Introduction 1 Carnival in Africa and Its Diaspora - Springer978-1-137-59870-7/1.pdf · 1 Carnival...

Notes

Introduction

1 . Niyi Afolabi, “The Myth of the Participatory Paradigm,” Studies in Latin

American Popular Culture 20 (2001): 231–245.

1 Carnival in Africa and Its Diaspora

1 . See for example, Judith Bettelheim, “Negotiations of Power in Carnaval

Culture in Santiago de Cuba,” African Arts 24, no. 4 (1991): 66–75,

91–92.

2 . For the first state effort to give visibility to female Carnival voices

and groups in Bahia, see Governo do Estado da Bahia, Carnaval no

Feminino (Salvador: SEPROM, 2010). The prominent voices include

those of Viviam Caroline (Did á ), Margareth Menezes, Dete Lima (Il ê

Aiy ê ), Gra ç a Ona�ilê (Il ê Aiy ê ), and Negra Jh ô , among others. For a

more focused discussion of the “divas” of Bahian Carnival, namely

Daniela Mercury, Margareth Menezes, and Ivete Sangalo, see Marilda

Santanna, As Donas do Canto: O Sucesso das Estrelas-Int é rpretes no

Carnaval de Salvador (Salvador: EDUFBA, 2009). The few individual

studies on female Carnival groups in Bahia include Carole Boyce Davies,

“Re-Presenting Black Female Identity in Brazil: ‘Filhas d’Oxum’ in Bahia

Carnival,” Ijele: Journal of the African World 2, no. 1 (2001) (formerly

online at http://www.ijele.com/ijele/vol2.1/boyceDavies.html ), and

Barbara Browning, “The Daughters of Gandhi: Africanness, Indianness,

and Brazilianness in the Bahian Carnival,” Women and Performance 7–8

(1995): 151–169.

3 . Trios el é tricos are trucks or f loats that are equipped with high-powered

sound systems and a music group on the roof, playing for the crowd. It

was created for Bahian Carnival specifically and credited to Dod ô and

Osmar (Adolfo Nascimento and Osmar Macêdo), who in 1949 intro-

duced the phenomenon during Carnival in Bahia with their now-famous

old Ford Model T, which they modified to supply car battery power to

their self-made electric instruments. The trio el é trico is now a famous

phenomenon in communities across Brazil as well as in other countries.

4 . Filhos de Gandhi, the first afox é in Bahia (differs from a bloco afro in the

sense that the afox é focuses on African religious rites and ceremonies

232 NOTES

such as Candombl é ), and headquartered in Pelourinho, was founded in

1949 by dock workers who were inspired by the pacifist approach of

Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) to political liberation. This organization

celebrated its sixtieth anniversary in 2009 and was officially recognized

by the government and other Carnival groups. In addition to long-stand-

ing community involvement and development efforts, especially regard-

ing the youth, Filhos de Gandhi has been featured in such films as Dias

Gomes’s O Pagador de Promessas (1950) and Jorge Amado’s Dona Flor e

Seus Dois Maridos (1976).

5 . Considered one of the major players of the Afro-Bahian Carnival,

Olodum is a cultural group based in the Afro-Brazilian community of

Salvador. It was founded in 1979 by percussionist Neguinho do Samba,

the creator of the samba-reggae rhythm in 1986, and, like Il ê Aiy ê , it

offers empowering cultural activities to young people through music and

theatrical productions. Its goals include combating racial discrimination,

encouraging self-esteem and pride among Afro-Brazilians, and fighting

for civil rights for all marginalized populations.

6 . Black consciousness groups such as Il ê Aiy ê set out to raise the aware-

ness about the realities of Brazilian blacks, especially Bahians struggling

with racial discrimination and police brutality. The Afro-Brazilian group

Il ê Aiy ê was founded in 1974 by Ant ô nio Carlos “Vov ô ” and Apol ô nio

de Jesus in the neighborhood of Curuzu-Liberdade, the largest black

population area of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. Often suffering persecution

by the police and the media during its first years, and still controversial

for allowing only blacks only to parade during Carnival, Il ê Aiy ê is one

of the prominent attractions of Bahian Carnival.

7 . Muzenza was founded in 1981 in homage to Bob Marley (1945–1981).

The Afro-Jamaican reggae culture was becoming quite popular then in

Bahia. They released their first CD, Muzenza do Reggae , in 1988.

8 . Originally members of the Melo do Banzu Carnival group in Engenho

Velho de Federa çã o district, the founders moved to Itapu ã where they

created another Carnival group in 1979, named Mal ê de Bal é , which set

out to appreciate black cultural values and develop the community. It

is the only organization that references the nineteenth-century Muslim

revolt in Bahia in its name: Mal ê , which means “Muslim.”

9 . See Bahiatursa, The Greatest Expression of African Culture in Brazil

(n.d.). The quote is attributed to Billy Arquimimo, the director of the

African Heritage Tourism Department. Other cultural and religious

references in the pamphlet include the Baiana, Gastronomy, Capoeira,

Religious Festivals, and The Good Death Festival. Headquartered in

Pelourinho, Cortejo Afro (one of the Carnival groups referenced by

Arquimimo), was founded in 1998 within the Il ê Axé Oy á temple in the

Piraj á community of Salvador, seeking a revival of black cultural values.

10 . See Jeffrey S. Duneman, “Sublime Folly,” Brazzil (February 2001),

http://brazzil.com/blafeb01.htm (accessed August 5, 2015).

NOTES 233

11 . See James H. Kennedy, “Strategies for Including Afro-Latin American

Culture in the Intermediate Spanish Class,” Hispania 70, no. 3 (1987):

679–683. Kennedy argues that students’ interest in studying foreign lan-

guages such as Spanish and Portuguese could be sustained at the inter-

mediate level by including African elements in the folklore and culture of

Latin America. Specifically recommending Brazil and Haiti, the author

believes that black contribution in Latin America could be emphasized

through Carnival. A few recommended texts include Paulo de Carvalho

Neto, El Carnaval de Montevideo (Seville: Seminario de Antropologia

Americana, 1967); Paulo de Carvalho Neto, Estudios Afros: Brasil,

Paraguay, Uruguay, Ecuador (Caracas: Universidad Central de Venezuela,

1971); Antonio D. Pl á cido, Carnaval, Evocaci ó n de Montevideo en la

Historia y la Tradici ó n (Montevideo: Editorial Letras, 1966); Ann M.

Pescatello, The African in Latin America (New York: Knopf, 1975); and

Daniel Piquet, La Cultura Afrovenezolana (Caracas: Monte Avila, 1982).

See also George Reid Andrews, The Afro-Argentines of Buenos Aires,

1800–1900 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980) and George

Reid Andrews, Afro-Latin America (New York: Oxford University Press,

2004).

12 . Anani Dzidzienyo, “Conclusion,” in No Longer Invisible: Afro-Latin

Americans Today , ed. Minority Rights Group (London: Minority Rights

Group, 1995), 345.

13 . The Brazilian Carnivals collectively are the biggest and the most diverse

in the entire world. The most famous celebrations are those in Rio de

Janeiro, Bahia, and Pernambuco. Varying in their regional character-

istics, Rio Carnival is defined by extravagant spectacles staged by the

escolas de samba ; Afro-Bahian Carnival is defined by the blocos afros and

Afox é s , while Pernambucan Carnival is characterized by frevo (an elec-

trifying and fast-paced dance with African and acrobatic influences) and

maracat ú (Afro-Brazilian secular performance infused with Candombl é

rituals referencing the Reis do Congo or those individuals who occu-

pied leadership positions within the slave community). Modern Brazilian

Carnival started in 1641 when Rio de Janeiro’s bourgeoisie entertained

the idea of holding masquerade parties and balls such as those in Paris,

and later incorporated hybrid elements derived from African and Native

American influences.

14 . Though Argentinean Carnival varies from region to region, the most

remarkable celebrations are those of Corrientes, Entre Rios, Salta, San

Luis, and Buenos Aires. The schools of samba are also called comparsas .

15 . Notable of Colombian Carnival is the Carnaval de Negros e Brancos

(Carnival of Blacks and Whites) which is celebrated every January in the

city of Pasto and was classified as part of the national cultural patrimony

by the state in 2002.

16 . The most famous Venezuelan Carnival is known as the Puerto Cabello

Carnival, spearheaded by the Grupo Folcl ó rico San Millan which is

234 NOTES

engaged in the revitalization of popular culture and ethnic roots in

Puerto Cabello.

17 . The most famous Ecuadorian Carnival festivities are in Guaranda and

Ambato.

18 . Notting Hill London Carnival, first held in 1966, is the biggest street

festival in Europe and has remained so for 50 years. For a detailed study,

see Abner Cohen, Masquerade Politics: Explorations in the Structure of

Urban Cultural Movements (Berkeley: University of California Press,

1993).

19 . Egungun refers to the ancestral masquerades among the Yoruba of

Nigeria. For a detailed study of the spiritual and political function of

this manifestation of the dead among the living, see S. O. Babayemi,

Egungun Among the Oyo Yoruba (Ibadan: Oyo State Council of Arts and

Culture/Board Publications, 1980). See also Abdul-Rasheed Na’Allah,

“The Origin of Egungun : A Critical Literary Appraisal,” African Study

Monographs 17, no. 2 (1996): 59–68.

20 . Monica Vison à et al., A History of Art in Africa (Upper Saddle River,

NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001), 255. For further studies on Yoruba masquer-

ades, see Henry Drewal and Margaret Drewal, Gelede: Art and Female

Power among the Yoruba (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990);

Babatunde Lawal, The Gelede Spectacle: Art, Gender, and Social Harmony

in an African Culture (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996);

Olawole Famule, The Ijumu-Yoruba Egungun Masquerades: Art and

Spirituality in an African Culture (London: Verlag, 2009); and Henry

Drewal, “Flaming Crowns, Cooling Waters: Masquerades of the Ijebu

Yoruba,” African Arts 20, no. 1 (1986): 32–41, where he invokes the

playful nature of the Eyo or Adamuorisa masquerade as a manifestation

of call-and-response tradition in Yoruba culture.

21 . In 2011, for example, these are just a few of the places where Carnivals

were celebrated: Bahamas (December 2010/January 2011); Brazil

(February); Nice (February/March); Venice (March); Trinidad and

Tobago (February); Colombia (March); Haiti (March); Ecuador (March);

Dominican Republic (March); New Orleans (March); Jamaica (April/

May); Bermuda (May); Cayman Islands (May); San Francisco (May);

Ottawa (June); Toronto (July); Barbados (July); St. Lucia (July); Notting

Hill (August); New York (September); Miami (October).

22 . See Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness

(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 222–223.

23 . Hollis Liverpool, Rituals of Power and Rebellion: The Carnival Tradition

in Trinidad and Tobago, 1763–1962 (Chicago: Research Associates,

1993), ix. Liverpool argues that through a process of continuity and

change of West African traditions, Afro-Trinidadians survived through

Carnival arts, resisting the efforts of British colonial government and the

elite to control and oppress them.

24 . For a more detailed account of the history of Carnival in Trinidad and

its African influence, see John Nunley, “Playing Mas: Carnival in Port

NOTES 235

of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago,” in Carnaval! , ed. Barbara Mauldin

(Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2004), 242–247.

25 . Garth L. Green and Philip W. Scher, Trinidad Carnival: The Cultural

Politics of a Transnational Festival (Bloomington: Indiana University

Press, 2007), 9. For a more Africa-centered reading of Trinidad Carnival,

see Liverpool, Rituals of Power and Rebellion .

26 . Elizabeth McAlister, Rara! Vodou, Power, and Performance in Haiti and

Its Diasporas (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 31.

27 . Gage Averill, “ Anraje to Angaje : Carnival Politics and Music in Haiti,”

Ethnomusicology 38, no. 2 (1994): 220. See also Donald Cosentino, “‘My

Heart Don’t Stop’: Haiti, the Carnival State,” in Mauldin, Carnaval! ,

269–97.

28 . For a detailed account of “Black Carnival” and African influence on

Mardi Gras history in New Orleans, see Jason Berry, “Mardi Gras in New

Orleans, USA,” in Carnaval! , ed. Barbara Mauldin (Seattle: University

of Washington Press, 2004), 299–325.

29 . In addition to putting 30 floats in the Mardi Gras parade each year, the

Zulu Social Aid and Pleasure Club give away to revelers up to 100,000

colored and Zulu-inscribed coconuts. Given that palm trees do not natu-

rally grow in Louisiana, this highly sought after and prized memorabilia

invokes Africa during Mardi Gras in the same way as the group’s name

does (Zulu referring to an ethnic group in South Africa).

30 . For a more sociological reading of the London Carnival as an urban

cultural movement, see Cohen, Masquerade Politics .

31 . Ian Strachan, “Junkanoo and Power in The Bahamas: An Historical

Perspective,” in Marvels of the African World: African Cultural

Patrimony, New World Connections, and Identities , ed. Niyi Afolabi

(Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2003), 478.

32 . See Judith Bettelheim and John Nunley, Caribbean Festival Arts

(Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988), 71. For an additional

look at the increasing role of women in Junkanoo, see Rosita M. Sands,

“Conversation with Maureen ‘Bahama Mama’ DuValier and Ronald

Simms,” The Black Perspective in Music 17, no. 1/2 (1989): 93–108.

33 . See Philip W. Scher, “Brooklyn Carnival: Mandate for a Dual-Sited

Ethography,” Carnival and the Formation of a Caribbean Transnation

(Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003), 64–87.

34 . For more insights on the re-Africanization process in Afro-Bahian Carnival,

see Ant ô nio Ris é rio, Carnaval Ijex á (Salvador: Corrupio, 1981). See also,

Christopher Dunn, “Afro-Bahian Carnival: A Stage for Protest,” Afro-

Hispanic Review 11, no. 1–3 (1992): 11–20; and Chris McGowan and

Ricardo Pessanha, “Bahia of All the Saints,” chapter 6 of The Brazilian

Sound (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1998), 119–31.

35 . Pam Morris, ed., The Bakhtin Reader: Selected Writings of Bakhtin,

Medvedev, Voloshinov (New York: St. Martins/Edward Arnold, 1994), 74.

36 . Henry Louis Gates, Jr., The Signifying Monkey (Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 1988), 6.

236 NOTES

37 . Daniel J. Crowley, “The Sacred and the Profane in African and African-

Derived Carnivals,” Western Folklore 58. no. 3/4 (1999): 227.

38 . Cohen, Masquerade Politics , 4.

39 . Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World (Bloomington: Indiana

University Press, 1984), 81–82.

40 . Roberto DaMatta, Carnivals, Rogues, and Heroes (London and Notre

Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1991), 86–87.

41 . Robert Stam, Subversive Pleasures (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins

University Press, 1989), 2.

42 . Roberto DaMatta, “A Concise Reflection on the Brazilian Carnival,” in

Aesthetics in Performance , ed. Angela Hobart and Bruce Kapferer (New

York: Berghahn Books, 2005), 183.

43 . Piers Armstrong, “The Cultural Economy of the Bahian Carnaval ,”

Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 18 (1999): 139–158. For the

strictly cultural analysis of Bahian Carnaval as a global phenomenon, see

also Piers Armstrong’s “The Aesthetic Escape Hatch: Carnaval , Blocos

Afro and the Mutations of Baianidade under the Signs of Globalisation

and re-Africanization,” Journal of Iberian and Latin American Research

5, no. 2 (1999): 65–98.

44 . Carl Ratner, “Agency and Culture,” Journal of the Theory of Social

Behavior 30 (2000): 421.

45 . Pierre Bourdieu, Pascaliam Meditations (Stanford, CA: Stanford University

Press, 2000), 136–137. See also, Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic

Power (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), 10–12.

46 . This, M ã e Hilda’s role of blessing the parade with a spiritual release

of doves, is now taken over by the new iyalorixá of the Il ê Ax é Jitolu,

Hildelice Benta dos Santos, daughter of M ã e Hilda.

47 . See “Depois que o Il ê Passar,” on Il ê Aiy ê ’s DVD Canto Negro (S ã o

Paulo: Warner Music Group, 2003).

48 . Michel Agier, “Etnopol í tica,” Estudos Afro-Asi á ticos 22 (1992): 99.

49 . Michel Agier, “As M ã es Pretas do Il ê Aiy ê : Nota Sobre o Espa ç o Mediano

da Cultura,” Afro- Á sia 18 (1996): 202.

50 . Florentina da Silva Souza, “Discursos Identit á rios Afro-Brasileiros: O Il ê

Aiy ê ,” in Po é ticas Afro-Brasileiras , ed. Maria do Carmo Lanna Figueiredo

and Maria Nazareth Soares Fonseca (Belo Horizonte: Mazza, 2002), 87.

51 . Walter Altino de Sousa Jr., O Il ê Aiy ê e a Rela çã o com o Estado (Salvador:

Fast Design, 2007), 139.

52 . James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts

(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990), 185.

2 Emergence of an Afro-Carnival Agency

1 . The building of the Il ê Aiy ê headquarters may not have been planned to

mimic the float-like 1950 Dod ô and Osmar invention, but its building

plan does suggest a ship-like, multi-level mobile musical truck that reso-

nates the trio el é trico model.

NOTES 237

2 . The four colors symbolize the blood that was shed during slavery (red),

the power they are seeking (yellow), their skin color (black), and the

quest for peace (white).

3 . In Yoruba culture and history, cowrie shells served as legal tender and they

denote wealth and bounty within the culture regardless of how used—

whether as ornaments on sacred buildings or visual accents on secular

structures. In the sacred domain, cowrie shells are still used in divina-

tion, hence the symbolism of 16 cowrie shells. The emblem of Il ê Aiy ê

includes this symbol which is usually used in its Carnival costumes, on

drums, during the Black Pageantry events, and on other memorabilia.

4 . The Ife Bronze Head is one of 18 copper alloy sculptures that were

unearthed in 1938 at Ife in Nigeria, which is considered the religious and

former royal center of the Yoruba people. The Bronze Head is believed to

represent a king. A year after it was unearthed, it was taken to the British

Museum by colonial authorities.

5 . Track 14 (“Que Bloco É Esse?”) on the 1999 CD Il ê Aiy ê : 25 Anos . My

translation.

6 . Most recent interviews with Vov ô took place in the following months:

December 2008, February 2009, June 2009, December 2009, June

2010, and December 2010.

7 . Christopher Dunn, “Afro-Bahian Carnival: A Stage for Protest,” Afro-

Hispanic Review 11, no. 1–3 (1992): 15.

8 . See “Bloco Racista, Nota Destoante,” editorial of A Tarde , February 12,

1975, p. 2.

9 . J ô natas C. da Silva, “Hist ó ria de Lutas Negras: Mem ó rias do Surgimento

do Movimento Negro na Bahia,” Escravid ã o e Inven çã o da Liberdade , ed.

Jo ã o Jos é Reis (S ã o Paulo: Brasiliense, 1998), 279.

10 . Ant ô nio Ris é rio, Carnaval Ijex á (Salvador: Corrupio, 1981), 45.

11 . Ant ô nio Ris é rio, “The Colors of Change,” in Black Brazil: Culture,

Identity, and Social Mobilization , ed. Larry Crook and Randal Johnson

(Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1999),

250–52.

12 . Ris é rio, Carnaval Ijex á , 45.

13 . David Covin, The Unified Black Movement in Brazil, 1978–2002

(Jefferson, NC and London: McFarland, 2006), 206. For additional

insights into the role of culture in the MNU, see also David Covin, “The

Role of Culture in Brazil’s Unified Black Movement, Bahia in 1992,”

Journal of Black Studies 27, no. 1 (1996): 39–55.

14 . These include among many others, Michael Hanchard, Orpheus and

Power: The Movimento Negro of Rio de Janeiro and S ã o Paulo, Brazil,

1945–1988 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994); Kim

Butler, Freedoms Given, Freedoms Won: Afro-Brazilians in Post-Abolition

S ã o Paulo and Salvador (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press,

1998); David Covin, Unified Black Movement in Brazil ; and Edward

Telles, Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil

(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006). From the Brazilian

238 NOTES

perspective, a most compelling and problematic work is by Ant ô nio

Ris é rio, A Utopia Brasileira e os Movimentos Negros (S ã o Paulo: Editora

34, 2007).

15 . Hanchard, Orpheus and Power , 160.

16 . Ibid., 136.

17 . Butler, Freedoms Given, Freedoms Won , 173.

18 . Covin, Unified Black Movement in Brazil , 57.

19 . Ris é rio, A Utopia Brasileira e os Movimentos Negros , 387.

20 . Armstrong, “The Cultural Economy of the Bahian Carnaval ,” Studies

in Latin American Popular Culture 18 (1999): 140.

21 . Ibid.

22 . Ibid., 149.

23 . For a more detailed study on the subject/construction of Il ê Aiy ê as

a museum, see Joseania Freitas, “Museu do Bloco Afro Il ê Aiy ê : Um

Espa ç o de Mem ó ria e Etnicidade,” Master’s Thesis, Federal University of

Bahia, 1996.

24 . Track 3 (“Beleza Pura”) [side I] on Caetano Veloso’s LP, Cinema

Transcendental (1979).

