Learning and hrd

CH-3 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 1

Learning and HRD

Chapter 3


Learning Objectives - 1

• Define learning and list at least three learning principles• Describe the three broad categories of issues that

should be considered to maximize learning• Identify and discuss several personal characteristics

(such as ability, personality) that affect trainee learning• Identify and discuss the training design issues that can

be used to maximize learning• Identify and discuss the factors that affect the transfer of

training, and how these can be used to maximize learning


Learning Objectives – 2

• Discuss how various individual differences affect the learning process

• Discuss the value of adult learning theory to HRD interventions

• Describe the role that learning styles, learning strategies, and perceptual preferences play in learning

• Cite recent perspectives from instructional and cognitive psychology that have importance for HRD


True or False – 1

• For learning to take place, the most important variable to consider is whether the individual learner has sufficient ability to learn what is being taught

• In general, people learn best and remember the most when they can spread out the time spent learning new material

• Learning something to the point of “over-learning” is generally a waste of time, and should be avoided


True or False – 2

• If training has been effective, then it really doesn’t matter whether there is support in the work environment or not

• Trainers should always seek to match the type of training delivery methods to the characteristics of the individuals being trained

• Adult learners typically respond best to a lecture-style approach to training


Learning and Instruction

• Learning: – a relatively permanent change in behavior,

cognition, or affect that occurs as a result of one’s interaction with the environment


Focus of Learning

• Change– By acquiring something new– By modifying something that already exists

• Long-lasting

• Behavior, cognitions, affect– Any combination of the three

• Results from interaction with the environment


Search for Basic Learning Principles

• Association– Process by which two cognitions become

paired so that thinking of one causes thinking of the other


Principles Influencing Association Learning

• Contiguity – Objects that are learned to together tend to be associates with each other– Picture of a cat and German word Katze

• Law of Effect – A behavior followed by a pleasurable consequence is likely to be repeated

• Practice – Repetition strengths the association


Gestalt

• Learning occurs not through trial and error or by association

• It occurs suddenly through insight– An “epiphany”– Aha!

• Not very effective for HRD


Limits of Learning Principles

• Robert Gagne• Argued that training could be improved by

– Task Analysis • Subdividing each task into component tasks

– Component Task Achievement• Mastering each component task to learn entire

task

– Task Sequencing• Learning components should be in appropriate

sequence


Instructional Psychology

• Four components– Describe learning goal to be obtained– Analyze initial state of learner

• What is capacity before learning starts

– Identify conditions that allow learner to achieve competence

• Instructional techniques, procedures, materials

– Assess and Monitor learning to measure progress and need for alternative techniques


Cognitive Psychology

• Adopting the language, methods and models that portray humans as information processors

• Cognitive Architecture– A fixed system of mechanisms that underlies and

produces cognitive behavior– Symbolic Architectures

• Rely heavily upon processing information as symbols and language

– Connectionist Architectures• Focused on way that information is processed


Maximizing Learning

• Three primary areas– Trainee characteristics– Training design– Transfer of training


Trainee Characteristics

• Trainability

• Motivation

• Ability

• Perception of the work environment

• Personality and attitudes


Training Design

• Conditions of practice– Active practice– Massed versus

spaced practice sessions

– Whole versus part learning

– Over-learning– Knowledge of results

(feedback)– Task sequencing

• Retention of what is learned– Meaningfulness of

material– Degree of original

learning– Interference


Transfer of Training

• Identical elements

• General principles

• Stimulus variability

• Support in the work environment

• Opportunity to perform

• Transfer-of-training climate


Trainee Characteristics

• Trainability– f (motivation x ability x perceptions of work

environment)


Pre-training Motivation

• Way trainee perceive training affects levels of learning, perceptions of efficacy, anxiety, and perceptions of fairness

• Way individuals view own ability affects anxiety level, efficacy perceptions and the learning of factual knowledge

• Experiencing negative events on job can increase trainee’s motivation to learn and their performance


