

automobile empire by matchmaker. But in reality he was only a mechanic had a


25/34

dingy garage in an undesirable part of town. Pratima is very beautiful girl while

Bikram is black. In spite of that the father of Pratima arranged their marriage,

supposing that he is very rich man and settled in America. He did all the

expenditure in her wedding and gave a lot of dowry in the form of jewellery.

After marriage Pratima comes to know she and her family was deceived by

Bikram. But, still, Pratima never told the truth to her family and beard all the

things. As, it will give a great shock to her family and there is no future to a

divorced woman in Indian society. Her place is only with her husband for better

or worse. This culture of Indian society is followed by Pratima though she is

living in America.

Pratima‟s life is not different from the women back home in India. Her

whole day left in doing house hold chores, like cutting vegetables, washing

clothes and pots, making food and serving it to Bikram. She always becomes

the victim of Bikram‟s anger. His frustration always haunts her. Their

economical condition is very poor, her all jewellery (as a part of dowry) except

her „ Mangalsutra‟ was lost by Bikram. One day, Jayanti and Pratima went for

walk, there they became a victim of racial attack by American children. They

threw slush on their body. It is very troublesome situation for both of them.

Aunt Pratima is more stressful about uncle, as what would be the reaction of

him at this incidence. The fear comes true, uncle Bikram beats Pratima because

why should she left home instead of his warning. Jayanti feel bothering, as she

supposes all this happened due to her. She is shocked at uncle‟s behaviour. It is

quite surprising that in spite of all ridiculous behaviour of uncle, aunt forgives

him and tries to soothe his anger. It may be that Pratima knew her wifely duty

as pointed in Indian mythology „ pati- parmeshwar‟ . Whatever he does woman

has to accept it. She remains a silent sufferer „a baby machine to Bikram‟s

hand‟.


26/34

Looking at aunt Pratima‟s condition we can imagine the Life of women in

diasporic situation can be doubly painful-struggling with the material and

spiritual insecurities of exile, with the demands of family and work, and with

the claims of old and new patriarchies. Immigration for men is the thing of

proud and liberation but for women immigration, they tended to regard the past

with nostalgia and the present American experience as an alienating one. When

individuals cross the boundaries, from India to America, it can change men‟s

belief and impact on their attitude but women are still guarded by male

domination. Their life become like football, oscillating between the family set

up and the social structure, between self-fulfilment and the demands for self-

sacrifice.

“Affair” is the story of two friends Abha and Meena. Both are settled in

USA with their husband Ashok and Shrikant respectively. Both couple are

dissatisfied at their married life. Ashok prefers American way of life while

Abha stacked with Indian culture. Ashok always gives sarcastic blows to Abha

about her simple living, he asked her to approach beautiparlour, try western

clothes. But Abha never paid attention towards his suggestions, though she

knew it becomes the reason of their clash. Divakaruni gives ample examples of

contradictory self perceptions of immigrant woman. Abha as a typical Indian

woman not ready to fallow American way of life and thinks that Indian

marriages are not based on such things.

As a typical Indian women, She fallows all the rules of Indian culture.

Whole day she is busy in household chores, making food and serves it to Ashok,

setting its clothes, etc. He has no value of what efforts Abha took for him and

his family. He always looks her down. Many evidences have recorded in the

story by Divakaruni. when both couple went to attend a party thrown by Indian

couple, there Meena asks Abha for dance, Ashok replies. “oh you know, Abha,

she never dance” (Divakaruni 248). This dismissive sureness of his tone has


27/34

made her furious. Another evidence which shows how he never feel hesitate to

ridicule Abha, when Abha got new job she asks Ashok either to accept or reject

the job. Ashok replies “Its, good for you to move around a bit in society......

smarten you up some (257)” To celebrate her new job Abha brought new dress,

he again misbehaved with her. He replied “The color makes you look anaemic”

(257).As being an Indian woman Abha bears his all nonsense. Because from

childhood Indian girls have taught to never cross their husband. Whatever they

do though it is wrong or right, agree patiently. Being educated and living in

America Abha fallowed all rules of an Indian married woman.