25 . Daniela Mercury (born Daniela Mercury de Almeida on July 28, 1965),

is a Latin Grammy Award-winning Brazilian singer and songwriter. She

is as proficient with samba-reggae and axé music as she is with Brazilian

popular music as a whole. Since her breakthrough into the axé music

scene in Salvador da Bahia in the 1990s, Mercury has become one of

the best-known Brazilian female singers, selling over 20 million albums

worldwide.

26 . Track 3 (“O Mais Belo dos Belos”) on Il ê Aiy ê : 25 Anos .

27 . Track 5 (“Um Canto de Afox é para o Bloco Il ê Aiy ê ”) on Afro-Brazil:

Various Artists .

28 . This sampling of the aesthetic accomplishments of Il ê Aiy ê is supple-

mented by a more detailed analysis of the group’s Afro-Carnival music in

chapter 8 of this book.

29 . The Festival of Music is the annual occasion when many composers and

singers compete for their compositions to be selected for the subsequent

Carnival parade.

30 . The Night of Black Beauty is the annual occasion when the next Carnival

Queen is selected in a black beauty pageant.

31 . Track 2 (“Deusa do É bano”) on Il ê Aiy ê : Canto Negro .

32 . Track 11 (“Deusa do É bano II”) on Il ê Aiy ê : 25 Anos .

33 . Walter Altino de Sousa Jr., O Il ê Aiy ê e a Rela çã o com o Estado: Interfaces e

Ambig ü idades entre Poder e Cultura na Bahia . Salvador: Fast Design, 2007.

34 . Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell-Smith, eds., Selections from the

Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci (London: Lawrence and Wishart,

1982); Pierre Bourdieu, “The School as a Conservative Force: Scholastic

and Cultural Inequalities,” in Contemporary Research in the Sociology

of Education , ed. James Eggleston (London: Methuen, 1974), 32–46;

Ris é rio, Carnaval Ijex á .

NOTES 239

35 . Among these stars, the female ones have been particularly successful—

especially Daniela Mercury, Ivete Sangalo, and Margareth Menezes.

For a more detailed analysis of these megastars, see Marilda Santanna,

As Donas do Canto: O Sucesso das Estrelas-Int é rpretes no Carnaval de

Salvador . Salvador: EDUFBA, 2009.

36 . According to Fraz ã o, while the regular members of Il ê Aiy ê pay $R600

(reais) to parade in Carnaval (with complete and elaborate costumes),

white members of the alternative group, “I also belong to Il ê ,” would pay

$R200.

37 . See Heliana Fraz ã o, “Bloco Il ê Aiy ê Passa a Aceitar Brancos no Carnaval

e Gera Pol ê mica” [Il ê Aiy ê Carnival Association Now Accepts Whites in

its Carnival and Generates Controversies], UOL (November 28, 2009),

http://noticias.uol.com.br/cotidiano/2009/11/28/ult5772u6412.

jhtm (accessed August 5, 2015).

3 Mãe Hilda: Matriarchy, Candomblé, and Ilê Aiyê

1 . Rosana Santana, “Interview with Ant ô nio Carlos dos Santos, Vov ô ,

President of Il ê Aiy ê ,” in Carnaval da Bahia: Um Registro Est é tico , ed.

Nelson Cerqueira (Salvador: Omar G., 2002), 114.

2 . By “hybrid” and the notion of the sacred coexisting with the profane,

I notice that on Fridays, all the directors and teachers dress in white in

honor of Oxal á (Supreme Deity or Deity of Peace), which happens to

be Vov ô ’s preferred deity. This may well be done in solidarity, but the

official practice of a spiritual belief within the organization suggests that

these activities are not separable. Some of Il ê Aiy ê ’s dance moves are also

distinctly from Candombl é , even if modified and stylized to approximate

African-derived performances.

3 . Alberto Lima, “Homenagem a M ã e Hilda Jitolu: Perola Negra Maior,”

Foto-etnografia ALBERTO LIMA (September 23, 2009), http://

fotografoalbertolima.blogspot.com/2009/09/homenagem-mae-hilda-

jitolu-por-alberto.html (accessed August 5, 2015). Except where other-

wise stated, all translations in this book are mine.

4 . Val é ria Lima, “M ã e Hilda Jitolu,” formerly online at http://www.car-

navalouronegro.ba.gov.br/mestres_populares.php (originally accessed

August 5, 2010).

5 . John Mbiti, Introduction to African Religion (London: Heinemann,

1991 [1975]), 20.

6 . Hilda Dias dos Santos, M ã e Hilda: A Hist ó ria da Minha Vida (Salvador:

EGBA, 1997), 14.

7 . Ibid.

8 . See for example, Ant ô nio Ris é rio, Carnaval Ijex á : Notas Sobre Afox é s e

Blocos do Novo Carnaval Afro-Baiano . Salvador: Corrupio, 1981; Larry

Crook, “Reinventing Africa and Hybridity in Northeastern Music:

Blocos Afro and Mangue Beat,” in: Brazilian Music (Santa Barbara,

240 NOTES

CA: ABC-CLIO, 2005); Christopher Dunn, “Afro-Bahian Carnival: A

Stage for Protest ,” Afro-Hispanic Review 11, no. 1–3 (1992): 11–20; Piers

Armstrong, “The Cultural Economy of the Bahian Carnaval ,” Studies

in Latin American Popular Culture 18 (1999): 139–158; among others.

9 . Santos, M ã e Hilda , 15.

10 . Ibid., 17.

11 . See Roberto DaMatta, Carnavais, Malandros e Her ó is (Rio de Janeiro:

Zahar, 1981).

12 . See J ú lio Braga, Ancestralidade Afro-Brasileira (Salvador: EDUFBA,

1992).

13 . Santos, M ã e Hilda, 14.

14 . See Il ê Aiy ê , M ã e Hilda Jitolu: Guardi ã da F é e da Tradi çã o Africana

(Salvador, Il ê Aiy ê , 2004), 38.

15 . Ibid., 37.

16 . Ibid., 22.

17 . Ibid., 31.

18 . Ibid., 24.

19 . Ibid., 35.

20 . Ibid., 17.

21 . Obaluaiy ê (also known as Sopona), is the deity of disease, pestilence,

and smallpox. Yorubas believe that if anyone is aff licted by smallpox and

worships Obaluaiy ê , the person will be cleansed and cured. Obaluaiy ê

stresses good character just as the other Orisas do but has a very spe-

cific way of punishing the lack of good character and judgment, such

as through unhealthy, inappropriate, and unwise decisions in one’s life

patterns.

22 . Santos, M ã e Hilda , 13.

23 . Ibid., 10.

24 . Formerly published on Il ê Aiy ê ’s website, at http://www.ileaiye.org.br/

maehilda.htm (originally accessed, August 10, 2010).

25 . Kim D. Butler, “ Ginga Baiana —The Politics of Race, Class, Culture,

and Power in Salvador, Bahia,” in Afro-Brazilian Culture and Politics:

Bahia, 1790s to 1990s , ed. Hendrik Kraay (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1998),

159–160.

26 . Henry Drewal, “Art History, Agency, and Identity: Yoruba Transcultural

Currents in the Making of Black Brazil,” in Black Brazil: Culture,


(Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1999), 166.

27 . See Il ê Aiy ê , M ã e Hilda Jitolu: Guardi ã da F é e da Tradi çã o Africana

(Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê , 2004), 40.

28 . Formerly published on Il ê Aiy ê ’s website, at http://www.ileaiye.org.br/

index2.htm (originally accessed August 10, 2010).

29 . Rita de Cassia Maia da Silva, “O Negro-Espet á culo: O Bloco Afro Il ê

Aiy ê na Resignifica çã o e Recep çã o da Imagem do Negro em Salvador”

(PhD diss., Federal University of Bahia, 2002, 2 vols.), 290.

30 . Ibid., 306.

NOTES 241

31 . Ibid., 312.

32 . Ibid., 304.

33 . Il ê Aiy ê , “Oxumar é Conduz a Deusa do É bano 2009,” O Mondo 25

(2009): 5.

34 . Agier, “As M ã es Pretas do Il ê Aiy ê : Notas Sobre o Espa ç o Mediano da

Cultura,” Afro- Á sia 18 (1996): 196.

35 . Ibid., 197.

36 . See Bule Bule and Onildo Barbosa, M ã e Preta Foi e É Ama, Mestra, e

Protetora [Cordel] (Salvador, Editora dos Autores, 1983), 3.

37 . Ibid., 4.

38 . Ibid., 5.

39 . Ibid., 7.

4 Aesthetics of Ilê Aiyê’s African(ized) Carnival Costumes

1 . See Peter Fry, S é rgio Carrara, and Ana Luiza Martins-Costa, “Negros

e Brancos no Carnaval da Velha Rep ú blica,” Escravid ã o e Inven çã o da

Liberdade , ed. Jo ã o Jos é Reis (S ã o Paulo: Brasiliense, 1988), 232–263.

2 . Ibid., 256.

3 . This Vov ô interview was granted to TVE Bahia in 1994, on the occasion

of Il ê Aiy ê ’s twentieth anniversary. See Il ê Canta a Liberdade [Il ê Sings

Freedom] (Salvador: TVE Bahia, 1995). DVD.

4 . Cited in Colin Legum, Pan Africanism (London: Pall Mall Press, 1962), 19.

5 . V. Y. Mudimbe, “Reprendre: Enunciations and Strategies in Contemporary

African Arts,” in Reading the Contemporary: African Art from Theory

to the Marketplace , ed. Olu Oguibe and Okwui Enwezor (London and

Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1999), 32.

6 . Ibid., 46.

7 . A few studies have addressed and documented the continuity of par-

ticipation of Afro-Carnival groups in the traditional and popular festi-

vals of Salvador. See for example, Manuel Querino, A Bahia de Outrora

(Salvador: Progresso, 1955), Edison Carneiro, Folguedos Tradicionais (Rio

de Janeiro: Conquista, 1974), Pierre Verger, Prociss õ es e Carnaval da Bahia

(Salvador: CEAO, 1980), and Francisco Calmon, Rela çã o das Faust í ssimas

Festas (Rio de Janeiro: Minist é rio de Educa çã o e Cultura, 1982).

8 . My translation from Nina Rodrigues, Os Africanos no Brasil (S ã o Paulo:

Madras, 2008), 170.

9 . See Larry Crook and Randal Johnson, eds., Black Brazil: Culture,

Identity, and Social Mobilization (Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American

Center Publications, 1999), and Jeferson Bacelar and Carlos Caroso,

eds., Brasil: Um Pa í s de Negros? (Rio de Janeiro: Pallas/CEAA, 1998).

10 . For a detailed discussion of this proposal, see Femi Ojo-Ade, “O Brasil,

Para í so ou Inferno Para o Negro: Subs í dios Para Uma Nova Negritude,”

in Jeferson Bacelar and Carlos Caroso, Brasil: Um Pa í s de Negros? (Rio de

Janeiro: Pallas/CEAA, 1998), 35–50.

242 NOTES

11 . See Doran H. Ross, Wrapped in Pride: Ghanaian Kente and African

American Identity (Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum, 1998); Duncan

Clarke, The Art of African Textiles (San Diego, CA: Thunder Bay Press,

2002); Rowland Abiodun, Ulli Beier, and John Pemberton III, Cloth Only

Wears to Shreds: Yoruba Textiles and Photographs from the Beier Collection

(Amherst, MA: Mead Art Museum and Robert Frost Library, 2004). For

a panoramic study of the textile art of Il ê Aiy ê , see also Jussara Rocha

Nascimento, “A Arte do Il ê Aiy ê : Elo na Corrente que une Heran ç a e

Projeto,” in Imagens Negras: Ancestralidade, Diversidade e Educa çã o , ed

Maria de Lourdes (Belo Horizonte: Mazza, 2006), 136–148.

12 . The zigzag motif, often connected to fishtails, is an ancient form that

references blessing and power in many African societies.

13 . “Interview with Vov ô .” June 14, 2008. The full interview with detailed

insights was formerly available at http://www.irohin.org.br/imp/tem-

plate.php?edition=24&id=198 (originally accessed on October 2, 2010).

14 . Ibid.

15 . For a fuller discussion of the neo-negritude concept, its critique, and

complication, see Y. E. Dogbe, Le Divin Amour (Paris: P. J. Oswald,

1976) and Peter S. Thompson, “Negritude and a New Africa: An

Update,” in African Literature: An Anthology of Criticism and Theory , ed.

Tejumola Olaniyan and Ato Quayson (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007),

210–218. In his own questioning of “racial democracy” and examination

of a “new negritude” in Brazil, Femi Ojo-Ade also wonders if despite the

appearance of integration, Brazil is “paradise or hell” for Afro-Brazilians

(Femi Ojo-Ade, “O Brasil, Para í so ou Inferno para o Negro?”).

16 . The berimbau is a one-stringed instrument that resembles a longbow

with a gourd attached to the base.

17 . See Michael R. D á vila, “Oppression and Resistance in Jamaican Reggae

and Afro–Brazilian Music: A Comparative Study of Race in Music and

Culture,” The Dread Library , http://debate.uvm.edu/dreadlibrary/

davila.html (accessed August 5, 2015).

18 . Ibid.

19 . Clarence Bernard Henry, Let’s Make Some Noise: Ax é and the African

Roots of Brazilian Popular Music (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi,

2008), 153.

20 . Gilberto Gil’s interview with Banning Eyre of Afropop Worldwide, for-

merly online at http://www.afropop.org/multi/interview/ID/6/ (orig-

inally accessed October 5, 2010).

21 . Since Il ê Aiy ê ’s 1987 Carnival costume (Nigeria) has been analyzed ear-

lier in this chapter, for the sake of efficiency it will not be part of the

selection for the “experimental phase.”

22 . See J ô natas Concei çã o da Silva, “O Querer é o Eterno Poder: Hist ó ria e

Resist ê ncia no Bloco Afro,” Afro- Á sia 16 (1995): 113.

23 . Il ê Aiy ê , 20 Anos de Resist ê ncia Negra/1974–1994: Uma Na çã o Africana

Chamada Bahia (Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê , 1994).

NOTES 243

24 . Pierre Verger, Not í cias da Bahia—1850 (Salvador: Corrupio, 1981).

25 . See Maria de Lourdes Siqueira, P é rolas Negras do Saber (Salvador:

Cadernos de Educa çã o do Il ê Aiy ê , 1997), 5.

26 . See Concei çã o and Siqueira, Á frica: Ventre F é rtil do Mundo (Salvador:

Cadernos de Educa çã o do Il ê Aiy ê , 1997), 10.

27 . Ibid., 33.

28 . Il ê Aiy ê , Canto Negro: Am é rica Negra, O Sonho Americano (Salvador: Il ê

Aiy ê , 1993), 3.

29 . Opaxorô is a metal staff with a dove figure on top that Oxal á (Orisanla)

holds in his hands as a symbol of peace and power following the creation

of the world.

30 . � à�à r à is a musical instrument that is used by Obaluaiy ê , an Earth-

influenced deity whose real name, �à np � nn á , is usually avoided or for-

bidden to be pronounced, for fear of causing diseases and illnesses.

31 . See Henry J. Drewal, “Costume in African Traditions,” International

Encyclopedia of Dance , Vol. 2 (New York: Oxford University Press,

1998): 209–213.

32 . For a detailed discussion of the contradictions of tourism and social

inequalities in Bahia, see Anadelia Romo, Brazil’s Living Museum: Race,

Reform, and Tradition in Bahia (Chapel Hill, NC: University of Carolina

Press, 2010).

5 Masquerades of Afro-Femininity, Beauty, and Politics

1 . See http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/still-i-rise/

2 . On the CD Canto Negro (Polygram, 1984).

3 . Interview with Vov ô , June 10, 2010.

4 . Canto Negro CD.

5 . Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane (Orlando, FL: Harcourt,

1987 [1957]), 150.

6 . See Da Diretoria do Bloco Carnavalesco Il ê Aiy ê à s Candidatas a “Rainha

Il ê ” (Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê , 1988), 1 .

7 . For a fuller sociological analysis, see Michel Agier, Anthropologie du

Carnaval (Marseille: Parenth è ses, 2000).

8 . For a further discussion of the potential for cultural organizations to be

co-opted despite the resourcefulness of their political agenda, see Abner

Cohen, Masquerade Politics: Explorations in the Structure of Urban

Cultural Movements (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).

9 . “ É d’Oxum,” on the DVD Ger ô nimo e Banda Mont’Serrat (Salvador:

Casa de Ger ô nimo, 2002).

10 . Il ê Aiy ê , “A Festa da Beleza Negra,” M ã e Hilda Jitolu (Salvador: Caderno

de Educa çã o, 2004), 40–42.

11 . See Carolina Moraes-Liu, Ebony Goddess (California: Document á rio,

2010) [DVD]. The cover aligns vertically photos of the three contestants

244 NOTES

deployed as case studies, wearing their overflowing Africanized garb

with varied coloring effects such as “full color,” “black and white,” and a

brownish “fade.” The DVD has won the African Diaspora Award in the

San Diego Black Film Festival, Best Short Documentary at the San Diego

Latino Film Festival, and was nominated as Best Short Documentary in

the Pan African Film Festival and Best Short Story Documentary at the

Cine Las Americas Film Festival, thus making Il ê Aiy ê even more visible

in the international arena. Il ê Aiy ê has been very conservative in terms

of access to its organization—a situation that has made Olodum, which

started in 1980 (six years after the founding of Il ê Aiy ê ), more com-

mercially savvy and organized. An additional merit of the DVD is the

language selection feature that includes subtitles in Portuguese, English,

and Spanish, which makes it an excellent tool for teachers.

12 . Afro-Brazilian faith considered as the dance in honor of the many Yoruba-

derived deities. Candombl é was brought to Brazil by African slaves in the

nineteenth century.

13 . Carolina Moraes-Liu, Ebony Goddess .

14 . The Candombl é faith has often suffered persecution and discrimination

at the hands of the Catholic Church, government campaigns, and police.

Discrimination against the religion recently increased with fanatical

televised evangelism that subjected the religion to criticism and accusa-

tion of “satanic” rituals. Although Candombl é won an important battle

in the Brazilian Supreme Court in 2005 in relation to this, the court’s

decision has yet to be implemented. For further studies on the repres-

sion of Candombl é in Bahia, see J ú lio Braga, “Candombl é in Bahia:

Repression and Resistance,” in Black Brazil: Culture, Identity, and

Social Mobilization , ed. Larry Crook and Randal Johnson (Los Angeles:

UCLA Latin American Center, 1999), 201–212; Michel Agier, “Between

Affliction and Politics: A Case Study of Bahian Candombl é ,” in Afro-

Brazilian Culture and Politics , ed. Hendrik Kraay (New York: M. E.

Sharpe, 1998), 134–157. For the appropriation of Candombl é as an instru-

ment of resistance, see also Mikelle Smith Omari-Tunkara, Manipulating

the Sacred: Yoruba Art, Ritual, and Resistance in Brazilian Candombl é

(Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 2005) and Rachel Harding,

A Refuge in Thunder: Candombl é and Alternative Spaces of Blackness

(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000).

15 . For a more in-depth analysis of the contradictions, see Patr í cia de Santana

Pinho, Mama Africa: Reinventing Blackness in Bahia (Durham, NC and

London: Duke University Press, 2010), 144–145. See also Anadelia A.

Romo, Brazil’s Living Museum: Race, Reform, and Tradition in Bahia

(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010) for an analysis of the

Center/Margins dialectic that sums up the Bahian condition between pres-

ervation of African culture and unequal conditions of the black population.

16 . Unless used in a friendly and affective context such as this one, the terms

neg ã o (big black man) and negona (big black woman) could actually be

offensive, provocative, or perceived as an insult.

NOTES 245

17 . On the exploration of myth and the reinscription of African deities

in African and African Diaspora literature, see Alexis Brooks de Vita,

Mythatypes: Signatures and Signs of African/Diaspora and Black Goddesses

(Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000) and Wole Soyinka, Myth,

Literature and the African World (Cambridge/London: Cambridge

University Press, 1976).

18 . Interview with Macal é and Edmilson Lopes da Neves, December 15,

2008.

19 . A more detailed discussion of the place of celebrities is addressed in chap-

ter 7 on Afro-Carnival music as the genre that synthesizes many layers of

participation.

6 Vovô: The Man, His Vision, His Legacy

1 . Excerpt of poem “Quebranto” (evil eye) by Cuti. For the full cited trans-

lation see Niyi Afolabi et al., eds., Cadernos Negros/Black Notebooks:

Contemporary Afro-Brazilian Literary Movement (Trenton, NJ: Africa

World Press, 2008), 59.

2 . See Barbara Caine, Biography and History (New York: Palgrave, 2010).

3 . Ibid., 39–46.

4 . Most of my biographical assessments have thus been extracted from my

own personal interviews with Vov ô over the years, and interviews granted

to other scholars, authors, journalists, and students such as Michel Agier,

Rosane Santana, and Kirsten Weinoldt, among others, in addition to

lyrical analysis of songs composed by Il ê Aiy ê musicians. What may now

be considered as the first attempt to reconstruct Vov ô ’s life summarily

in one chapter should ideally be the beginning of a well-deserved, book-

length biography. That challenge must be left for insider-scholars or fam-

ily members in the future as the challenges of running the daily affairs

of the organization are such that there may not be time left for any such

focus by immediate relatives. Contrary to what some may deem a myste-

rious yet pompous personality, Vov ô is a rather humble, personable, and

accessible individual.