Pre-training Motivation – 2

• Other factors: – Involved in decisions to train– Perception that training will result in benefits– Perceptions of support for training– Lack of obstacles in applying training on the

job


Selection of Trainees

• Cognitive ability over prior job knowledge

• Trainability testing– Testing motivation and relevant abilities

• Train, then select– Use training as opportunity to screen

applicants/trainees for retention and further training


Personality and Attitudes

• Personality– The stable set of personal characteristics that

account for consistent patterns of behavior

• Traits for training– Locus of control– Need for achievement– Activity– Independence– Sociability


Training Design

• Involves adapting the learning environment to maximize learning

• Issues include – the conditions of practice that influence

learning– the factors that impact retention of what is

learned


Conditions of Practice

• Active Practice– Repeatedly perform task or use knowledge learned– Massed versus spaced practice sessions

• Massed – All at once (“cramming”)• Spaced – Segments separated over time

– Whole versus part learning• Whole – Practice entire task• Part – Practices segments of task


Overlearning

• Practice beyond the point at which material or task is mastered

• Rationale for over-learning– May improve performance under different situations– Additional proactive when opportunity for same not

available on the job– Makes what is learned “automatic” in stressful or

emergency situations

• Effective but increases time and expense of training


Feedback in Training

• Provides objective information regarding the adequacy of one’s performance

• Can come from observers, the performer, or the task itself

• Informational – when it helps determine tasks are done correctly

• Motivational – when it indicated valued outcomes


Retention of What is Learned

• Issues influencing retention– Meaningfulness of material

• More meaningful, easier to learn and remember

– Degree of original learning• More effectively learned, more is retained

– Interference• Knowledge gained before training can inhibit retention• Knowledge gained after training may inhibit retention• Both require learner to respond differently in the same

general situation do to changed equipment, changed procedures, etc


Transfer of Training

• The transfer of new knowledge from the training scenario into the workplace

• Positive Transfer – Job performance improves because of training

• Negative Transfer – Job performance is worse because of training


Near and Far Transfer

• Near Transfer – Ability to directly apply on the job what has been

learned in training, with little adjustment or modification

• Far Transfer– Expanding on what has been learned in new and

creative ways


Baldwin & Ford’s (1988) Transfer of Training Model

AbilityPersonalityMotivation

Traineecharacteristics

1

2

3

4

5

6

Training InputsConditionsof TransferTraining Outputs

Learningand

retention

SupportOpportunityto use

Workenvironment

Principles oflearningSequencingTraining content

Training design

Generalizationand

maintenance

SOURCE: Baldwin, T. T. & Ford, J. K. (1988). “Transfer of training: A review and directions for future research”.Personnel Psychology, 41, 65. Reprinted by permission.

Fig. 3-1


Identical Elements

• The more similar the training and the performance situations, the better the transfer

• Physical Fidelity– extent to which the conditions of the training program, such as

equipment, tasks, and surroundings, are the same as in the performance situation

• Psychological Fidelity– extent to which trainees attach similar meanings to both the

training and performance situations


General Transfer Theories

• General Principles Theory– Learning the fundamental elements of a task will

ensure transfer from training

• Stimulus Variability– Transfer can be enhanced when training contains a

variety of stimuli

• Support in the Work Environment– extent to which trainees perceive support for using

newly learned behavior or knowledge on the job


Training Support

• Supervisory support– Encouragement to attend training, goal

setting, reinforcement, and behavior modeling have all been shown to increase transfer

• Organizational Support– presence of both transfer of training climate

and a continuous learning work environment affected behavior after training


The Opportunity to Perform

• The number-one reason cited for low transfer (listed by over 64 percent of trainees!) was “lack of opportunity to apply on the job.”


Increasing Transfer to the Job

• Develop (and follow) clearly stated learning objectives for the training

• Maximize the similarity between the training situation and the job situation

• Provide ample opportunity during training to practice the task• Use a variety of situations and examples, including both positive

and negative models of the intended behavior• Identify and label important features of a task• Make sure trainees understand general principles• Provide support back in the work environment, including clear goals, checklists, measurement, feedback, and rewards for using the new behaviors on the job• Provide ample opportunity to perform what is learned back on the

job

Table 3-2


Individual Difference in Learning

• Rate of progress– People learn at different rates

• Learning Curve– Charting individual proficiency against time– Provide feedback for altering approaches

according to individual needs


Attribute-Treatment Interaction

• Some methods of training may be better suited to certain types of people

• Two Variables:– Cognitive ability– Motivation


Learning CurvesFig. 3-2

Trainee 1

Proficiency

Time

Trainee 2

Proficiency

Time Trainee 4

Proficiency

Time

Trainee 3

Proficiency

Time Trainee 5

Proficiency

Time


Cognitive Resource Allocation Theory - 1

• Predicts that– Individuals with higher levels of cognitive ability will

perform better than those with lower levels of cognitive ability during the declarative knowledge phase