Meena, on the other hand, fallows American way of life. Where Shrikant,

her husband likes Indian lifestyle. Meena feels very alone to home. Shrikant

always busy in his office work, doesn‟t give time to Meena. For him his work is

all important. Meena is going through frustration. She wants to get free from

these day to day problems. As being bold, She develops a relation with Charles,

Her office colleague. Charles is good to her. He always takes care of her. as

Meena says “But he understands me, all of me, even the bad parts with him I

can be myself, like I never could this before (269)” Abha becomes shocked at

Meena‟s decision. This decision compels Abha to rethink over her relationship

with Ashok. She reminds all her life with Ashok. One day, She asked Ashok

whether he really loved her? And Ashok replied “It‟s a bit late to ask that, don‟t

you think?..... we were running out of time” (267). The answer of Ashok

compels Abha to interrogates herself “Had I ever really been myself? I didn‟t

think so. All my energy had been taken up being a good daughter, a good friend

and a good wife” (269).

Now, she realizes the life of her is meaningless where she never lived for

herself. Both Meena and Abha have realized that to move on in life, old bonds

have to be broken. Their won individuality has no place in the system of

marriage. But on other hand as being Indian women, they feels guilty, what


28/34

impact of their decision will be on their parents back home in India. They will

call them immoral and bad woman. The condition of female characters in the

story reminds Meena Alexander. Her writings trace this split in the female self

very pointedly. She says, in her memoir “Fault lines” that

“her two worlds, present and past, were from apart” and she become

“ The fault line, the crack that marked the dislocation”(287-88)

Exactly same situation is now both Abha and Meena are facing. This

experience, common to all diasporic communities which are created due to the

constant oscillation between contradictory conceptions of race and culture, timeand geography. Living in this in-between space, the Immigrants develops an

altered consciousness in order to relate to their own culture while at the same

time adapting to their current surroundings. Meena and Abha are caught

between the traditional customs of home land from which they have immigrated

and their present experiences with the more westernized culture of America.

While living in such a in-between space, their self perceptions is dramatically

transformed, due to the uncertain nature of their interstitial environment and

they move towards a situation that is more intricate and numerously divided and

develop multiple consciousnesses resulting in a self that is neither cohesive nor

crossbreed, but rather spitted. And finally they decide to break all traditional

bonds and lead a life on their own terms.

In the story “Meeting Mrinal.” Asha is settled in California with her

husband after marriage, as Mahesh has a job there. But after few years she has

been divorced by her husband and becomes the victim of male hegemony. Asha

has devoted her whole life in service to her husband and family. She never

condemns the demands of her husband because her mother always advised her

“Women should be happy with whatever their men decided they ought to have”

(Divakaruni 275).


29/34

She does only what Mahesh likes. Though she is educated and good in

literature she never did a job as well as never tried any fancy western clothes

because Mahesh didn‟t like it. Asha took a lot of efforts to save their married

life but it‟s of no use. One day Mahesh left them with his ex-secretary Jessica.

He said, he was not happy with them and She becomes lonely with her only son

Dinesh in a foreign land. We can imagine what difficulties she has to face in an

unknown land. No one is there for her to help.

Now, for their survival she has to do job. She has less salary so they have

to shift in cheap apartment. Her son Dinesh also joined part-time job. Though in

India the bys of his age are totally depends upon their parents. Asha has been

suffering from trauma. Dinesh is also frustrated due to sudden departure of his

father. He spent most of the time in college and when he was at home closed

himself in room. The relation between Asha and Dinesh was not going well and

it further stressed when Asha hides the truth from her childhood friend Mrinal

that leaving of Mahesh for the other woman. Asha and Mrinal are childhood

friends and always compete with each other. So Asha don‟t want that Mrinal

mock at her spoiled life.