5 . Interview with Vov ô , December 15, 2009.

6 . Ibid.

7 . The naming of Afro-Bahian Carnival groups deserves a full-scale study

by Yoruba linguists or cultural anthropologists as they are mostly derived

from Yoruba language and culture, namely, Il ê Aiy ê (1974), Olodum

(1979), Okanbi (1981), Alab ê (1981), Alafin (1983), Araketu (1985),

Orunmila (1981), Olorum Baba Mi (1979), among many others. Naming

and identity in the African diaspora remains a worthwhile investigation

that is yet to be fully explored.


9 . Interview with M ã e Hilda, July 2, 1993

10 . “Obatala,” in Yoruba Poetry , ed. Ulli Beier (Bayreuth: Bayreuth African

Studies Series, 2002), 30.

246 NOTES

11 . See Kirsten Weinoldt’s interview with Vov ô , “Life School,” Brazzil

(November 1998), http://www.brazzil.com/musnov98.htm (accessed

August 5, 2015).

12 . Interview with Vov ô , June 6, 2010.

13 . Adam Blatner, “The Implications of Postmodernism for Psychotherapy,”

Individual Psychology 53, no. 4 (1997): 2.

14 . Ibid. See also David Feinstein and Stanley Krippner, Personal Mythology:

The Psychology of Your Evolving Self (Detroit, MI: Tarcher, 1988).

15 . Henry Drewal, “Art History, Agency, and Identity: Yoruba Transcultural

Currents in the Making of Black Brazil,” in Black Brazil: Culture, Identity,

and Social Mobilization ed. Larry Crook and Randal Johnson (Los

Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1999), 143–174.

16 . Il ê Aiy ê , O Negro e o Poder: Cadernos de Educa çã o (Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê ,

2006), 32.

17 . Santana, “Interview with Ant ô nio Carlos dos Santos, Vov ô , President of

Il ê Aiy ê ,” 117–118.

18 . See Il ê Aiy ê : 25 Anos de Resist ê ncia (Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê , 1994), 29.

19 . For a fuller description of this ambivalent and ambiguous relationship,

see Walter Altino de Sousa Jr., O Il ê Aiy ê e a Rela çã o com o Estado: Interfaces e

Ambig ü idades entre Poder e Cultura na Bahia (Salvador: Fast Design, 2007).


7 Politics of Afro-Carnival Music

1 . For a fuller discussion of these maternal impulses and patterns, see Toni

Morrison’s Beloved as well as the cinematic adaptation with the same title.

2 . Peer Schouten, “James Scott on Agriculture as Politics, the Dangers

of Standardization and Not Being Governed,” Theory Talks #38 (May

15, 2010). http://www.theory-talks.org/2010/05/theory-talk-38.html

(accessed August 4, 2015).

3 . Vov ô ’s declaration is in the context of Band’Aiy ê as the representative

organ that propagates the values of the association and organization. As

of November 27, 2010, the quoted text could be found at http://www.

ileaiye.org.br/index2.htm .

4 . Henry Louis Gates Jr., “Celebrating Candombl é in Bahia,” The Root

(Feb. 16, 2010), http://www.theroot.com/articles/history/2010/02/

henry_louis_gates_the_african_roots_of_brazils_carnival.html (accessed

August 10, 2015).

5 . Cited in Michel Agier, “Canto Negro: Pequena Antologia dos Sambas do

Il ê Aiy ê ,” Il ê Aiy ê : A Inven çã o do Mundo Negro (Unpublished long essay,

1993), 145.

6 . Larry Crook, “Reinventing Africa and Remixing Hybridity: Blocos

Afro and Mangue Beat,” Music of Northeast Brazil , 2nd ed. (New York:

Routledge, 2005), 214. For an additional discussion of rewriting history

and reinventing Africa in Brazilian music, see also Peter Fryer, Rhythms of

NOTES 247

Resistance: African Musical Heritage in Brazil (Hanover, CT: Wesleyan

University Press, 2000), 13–26.

7 . Caetano Veloso, “Interview with Vov ô ,” Caetano na Bahia [1994] (DVD).

8 . See Niyi Afolabi, “A Festan ç a Brasileira: Carnaval em S ã o Paulo, no Rio e

na Bahia” (Unpublished Senior Thesis, University of Ife, Nigeria, 1984).

9 . Formerly featured on Il ê Aiy ê ’s website at http://www.ileaiye.org.br/

festival2003.htm (originally accessed November 27, 2010).

10 . Ibid.

11 . Ibid.

12 . Ibid.

13 . Ibid.

14 . Ibid.

15 . Ibid.

16 . Ant ô nio Pitanga, “Where Are the Blacks?” in Black Brazil: Culture,


(Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1999), 31–42.

17 . Jos é Jorge de Carvalho, “The Multiplicity of Black Identities in Brazilian

Popular Music,” in Black Brazil: Culture, Identity, and Social Mobilization

(Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1999), 265.

18 . Ibid., 264.

19 . Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness

(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 72–110.

20 . Silviano Santiago, “O Entre Lugar do Discurso Latino Americano,” in

Uma Literatura nos Tr ó picos: Ensaios sobre Depend ê ncia Cultural (Rio de

Janeiro: Rocc ó , 2000), 13–25.

21 . This song has been analyzed in chapter 2 , “Emergence of an Afro-

Carnival Agency.”

22 . Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro I (Salvador: Warner Brothers, 1984), track 5.

23 . Gilberto Gil, cited in the inside jacket, Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro I

(Salvador: Warner Brothers, 1984).

24 . Ibid., track 5.

25 . Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro II (Salvador: Est ú dio Eldorado Ltda,

1984).

26 . Ibid.

27 . Ibid.

28 . Ibid.

29 . Patr í cia de Santana Pinho, Mama Africa , 35.

30 . Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro III (Amaz ô nia: Velas Produ çõ es, 1996).

31 . Ibid.

32 . “Minha Origem,” composed by Vicente de Paulo and sung by Gra ç a Ona�ilê.

See Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro III (Amaz ô nia: Velas Produ çõ es, 1996).

33 . “Evolu çã o da Ra ç a,” composed by Buzziga and sung by Guiguio. See Il ê

Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro III (Amaz ô nia: Velas Produ çõ es, 1996).

34 . See “Popula çã o Magoada,” Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro III (Amaz ô nia:

Velas Produ çõ es, 1996).

248 NOTES

35 . Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro IV (S ã o Paulo: Natasha Records, 1999).

36 . Ibid.

37 . Ibid., track 12 (Heran ç as Bantos).

38 . See “Adeus Bye Bye,” Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro IV (S ã o Paulo: Natasha

Records, 1999).

39 . See “Me Leve Amor,” Il ê Aiy ê /Vov ô , Canto Negro IV (S ã o Paulo: Natasha

Records, 1999).

40 . Beleza Pura: Il ê Aiy ê , O Belo da Liberdade was produced by TVE (Bahia

State Television) in 2004.

8 (Un)Masking the Afro-Carnival Organization

1 . Interview with Dr. Cheryl Sterling. Comments were recorded while

attending the Il ê Aiy ê ’s Carnival rehearsal on December 10, 2010 at the

headquarters in Curuzu-Liberdade. Dr. Sterling is a professor at New

York University where she teaches African and African diaspora literature

and cultures with emphasis on African, Caribbean, and Latin American

connections.

2 . James Scott argues in his works, especially in Domination and the Arts of

Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,

1990) that the oppressed, such as the peasants in Southeast Asia, do not

consent to domination.

3 . Milton Nascimento is one of the major musicians from Minas Gerais and

with a prominent place in Brazilian popular music.

4 . Interview with Geruse Menezzes, in her Cia das Tran ç as Beauty Salon in

Curuzu-Liberdade, December 16, 2010.

5 . Interview with an anonymous Afro-Brazilian writer, December 18, 2010.

6 . Interview with Macal é , December 12, 2008.

7 . Interview with Aliomar de Jesus Almeida, December 13, 2010.

8 . Interview with Edmilson Lopes da Neves, December 15, 2010.

9 . This phrase ( o sistema é bruto ) refers to a police-sponsored TV program,

which suggests that if citizens misbehave, they always get caught or will

be punished for any breach of moral standards. In a threatening state-

ment by the caricature-ish police officer in the propaganda clip, the offi-

cer states, “If you get caught, your entire household is history because the

system is brutal .” The implication is that being on the wrong side of the

law leads to total ruin. Another term used rather colloquially to suggest

that one cannot escape from the long arm of the law is: se correr o bicho

pega, se ficar o bicho come , loosely translated as, “you are damned if you

run, and you are damned if you stay.”

10 . Interview with Hildelice Benta dos Santos, Director, Salvador, Bahia,

December 13, 2010.

11 . Interview with Macal é (Wilson Batista Santos), December 13, 2010.

12 . Interview with Bamba, December 13, 2010.

13 . Interview with Raimundo, December 13, 2010.

NOTES 249

14 . Interview with Josenice Guimar ã es, December 17, 2010.

15 . Interview with Billy Arquimimo, December 21, 2010.

16 . Ibid.

17 . Interview with Ant ô nio Carlos Taiwo Boa Morte dos Santos, December

17, 2010.

18 . Ibid.

19 . Interview with Jacilda Trindade Teles, December 13, 2010.

20 . Ibid.

21 . Interview with Arlindo Concei çã o, December 13, 2010.

22 . Interview with Jureli Fran ç a Bonfim, December 13, 2010.

23 . Interview with Alzilema Purifica çã o Santo Barme, December 15, 2010.

24 . Interview with Aline Cristina Pereira Reis, December 17, 2010.

25 . Interview with Maria Lu í sa Passos dos Santos, December 17, 2010.

26 . Ibid. Emphasis mine.

27 . Interview with Gelton de Oliveira, December 15, 2010.

28 . Ibid.

29 . Interview with Alex Sandro Teles, December 23, 2010.

30 . Interview with Mohammed Camara, December 13, 2010.

31 . Ibid.

32 . Interview with Roseane Pereira Alves, December 14, 2010.

33 . Ibid.

34 . Interview with Ardubor D. Silva, December 13, 2010.

35 . Interview with Vin í cius Silva da Silva, December 13, 2010.

36 . Ibid.

37 . Interview with Ademilton Jesus Santos, December 13, 2010.

38 . Interview with Ana Am é lia Dias Santos, December 13, 2010.

39 . Interview with Maria Luisa Monte Correia, December 15, 2010.

40 . Interview with Joseane Paim, December 18, 2010.

41 . Ibid.

42 . Interview with Jurim Assun çã o dos Santos, December 17, 2010.

43 . Interview with Rivanildo Divino, December 17, 2010.

44 . Interview with Erval Soares Souza, December 17, 2010.

45 . Ibid.

46 . Interview with Anizaldo Ferreira de Sousa Filho, December 17, 2010.

47 . See also the interview with hairdresser Geruse Menezzes, earlier in this

chapter.

Conclusion

1 . For this specially composed song for Il ê Aiy ê , see Caetano Veloso, “Um

Canto de Afox é ,” Brazil Classics I , David Byrne, comp. (New York:

Luaka Bop, 2000). DVD.

2 . See Anadelia A. Romo, Brazil’s Living Museum: Race, Reform, and Tradition

in Bahia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 157.

3 . Jon Beasley-Murray, Posthegemony: Political Theory and Latin America

(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010), 226.

250 NOTES

4 . Maculel ê refers to an Afro-Brazilian dance mixed with martial arts in

which a group of people gather in a circle and rhythmically strike sticks

together to produce melody accompanied by singing.

5 . Cazumb á refers to rhythmical and gyrating Africa-derived dance moves.

6 . Il ê Aiy ê , “Rituais Africanos,” in Cadernos de Educa çã o: A Rota dos

Tambores no Maranh ã o (Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê , 2003), 32.

Bibliogr aphy

Abiodun, Rowland, Ulli Beier, and John Pemberton III. Cloth Only Wears to

Shreds: Yoruba Textiles and Photographs from the Beier Collection . Amherst,

MA: Mead Art Museum and Robert Frost Library, 2004.

Aching, Gerard. Masking and Power: Carnival and Popular Culture in the

Caribbean . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002.

Adorno, Theodor W. The Culture Industry: Selected Essays on Mass Culture . Edited

and with Introduction by J. M. Bernstein. London: Routledge, 1991.

Afolabi, Niyi. Afro-Brazilians: Cultural Production in a Racial Democracy .

Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2009.

———. “A Festan ç a Brasileira: Carnaval em S ã o Paulo, no Rio e na Bahia.”

Unpublished Senior Thesis, University of Ife, Nigeria, 1984.

———. “The Myth of the Participatory Paradigm: Carnival and Contradictions

in Brazil.” Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 20 (2001): 231–250.

Afolabi, Niyi, M á rcio Barbosa, and Esmeralda Ribeiro, eds. Cadernos Negros/

Black Notebooks: Contemporary Afro-Brazilian Literary Movement . Trenton,

NJ: Africa World Press, 2008.

Agger, Ben. Cultural Studies as Critical Theory . London: Falmer Press, 1992.

Agier, Michel. Anthropologie du Carnaval: La Ville, la F ê te, et l’Afrique à Bahia .

Marseille and Paris: Parenth è ses, 2000.

———. “Canto Negro: Pequena Antologia dos Sambas do Il ê Aiy ê Unpublished

selection of Il ê Aiy ê ’s samba lyrics, 1993.

———. “Etnopol í tica: A Din â mica do Espa ç o Afro-Baiano.” Estudos Afro-

Asi á ticos 22 (1992): 99–114.

———. “Il ê Aiy ê : A Inven çã o do Mundo Negro.” Unpublished Long Essay, 1993.

———. “As M ã es Pretas do Il ê Aiy ê : Notas Sobre o Espa ç o Mediano da Cultura.”

Afro- Á sia 18 (1996): 189–203.

———. “Racism, Culture, and Black Identity in Brazil.” Bulletin of Latin

American Research 14, no. 3 (2005): 245–264.

Allen, Robert C., ed. Channels of Discourse, Reassembled . London: Routledge,

1992.

Amado, Jorge. O Pa í s do Carnaval . S ã o Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2011.

Anderson, Thomas F. Carnival and National Identity in the Poetry of

Afrocubanismo . Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2011.

Andrade, M á rio de. Macuna í ma . S ã o Paulo: Martins, 1981.

Andrews, George Reid. The Afro-Argentines of Buenos Aires, 1800–1900 .

Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980.

———. Afro-Latin America . New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

252 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ang, Ien. “Dismantling ‘Cultural Studies?’” Cultural Studies 6, no. 3 (1992):

311–321.

Appadurai, Arjun. Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization.

Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996.

Ara ú jo, Ana L ú cia. “Slavery, Royalty, and Racism: Representations of Africa in

Brazilian Carnaval.” Ethnologies 31, no. 2 (2010): 131–167.

Ara ú jo, Maria do Carmo. “Festa e Resist ê ncia Negra: O Carnaval no Contexto

dos Blocos Afro Il ê Aiy ê e Olodum em Salvador, Bahia.” MA Thesis, UFPB,

1996.

Archer, Margaret S. Culture and Agency: The Place of Culture in Social Theory .

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Armstrong, Piers. “The Aesthetic Escape Hatch: Carnaval , Blocos Afro

and the Mutations of Baianidade under the Signs of Globalisation and

Re-Africanization.” Journal of Iberian and Latin American Research 5, no. 2

(1999): 65–98.

———. “The Cultural Economy of the Bahian Carnaval .” Studies in Latin


———. Cultura Popular na Bahia & Estil í stica Cultural Pragm á tica . Feira de

Santana: Editora Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, 2001.

———. “Uma Literatura Oral P ó s-Moderna nas Letras de Blocos Afro do

Carnaval Baiano.” In Oralidade e Literatura: Manifesta çõ es e Abordagens no

Brasil , ed. Frederico Augusto Garcia Fernandes, 113–142. Londrina: Editora

da Universidade Estadual de Londrina, 2003.

———. “Moralizing Dionysus and Lubricating Apollo: A Semantic Topography

of Subject Construction in Afro-Bahian Carnival.” Luso-Brazilian Review

38, no. 2 (2001): 29–60.

Averill, Gage. “ Anraje to Angaje : Carnival Politics and Music in Haiti.”

Ethnomusicology 38, no. 2 (1994): 217–247.

Azevedo, Thales de. Democracia Racial: Ideologia e Realidade . Petr ó polis: Vozes,

1975.

Baaz, Maria Eriksson, and Mai Palmberg, eds. Same and Other: Negotiating

African Identity in Cultural Production . Stockholm: Transaction Publishers,

2001.

Babayemi, S. O. Egungun among the Oyo Yoruba . Ibadan: Oyo State Council of

Arts and Culture/Board Publications, 1980.

Bacelar, Jeferson. Etnicidade: Ser Negro em Salvador . Salvador: Ianam á , 1989.

Bacelar, Jeferson, and Carlos Caroso, eds., Brasil: Um Pa í s de Negros? Rio de

Janeiro: Pallas/CEAA, 1998.

Badejo, Diedre. Ò sun S èè g è s í : The Elegant Deity of Wealth, Power, and Femininity .

Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1996.

Bakhtin, Mikhail. A Cultura Popular na Idade M é dia e no Renascimento . S ã o

Paulo: Editora UnB, 1996.

———. Rabelais and His World . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984.

Bandeira, Manuel. A Cinza das Horas, Carnaval e o Ritmo Dissoluto . Rio de

Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 1994.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 253

Barnes, Barry. Understanding Agency: Social Theory and Responsible Action .

London: Sage, 2000.

Barthes, Roland. Mythologies . London: Paladin, 1973.

Beasley-Murray, Jon. Posthegemony: Political Theory and Latin America .

Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010.

Beier, Ulli, ed. Yoruba Poetry . Bayreuth: Bayreuth African Studies Series, 2002.

Belsey, Catherine. Culture and the Real: Theorizing Cultural Criticism .

New York: Routledge, 2005.

Bennett, Tony. Outside Literature . London: Routledge, 1990.

Bennett, Tony, C. Mercer, and J. Woollacott, eds. Popular Culture and Social

Relations . Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1986.

Berry, Jason. “Mardi Gras in New Orleans, USA: Annals of a Queen.” In

Carnaval! , ed. Barbara Mauldin, 299–325. Seattle: University of Washington

Press, 2004.

Best, Steven, and Douglas Kellner. Postmodern Theory . London: Macmillan,

1991.

Bettelheim, Judith. “Negotiations of Power in Carnaval Culture in Santiago de

Cuba.” African Arts 24, no. 2 (1991): 66–75, 91–92.

Bettelheim, Judith, and John Nunley. Caribbean Festival Arts: Each and Every

Bit of Difference . Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988.

Blatner, Adam. “The Implications of Postmodernism for Psychotherapy.”

Individual Psychology 53, no. 4 (1997): 476–482.

Blundell, V., J. Shepherd, and I. Taylor, eds. Relocating Cultural Studies:

Developments in Theory and Research. New York: Routledge, 1993.

Boal, Augusto. Theatre of the Oppressed . New York: Theater Communications,

1995.

Boaventura, Edivaldo M., and Ana C é lia da Silva. “O Terreiro, a Quadra e a

Roda”: Formas Alternativas de Educa çã o da Crian ç a Negra em Salvador .

Salvador: Editora da Universidade do Estado da Bahia, 1997.

Bollig, Ben. “White Rapper/Black Beats: Discovering a Race Problem in the

Music of Gabriel o Pensador.” Latin American Music Review / Revista de

M ú sica Latinoamericana 23, no. 2 (2002): 159–178.

Bourdieu, Pierre. The Field of Cultural Production . Cambridge: Polity Press, 1993.

———. Language and Symbolic Power . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press, 1991.

———. Pascalian Meditations . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000.

———. O Poder Simb ó lico . Rio de Janeiro: Bertrand, 1998.

———. “The School as a Conservative Force: Scholastic and Cultural Inequalities.”

In Contemporary Research in the Sociology of Education , ed. James Eggleston,

32–46. London: Methuen, 1974.

Boyce Davies, Carole. “Black Bodies, Carnivalized Bodies.” Border/Lines 34/35

(1994): 53–57.

———. “Re-Presenting Black Female Identity in Brazil: ‘Filhas d’Oxum’ in Bahia

Carnival.” Ijele: Journal of the African World 2, no. 1 (2001). Accessible via

the Wayback Machine at https://web.archive.org/web/20041207035649/

254 BIBLIOGRAPHY

http://www.ijele.com/ijele/vol2.1/boyceDavies.html (accessed August 4,

2015).

———. “Transformational Discourses, Afro-Diaspora Culture, and the Literary

Imagination.” In “Literature, the Creative Imagination, and Globalization.”

Special issue, Macalester International 3 (1996): 199–224.

Brown, Karl, ed. The Folkways of Brazil: A Bibliography . Compiled by Rex

Gorham. New York: New York Public Library, 1944.

Browning, Barbara. “The Daughters of Gandhi: Africanness, Indianness, and

Brazilianness in the Bahian Carnival.” Women and Performance 7–8 (1995):

151–169.