– Motivational efforts will reduce performance during the declarative knowledge phase

– Using attentional resources for motivation during the declarative Knowledge phase

– Knowledge phase will have less of an impact on high-cognitive-ability individuals


Cognitive Resource Allocation Theory - 2

– Any advantages because of higher cognitive ability, higher motivation or increased use of attentional resources will decrease over time


Adult Learning Theory

• Pedagogy– Used for educating children and teens

through high school

• Andragogy– Adult-oriented approach to learning


Child versus Adult Learning

• Adults are more self-directed• Adults have acquired a large amount of

knowledge and experience that can be tapped as a resource for learning

• Adults show a greater readiness to learn tasks that are relevant to the roles they have assumed in life

• Adults are motivated to learn in order to solve problems or address needs, and they expect to immediately apply what they learn to these problems and needs


Pedagogy versus Andragogy - 1

Characteristic Pedagogy AndragogyStructure Based on aging

process

Rigid format

Subject/curriculum- centered

Rules, procedures, laws

Flexible, open, broad

Responsive

Interdisciplinary

Developmental

Table 3-3


Pedagogy versus Andragogy - 2

Table 3-3

Characteristics Pedagogy AndragogyAtmosphere Authority-oriented

Formal,

Low trust

Competitive

Win-lose

Relaxed, trusting, mutually

Respectful

Informal,

Warm

Collaborative, supportive

Win-win


Pedagogy versus Andragogy -3 Table 3-3

Characteritic Pedagogy Andragogy

Leadership Teacher dominant

High task,

low relationship

Controlling

Does not value experience

Assumes student immaturity

and dependency

Low risk

Innovative, creative

High task, high relationship

Interdependent mature

Relationship

Mentoring,

Modeling

Experiential


Pedagogy versus Andragogy - 4Table 3-3

Characteristic Pedagogy Andragogy

Planning Administration and teacher

Emphasizes rationale, legal, mechanisms

Policies, plans,

and decisions

Highly political

Administration, faculty, and students

Mutual assessment

Collaborative needs assessment

Mutual negotiation

Problem centered




Motivation External rewards and

punishments

Internal incentives

(curiosity)

Self-directed

Learning contracts




Communication One-way downward

Transmittal techniques

Feelings repressed

Two-way

Mutually

Respectful

Feelings expressed

Supportive



Characteristic Pedagogy AndragogyEvaluation Teacher Norm-

Referenced (curve)

Grades Subjective

Criterion-based

Objective and subjective

Jointly chosen standards by students, peers, and teachers


Gerontology

• The scientific study of old age and aging


Traditional versus Nontraditional Learners - 1

Table 3-4

Traditional Nontraditional•Need motivation; not always sure why they are in training

•Raise few questions; often have little real-world experience to connect to the training content

• Highly motivated; want to

learn

•Raise many questions in class and seek opportunities to analyze training content in terms of own experiences;•Need to connect class materials to real-world experiences.

SOURCE: Adapted from Caudron, S. (2000). “Learners speak out”. Training and Development, 54(4), 52–58. Adaptedby permission. Copyright © April 2000 from Training & Development by Caudron, S. Adapted with permission ofAmerican Society for Training & Development.