One day Mrinal and Asha mate in a restaurant where Mrinal confess that

though she has achieved successful career, her heart is discontented at the end

of everything. The confession of Mrinal burdened Asha‟s heart because of her

hidden failures. Asha is so frustrated due to her imperfect life. Deceit in

marriage had such a great harmful impact on her mind that she tried to commit

suicide. The institution of marriage is the place of burial for most women. One

cannot imagine the oppression created through a male hegemony which strip of

the possibility of mutual love and affection, shattering the woman‟s self esteem

and tear down her sense of identity and self-hood. So, emotionally imperfect

relationships have a deadly effect on the delicate female psyche. Women are

abused by an agonizing sense of alienation and terrible loneliness of the spirit.


30/34

Asha‟s attempt to suicide is effect of such male domination. But

fortunately her son saved her. At this moment her inner voice compelled her to

rethink over her life. “ I think of how hard I always tried to be a perfect wife

and mother, like the heroines of mythology, I grew up on- patient faithful Sita,

selfless Kunti” (298).

Now she realized, though she has followed the advice of elders, and tried

to be like Sita, acting according to the dictates of men, she has to meet failure in

the end. Asha comes to know that happiness, love and understanding alone are

not life but unhappiness, hatred are and people should handle it and should

cherish the good ones and forget the bad ones. So, she leads her life with some

imperfection and some perfection.

The female protagonists who settled in America manage to come out of

all the problems and impositions which the patriarchal society want to burden

on them. But the reality is that even possessing education, earning capacity, self

confidence and liberal culture these Indian women in foreign land are not

completely free from harassing doubts of cultural contravention. They achieve

the best of what they can from their life. As, western culture widens their mental

horizons, to see the life with different angles. When they have a chance they

struggle and discover happiness and at other times they get satisfied with

whatever they were able to achieve.

But the question remains what about Indian women? The stories set in

India gives clear account of real condition of Indian women. Still the male

hegemony or patriarchal system is too strong to break for women. The character

Sarala from the story “Maid Servant Story” becomes a silent sufferer. Her

position is nothing but that of an unpaid prostitute and her status is similar to

that of the maid who has become a paid prostitute. This is how patriarchy harms

women and they have to live dual lives or maintain their multiple identities. For


31/34

the three wives in “The Bats” and the “Maid Servant Story” and “Ultrasound”

respectively, departure from their husband is not possible as all of them have

daughters, means if they take such bold step against their husband (patriarchal

norms) it will become the threat to their daughter‟s marriage. This threat

reduces their confidence to take risk and to deviate from the traditional path. No

movement is possible for them within patriarchy. The myth of „ Laxman-rekha‟

dominates their psyche. They will never cross the „ Laxman-rekha‟ as they know

the possible harsh punishment.

To overcome the problem of violence against women, strategies that are

culturally sensitive and relevant must be implemented. One strategy is to the re-

evaluate existing laws, whether it need some more reformations, second strategy

is that to continue to support and actuate those are working. Violence against

women is an international problem. Women are friends, partners, lovers, family,

and human beings. They have a right to life and to freedom from maltreatment

based on their gender. It should take into consideration that the basic reason

behind women‟s oppression is men‟s psyche of domination or control over

women. To stop violence against women, it is very important that we work

toward changing the socialization of men to be aware of the gender

discrimination that exists and work toward changing it. To do this, we cannot

simply begin with the young generation; although raising them to believe in

equality is important, we must work toward changing the opinions and ideas of

those who are presently in power.


32/34

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Connell, R. W. “Making the Difference: Schools, Families and Social

Division.” Australia: Allen and Unwin publisher, 1982.Print.

Dharker, Rani. “Marriage as Purdah: Fictional Rendering of a Social Reality,”

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James M.Arlandson “Women are inferior to men in the Quran”. 21 Jul

2015.06:29:30GMT.

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Rao, Vaidya, Juneja. “Rape Society and State”. Peoples Union for Civil

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Richard M. Davidson, “Headship, Submission, and Equality in Scripture,” in

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Said, Edward. “Culture and Imperialism.” London: Vintage, 1993. Print.

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Sree, Prasanna S. “Woman in the Novels of Shashi Deshpande: A study.” New

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