———. Samba: Resistance in Motion . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995.

Butler, Kim D. Freedoms Given, Freedoms Won: Afro-Brazilians in Post-Abolition

S ã o Paulo and Salvador . New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1998.

———. “ Ginga Baiana : The Politics of Race, Class, Culture, and Power in

Salvador, Bahia.” In Afro-Brazilian Culture and Politics: Bahia, 1790s to

1990s , ed. Hendrik Kraay, 159–160. Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1998.

Cacciatore, Olga Gudolle. Dicion á rio de Cultos Afro-Brasileiros . Rio de Janeiro:

Forense Universit á ria, 1977.

Cadernos do IPAC. Carnaval de Maragojipe . Salvador: Secretaria de Cultura,

2010.

———. Desfile de Afox é s . Salvador: Secretaria de Cultura, 2010.

———. Festa de Boa Morte . Salvador: Secretaria de Cultura, 2011.

———. Festa de Santa B á rbara . Salvador: Secretaria de Cultura, 2010.

Caine, Barbara. Biography and History . New York: Palgrave, 2010.

Calmon, Francisco. Rela çã o das Faust í ssimas Festas . Rio de Janeiro: Minist é rio

de Educa çã o e Cultura, 1982.

Carneiro, Edison. Folguedos Tradicionais . Rio de Janeiro: Conquista, 1974.

Carvalho, Jos é Jorge de. “The Multiplicity of Black Identities in Brazilian Popular

Music.” In Black Brazil: Culture, Identity, and Social Mobilization , ed. Larry

Crook and Randal Johnson, 261–295. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American

Center Publications, 1999.

Cascudo, Lu í s da C â mara. Dicion á rio do Folclore Brasileiro . 5th ed. Belo

Horizonte: Editora Itatiaia, 1984.

Castro, Ruy. Carnaval no Fogo: Cr ô nica de uma Cidade Excitante Demais . S ã o

Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2003.

Cavalcanti, Luciano Marcos Dias. “O Carnaval na Po é tica de Manuel Bandeira.”

Revista Eletr ô nica 7 (2002): 1–15.

Certeau, Michel de. The Practice of Everyday Life . Berkeley: University of

California Press, 1988.

Chambers, Iain. Border Dialogues: Journeys in Postmodernity . New York:

Routledge, 1990.

Chaney, David. The Cultural Turn: Scene-Setting Essays on Contemporary

Cultural Theory . London: Routledge, 1994.

Chow, Rey. Writing Diaspora: Tactics of Intervention in Contemporary Cultural

Studies . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 255

Clarke, Duncan. The Art of African Textiles . San Diego, CA: Thunder Bay Press,

2002.

Coelho, Marisa Colnago. Bibliografia do Carnaval Brasileiro . S é rie Refer ê ncia 3.

Rio de Janeiro: Instituto Brasileiro de Arte e Cultura; Universidade Federal

do Rio de Janeiro, 1992.

Cohen, Abner. Masquerade Politics: Explorations in the Structure of Urban

Cultural Movements . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.

Cohen, Colleen B., Richard Wilk, and Beverly Stoeltje, eds. Beauty Queens on the

Global Stage: Gender, Contests, and Power . New York: Routledge, 1996.

Collins, Jim. Uncommon Cultures: Popular Culture and Post-Modernism .

London: Routledge, 1989.

Colonelli, Cristina Argenton. Bibliografia do Folclore Brasileiro . S ã o Paulo:

Conselho Estadual de Artes e Ci ê ncias Humanas, 1979.

Concei çã o, J ô natas, and Il ê Aiy ê (musical group). Guin é Conakry . Salvador:

Pedagogical Extension Project, 1998.

Concei çã o, J ô natas, and Maria de Lourdes Siqueira. Á frica: Ventre F é rtil do

Mundo . Salvador: Cultural Association Carnival Group Il ê Aiy ê , 2001.

Cooper, Carolyn. Noises in the Blood: Orality, Gender, and the “Vulgar” Body of

Jamaican Popular Culture . Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995.

Cosentino, Donald. “‘My Heart Don’t Stop’: Haiti, the Carnival State.” In


Press, 2004.

Covin, David. “The Role of Culture in Brazil’s Unified Black Movement, Bahia

in 1992.” Journal of Black Studies 27, no. 1 (1996): 39–55.

———. The Unified Black Movement in Brazil, 1978–2002 . Jefferson, NC and

London: McFarland & Co., 2006.

Covington, Georges. Port-au-Prince au Cours des Ans: La Capitale d’Haiti sous

l’Occupation, 1922–1934 . Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie Henri Deschamps, 1987.

Crane, Diana. The Production of Culture . London: Sage, 1992.

Crook, Larry. Black Consciousness, Samba Reggae, and the Re-Africanization of

Bahian Carnival Music in Brazil . Basel: World of Music, 1993.

———. “Reinventing Africa and Hybridity in Northeastern Music: Blocos Afro

and Mangue Beat.” In Brazilian Music:Northeastern Traditions and the Heartbeat

of a Modern Nation , 271–272. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2005.

———. “Reinventing Africa and Remixing Hybridity: Blocos Afro and Mangue

Beat.” Chapter 7 of Music of Northeast Brazil . 2nd ed. New York: Routledge,

2005.

Crook, Larry, and Randal Johnson, eds. Black Brazil: Culture, Identity, and Social

Mobilization . Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1999.

Crowley, Daniel J. African Myth and Black Reality in Bahian Carnaval .

Los Angeles: Museum of Cultural History, UCLA, 1984.

———. Bahian Carnival . Monograph No. 25. Los Angeles: Museum of Cultural

History, UCLA, 1984.

———. “The Sacred and the Profane in African and African-Derived Carnivals.”

Western Folklore 58, no. 3/4 (1999): 223–228.

256 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Da Diretoria do Bloco Carnavalesco Il ê Aiy ê à s Candidatas a “Rainha Il ê .”

Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê , 1988.

DaMatta, Roberto. Carnavais, Malandros e Her ó is: Para uma Sociologia do

Dilema Brasileiro . Rio de Janeiro: Rocc ó , 1997.

———. Carnivals, Rogues, and Heroes: An Interpretation of the Brazilian

Dilemma . Trans. John Drury. London and Notre Dame, IN: University of

Notre Dame Press, 1991.

———. “A Concise Reflection on the Brazilian Carnival.” In Aesthetics in

Performance: Formations of Symbolic Construction and Experience , ed. Angela

Hobart and Bruce Kapferer, 183–195. New York: Berghahn Books, 2005.

Danow, David. The Spirit of Carnival: Magical Realism and the Grotesque .

Louisville: University of Kentucky Press, 2004.

Davies, Ioan. Cultural Studies and Beyond: Fragments of Empire . London:

Routledge, 1995.

D á vila, Michael R. “Oppression and Resistance in Jamaican Reggae and Afro–

Brazilian Music: A Comparative Study of Race in Music and Culture.” The

Dread Library , http://debate.uvm.edu/dreadlibrary/davila.html (accessed

August 5, 2015).

Dirks, Nicholas B., Geoff Eley, and Sherry B. Ortner, eds. Culture/Power/

History: A Reader in Contemporary Social Theory . Princeton, NJ: Princeton

University Press, 1994.

Docherty, Thomas. Postmodernism: A Reader . Hemel Hempstead: Harvester

Wheatsheaf, 1992.

Docker, John. Postmodernism and Popular Culture: A Cultural History .

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

Dogbe, Y. E. Le Divin Amour . Paris: P. J. Oswald, 1976.

Dosumu, Jubril Adesegun. “Masks and Masques in Yoruba Ritual Festivals.” In

Orisa: Yoruba Gods and Spiritual Identity in Africa and the Diaspora , ed.

Toyin Falola and Ann Genova, 113–127. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press,

2005.

Drewal, Henry J. “Art History, Agency, and Identity: Yoruba Transcultural

Currents in the Making of Black Brazil.” In Black Brazil: Culture, Identity,

and Social Mobilization , ed. Larry Crook and Randal Johnson, 143–174. Los

Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1999.

———. “Costume in African Traditions.” International Encyclopedia of Dance .

Vol. 2. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998: 209–213.

———. “Flaming Crowns, Cooling Waters: Masquerades of the Ijebu Yoruba.”

African Arts 20, no. 1 (1986): 32–41, 99–100.

Drewal, Henry, and Margaret Drewal. Gelede: Art and Female Power among the

Yoruba . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990.

Dunn, Christopher. “Afro-Bahian Carnival: A Stage for Protest.” Afro-Hispanic

Review 11, no. 1–3 (1992): 11–20.

———. “Between Markets and Patrons: The Field of Afro-Bahian Carnival

Music” Lucero 5 (1994): 47–56.

During, Simon. Cultural Studies: A Critical Introduction . London and


BIBLIOGRAPHY 257

During, Simon, ed. The Cultural Studies Reader . London: Routledge, 1993.

Dzidzienyo, Anani. “Conclusion.” In No Longer Invisible: Afro-Latin Americans

Today , ed. Minority Rights Group, 345–358. London: Minority Rights Group,

1995.

Easthope, Antony. Literary into Cultural Studies . London: Routledge, 1991.

Easthope, Antony, and Kate McGowan, eds. A Critical and Cultural Theory

Reader . Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1992.

Eliade, Mircea. The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion . Orlando, FL:

Harcourt, 1987.

Enciclop é dia da M ú sica Brasiliera: Eudita, Folcl ó rica e Popular. 2 vols. S ã o Paulo:

Art Editora, 1977.

Eneida, Haroldo Costa. Hist ó ria do Carnaval Carioca . Rio de Janeiro: Editora

Record, 1987.

Eyre, Banning. “Interview with Gilberto Gil.” Afropop Worldwide (Boston,

1995), formerly published at http://afropop.org/multi/interview/ID/6 .

Falola, Toyin. The Power of African Cultures . Rochester, NY: University of

Rochester Press, 2003.

Famule, Olawole. The Ijumu-Yoruba Egungun Masquerades: Art and Spirituality

in an African Culture . London: Verlag, 2009.

Feinstein, David, and Stanley Krippner. Personal Mythology: The Psychology of

Your Evolving Self . Detroit, MI: Tarcher, 1988.

F é lix, An í sio, and Moacir Nery. Bahia, Carnaval . Salvador: CIA, 2000.

Fischer, T â nia, ed. O Carnaval Baiano: Neg ó cios e Oportunidades . Bras í lia:

Sebrae, 1996.

Fraz ã o, Heliana. “Bloco Il ê Aiy ê Passa a Aceitar Brancos no Carnaval e Gera

Pol ê mica.” UOL (November 28, 2009). http://noticias.uol.com.br/cotidiano/

2009/11/28/ult5772u6412.jhtm (accessed August 5, 2015).

Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum, 2007.

Freitas, Joseania. “Museu do Bloco Afro Il ê Aiy ê : Um Espa ç o de Mem ó ria e

Etnicidade.” Master’s Thesis, Federal University of Bahia, 1996.

Freyre, Gilberto. Casa-Grande e Senzala . S ã o Paulo: Global Editora, 2003.

Frow, John. Cultural Studies and Cultural Value . Oxford and New York: Oxford


Fry, Peter, S é rgio Carrara, and Ana Luiza Martins-Costa. “Negros e Brancos

no Carnaval da Velha Rep ú blica.” In Escravid ã o e Inven çã o da Liberdade , ed.

Jo ã o Jos é Reis, 232–63. S ã o Paulo: Brasiliense, 1988.

Fryer, Peter. Rhythms of Resistance: African Musical Heritage in Brazil . Hanover,

CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2000.

Fuery, Patrick, and Nick Mansfield. Cultural Studies and Critical Theory .

2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Galembo, Phyllis. Divine Inspiration: Benin to Bahia . Albuquerque: New Mexico

Press, 1993.

Garc í a, Florencio Oscar. Samba: A Bibliography with Introduction . Albuquerque,

NM: FOG Publications, 1992.

Gardiner, Michael E. Critiques of Everyday Life . London and New York:

Routledge, 2000.

258 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. “Celebrating Candombl é in Bahia.” The Root , February

16, 2010. http://www.theroot.com/articles/history/2010/02/henry_louis_

gates_the_african_roots_of_brazils_carnival.html (accessed August 4, 2015).

———. The Signifying Monkey . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.

Gill, James. Lords of Misrule: Mardi Gras and the Politics of Race in New Orleans .

Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997.

Gilmore, David D. Carnival and Culture: Sex, Symbol, and Status in Spain . New

Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998.

Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness . Cambridge,

MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.

Girard, Ren é . Violence and the Sacred . Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University

Press, 1989.

Goldwasser, Maria Julia. O Pal á cio do Samba: Estudo Antropol ó gico da Escola

de Samba Esta çã o Primeira de Mangueira . Rio de Janeiro: Zahar Editores,

1975.

Gonzalez, L é lia. Festas Populares no Brasil/Popular Festivals in Brazil . Rio de

Janeiro: Editora Index, 1987.

Governo do Estado da Bahia. Carnaval no Feminino . Salvador: SEPROM,

2010.

———. Carnaval Ouro Negro . Salvador: SECULT, 2009.

Graden, Dale Torston. From Slavery to Freedom in Brazil: Bahia, 1835–1900.

Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006.

Green, Garth L., and Philip W. Scher, eds. Trinidad Carnival: The Cultural

Politics of a Transnational Festival . Bloomington: Indiana University Press,

2007.

Guillermoprieto, Alma. Samba . New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990.

Hall, Stuart. Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices .

London: Sage, 1997.

Hall, Stuart, and Bram Gieben. The Formations of Modernity . New York:

Pantheon, 1992.

Hall, Stuart, Dorothy Hobson, Andrew Lowe, and Paul Wills, eds. Culture,

Media, Language . London: Hutchinson, 1980.

Hamilton, Russell G. “Gabriela Meets Olodum: Paradoxes of Hybridity, Racial

Identity, and Black Consciousness in Contemporary Brazil.” Research in

African Literatures 38, no. 1 (2007): 181–193.

Hanchard, Michael. Orpheus and Power: The Movimento Negro of Rio de Janeiro

and S ã o Paulo, Brazil, 1945–1988 . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,

1994.

Hannerz, Ulf. Transnational Connections: Culture, People, Places . London and


Hartman, Geoffrey H. The Fateful Question of Culture . New York: Columbia


Hartness, Ann. Brazil in Reference Books, 1965–1989: An Annotated Bibliography .

Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1991.

Harvey, David. The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of

Cultural Change . Oxford: Blackwell, 1989.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 259

Henry, Clarence Bernard. Let’s Make Some Noise: Ax é and the African Roots of

Brazilian Popular Music . Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2008.

Hipolito, Rita de C á ssia. “Al é m Daquele Carnaval: O Bloco Il ê Aiy ê , O

Candombl é e a Afirma çã o da Identidade Negra.” Master’s Thesis, USP—S ã o

Paulo, 2005.

Hoare, Quintin, and Geoffrey Nowell-Smith, eds. Selections from the Prison

Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci . London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1982.

Hobart, Angela, and Bruce Kapferer, eds. Aesthetics in Performance: Formations

of Symbolic Construction and Experience . New York: Berghahn Books,

2005.

Ickes, Scott. African-Brazilian Culture and Regional Identity in Bahia, Brazil .

Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2013.

Il ê Aiy ê (musical group). 20 Anos de Resist ê ncia Negra/1974–1994: Uma Na çã o

Africana Chamada Bahia . Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê , 1994.

———. Caderno de Educa çã o do Il ê Aiy ê . Salvador: Pedagogical Extension Project/

CB Publicidade e Servi ç o Gr á fico, 1998.

———. Cadernos de Educa çã o: A Rota dos Tambores no Maranh ã o . Salvador: Il ê

Aiy ê , 2003.

———. Canto Negro: Am é rica Negra, O Sonho Americano . Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê , 1993.

———. “A Festa da Beleza Negra.” In M ã e Hilda Jitolu , by Il ê Aiy ê , 40–42.

Salvador: Caderno de Educa çã o, 2004.

———. Il ê Aiy ê : 25 Anos de Resist ê ncia . Salvador: Cultural Association Carnival

Group Il ê Aiy ê , 1999.

———. M ã e Hilda Jitolu: Guardi ã da F é e da Tradi çã o Africana . Salvador: Il ê

Aiy ê , 2004.

———. O Negro e o Poder: Cadernos de Educa çã o . Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê , 2006.

———. A Rota dos Tambores no Maranh ã o . Salvador: Pedagogical Extension

Project, 2003.

———. Terra de Quilombo . Salvador: Pedagogical Extension Project/CB

Publicidade e Servi ç o Gr á fico, 1998. Reprinted in 2000.

Issawi, Charles Philip. Cross-Cultural Encounters and Conflicts . New York:

Oxford University Press, 1998.

Jameson, Fredric. Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Caplitalism .

Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991.

Jordan, Glenn, and Chris Weedon. Cultural Politics: Class, Gender, Race, and the

Postmodern World . Oxford: Blackwell, 1994.

Kaplan, E. A. Postmodernism and Its Discontents: Theories, Practices . New York:

Verso, 1987.

Kennedy, James H. “Strategies for Including Afro-Latin American Culture in

the Intermediate Spanish Class.” Hispania 70, no. 3 (1987): 679–683.

Kinser, Samuel. Carnival, American Style: Mardi Gras at New Orleans and

Mobile . Chicago: University of Chicago, 1990.

———. Rabelais’s Carnival: Text, Context, Metatext . Berkeley: University of

California Press, 1990.

Kraay, Hendrik, ed. Afro-Brazilian Culture and Politics: Bahia, 1790s to 1990s .

Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1998.

260 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Krich, John. Why Is This Country Dancing? A One-Man Samba to the Beat of

Brazil . New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993.

Lawal, Babatunde. The Gelede Spectacle: Art, Gender, and Social Harmony in an

African Culture . Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996.

Leitch, Vincent B. Cultural Criticism, Literary Theory, Poststructuralism . New

York: Columbia University Press, 1992.

Legum, Colin. Pan Africanism . London: Pall Mall Press, 1962.

Levine, Robert M. Brazil since 1930: An Annotated Bibliography for Social

Historians . New York: Garland Publishing, 1980.

Lima, Alberto. “Homenagem a M ã e Hilda Jitolu: Perola Negra Maior.” Foto-

etnografia ALBERTO LIMA (September 23, 2009). http://fotografoalberto

lima.blogspot.com/2009/09/homenagem-mae-hilda-jitolu-por-alberto.

html (accessed August 5, 2015).

Lima, Jo ã o Gabriel de. Carnaval . Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2005.

Lima, Paulo Costa, ed. Semin á rios de Carnaval . Salvador: EDUFBA, 1988.

Lima, Val é ria. “M ã e Hilda Jitolu.” formerly online at http://www.carnavalouro

negro.ba.gov.br/mestres_populares.php (originally accessed August 5, 2010).

Linstead, Stephen, and Heather H ö pfl, eds. The Aesthetics of Organization .

London: Sage, 2000.

Lispector, Clarice. “Restos do Carnaval.” In Felicidade Clandestina , 25–28. Rio

de Janeiro: Rocc ó , 1998.

Liverpool, Hollis. Rituals of Power and Rebellion: The Carnival Tradition in

Trinidad and Tobago, 1763–1962 . Chicago: Research Associates, 1993.

Long, Elizabeth, ed. From Sociology to Cultural Studies: New Perspectives . Oxford:

Blackwell, 1997.

Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism . London and New York: Routledge,

2005.

Louzada, Wilson. Contos de Carnaval: Antologia de Grandes Autores Brasileiros .

Rio de Janeiro: Edi çõ es de Ouro, 1965.

Lovejoy, Paul E., and David V. Trotman, eds. Trans-Atlantic Dimensions of

Ethnicity in the African Diaspora. New York: Continuum International, 2004.

Lyotard, Jean-Fran ç ois. The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge .

Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006.

Mariano, Agnes. A Inven çã o da Baianidade . S ã o Paulo: Annablume, 2009.

Mauldin, Barbara, ed. Carnaval! Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2004.

Mbiti, John. Introduction to African Religion . London: Heinemann, 1991.

Originally published in 1975.

McGowan, Chris, and Ricardo Pessanha. “Bahia of All the Saints.” Chapter 6

of The Brazilian Sound: Samba, Bossa Nova, and the Popular Music of Brazil ,

119–31. New York: Billboard Books, 1991. Online at https://archive.org/

details/braziliansoundsa00mcgo .

McAlister, Elizabeth. Rara! Vodou, Power, and Performance in Haiti and Its

Diaspora . Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.

Meireles, Cec í lia. Batuque, Samba e Macumba: Estudos de Gesto e de Ritmo, 1926–

1934 . Rio de Janeiro: Funarte/Instituto Nacional do Folclore, 1983.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 261

Mem ó ria do Carnaval . Rio de Janeiro: Prefeitura da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro;

RIOTUR; Oficina do Livro, 1991.

Miguez de Oliveira, Paulo Cezar. “A Organiza çã o da Cultura na Cidade da

Bahia.” PhD diss., Salvador: Universidade Federal da Bahia, 2002.

Milner, Andrew. Literature, Culture, and Society . New York: New York University

Press, 1996.

Minority Rights Group, ed., No Longer Invisible: Afro-Latin Americans Today .

London: Minority Rights Group, 1995.

Moraes, Alexandre Jos é de Mello. Festas e Tradi çõ es Populares do Brasil. Belo

Horizonte: Ed. Itatiaia; S ã o Paulo: Editora da Universidade de S ã o Paulo,

1979.

Moraes, Lygia Marina. Vinicius de Moraes . Rio de Janeiro: Record, 1981.

Moraes, Vinicius de. Orfeu da Concei çã o (trag é dia carioca). Rio de Janeiro:

Livraria S ã o Jos é , 1960.

Morales, Anamaria. “O Afox é Filhos de Gandhi Pede Paz.” In Escravid ã o e

Inven çã o da Liberdade: Estudos Sobre o Negro no Brasil , ed. Jo ã o Jos é Reis,

264–274. S ã o Paulo: Editora Brasiliense, 1988.

Morana, Mabel, and Enriqu é Dussel, eds. Coloniality at Large: Latin America

and the Postcolonial Debate . Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008.

Morley, David, and Kuan-Hsing Chen, eds. Stuart Hall: Critical Dialogues in

Cultural Studies. London and New York: Routledge, 1996.

Morris, Pam, ed. The Bakhtin Reader: Selected Writings of Bakhtin, Medvedev,

Voloshinov . New York: St. Martins/Edward Arnold, 1994.

Moser, Robert H. The Carnivalesque Defunto: Death and the Dead in Modern

Brazilian Literature . Athens: Ohio University Press, 2008.

Moura, Milton. “Carnaval e Baianidade: Arestas e Curvas na Coreografia de

Identidades do Carnaval de Salvador.” PhD diss., Salvador: Universidade

Federal da Bahia, 2001.

Mudimbe, V. Y. “Reprendre: Enunciations and Strategies in Contemporary

African Arts.” In Reading the Contemporary: African Art from Theory to

the Marketplace , ed. Olu Oguibe and Okwui Enwezor, 30–47. London and

Cambridge: MIT, 1999.

Muniz J ú nior, J. Sambistas Imortais: Dados Biogr á ficos de 50 Figuras do Mundo

do Samba. S ã o Paulo: Companhia Brasileira de Impress ã o e Propoganda;

Companhia Lithographica Ypiranga, 1978.

Murphy, Joseph M., and Mei-Mei Sanford, eds. Osun Across the Waters .

Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001.

Na’Allah, Abdul-Rasheed. “The Origin of Egungun : A Critical Literary

Appraisal.” African Study Monographs 17, no. 2 (1996): 59–68.

Nascimento, Abdias do. Brazil. Mixture or Massacre? Essays in the Genocide of a

Black People . Trans. Elisa Larkin Nascimento. Dover, MA: Majority Press,

1989.

Nascimento, Jussara Rocha. “A Arte do Il ê Aiy ê : Elo na Corrente que une Heran ç a

e Projeto.” In Imagens Negras: Ancestralidade, Diversidade e Educa çã o ,

ed. Maria de Lourdes, 136–148. Belo Horizonte: Mazza, 2006.

262 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Neto, Paulo de Carvalho. El Carnaval de Montevideo . Seville: Seminario de

Antropologia Americana, 1967.

———. Estudios Afros: Brasil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Ecuador . Caracas: Universidad

Central de Venezuela, 1971.

Niceas, Alcides. Verbetes Para um Dicion á rio do Carnaval Brasileiro . Sorocaba,

SP: FUA, 1991.

Njoku, Raphael Chijioke. “Symbols and Meanings of Igbo Masquerades and

Carnivals of the Black Diaspora.” In Migrations and Creative Expressions in

Africa and the African Diaspora , ed. Toyin Falola, Niyi Afolabi, and Aderonke

Adesanya, 257–277. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2008.

Nunley, John. “Playing Mas: Carnival in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.” In


Press, 2004.

Ohadike, Don C. Sacred Drums of Liberation . Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press,

2007.

Ojo-Ade, Femi. “O Brasil, Para í so ou Inferno Para o Negro: Subs í dios Para Uma

Nova Negritude.” In Brasil: Um Pa í s de Negros? , ed. Jeferson Bacelar and

Carlos Caroso, 35–50. Rio de Janeiro: Pallas/CEAA, 1998.

Oliveira, Nilza de. Quaesitu: O Que é Escola de Samba? Rio de Janeiro: Prefeitura,

Secretaria Municipal de Governo, 1996.

Omari, Mikelle Smith. “The Role of the Gods in Afro-Brazilian Ancestral

Ritual.” Africans Arts 23, no. 1 (1989): 54–61.

Parker, Richard G. Bodies, Pleasures, and Passions: Sexual Culture in Contemporary

Brazil . Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2009.

Pereira, Leonardo Affonso de Miranda. O Carnaval das Letras . Rio de Janeiro:

Secret á ria Municipal de Cultura, 1994.

Perrone, Charles A., and Christopher Dunn. Brazilian Popular Music and

Globalization . Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2002.

Pescatello, Ann M. The African in Latin America . New York: Knopf, 1975.

Pinho, Patr í cia de Santana. Mama Africa: Reinventing Blackness in Bahia .

Durham, NC and London: Duke University Press, 2010.

Piquet, Daniel. La Cultura Afrovenezolana . Caracas: Monte Avila, 1982.

Pitanga, Ant ô nio. “Where Are the Blacks?” In Black Brazil: Culture, Identity,

and Social Mobilization , ed. Larry Crook and Randal Johnson, 31–42. Los

Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1999.

Pl á cido, Antonio D. Carnaval, Evocaci ó n de Montevideo en la Historia y la

Tradici ó n . Montevideo: Editorial Letras, 1966.

Queiroz, Maria Isaura Pereira de. Carnaval Brasileiro: O Vivido e o Mito . S ã o

Paulo: Editora Brasiliense, 1992.

———. Carnaval Br é silien: Le V é cu et Le Mythe . Trans. Marcel Husson. Paris:

Gallimard, 1992.

Querino, Manuel. A Bahia de Outrora . Salvador: Progresso, 1955.

Ratner, Carl. “Agency and Culture.” Journal of the Theory of Social Behavior 30

(2000): 413–434.

Riggio, Milla Cozart, ed. Carnival: Culture in Action; The Trinidad Experience .


BIBLIOGRAPHY 263

Ris é rio, Ant ô nio. Carnaval Ijex á : Notas Sobre Afox é s e Blocos do Novo Carnaval

Afro-Baiano . Salvador: Corrupio, 1981.

———. “The Colors of Change.” In Black Brazil: Culture, Identity, and Social

Mobilization , ed. Larry Crook and Randal Johnson, 249–59. Los Angeles:

UCLA Latin American Center Publications, 1999.

———. A Utopia Brasileira e os Movimentos Negros . S ã o Paulo: Editora 34, 2007.

Rodrigues, Jo ã o Jorge Santos. M ú sica do Olodum: Revolu çã o da Emo çã o, 1983–

2002 . Salvador: Olodum, 2002.

Rodrigues, Nina, Os Africanos no Brasil . S ã o Paulo: Madras, 2008.

Romo, Anadelia A. Brazil’s Living Museum: Race, Reform, and Tradition in

Bahia . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010.

Rosenfeld, Anatol. O Mito e o Her ó i no Moderno Teatro Brasileiro . S ã o Paulo:

Perspectiva, 1996.

Ross, Doran H. Wrapped in Pride: Ghanaian Kente and African American

Identity . Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum, 1998.

Sands, Rosita M. “Conversation with Maureen ‘Bahama Mama’ DuValier and

Ronald Simms: Junkanoo Past, Present, and Future.” The Black Perspective in

Music 17, no. 1/2 (1989): 93–108.

Santana, Arany, and J ô natas Concei çã o da Silva. A Civiliza çã o Bantu . Salvador:

Cultural Association Carnival Group Il ê Aiy ê , 1996.

———. A For ç a das Ra í zes . Salvador: Cultural Association Carnival Group Il ê

Aiy ê , 1996.

———. Zumbi—300 Anos: Il ê Aiy ê —21 Anos . Salvador: Cultural Association

Carnival Group Il ê Aiy ê , 1996.

Santana, Rosana. “Interview with Ant ô nio Carlos dos Santos, Vov ô , President of

Il ê Aiy ê .” In Carnaval da Bahia: Um Registro Est é tico , ed. Nelson Cerqueira,

112–23. Salvador: Omar G., 2002.

Santanna, Marilda. As Donas do Canto: O Sucesso das Estrelas-Int é rpretes no

Carnaval de Salvador . Salvador: EDUFBA, 2009.

Santiago, Silviano. “O Entre Lugar do Discurso Latino Americano.” In Uma

Literatura nos Tr ó picos: Ensaios sobre Depend ê ncia Cultural , 13–25. Rio de

Janeiro: Rocc ó , 2000.

Santos, Hilda Dias dos. M ã e Hilda: A Hist ó ria da Minha Vida . Salvador: EGBA,

1997.

Santos, Joc é lio Teles dos. O Poder da Cultura e a Cultura no Poder . Salvador:

EDUFBA, 2005.

Santos, Myrian Sepúlveda dos. “Samba Schools: The Logic of Orgy and Blackness

in Rio de Janeiro.” In Representations of Blackness and the Performance of

Identities , ed. Jean Muteba Rahier, 69–89. Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey,

1999.

Schaun, Â ngela. Pr á ticas Educomunicativas: Grupos Afro-descendentes, Salvador,

Bahia: Ara Ketu, Il ê Aiy ê , Olodum, Olodum, Pracatum . Rio de Janeiro:

MAUAD, 2002.

Scher, Philip W. “Brooklyn Carnival: Mandate for a Dual-Sited Ethnography.” In

Carnival and the Formation of a Caribbean Transnation , 64–87. Gainesville:

University of Florida Press, 2003.

264 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Schouten, Peer. “James Scott on Agriculture as Politics, the Dangers of

Standardization and Not Being Governed.” Theory Talks #38, May 15,

2010. http://www.theory-talks.org/2010/05/theory-talk-38.html (accessed

August 4, 2015).

Scott, James C. Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts .

New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.

———. Seeing Like a State. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999.

Sebe, Jos é Carlos. Carnaval, Carnavais . S ã o Paulo: Editora Á tica, 1986.

Silva, J ô natas Concei çã o da. “Hist ó ria de Lutas Negras: Mem ó rias do Surgimento

do Movimento Negro na Bahia.” In Escravid ã o e Inven çã o da Liberdade , ed.

Jo ã o Jos é Reis, 63–78. S ã o Paulo: Brasiliense, 1998.

———. “O Querer é o Eterno Poder: Hist ó ria e Resist ê ncia no Bloco Afro,”

Afro- Á sia 16 (1995): 107–115.

———. Vozes Quilombolas: Uma Po é tica Brasileira . Salvador: EDUFBA and Il ê

Aiy ê , 2004.

Silva, Rita de Cassia Maia da. “O Negro-Espet á culo: O Bloco Afro Il ê Aiy ê na

Resignifica çã o e Recep çã o da Imagem do Negro em Salvador.” 2 vols. PhD

diss., Federal University of Bahia, 2002.

Siqueira, Maria de Lourdes . Imagens Negras: Ancestralidade, Diversidade e

Educa çã o . Belo Horizonte: Mazza Edi çõ es, 2006.

———. P é rolas Negras do Saber . Salvador: Cadernos de Educa çã o do Il ê Aiy ê ,

1997.

Sodr é , Muniz. O Terreiro e a Cidade: A Forma Social Negro-Brasileira . Rio de

Janeiro: Vozes, 1988.

Sommer, Doris, ed. Cultural Agency in the Americas . Durham, NC: Duke


Sousa, Walter Altino de, Jr. O Il ê Aiy ê e a Rela çã o com o Estado: Interfaces e

Ambig ü idades entre Poder e Cultura na Bahia . Salvador: Fast Design, 2007.

Souza, Florentina da Silva. “Discursos Identit á rios Afro-Brasileiros: O Il ê Aiy ê .”

In Po é ticas Afro-Brasileiras , ed. Maria do Carmo Lanna Figueiredo and Maria

Nazareth Soares Fonseca, 82–95. Belo Horizonte: Mazza, 2002.

Soyinka, Wole. Myth, Literature and the African World . Cambridge and London:

Cambridge University Press, 1976.

Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics . London

and New York: Methuen, 1987.

Stam, Robert. “Carnaval, Politics, and Brazilian Culture.” Studies in Latin


———. Subversive Pleasures: Bakhtin, Cultural Criticism, and Film . Baltimore,

MD and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.

Sterling, Cheryl. African Roots, Brazilian Rites . New York: Palgrave, 2012.

Stern, Irwin, ed. Dictionary of Brazilian Literature . New York: Greenwood

Press, 1988.

Strachan, Ian G. “Junkanoo and Power in The Bahamas: An Historical

Perspective.” In Marvels of the African World: African Cultural Patrimony,

New World Connections, and Identities , ed. Niyi Afolabi, 477–494. Trenton,

NJ: Africa World Press, 2003.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 265

Taylor, Diana, and Juan Villegas, eds. Negotiating Performance: Gender, Sexuality,

and Theatricality in Latin/o America . Durham, NC: Duke University Press,

1994.

Telles, Edward. Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in

Brazil. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006.

Tennenbaum, Barbara A., ed. Encyclopedia of Latin American History and

Culture. 5 vols. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1996.

Thompson, Peter S. “Negritude and a New Africa: An Update.” In African

Literature: An Anthology of Criticism and Theory , ed. Tejumola Olaniyan and

Ato Quayson, 210–218. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007.

van Dijk, Teun A. Racismo e Discurso na Am é rica Latina . S ã o Paulo: Contexto,

2008.

Verger, Pierre. “The Orishas of Bahia.” In Os Deuses Africanos no Candombl é da

Bahia/African Gods in the Candombl é of Bahia , illustrated by Caryb é . 235–

261. Salvador, Bigraf, 1993.

———. Not í cias da Bahia—1850 . Salvador: Corrupio, 1981.

———. Prociss õ es e Carnaval da Bahia . Salvador: CEAO, 1980.

———. Prociss õ es e Carnaval no Brasil . Salvador: CEAO-Ensaios, 1984.

Vison à , Monica Blackmun, Robin Poynor, Herbert M. Cole, and Michael D.

Harris. A History of Art in Africa . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001.

Vita, Alexis Brooks de. Mythatypes: Signatures and Signs of African/Diaspora

and Black Goddesses . Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000.

Walker, Sheila S. “The Bahian Carnival.” Black Art 5, no. 4 (1984): 23–27.

———. “The Feast of Good Death: An Afro-Catholic Emancipation

Celebration in Brazil.” In Women in Africa and the African Diaspora: A

Reader , ed. Rosalyn Terborg-Penn and Andrea Benton Rushing, 203–216.

Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 2004.

Webster’s Dictionary . Cleveland, OH: Wiley Publishing, 2002.

Weinoldt, Kirsten. “Life School.” Interview with Vov ô . Brazzil (November

1998), http://www.brazzil.com/musnov98.htm (accessed August 5, 2015).

Williams, Raymond. The Country and the City . New York. Oxford University

Press, 1975.

———. The Sociology of Culture . New York: Schocken Books, 1982.

———. Television: Technology and Cultural Form. New York: Schocken Books,

1975.

Winn, Peter. Americas: The Changing Face of Latin America and the Caribbean .

Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.

Y ú dice, George. The Expediency of Culture: Uses of Culture in the Global Era .

Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003.

Interviews (All interviews conducted in Salvador, Bahia.)

Almeida, Aliomar de Jesus (vice president of Il ê Aiy ê ), December 12, 2010.

Alves, Roseane Pereira (librarian), December 14, 2010.

266 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arquimimo, Billy (coordinator of Turismo É tnico Afro ), December 21, 2010;

May 2011.

Bamba (director of Il ê Aiy ê ), December 13, 2010.

Barme, Alzilema Purifica çã o Santo (teacher), December 15, 2010.

Bonfim, Jureli Fran ç a (accountant), December 13, 2010.

Camara, Mohammed (member of Band’Erê), December 13, 2010.

Concei çã o, Arlindo (administrative assistant), December 13, 2010.

Correia, Maria Lu í sa Monte (cleaner), December 15, 2010.

Divino, Rivanildo (musician and security guard), December 17, 2010.

Guimar ã es, Josenice (pedagogic director of Il ê Aiy ê ), December 17, 2010.

Macal é (director of Il ê Aiy ê ), December 12 and 13, 2010.

Menezzes, Geruse (hairdresser and ex-Ebony Goddess), December 5 and 16, 2010.

Neves, Edmilson Lopes da (director of Il ê Aiy ê ), December 15, 2010.

Oliveira, Gelton de (teacher), December 15, 2010.

Onawale, Land ê (Afro-Brazilian writer and cultural critic), December 18, 2010.

Paim, Joseane (psychotherapist), December 18, 2010.

Raimundo (director of Il ê Aiy ê ), December 13, 2010.

Reis, Aline Cristina Pereira (teacher), December 17, 2010.

Santos, Ademilton Jesus (messenger), December 13, 2010.

Santos, Ana Am é lia Dias (personal assistant to Vov ô ), December 13, 2010.

Santos, Ant ô nio Carlos Taiwo Boa Morte dos (administrative assistant),

December 17, 2010.

Santos, Hildelice Benta dos (director of Il ê Aiy ê ), December 13, 2010.

Santos, Jurim Assun çã o dos (security guard and drummer), December 17, 2010.

Santos, Maria Lu í sa Passos dos (Il ê Aiy ê ’s ex-teacher, and currently coordinator

of the Institute Nextel in Pelourinho), December 17, 2010.

Silva, Ardubor D. (gatekeeper), December 13, 2010.

Silva, Vin í cius Silva da (musician and gatekeeper), December 13, 2010.

Sousa Filho, Anizaldo Ferreira de (drummer for Il ê Aiy ê ), December 17, 2010.

Souza, Erval Soares (owner of Bar do Inho in Curuzu-Liberdade), December 17,

2010.

Sterling, Cheryl (New York University professor), December 10, 2010.

Teles, Alex Sandro (teacher and musician), December 23, 2010.

Teles, Jacilda Trindade (administrative assistant), December 13, 2010.

Vov ô , Ant ô nio Carlos dos Santos (president of Il ê Aiy ê ), December 12, 2010.

Woman X (Curuzu community entrepreneur), December 13 and 20, 2010.

Periodicals and Newspapers

Correio da Bahia . Salvador, (1970–2010).

Jornal da Bahia . Salvador (1970–2000).

Jornal do Brasil . Rio de Janeiro (1970–2010).

Manchete . Rio de Janeiro: Bloch Editores (1970–2000).

Veja . S ã o Paulo: Editora Abril. (1970–2000).

BIBLIOGRAPHY 267

Audio/Video/Disco/Filmography

Ger ô nimo. Ger ô nimo e Banda Mont’Serrat . DVD. Salvador: Casa de Ger ô nimo,

2002.

Il ê Aiy ê . Canto Negro . Audio CD. Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê Group, 1984.


Il ê Aiy ê . Black Chant . Audio CD. Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê Group, 1995.

Il ê Canta a Liberdade [Il ê Sings Freedom]. DVD. Salvador:TVE Bahia, 1995.

Il ê Aiy ê . 25 Anos . Audio CD. Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê Group, 1999.


Il ê Aiy ê . Bonito de se Ver . DVD. Salvador: Il ê Aiy ê Group, 2015.

Mercury, Daniela. O Canto da Cidade. Audio CD. Salvador: 1993.

Montes-Bradley, Eduardo. Samba on Your Feet . DVD. New York: Patagonia Film

Group, 2006. English & Portuguese.

Moraes-Liu, Carolina. Bloco Afro and Afox é . DVD.Salvador: Document á rio, 2010.

———. Ebony Goddess: Queen of Il ê Aiy ê . DVD. Salvador: Document á rio, 2012.

———. Ebony Goddess . DVD. Salvador: Document á rio, 2012.

———. Festive Land: Carnaval in Bahia . DVD. Salvador: Educational Television

(TVE), 2001.

Various Artists. Pure Brazil 2: Rio Bahia Carnival . Audio CD. Salvador:

Educational Television (TVE), 2006.

Various Artists. Ax é Bahia . 2 volumes. DVD. Salvador: Dolby, 2007.

Veloso, Caetano. “Interview with Vov ô .” Caetano na Bahia . DVD. Salvador:

Educational Television (TVE), 1994.

A Note on Web Sources

Many of the web pages consulted for this book are no longer online. In some

cases, however, the Internet Archive (archive.org) will have stored a “snapshot”

of the page. Go to https://www.archive.org and then enter the desired

defunct URL into their “Wayback Machine” to access available archived web

sources.

A Mulherada (Carnival group), x, 2, 66

Abdias, Mestre, 102

Abiodun, Rowland, 242n. 11

abolition, 7, 9, 13, 32, 38, 40, 52, 62,

72, 75, 85, 87, 89, 96, 97, 149,

229, 237n. 14

ABRINQ Foundation, 137

accounting, 138, 148, 207

adamu orisa, 5

Adelson, 159, 180, 181

Ademário, 177, 183

adoption, 212, 213

adrinka, 107

Afolabi, Niyi, x, xii, xv, 2, 41, 64, 69,

81, 129, 132–3, 135, 149, 153,

159, 164, 165, 186, 192, 194,

198, 202, 209, 213, 215, 219,

229, 231n. 1

afoxé, 2, 10, 14–16, 35–7, 44, 66, 90,

162, 189, 221, 224, 231n. 4,

233n. 13

African history, 30, 79, 83, 96, 103,

152, 154, 161, 164, 165, 169,

173, 176, 183

African values. See values, African

Africanity, xviii, xxiii, 79, 80, 82,

160, 182, 229

Africanization, xxvi, 2, 14, 16, 20,

27, 38, 71, 75, 77, 82, 86, 98,

99, 108, 111, 152, 162, 174,

176, 200, 224, 235n. 34

Afro-Bahianness, xviii, xxiii

Afrocentrism, 16, 17, 42, 44, 60, 76,

109, 110, 178

agbada (garment), 81

agency (office), 193, 200, 225

agency (power of acting), 17–27,

chapter 2 (passim), 76, 89, 110,

129, 139, 145, 157, 158, 169,

183, 186, 207, 213, 218, 223,

224–6, 229

Agier, Michel, 21, 22, 71, 116,

236n. 48–9, 241n. 34–5,

243n. 7, 244n. 14, 245n. 4,

246n. 5

Akan (people), 94

Alabê (Carnival group), 245n. 7

Alafin (Carnival group), 245n. 7

Alagoas, 51, 57, 63, 97

Alazarrô, Robertinho, 159

Alcione, 146

Almeida, Aliomar de Jesus, 30, 148,

149, 197, 198

Almiro, 100

Altair, 159, 164, 181

Alto das Pombas, 210

Alves, Castro, 23, 41, 42, 206

Alves, Marcos, 166

Alves, Roseane Pereira, 214, 249n. 32

Amado, Jorge, 41, 120, 232n. 4

Amerindians, 10

ancestors/ancestrality, 4–6, 9, 12, 23,

28, 41, 52–4, 56–9, 62, 68, 70,

73, 74, 80, 83, 95, 98, 102, 104,

106, 127, 128, 137, 143, 159,

170, 172, 174, 175, 178, 191,

197, 234n. 19

Andrews, George Reid, 233n. 11

Angelou, Maya, 111

Angola, 10, 47, 59, 87, 95, 97, 142,

226, 227

Apaches de Tororó, 10, 100

Index

270 INDEX

Apolônio de Jesus (co-founder of Ilê

Aiyê), 30, 49, 58, 134–6, 174,

203, 232n. 6

Aragão, Reginaldo, 159

Araketu (Carnival group), 30, 112,

114, 245n. 7

Arani, 100

Araújo, Ana Lúcia, 21, 23

Araújo, Emanuel, 102

Argentina, 4

Arízio, 100, 192

Armstrong, Piers, 11, 16, 17, 40, 41,

236n. 43, 238n. 20–2, 240n. 8

Arquimedes, 100

Arquimimo, Billy, 3, 202–4, 232n. 9,

249n. 15

Ashanti (people), 87, 94, 173, 227

aso oke cloth, 82

Auxiliadora, 99

Averill, Gage, 7, 237n. 27

axé, 10, 47, 54, 83, 104, 111, 154,

159, 162, 176, 238n. 25

Azevedo, Ana Rosa, 48

babalawo, 128

babalorixá, 51

Babayemi, S. O., 234n. 19

Bacalhau, Luis (poet), 61

Bacelar, Jeferson, 241n. 9–10

Bafo, Master, 99, 159

Bahamas, 4–6, 9, 234n. 21

Bahia Folia trophy, 158

Bahiatursa, 3, 196, 202, 225, 232n. 9

Bahutu (people), 90

Bajokwe (people), 92

Bakhtin, Mikhail, 11, 13–15, 35,

235n. 35

Bamba, 100, 147, 200, 201, 248n. 12

Banco do Brasil, 225

Banda Mel, 162

Band’Aiyê, 31, 70, 99, 136, 143, 154,

158–60, 165, 181, 190, 212,

246n. 3

Band’Erê, xiii, 31, 53, 100, 136, 143,

154, 158–60, 190, 198, 208,

209, 212, 213, 215

Bandes (company), 192

Bantu (people), 87, 93, 95, 181, 182

Bar, Zanzibar, 15

Barbados, 6, 125

Barme, Alzilema Purificação Santo, xi,

208, 209, 211

Barreto, 100

Barreto, Lima, 206

Batatinha, 42, 102

batucada, 57

batuques (drums), 21

Beasley-Murray, Jon, 226

beauty, 5, 9, 14, 30, 31, 40–5,

48, 50, 61, 66–70, 77, 79,

80, 82, 84, 88, 98, 99, 109–11,

113–21, 123–8, 142, 146,

152, 162, 169, 173–5, 177,

178, 181, 188, 190, 191, 200,

201, 216, 218–20, 223, 224,

229, 238n. 30, 248n. 4

Beier, Ulli, 242n. 11, 245n. 10

Beija-Flor (samba school), 23

Beleza Pura: Ilê Aiyê, O Belo da

Liberdade (DVD), 182, 183

Belgium, 47, 92

Belo Horizonte, 36

Benin, 47, 61, 63, 135

berimbau, 86, 242n. 16

Berlin Conference, 94

Bermuda, 125, 234n. 21

Berry, Jason, 235n. 28

Bethânia, Maria, 146, 154

Bettelheim, Judith, 231n. 1,

235n. 32

Bhabha, Homi, 171

Bimba, Mestre, 102

birds, 81, 83, 100, 106, 165.

See also doves

Bisa (people), 91

Bjork, 159

Black, Vandinho, 100

Black Atlantic, 22

Black Beauty pageant.

See Deusa do Ébano

black bird, 100, 165

black chant, 100, 159, 226

INDEX 271

black consciousness, xiii, 13, 15, 30,

32, 36, 46, 50, 57, 62, 65, 66,

68, 87, 95, 96, 105, 116, 124,

127, 132, 139, 140, 142, 170,

211, 227, 232n. 6

Black Consciousness Day, 38, 40, 55,

96, 99, 110, 142

black motherhood, 57, 58, 60, 62,

70–4, 77, 174

Black Mother’s Day, 19, 55, 57, 58,

142, 146, 162

Black Mother’s Week, 70, 110, 142,

162, 195. See also Semana da

Mãe Preta

Black Music Festival, 19, 142, 143,

146, 163–5, 175, 195, 211, 224

black power, 14, 56, 65, 81, 84

Black Power movement, 19, 31, 33,

55, 56, 139, 160

black pride, 15, 16, 18, 23, 27, 30,

52, 75, 104, 108, 110, 111, 118,

146, 152, 176, 177, 200, 211,

223, 227, 229

blackness, 1, 14, 15, 17, 26, 31, 42,

61, 65, 67–9, 76, 79, 80, 110,

113–15, 118, 120, 126, 132,

160, 170, 173, 175

Blatner, Adam, 138, 246n. 13

blaxploitation, 170

bloco alternativo, 47–8, 239n. 36

bloco negro-mestiço, 17

blocos afros, 2–4, 10, 14, 16, 17, 30,

33, 35–7, 39, 40, 42–5, 66, 75,

76, 85, 90, 151, 161, 171, 178,

189, 221, 231n. 4, 233n. 13

blocos índios, 10, 17

blues music, 22

Bobo-Dyula (people), 91

Bolivia, 4

Bonfim, Jureli França, 204, 207

bongolafini cloth, 82

Bourbon Street, 8

Bourdieu, Pierre, 19, 46, 236n. 45,

238n. 34

Boyce Davies, Carole, 231n. 2

Brahma (beer), 225

Brandão, Leci, 47, 146, 154, 159, 183

Brasília, 155

Brazilian Quarter of Lagos, x

breastfeeding, 100

British Museum, 237n. 4

Brito, Valmir, 61, 167

Brooklyn, NY, 4, 6, 9

Brooklyn Carnival, 9

Brown, Carlinhos, 2, 146, 159, 183

Brown, James, 14, 160

Browning, Barbara, 231n. 2

Buarque, Chico, 21

buba (garment), 81

Burkina Faso. See Upper Volta

Burundi, 90

Butler, Kim D., 37, 38, 65, 237n. 14,

238n. 17, 240n. 25

Buzziga, 247n. 33

Cabelo, José Carlos (poet), 169

Caboclo, 63

Cacunda de Iaiá/Cacunda de Yayá.

See Gege Salvalu Cacunda de Iaiá

Cadernos de Educação (Education

Notebooks), 136–7, 139

Caine, Barbara, 133, 245n. 2

Caldas, Luiz, 47, 162

Calmon, Francisco, 241n. 7

calypso, 9

Camaçari, 135

Camafeu, Paulinho, 31, 89, 156, 161,

183

Camara, Mohammed (stowaway), 213

Cambui, 100

Cameroon, 87, 93, 97

Campbell, Naomi, 115, 128, 129, 146

Canada, 4

Candomblé, 39, chapter 3 (passim),

53, 58, 65, 113, 117, 206, 213

African elements of, 15

Carnival, association with, 10, 16,

69, 79, 82, 224

Carnival, influence on, 15

clothing, 55, 68, 179

dance style of, 117, 120, 122, 128

etymology of, 128

272 INDEX

Candomblé, 39, chapter 3

(passim)—Continued

Lavagem do Bonfim, 56

motifs, 2, 99–100, 104

ogans (initiates), 140

persecution of, 122

possession rituals, 15

resistance, 85

rituals, 98, 120, 127, 129

(see also Candomblé:

possession rituals)

roles of women in, 127–8

state support of, 51

symbols, 107, 172

tourism and, 179

values of, 64

Yoruba expressions derived

from, 59

see also Ilê Axé Jitolu and Ilê Aiyê:

Candomblé connections

Canto Negro (album), xxvii, 151, 153,

172–4

Canto Negro II (album), xxvii, 153,

159, 174, 176

Canto Negro III (album), xxvii, 153,

159, 178–80

Canto Negro IV (album), xxvii, 153,

159, 172, 181

capoeira, 10, 15, 55, 85, 86, 98, 227

Cardoso, Fernando, 96

Caribbean, 7–9, 11, 12, 22, 31, 47, 76

Carneiro, Edison, 22, 241n. 7

Carneiro, Master, 99, 159

Carnival

African influence, 6, 7, 10, 15

Candomblé influence, 15

characteristics, 6

contests marginalization, 8

co-optation of, 7, 14, 18

economic impact, 10

identity, affirms/recuperates, 8, 16

international variants, 6–9

mingles sacred and profane, 12, 16,

69, 71, 114

music is integral, 20

politically motivated, 6, 11, 12

protest, vehicle of, 11

reenact history, 13

renewal, 6, 9, 11, 12

without rival, 14

role reversal/hierarchical inversion,

9, 11, 13, 30, 35

scheduling, 6

Carnival costumes, x, 85 (high cost),

2, 6, 9, 11, 34, 35, 43, 69,

chapter 4 (passim), 108, 137,

165, 168, 172, 173, 178,

179–80, 200, 203, 229

Carnival groups. See A Mulherada,

Alabê, Alafin, Araketu,

Cortejo Afro, Didá, Embaixada

Africana, Filhos de Gandhi,

Frente Negra Brasileira,

Ilê Aiyê, Malê Debalê,

Mangueira, Melo do Banzu,

Muzenza, Okanbi, Olodum,

Olorum Baba Mi, Reis do

Congo, Vai Levando, Vai-Vai

Carnival themes (list), 87–8

Caroline, Viviam, 231n. 2

Caroso, Carlos, 241n. 9–10

Carrara, Sérgio, 76, 241n. 1

Carvalho, Edson, 176

Carvalho, José Jorge de, 170–1

Castro, Ulisses (poet), 61

Catholic Church, Catholicism, 13,

56, 100, 126, 179, 244n. 14

Cayman Islands, 234n. 21

cazumbá, 226, 250n. 5

Central Africa, 177

Césaire, Aimé, 32, 76

Charmitte, Joseana dos Santos, 119,

123, 124

charter schools, 189

Cheikh Lô Lamp Fall, 159

Chica da Silva. See Xica da Silva

Chiclete com Banana, 162

China, 93

Christmas, 78, 212

Cidade Alta & Baixa (districts of

Salvador), xviii

Cinema Transcendental (album), 42

INDEX 273

Cissa, 104, 182

civil rights, 23, 55, 88, 105, 129, 228,

232n. 5

Civil Rights Movement, 19, 27, 37,

38, 42, 84, 105

Clarke, Duncan, 242n. 11

class (social), 12, 16, 33, 38, 85, 116,

118, 140, 141, 162, 189, 223

Cliff, Jimmy, 16, 43, 119

clinical pathology, 135, 138

Cohen, Abner, 12, 116, 234n. 18,

243n. 8

Collor, Fernando, 96

Colombia, 4, 233n. 15, 234n. 21

colonialism, xxv, 7, 8, 32, 41, 72, 76,

77, 79, 86, 90, 92, 95, 103, 125,

126, 139, 142, 166, 227, 234n. 23,

237n. 4

commodification, xiv, 23, 90

Conceição, Arlindo, 204, 207

Conceição, Jônatas. See Silva,

Jônatas Conceição da

conferences, 191

Congadas, 170

Congo, 17, 79, 82, 87, 91, 92, 95, 97,

174, 176, 177, 226, 233n. 13

Congo River, 177

Congo-Brazzaville, 87

Congo-Zaire, 87, 91, 92

conscience, 131, 208

consciousness

African, 125

Afro-Brazilian, 38

Bahian-African, 16, 19

black, 13, 15, 30, 32, 36, 38, 40,

46, 50, 55, 57, 62, 65, 66, 68,

87, 95, 96, 105, 110, 116, 124,

127, 132, 139, 140, 142, 170,

176, 211, 227, 232n. 6

carnival, 13

diasporic, 14

human, 13

identity, 32, 158

Negritude, 15

pan-African, 16, 84, 89, 120

political, 18

consciousness raising, 19, 30, 36, 37,

46, 66, 110, 113, 124, 138, 144,

154, 158, 198, 232n. 6

Coral Erê, 160

cordel poem, 71, 73

cornmeal, 49, 56

Correia, Maria Luísa Monte, 217

Corró, 100

corruption, 96, 101, 103, 225.

See also Ilê Aiyê: corruption

Cortejo Afro (Carnival group), x, 3,

18, 232n. 9

Cosentino, Donald, 235n. 27

cosmology, 12, 14, 161.

See also Yoruba cosmology

Covin, David, 37, 38, 237n. 13–14,

238n. 18

cowrie shells, 28, 29, 43, 81, 83,

87, 93–5, 97, 103–5, 107,

172, 237n. 3

creolization, 9

Cristiano, 159, 164, 181

Crook, Larry, 162, 237n. 11, 239n. 8,

240n. 26, 241n. 9, 244n. 14,

246n. 15, 246n. 6, 247n. 16

crossroads, 11, 12, 81, 94

Crowley, Daniel J., 11, 12, 15,

236n. 37

Cruz, Roberto, 61

Cuba, 4, 5, 159, 231n. 1

cultural performance, 1, 3, 22

cultural transnationalism, xviii, xx, xxi

Currie, Paileen, xii

Curuzu-Liberdade (neighborhood),

xiii, xviii, xxvi, xxvii, 14, 15, 17,

18, 20, 27, 28, 34, 40–3, 49, 51,

52, 55, 59, 61, 62, 65, 70, 85,

94, 96, 99–101, 114, 115, 120,

121, 127, 135, 139, 142, 148,

160, 166, 168, 169, 173, 181,

182, 186, 191, 218, 219, 224,

232n. 6

Cuti (poet), 133

Dagara-Lobi (people), 91

Dahomey. See Benin

274 INDEX

DaMatta, Roberto, 11, 13, 14, 16,

35, 56, 236n. 40, 236n. 42,

240n. 11

Dança Afro, xiii

Dario, 100

Dávila, Michael R., 89, 242n. 17

Day of the Child, 160

dead, the, 6, 12, 234n. 19

decolonization, 178

deities. See Caboclo, Esu, Gegê,

Nanã, Obaluaiyê, Obatala,

Oduduwa, Ogum, Ogun,

Olodumaré, Omolu, Orisanla,

orixá, Orunmila, Oxalá, Oxossi,

Oxum, Oxumare, Sànpo nná,

Sopona, Xangô, Yemojá

Department of African and African

Diaspora Studies, xi

Deusa do Ébano (Black Beauty

pageant), 111, 114, 143

Dia da Consciência Negra. See Black

Consciousness Day

Dias, Aniceto Manoel (father of

Mãe Hilda), 62

diaspora, xi, xii, xv, xviii, xx, xxiii–xxv,

1, 5–9, 12–14, 20, 38, 39, 76, 77,

79, 82, 83, 87–9, 96, 104, 105,

107, 108, 110, 125, 141, 160–2,

164, 165, 171, 172, 176, 178, 196,

215, 224, 228, 229, 245n. 7

dictatorship, 31, 88, 96, 103, 132

Didá (Carnival group), x, xii, 2,

159, 231

Didi, Mestre, 56

Diehl, Randy, xi

Divino, Rivanildo, xi, 219

Djavan, 129

djembe (musical instrument), 153

DNA, 160

Dodô. See Nascimento, Adolfo

Dogbe, Y. E., 86, 242n. 15

Dominican Republic, 4, 234n. 21

doves, 20, 41, 56, 122, 236n. 46,

243n. 29. See also birds

Drewal, Henry J., 66, 107, 139, 234n.

20, 240n. 26, 243n. 31, 246n. 15

Drewal, Margaret, 234n. 20

drums, drumming, 3, 6, 9, 11, 15,

20, 21, 57, 64, 70, 75, 76, 81,

83, 84, 87, 94, 99, 104, 106, 124,

128, 140, 143, 152–4, 157, 159,

174–6, 178, 180, 181, 183, 206,

208, 215, 217, 218, 226, 227,

232n. 5, 237n. 3

Du Bois, W. E. B., 157, 187

Dunn, Christopher, 11, 16, 31, 32,

235n. 34, 237n. 7, 240n. 8

Dwennimmen (ram’s horns), 107

Dzidzienyo, Anani, 4, 233n. 12

Ebony Goddess, 19, 34, 41, 45,

66–70, 109, 109–29, 112, 142,

143, 159, 174, 175, 190, 191,

220, 224

Ebony Queen (contestant for title of

Ebony Goddess), 154

criticism of, 188

economy/economics, 1, 2, 4, 9, 10,

12, 14, 17, 18, 22, 25, 26, 29,

36, 41, 45, 46, 62, 84, 85, 90,

92, 95, 96, 101, 112, 116, 125,

140, 141, 153, 170, 171, 218,

224–8

Ecuador, 4, 20, 47, 87, 88, 105–7,

129, 164–7, 234n. 21

education, 18, 20, 36, 49, 50, 52, 57,

64, 81, 84, 98, 105, 116, 136,

137, 144, 145, 147–9, 155, 160,

164, 165, 183, 187, 193, 194,

198, 199, 201, 202, 206–13,

215–17, 219, 228

egungun masquerade, 5–7, 12, 56,

234n. 19

Egypt, 16, 21

Eldorado (record label), 153

Eliade, Mircea, 114, 243n. 5

Eliete, 99

elites/elitism, 5, 7, 16, 17, 22, 34, 38,

40, 75, 76, 79, 86, 97, 125, 128,

156, 162, 234n. 23

Embaixada Africana (Carnival group),

75, 79

INDEX 275

embranqueamento, 32

empowerment, xiv–xvi, xx, xxi, xiv,

xxvii, xxviii, 3, 10, 12, 17, 18,

20–3, 30, 33, 39, 40, 44, 46, 59,

66, 75, 76, 78, 79, 82, 103, 108,

110, 118, 119, 122, 123, 126,

145, 147, 148, 156, 158, 165,

172, 178, chapter 8 (passim),

224, 225, 227–8

Engenho Velho de Federação, 232n. 8

engineering, 134, 135

England, 4, 47

Epiphany, 56

equality/inequality/disparity, 2, 25,

61, 65, 73, 77, 78, 80, 88, 108,

121, 129, 133, 140, 149, 166,

169, 170, 173, 193, 196, 199,

208, 223, 226, 228, 244n. 15

economic, 9, 84

educational, 212

gender, 188, 190, 193, 196, 198

political, 84

racial, 23, 25, 27, 30, 36–8, 40, 73,

86, 89, 100, 110, 117, 145, 149,

151, 156, 161, 174, 178, 190,

193, 196, 206, 211

social, 11, 14, 21, 23, 35–7, 108,

112, 113, 125, 227, 243n. 32

Eron, Master, 159

Escola Aberta, xii

Escola Parque, 135

Escola Profissionalizante, 31, 208,

210, 220

escolas de samba, 23, 38, 160, 233n. 13

Esu, 11, 12

ethnicity, 4, 5, 15–17, 33, 38, 41, 89,

90, 92–5, 97, 124, 160, 171, 220,

225, 227, 234n. 16, 235n. 29

ethnomusicology, 171

Eurocentrism, 7, 110, 175

Evangelista, Neve and Genivaldo, 180

expenses. See Ilê Aiye: finances

Eyre, Banning, 242n. 20

Falola, Toyin, xi

Famule, Olawole, 234n. 20

Fanti-Ashanti (people), 94

Farias, Cosme de, 102

Farias, Valter, 43, 60, 99, 159, 181, 182

Feijão, Paulinho, 177

Feinstein, David, 246n. 14

Fernando, 100, 191

Festa da Mãe Preta, 55, 57, 63, 129

Festas Juninas, 136

Festival da Música Negra. See Black

Music Festival

Filhas de Gandhi (Carnival group), 2,

66, 231n. 2

Filhas de Olorum, 66

Filhas d’Oxum (Carnival group), 2,

66, 231n. 2

filhas-de-santo, 127, 128, 206

Filho, Anizaldo Ferreira de Sousa,

220

Filhos de Gandhi (Carnival group),

2, 3, 10, 15, 16, 36, 40, 41, 43,

44–6, 66, 75, 90, 100, 101, 189,

232n. 4

food, 42, 63, 106, 142 (feijoada,

acarajé, vatapá, caruru, abará,

sarapatel, xinxin de bofe, mocotó,

and rabada), 146

fortifications, 93

France, 47, 221

Frazão, Heliana, 48, 239n. 36–7

freedom, 6, 11, 14, 16, 23, 27, 28,

30, 38, 40, 71, 72, 96–8, 118,

123, 126, 139, 140, 142, 145,

146, 148, 167, 179, 180, 206,

223, 226–8. See also liberation

Freitas, Joseania, 238n. 23

Frente Negra Brasileira (Carnival

group), 36, 100

Fry, Peter, 76, 241n. 1

Fryer, Peter, 246n. 6

Fulani (people), 91

Fulbe (people), 91

funk, 227

Gama, Luiz, 206

Garcia, Jorge, 226

Garvey, Marcus, 105

276 INDEX

Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., 12, 160,

235n. 36, 246n. 4

Gegê. See Caboclo

Gege Salvalu Cacunda de Iaiá

(Candomblé temple), 60,

62, 63

gender, xi, xv, xvii, 16, 38, 66, 75,

188, 190, 193, 196, 198, 201,

223. See also equality: gender

gentrification, 8

Germans, 90

Germany, 47, 92

Gerônimo, 47, 66, 117, 146, 154

Gesteira, Martagão, 102

Ghana, 82, 87, 94, 97, 173

Gibi, 180

Gil, Gilberto, 2, 39, 89, 101, 129,

146, 154, 171, 173, 183

Gilroy, Paul, 6, 171, 234n. 22,

247n. 19

globalization, 30, 43, 65, 118, 119,

183, 188, 196

Gomes, Edson, 66

Gonzales, Lélia, 102, 103

Gonzalez, Lélia, 102, 103

Gordon, Edmund, xi

gourds, 92, 93, 95, 104, 107, 242n. 16

Governo do Estado da Bahia, 231n. 2

Graça. See Ona�ilê, Graça

Gramsci, Antonio, 46, 140, 141, 155

grassroots, 84, 155

Green, Garth L., 7, 235n. 25

grooming (personal), 219–20

guardian spirit, xiii, xxvi, 12, 28,

49, 50, 53, 55, 57, 58, 60, 61,

104, 143

Guiguio, 43, 159, 164, 180–3

Guimarães, Josenice, 201

Guinea, 165

Guinea-Conakry, 213

Guridy, Frank, xi

Gurma (people), 94

Gurmanché (people), 91

Gurunsi (people), 91

Gusmão, Mário, 34, 102

habitus theory, 19

Haiti, 4, 7, 233n. 11, 234n. 21

Hall, Stuart, 124

Hanchard, Michael, 37, 237n. 14,

238n. 15

Harlem, NY, 4, 9, 18, 76, 86

Harlem Renaissance, 76, 86

hegemony, 1, 4, 10, 19, 24, 33, 37,

40, 84, 117, 140, 141, 155, 157,

190, 226–8

hegemony, cultural, 40, 140–1

hegemony, white, 10, 33, 141

Henry, Clarence Bernard, 89, 242n. 19

heroes/heroines, 23, 38, 57, 68, 77,

79, 97, 102, 118, 139, 142, 161,

167, 206

heteroglossia, 11

hidden transcripts, 24–5, 155, 157–8,

160, 170, 175, 188–9, 226

Hindus, 7

hip-hop, 227

Hoare, Quintin, 238n. 34

Hobart, Angela, 236n. 42

Holland, 47

humility, 107

Hutu (people), 90

identity, xxiii, 7, 8, 30, 32, 65, 67,

104, 110, 119, 124, 132, 137,

170, 178, 179, 195, 220

African, 76, 79, 80, 132, 154

Afro-Bahian, 42

Afro-Brazilian, 57, 65–8, 116,

124

black, 33, 35, 54, 65, 108, 110,

119, 178, 209, 225

educational, 209

identity politics, 176

of Ilê Aiyê, xxiv, 25

national, 24, 173

neighborhood, 18

pan-African, 52, 245n. 7

political, 6, 12

racial, 12, 23, 89, 124, 125, 228

sexual, 209

INDEX 277

ideology, 3, 14, 16, 18, 23–7, 30,

33, 35, 45–8, 67, 68, 75–7,

80–2, 84, 85, 95, 101, 103,

108, 110, 111, 115, 117, 118,

119, 127–9, 136, 145, 146,

151, 156, 161, 162, 169, 172,

173, 175, 178, 180, 183,

188–90, 195, 196, 200, 208,

213, 219, 224, 225

ideology of negritude, 188, 190

Ifa divination, 28, 29, 81–3

Ife Bronze Head, 28

Igreja de Nossa Senhora da

Conceição, 56

Igreja do Bonfim, 55, 56

igunuka, 5

ijexá, 22, 30, 61, 111, 120,

122–4, 128, 152, 154, 159,

161, 162

Ilê Aiyê

administrative assistant, 205

administrative style, 189

as African embassy, 83

archival memory, 199

archives of, 213–14

Candomblé connections, 19, 30,

49, 50, 56, 86, 99–100, 122,

140–1, 143, 148, 152, 159,

161–2, 167, 172, 213

CD recordings, 151

charter schools, 189

collaboration, 192–3

commercialization, 190

(see also Ilê Aiyê: resistance to

commercialization)

communications, 191–2

community engagement, 186

community reactions to, 217–21

confrontational, 30, 144

contibutor to local economy,

217–19

contradictions within Ilê Aiyê,

3, 24, 34, 50, 85–6, 137, 157,

202–3

co-optation by the state, 18, 24, 25

corruption (charges of), 16, 24, 46,

78, 86, 137, 194, 195, 196, 201,

202, 218, 220, 221

corruption (resistance to), 3, 201

cultural politics, 191

date of founding, 142

defined by racial ideology, 195

directors, 99, 185

education, 19–20, 137, 218–20

educational level of members, 187,

193, 208, 212

employee evaluation, 192

employs 200+ people, 138

empowerment, 187, 191

finances, 47, 55, 137, 145, 146,

148–9, 181, 186, 192, 226

financial planning, 196

fundraising, 46, 47, 187, 192, 193,

196

gatekeepers, 214–15

gender inequality, 190

global phenomenon, 21

globalization, 196

gratuities, 81, 85, 137, 194, 203,

220–1, 225

growing pains, 186

headquarters, 27, 28, 53, 192, 194,

210

historical eras, 86

ideological rigidity and commitment,

18, 24, 30, 189, 190

inefficiency, 192

infrastructure inadequacies, 194

international performances, 47, 158

key areas for improvement, 188

key conclusions about organization,

187

legacy, 198, 223, 224

logo, 29, 83

management loyalty, 197

managerial shortcomings, 191, 196

marketing, 18, 190, 196

matriarchal structure, 22

meaning of name, xiii, xix, 31, 55

microcultural industry, xvii

278 INDEX

Ilê Aiyê—Continued

as negrologue, 32

nepotism, 199

nonprofit, 147, 196

number of yearly participants, 31, 42

organization, 30, 147–8, 185 ff.

origins, 32 ff.

passivity of, 196

photo of directors, 185

political agenda, 17, 19

political participation, 19, 186,

191, 197–8, 226, 228

political statements, 213

pressure to compromise, 196, 225

professionalization, 192

rehearsals, 2, 20, 55, 141, 146,

158, 162–4, 175, 185, 196, 219

rejection of whites, 16, 19, 30,

33–5, 47–8, 140, 147, 153, 156,

160, 176, 232n. 6

relationship to MNU, 36–40, 140

relationship to the state, 23–4,

146, 225, 226

resistance to change, 134

resistance to commercialization,

187, 189

resistance to domination, 188

scholarship on, 21

secrecy, 119, 145, 188, 190, 195,

203, 221–2, 225–6

self-discovery aided by, 204–6

social activism, 186

special events (see Black Mother’s

Day, Black Music Festival,

Ebony Goddess, Festival Erê,

Lavagem do Bonfim, Night of

Black Beauty, Noite de Wajeun,

Novembro Azeviche, Week of the

Black Mother)

strategic planning, 189, 196

teachers, 208–11

traditional, 14, 24, 42, 73, 76, 134,

136, 145, 171–2

transparency (see secrecy)

as a university, 204

values, 67, 113, 145, 155, 158, 200,

246n. 3

white parade subgroup of, 190

workers, 211

Ilê Aiyê 2010 (album), xxvii

Ilê Aiyê: 25 Anos (album), xxvii, 237n.

5, 238n. 26, 238n. 32

Ilê Axé Jitolu (Candomblé temple),

xix, xxvi, 22, 49, 51–3, 62–5, 99,

128, 139, 168, 169, 199, 206,

236n. 46

Theme of 2014 Carnival, 88, 106,

107

Ilê Axé Oyá (Candomblé temple),

232n. 9

insiders/outsiders, ix, xvi, xvii, 119,

186

Interministerial Group for the

Valorization of the Black

Population, 135

internships, xvi

Irmandade de Boa Morte (Sisterhood

of Good Death), 86

iro (garment), 81

Isis and Osiris, 21

Islam, 7, 213, 232n. 8

Italy, 47

Itaparica, 56

Itapuã, 232n. 8

Itaú (bank), 225

iyalorixá, 49, 51, 61, 99, 127, 199,

236n. 46

Jackson, Jesse, 129, 192

Jackson, Michael, 43, 119

Jackson Five, the, 14

Jailson, 34, 58, 99, 174

Jamaica, 234n. 21

Jamaica, Beto, 158, 183

Japan, 47

Jesus Christ, 56

Jhô, Negra, 231n. 2

Johnson, Randal, 237n. 11, 240n. 26,

241n. 9, 244n. 14, 246n. 15,

247n. 16

INDEX 279

Jones, Omi Osun Joni, xi

Jorge, João (founder of Carnival

group Olodum), 39, 134, 204

Jouvert, 9

Junkanoo (Bahamian Carnival), 8–9

justice, 19, 57, 59, 71, 77, 113, 196,

213. See also social justice

Kapferer, Bruce, 236n. 42

Kasai (Congo), 92

Kehinde (eldest son of Vovô), 143,

159

Kennedy, James H., 233n. 11

kente cloth, 82

King, Martin Luther, Jr., 105

Kinser, Samuel, 8

Kraay, Hendrik, 240n. 25, 244n. 14

Krippner, Stanley, 246n. 14

Lacerda Elevator, xviii

Lagos, Nigeria, x, 5, 90

Lake Victoria, 90

Lawal, Babatunde, 234n. 20

Lazzo, 158

Legum, Colin, 241n. 4

Lene, Luz, 167

liberation, 5, 8, 25, 33, 52, 81, 125,

152, 169, 201, 223, 227, 232n. 4.

See also freedom

liberation theology, 127

Liberdade. See Curuzu-Liberdade

Lili, 99, 213

Lima, Alberto, 51

Lima, Carlos, 176

Lima, Cassiano Manuel, 62, 63

Lima, Dete (daughter of Mãe Hilda;

stylist and designer), 62, 99, 147,

159, 231n. 2

Lima, Geraldo do Rosário, 45, 67,

175

Lima, Valéria, 52, 239n. 4

Lima e Silva Avenue, 20, 52

Lio, 99

Liverpool, Hollis, 234n. 23, 235n. 25

London, 6, 8, 229, 234n. 18

Lopes, Amilton, 166

Lou, Fannie, 105

Lyndsay, Arto, 159

Macalé, 34, 99, 121, 183, 189, 197,

199, 200

Macêdo, Osmar Alvares, 2, 10, 41,

42, 223, 231n. 3

maculelê, 15, 226, 250n. 4

Macumba, 170

Mãe Hilda (Vovô’s mother), xiii, xxv,

xxvi, 20, 30, 31, 41, chapter 3

(passim), 50, 53, 87, 88, 102,

103, 105, 107, 126, 134–6,

140–3, 148, 149, 169, 174, 189,

199, 206, 214, 224, 236n. 46

Mãe Hilda School, 19, 31, 50, 52, 55,

60, 64, 65, 136, 199, 208, 209.

See also Ilê Aiyê: education

Mãe Tança, 60, 62

mãe-de-santo, 127, 170

Magalhães, Antônio Carlos, 18, 41,

129, 224

Mahin, Luiza, 206

Malcolm X, 105

Malê Debalê (Carnival group), 3, 30,

70, 202

Maleiro, Nelson, 102

Mali, 82, 87, 97

Mama Africa, 178–9

Manchester, 12

Mande (people), 90

Mandela, Nelson, 52, 135

Maneiro, Jucka, 61

Mangueira (Carnival group), 164

manicure, 219

Maranhão, 47, 87

Maravilha, César, 100

Mardi Gras, 8, 235n. 28, 235n. 29

marginalized populations, 1, 4, 8,

11–13, 15, 22, 44, 59, 68

(Afro-Brazilian women), 71,

84 (Ilê Aiyê), 110, 125, 144,

172, 178, 181, 225, 226,

232n. 5

280 INDEX

market forces, 30, 107, 153, 183, 225

marketing, 18, 25, 47, 48, 83, 113,

139, 147, 153, 188–90, 196,

207, 225

Marley, Bob, 16, 195, 232n. 7

Martinique, 47, 76

Martins-Costa, Ana Luiza, 76,

241n. 1

mas (masquerading groups), 9

masking (obscuring), 40, 203, 218,

221, 224

masking (tradition), 1, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12,

40, 157, 188, 221

masking traditions in Lagos

(Bumba-Meu-Boi, Carreta,

Eyo, Oloolu), x

masks, 6, 65, 92, 95, 104

masquerade, 5–7, 9, 12, 56,

chapter 5, 89

Maslow, Abraham, 146, 194, 228

matrifocality, 71

Mauldin, Barbara, 235n. 24,

235n. 27–8

Mbiti, John, 54, 239n. 5

McAlister, Elizabeth, 7, 235n. 24

McGowan, Chris, 235n. 34

Mello, Collor de, 88

Melo do Banzu (Carnival group),

232n. 8

Menezes, Margareth, 2, 47, 66,

129, 146, 154, 183, 231n. 2,

239n. 35

Menezzes, Geruse, 190–1

Meninos do Pelô, 159

Mercury, Daniela, 2, 43, 47, 125,

129, 146, 154, 159, 171, 183,

231, 238n. 25, 239n. 35

Miami, FL, 4, 234n. 21

Middle Passage, 6, 12, 152, 227

Miltão, 45

Minas Gerais, 20, 47, 88, 189, 229

Minority Rights Group, 233n. 12

Miro, 100

miscegenation, 13, 17

mission schools, x

MNU. See Unified Black Movement

modernity, 38, 126, 143, 145, 158,

171

Monomotapa empire, 93

Moraes-Liu, Carolina, 110, 119,

243n. 11, 244n. 13

Moreira, Juliano, 102

Moreira, Morais, 21

Morris, Pam, 235, n. 35

Morte, Marcos Boa, 165

Mossi (people), 90, 94

Mount Leketi (Congo), 177

Movimento Negro Unificado.

See Unified Black Movement

Mozambique, 88, 93

Muçulmano, Master, 159

Mudimbe, V. Y., 77, 241n. 5

murals, 93

Musée Royal de l’Afrique Centrale, 92

museum, 41, 77, 92, 108, 225–6,

228, 237n. 4

musicians, 10, 19, 20, 41, 108, 143,

154, 158, 159, 162–4, 163,

183, 196, 203, 210–12, 215–17,

219, 221

Muzenza (Carnival group), x, 3, 18,

30, 52, 112, 232n. 7

Na’Allah, Abdul-Rasheed, 234n. 19

Nanã, 51

narcissism, 138

Nascimento, Abdias do, also Abdias

Nascimento, 50, 57, 67, 102,

103, 142

Nascimento, Adolfo, 2, 10, 223,

231n. 3, 236n. 1

Nascimento, Jó, 167

Nascimento, Jussara Rocha, 242n. 11

Nascimento, Maria Beatriz, 102

Nascimento, Milton, 183, 189,

248n. 3

Nascimento, Raimundo, xi

Nass Marrakech, 159

Natividade, Paulo (poet), 59, 168

Ndebele (people), 93, 94

INDEX 281

Nefertiti, 107

Negritude, 15, 21, 24, 32, 42, 46, 51,

52, 65, 66, 68, 70, 75–8, 80, 85,

86, 107, 108, 110, 113, 115, 169,

172, 179, 188, 190, 211, 229

Neto, Paulo de Carvalho, 233n. 11

Neves, Edmilson Lopes da, 198

Neves, Tancredo, 88, 96

New Orleans, LA, 4, 5, 8, 12, 192,

229, 234n. 21, 235n. 28

New Orleans Jazz Festival, 192

New York City, 6, 9, 76, 229, 234n. 21

NGOs, xii, 193, 198, 200, 208

Nice (France), 234n. 21

Nigeria, x, 2, 5, 7, 56, 80, 80–3,

87, 90, 97, 110, 132, 234n. 19,

237n. 4

Ninha, 122, 159

Noite da Beleza Negra, xxvi, 31, 44,

67, 110–12, 114, 115, 117, 118,

123, 124, 129

Noite de Wajeun, 31, 142, 146

Notting Hill, 8, 12, 234n. 21

Novembro Azeviche, 129, 142, 146

Novembro Azeviche (Jet-Black

November), 129, 142, 146, 162

Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey, 238n. 34

numerology, 28–9

Nunley, John, 234n. 24, 235n. 32

Nydam, Arlen, xii

O Canto da Cidade (album), 43

O Clarim d’Alvorada (Carnival

group), 36

Obafemi Awolowo University, x

Obaluaiyê (also spelled Obaluaye,

Obaluayê , and Obaluaê ), 15

(“Omolu”), 51, 59, 61–3, 139,

240n. 21 (“Sopona”), 243n. 30

(“Sànpo nná”)

Obama, Barack, 84, 85, 149

Obatala, 25, 135, 136, 139, 149, 179,

180, 233n. 13, 245n. 10.

See also Oxalá

objectification of blackness, 170

objectification of women, 188

Odebrecht Foundation, 137, 192

Oduduwa, 180

Ogum, 51, 63

Ogun, 57

Ojo-Ade, Femi, 80, 241n. 10, 242n. 15

Okanbi (Carnival group), 245n. 7

Oliveira, Gelton de, 210, 211

Olodum (Carnival group), x, xii, xiv,

xvi, 2, 3, 10, 16–18, 25, 30,

39–41, 43, 45, 47, 68, 79, 89,

90, 112, 114, 119, 124, 134,

143, 146, 153, 155, 159, 177,

189, 190, 202, 204, 224, 225,

232n. 5, 244n. 11, 245n. 7

Olodumaré, 180

Olorum Baba Mi (Carnival group),

245n. 7

Olympic Games, 228

Omari, Mikelle Smith, 244n. 15

Omolu. See Obaluaiyê

Ona�ilê, Graça, 159, 164, 177, 181,

231n. 2

Onawale, Landê, 195

opaxorô (metal staff), 107, 243n. 29

oppression, 1, 16, 25, 30, 31, 34–8,

40, 44, 59, 71, 73, 89, 111, 125,

141, 149, 155, 161, 170–2, 175,

179, 188, 189, 195, 229, 234n.

23, 248n. 2

orality, 22, 23, 57, 128, 148, 152,

155, 183

Ordep, 57

oriki, xix, 59, 61, 113, 136

Orisanla. See Oxalá

orixá, 54, 56, 62, 78, 117, 122, 135,

139, 143, 161, 174, 175

Orunmila, 83

Carnival group, 134, 245n. 7

Osmar. See Macêdo, Osmar Alvares

Osvaldo, 100

Ottawa (Canada), 234n. 21

Oxalá, 29, 49, 56, 63, 135, 139,

179, 239n. 2, 243n. 29.

See also Obatala

282 INDEX

Oxossi, 51, 63

Oxum, 2, 15, 51, 59, 61–3, 117,

231n. 2, 243n. 9

Oxumare, 63, 241n. 33

pai-de-santo, 170

Paim, Joseane, xi, 218

Paim, Mário, 159

Paim, Marivaldo, 159

Paixão, Cyntia (Ebony Goddess

2014), xiv

Pandegas d’África (Carnival group),

75, 101

Pandeiro, Jackson do, 102

paradox, 46, 168, 169

Paris, France, 76, 229, 233n. 13

Pastinha, Mestre, 102

Pelourinho (district of Salvador), 2,

18, 40, 42, 52, 55, 86, 98, 127,

142, 179, 224, 225, 227, 232n. 4,

232n. 9

Pemberton, John III, 242n. 11

Pentecostal Christians, 7

percussion. See drums, drumming

perfume, 49

Pernambuco, 20, 47, 88, 233n. 13

Peru, 4

Pescatello, Ann M., 233n. 11

Pessanha, Ricardo, 235n. 34

Petrobrás (company), 134, 137,

192, 225

petroleum industry, 134, 135

Peuhl (people), 90

Pinho, Patrícia de Santana, 124, 125,

178, 179, 244n. 15, 247n. 29

Piquet, Daniel, 233n. 11

Pirajá (neighborhood), 232n. 9

Pires, Constância da Rocha.

See Mãe Tança

Pita, Juci, 182

Pitanga, Antônio (actor), 170,

247n. 16

Pitta, Alberto, 61

Plácido, Antonio D., 233n. 11

plastic surgery, 125

Poesia, Adailton, 43, 60, 181, 182

poetry, 29, 51, 59–62, 65, 67, 71, 77,

111, 133, 168–9

police, 8, 10, 19, 21, 22, 30, 36, 37,

42, 75, 76, 84, 122, 125, 132,

133, 144, 199, 232n. 6, 244n. 14,

248n. 9

police brutality, 8, 10, 22, 30, 37, 38,

76, 144, 227, 232n. 6

political agendas, 3, 17, 19, 22, 134,

225

Polygram (record label), 153

popcorn, 49, 56, 136

Pope, the, 13

Popó, 99

Porto da Pedra (samba school), 23

Portuguese, the, 52, 93, 142

Portuguese aggression/domination,

57, 93

Portuguese colonialism, 95, 126

Portuguese language, 121, 132, 174,

186, 187, 192, 233n. 11, 244n. 11

postcolonialism, 13

postmodernism, 30, 138, 155, 246n. 13

posture(s), 14, 22, 24, 29, 30, 34,

42, 48, 68, 78, 80, 98, 107, 111,

116, 121, 144, 162, 191, 226

pragmatism, 10, 37, 46, 54, 78, 107,

136, 146, 161, 162, 189, 198,

224, 226

Prego, Master, 159

pride, 9, 12, 27, 30, 31, 34, 35, 41,

43, 64, 65, 70, 73, 74, 75, 76,

79, 81, 82, 84, 113, 115, 122,

126, 137, 145, 160, 162, 179,

191, 200, 203

African, 56, 76, 85, 87, 132, 161,

167, 172, 173, 180, 182, 194

Afro-Brazilian, 65, 69, 96, 172,

232n. 5

ancestral, xvi, 68

black, ix, xiii, xiv, xxv–xxvii, 15, 16,

18, 23, 27, 30, 52, 65, 75, 99,

104, 108, 110, 111, 115, 118,

146, 152, 162, 168, 176–8, 200,

203, 209, 211, 223, 227, 229

of the community, xxvi, 24, 29, 34

INDEX 283

cultural, 104, 145

in Ilê Aiyê, 20, 113, 203, 217, 220

self-pride, 27

of women, 109, 110, 118

Puerto Rico, 4

Purdy, Kristin, xii

Querino, Manuel, 22, 102, 241n. 7

questionnaire, 185 ff.

quilobolagem, 23

Quilombhoje, 133

Quilombo (film), 200

Quilombo do Kabula, 100

Quilombo dos Palmares, 51, 57, 59,

100, 167

Quilombo Rio das Rãs, 100

quilombos (maroon settlements),

87, 133

Quinta das Beatas (Candomblé

temple), 59

Quintal, Fundo de, 154

race, 4, 16, 33, 35, 38, 39, 45, 67,

113, 115, 118, 121, 145, 160,

162, 168, 170, 175, 176,

179–80, 201, 223, 226

racial democracy, 23, 30, 33, 34,

38–40, 46, 65, 68, 103, 110,

144, 171, 180, 182, 228,

242n. 15

racial discrimination, 1, 8, 14, 15, 29,

30, 32, 36, 41, 42, 47, 65, 68,

71, 76, 77, 84–6, 98, 100, 108,

121, 125, 132, 136, 138, 144,

161, 227, 229, 232n. 5, 232n. 6

racial relations, 3, 33–5, 39–40, 74,

76, 80, 116, 152, 169, 172, 195,

198, 223

racism, reverse racism, 2, 10, 13,

15–17, 21, 23, 24, 26, chapter 2

(passim), 58, 73, 74, 76, 89, 99,

112, 118, 133, 135, 136, 145,

146, 169, 176, 180, 181, 216,

226–9

radiology, 191

Rafael, 159

raffia cloth, 82

Rainha do Carnaval (Carnival

Queen contest), 68, 113

Rainha do Fantoche da Euterpe (Puppet

Queen contest), 68, 113

Ramos, Alberto Guerreiro, 22

Ramos, Arthur, 22

rape, 71, 111

Ratner, Carl, 18

Rebouças, André, 102

Recife, 229

Reco, Paulinho do, 100, 113, 175

Refavela (album), 171

reggae, 9, 22, 86, 89, 232n. 7

Rei, Chico, 23

Reis, Aline Cristina Pereira, xi, 209,

211

Reis do Congo (Carnival group), 79,

233n. 13

Reizinho, 159, 164, 180, 181

religiosity, 61, 69, 78, 120, 164, 171,

172

Reluzente, Valfredo, 180

repeniques/repiques (drums), 176, 177

representation

of Africa, 21, 23, 85

of Afro-Brazilian history, 103

of Carnival, 1

carnivalesque, 126

gender, 201

of Ilê Aiyê, 127

musical, 171, 176

mythical, 14

political, 51, 176, 178

as role model, 68

symbolic, 79

Revolta da Chibata (1910), 99, 142

Revolta dos Búzios (1798), 99, 180

Rio de Janeiro, 16, 17, 23, 67, 101,

142, 162, 164, 176, 223, 228,

229, 233n. 13

Rio Grande do Sul, 20, 229

Risério, Antônio, 11, 14–16, 30,

33–7, 39, 40, 46, 171, 235n. 34,

237n. 10–12, 238n. 14, 238n. 19,

238n. 34, 239n. 8

284 INDEX

Roberto, Sérgio (cousin of Vovô), 68,

99, 113

Rodrigues, Nina, 79, 241n. 8

Rome, 160

“Black Rome,” 22, 51

Romo, Anadelia A., 225, 226,

243n. 32, 244n. 15

roots, 12, 13, 16, 19, 52, 54, 56, 61,

62, 65, 87, 102, 117, 119, 127,

135, 138, 152, 160, 161, 168,

199, 224, 234n. 16

roots samba, 30

Ross, Doran H., 242n. 11

Rousseff, Dilma, 131

royalty, 23, 59, 126, 173

Rwanda, 87, 90, 92, 93, 97

Sá, Sandra de, 183

Sacramento, Benta Maria do

(mother of Mãe Hilda), 62

sacrifice (hardship), 19, 31, 45, 52,

58, 59, 72, 100, 112, 126, 139,

142, 147, 148, 174, 180

sacrifice (ritual), 2, 11, 21, 28, 29,

56–9, 126

Salgueiro (samba school), 23

Salvador Negro Amor, 159

Samba, Neguinho do, 16, 159, 177,

232n. 5

samba-reggae, 10, 16, 43, 47, 89, 154,

155, 159, 176, 177, 183, 232n. 5

Sambodromo, 223

Sampaio, Teodoro, 102

San Francisco (CA), 4, 234n. 21

Sandoval, 61

Sandra, 100

Sands, Rosita M., 235n. 32

Sangalo, Ivete, 2, 47, 183, 231n. 2,

239n. 35

Sànpo nná. See Obaluaiyê

Santana, Arany, 110, 119–22, 124, 139

Santana, Chico, 182

Santana, Rosane, 140, 239n. 1, 245n. 4,

246n. 17

Santanna, Marilda, 231n. 2, 239n. 35

Santiago, Silviano, 171, 247n. 20

Santos, Ademilton Jesus, xi, 215

Santos, Ana Amélia Dias, xi, 216

Santos, Antônio Carlos dos.

See Vovô

Santos, Antônio Carlos Taiwo Boa

Morte dos. See Taiwo

Santos, Apolônio dos.

See Apolônio de Jesus

Santos, Hilda Dias dos.

See Mãe Hilda

Santos, Hildelice Benta dos, 62, 199,

236n. 46

Santos, Hildelita dos, 62

Santos, Hildemaria dos, 62

Santos, Jacilda Trindade Teles dos,

204, 206

Santos, José Carlos dos. See Bamba

Santos, Jurim Assunção dos, 218

Santos, Maria Luísa Passos dos, 209,

211

Santos, Vivaldo dos, 62, 99, 147

Santos, Waldemar Benvindo dos

(husband of Mãe Hilda), 62, 63

Santos, Wilson Batista. See Macalé

São Paulo, 67, 132, 133, 164, 176,

228, 229

Sarney, José, 88

sàsàrà (musical instrument), 107,

243n. 30

Scher, Philip W., 7, 235n. 25, 235n. 33

Schouten, Peer, 246n. 2

Scott, James C., 24–6, 155, 157,

158, 226, 236n. 52, 246n. 2,

248n. 2

Sebe, José Carlos, 20, 21

secret societies, 128

sekere (musical instrument), 93

Semana da Mãe Preta, 70, 110, 129,

142

Senac, Master, 159

Senegal, 76, 87, 95–7, 159

Senghor, Léopold Sédar, 76

Senufo (people), 91

Serra, Olímpio, 57

Serra da Barriga (Alagoas), 57, 63, 142

sexual intercourse, 21

INDEX 285

sexuality/sexualization, 3, 34, 36, 71,

118, 125, 126, 160, 227

Shona (people), 93

Silva, Antônio Vieira da, x

Silva, Ardubor D., xi, 215

Silva, Benedita da, 102, 103, 181, 182

Silva, Jônatas Conceição da, 32, 33,

97, 100, 169, 237n. 9, 242n. 22,

243n. 26

Silva, Lula da (president of Brazil),

39, 96, 101, 129, 140, 141

Silva, Rita de Cassia Maia da, 69,

240n. 29

Silva, Vinícius Silva da, xi, 215

Simão, Moisés e, 176, 177

Simon, Paul, 16, 43, 119

Sina, Milton do, 166

Siqueira, Maria de Lourdes, 103, 183,

243n. 25–6

Skol (beer), 225

slavery, 7, 9, 23, 25, 27, 28, 32, 34,

35, 52, 57, 58, 59, 62, 71–7, 85,

87, 89, 90, 95, 97, 111, 118,

126, 144, 152, 165, 173, 176,

177, 227, 237n. 2

Smith, Michelle, xii

soccer, 136, 146, 170, 205, 206,

213, 228

social justice, ix, 36, 78.

See also justice

Sociedade Protectores dos

Desvalidos, 100

Sodré, Jaime, 183

sokoto (garment), 81

solidarity, xxi, xxvii, 15, 36, 45, 80,

137, 145, 159, 160, 166, 167,

239n. 2

Sony (record label), 153

Sopona. See Obaluaiyê

soul music, 14, 22

Sousa, Walter Altino de, Jr., 21, 23,

24, 46, 236n. 51, 238n. 33,

246n. 19

South Africa, 146, 235n. 29

South America, 47

Souza, Erval Soares, 219

Souza, Florentina da Silva, 21, 22,

236n. 50

Soviet Union, 155

Soyinka, Wole, 245n. 17

Spain, 47, 166

Speed, Will, xii

spirituality, 5, 22, 28, 49, 50, 52, 59,

62, 65, 66, 71, 82, 86, 110, 127,

128, 143, 151, 174, 179

St. Lucia, 234n. 21

Stalinist regime, 13

Stam, Robert, 14, 236n. 41

stereotypes, 8, 10, 15, 18, 31, 32, 42,

48, 68, 79, 85, 110, 118, 177, 218

Sterling, Cheryl, 188, 201, 248n. 1

Steve Biko Institute, xii

Strachan, Ian G., 9, 235n. 31

Suka, 161

surdo (drum), 81, 152, 176, 177

Switzerland, 47

syncretism, 36, 56, 176, 182

synesthesia, 176

Taiwo (son of Vovô), xi, 204–6, 214

tambores (drums), 21

Tapa (people), 5

Tatuagem, Nem (poet), 168

Tavares, Juraci, 61

Teatro Experimental do Negro, 36

Teixeira, Anísio, 135

Teixeira Mendes Street, 210

Teles, Alex Sandro, xi, 210, 211

Telles, Edward, 37, 39, 237n. 14

Tervuren (Belgium), 92

textiles, 14, 75, 76, 80, 80–3, 85–7,

89–95, 91, 93, 97–9, 101–8,

102, 106, 108, 214, 220, 224

Thompson, Peter S., 242n. 15

Tobias, 100, 147

Tokyo, 229

Toronto, 12, 229, 234n. 21

Tosh, Peter, 16

tourism, 3, 17, 23, 40, 41, 46, 55, 78,

85, 86, 118, 124, 127, 179, 196,

197, 202, 207, 224, 225, 227,

243n. 32

286 INDEX

tourism, ethnic/cultural, 16, 46

training

arts, 154, 158

Ebony Goddess competition, 122,

126, 128

job, 193

management, 204

military, 90

teachers, 64, 202

Trinidad and Tobago, 234n. 21

Trinidad Carnival, 7

trio elétrico, 2, 10, 17, 27, 42, 68,

136, 223, 231n. 3, 236n. 1

Tuareg (people), 91

Tulane University, 192

Turismo Étnico Afro, 202

Turner, Victor, 35

Tutsi (people), 90, 92

Tutu, Osei (king), 94, 173

Umbanda, 170

UNICEF, 137

Unified Black Movement (MNU), 24,

36–40, 88, 132, 140, 157, 223,

227, 237n. 13

United States, 4, 14, 20, 27, 42, 47,

84, 85, 105, 125, 139, 160, 165

University of Ife. See Obafemi

Awolowo University

University of Texas at Austin, xi, xii

Upper Volta, 87, 90, 97

Vai Levando (Carnival group), 101

Vai-Vai (Carnival group), 164

Valter, Master. See Farias, Valter

values, 83, 127, 147, 158, 161, 166,

167, 171, 204

values, aesthetic, 32, 43, 82, 115,

124

values, African, 6, 7, 15, 30, 32, 43,

56, 73, 76, 79–80, 99, 103, 110,

119, 137, 141, 143, 146, 164,

172, 174, 177

values, Afro-Brazilian, 30, 81, 116,

124, 160

values, artistic, 219

values, black, 45, 115, 149, 162, 175,

232n. 8–9

values, Candomblé, 53, 64, 66, 143,

145

values, Eurocentric, 7

values, Ilê Aiyê’s, 67, 113, 145, 155,

158, 200, 246n. 3

values, moral, 28, 195, 196

values, negritudist, 219

values, sociocultural, 21

values, traditional, 14, 73, 76

Vaz, Paulo, 104, 182

Velas (record label), 153

Veloso, Caetano, 20, 21, 41, 42–4,

66, 89, 90, 125, 129, 146, 154,

163, 171, 176, 183, 223, 229

Venezuela, 4, 233n. 11, 233n. 16

Venice, 234n. 21

Verger, Pierre, 98, 241n. 7, 243n. 24

Vienna, 160

Vila, Martinho da, 154, 159, 176,

177, 183

Vincent, Gregory, xii

violence/nonviolence, 3, 10, 27,

35–8, 75, 76, 85, 144, 157,

158, 189, 224

Visonà, Monica Blackmun, 6,

234n. 20

Vita, Alexis Brooks de, 245n. 17

Vitorinha (soccer team), 136

vocational training, 20, 53, 186, 188,

208, 210, 211, 216, 217

Vovô, 131, 144

1997 Carnival honoree, 102, 103

age, 133, 134

Candomblé devotee, 135

Carnival coordinator, 135

chapter 6 (passim)

community activism, 136

early life and education, 135

featured on 1993 textile, 105

founding Ilê Aiyê, 49

frequently interviewed, 133

general mention, 22, 31, 33, 41,

50, 52, 54, 62, 76, 99, 113,

114, 121, 122, passim

INDEX 287

his portrait hung in Ilê Aiyê HQ, 53

leadership skills/style, 135, 147

loyalties ranked, 138

maternal influence, 139

mayoral candidate, 39, 228

personal mythology, 134, 137

president of Ilê Aiyê, 30, passim

social commitment, 138

trustee and chairman of Ilê Aiyê,

135

visionary, 131, 139

visit by President Lula, 140

visited by author at home, 129

as warrior, 213

Waddle, Jesse, 9

Waldeloir, 100

warfare, 90

Warfield Center for African and

African American Studies, xi

warriors, 51, 57, 59, 90, 93, 94, 97–9,

107, 113, 135, 213

Watutsi (people), 87, 90

Weinoldt, Kirsten, 245n. 4, 246n. 11

West Africa, 10, 61, 90, 92, 177,

234n. 23

West Indian American Carnival Day

Association, 9

white privilege, 170

Woman X, xi, 220, 222

workers, 3, 16, 137, 185–7, 189, 190,

193, 194, 197, 201, 207, 211,

212, 214–17, 232n. 4

Worker’s Party, 39, 96

Xangô, 15, 63, 104–6

Xica da Silva, 23, 118, 125, 126

Yemojá (also Nana), 174

Yerba Buena, 159

Yoruba (people), 56, 82, 234n. 19,

237n. 4

Yoruba cosmology, 28, 81, 83, 84,

139, 152. See also cosmology

Yoruba culture, 28, 81, 128, 152,

179, 234n. 20

Yoruba divination, 28, 81–3, 107, 172

Yoruba language, 22, 31, 64, 81, 84,

132, 142, 159, 174, 175, 209,

245n. 7

Yoruba proverbs, 82

Zenilda, 100

Zenilton, 226

Zimbabwe, 87, 93, 94, 97

Zizi, 100

Zulu (people), 8, 104, 235n. 29

Zulu Social Aid and Pleasure Club, 8,

235n. 29

Zumbi dos Palmares, 23, 38, 50, 51,

55, 57, 63, 90, 96, 97, 129, 142,

167, 176, 177, 206

Songs & Poems

“A Esperança de um Povo,” 153, 179,

180

“Adeus Bye Bye,” 181, 182

“Beleza Pura,” 42–4, 171, 238n. 24

“Canto da Cor,” 174, 176, 177

“Canto Sideral,” 153

“Charme da Liberdade,” 161

“Civilização do Congo,” 174, 176, 177

“Comando Doce” (poem), 61

“Corpo Excitado,” 179

“Décima Quinta Sinfonia,” 161

“Depois que o Ilê Passar,” 161, 173

“Deusa do Ébano I,” 45, 67, 153,

161, 174, 175

“Deusa do Ébano II,” 45, 181

“É d’Oxum,” 117

“É Ela,” 61

“É Ela” (poem), 61

“Esmeraldas, Negras Histórias,” 166

“Evolução da Raça,” 179, 180,

247n. 33

“Exclusão,” 161, 181

288 INDEX

“Faraó,” 16

“Formatando a História,” 167

“Guardiã da Beleza Negra”

(poem), 61

“Heranças Bantos,” 181, 182

“Homenagem às Mães Pretas do

Brasil” (poem), 60

“Ilê Aiyê Eterno Abrigo,” 161

“Ilê de Luz,” 174, 176

“Ilê É Ímpar,” 153, 179

“Ilê Minha Paixão” (poem), 168

“Ilê Paradoxal” (poem), 169

“Ilê, um Eterno Aprendiz” (poem), 168

“Linha Imaginária,” 165–6

“Mãe Preta,” 153, 173, 174

“Mãe Preta Foi e É Ama, Mestra,

e Protetora” (poem), 71

“Majestade África,” 104

“Maravilha Negra,” 60

“Matriarca do Curuzu,” 59

“Me Leva Amor,” 181

“Meu Jeito de Ser,” 153, 179, 180

“Minha Origem,” 179, 180

“Não Me Pegue Não,” 20, 121

“Negrice Cristal,” 94, 153, 173

“Negro de Luz,” 153, 174, 176

“Negrume da Noite,” 113, 153, 174,

175

“O Canto da Cidade,” 171

“O Kilombola,” 139

“O Mais Belo dos Belos,” 43, 121,

181, 182

“Pai e Filho,” 179, 180

“Perola Negra Maior” (poem), 51

“População Magoada,” 179, 180

“Que Bloco É Esse?,” 16, 31, 42, 43,

89, 153, 156, 161, 173, 181, 183

“Quero Ver Você, Ilê Aiyê,” 90, 121

“Rituais Africanos,” 226

“Separatismo Não,” 174, 176

“Still I Rise” (poem), 111

Date post:	01-Feb-2018
Category:	Documents
Upload:	buihanh
View:	219 times
Download:	1 times

Introduction 1 Carnival in Africa and Its Diaspora - Springer978-1-137-59870-7/1.pdf · 1 Carnival...

Documents