Traditional Nontraditional•Developed a tolerance for bureaucracy•Resist participation; expect to be told what to do and how to do it

•Have a low tolerance for

bureaucracy•Want to participate. Dislike being talked at; value discussions and projects


Table 3-4



Traditional Nontraditional•More future-oriented. Don’t expect to immediately apply what they learn in training

•Major focus on good grades

•Concerned with immediate problems and their solutions

•Primarily interested in content and its relevance to career and personal life


Table 3-4



Traditional Nontraditional•Tend to be idealistic• Have a restricted worldview

•Want to know “the answer,” and tend to see things one way

•Tend to be practical•Have considerable knowledge to bring to training•Look at problems as having several possible alternatives worth evaluating


Table 3-4



Traditional Nontraditional•Impatient; want things to happen “overnight”•Likely to accept information that they are given

•Have patience with the world; understand that change takes time•Can and will verify information given in training


Table 3-4



Traditional Nontraditional• Have few specific expectations •Often have preconceived

expectations of training that the instructor should try to identify if possible•If the training isn’t what participants expected, they are likely to consider it to be a failure


Table 3-4


Dimensions For Assessing Trainees - 1

• Instrumentality – – Degree to which the trainee is concerned with the

immediate applicability of the concepts and skills being taught

• Skepticism – – Degree to which the trainee exhibits a questioning

attitude and demands logic, evidence, and examples

• Resistance to Change – – Degree to which the trainee fears the process

SOURCE: From Newstrom, J. W. (1991). One size does not fit all. Training and Development Journal, 45(6), 46.Adapted by permission. Copyright © June 1991 from Training & Development by Newstrom, J. W., & Lengnick-Hall,M. L. Adapted with permission of American Society for Training & Development.


Dimensions For Assessing Trainees – 2

• Attention Span – Length of time the trainee can focus attention before substantial

attentiveness is diminished

• Expectation Level – Level of quality (process) and quantity (content) that the trainee requires

from the trainer or the training

• Dominant Needs – Range of intrinsic and extrinsic individual needs that currently drive the

trainee




• Absorption Level – Pace at which the trainee expects and can

accept new information

• Topical Interest – Degree to which the trainee can be expected

to have personal (job-relevant) interest in the topic




• Self-confidence – Degree of trainee’s independence and positive self-

regard, thus requiring high or low levels of feedback, reinforcement, and success experiences

• Locus of control – Degree to which the trainee perceives that training

can be implemented successfully back on the job with or without organizational support



Five Principles of Adult Training – 1

• Older workers can and do develop

• Supervisions cannot exclude older workers

• Effective training needs– Motivation, structure, familiarity, organization

& time


Five Principles of Adult Training – 2

• The organizational climate must reward entry into training and transfer of skills back to the job

• Training must be considered within an integrated career perspective


Kolb’s Learning Styles

• A learning style represents how individual choices made during the learning process affect what information is selected and how it is processed

• A mode of learning is the individual’s orientation toward gathering and processing information during learning


Kolb’s Basic Modes – 1

• Concrete Experience (CE)– An intuitive preference for learning through

direct experience, emphasizing interpersonal relations and feeling as opposed to thinking

• Abstract Conceptualization (AC) – A preference for learning by thinking about an

issue in theoretical terms


Kolb’s Basic Modes – 2

• Reflective Observation (RO) – A preference to learn by watching and

examining different points of view to achieve an understanding

• Active Experimentation (AE)– A preference for learning something by

actually doing it and judging its practical value


Kolb’s Four Styles – 1

• Divergent – A combination of concrete experience and

reflective observation (feeling and watching), emphasizing imagination, an awareness of values, and the ability to generate alternative courses of action



• Assimilation – A combination of abstract conceptualization

and reflective observation (thinking and watching) that stresses inductive reasoning, the integration of disparate observations into an explanation, and the creation of theoretical models



• Convergent – A combination of abstract conceptualization

and active experimentation (thinking and doing), with a focus on problem solving, decision making, and the practical application of ideas



• Accommodative – A combination of concrete experience and

active experimentation (feeling and doing), this style is usually demonstrated by accomplishment, executing plans, and involvement in new experiences


Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory

• LSI assesses an individual’s orientation toward the four modes of the learning process (CE, RO, AC, and AE)

• Scores also reflect the individual’s tendencies toward abstractness over concreteness and action over reflection


Learning Strategies

• LS represent the “behavior and thoughts a learner engages in during learning”

• Techniques used to rehearse, elaborate, organize, and/or comprehend new material as well as to influence self-motivation and feelings


Categories of Learning Strategies – 1

• Rehearsal strategies– (e.g., repeating items in a list; underlining text in an

article; copying notes)

• Elaboration strategies – (e.g., forming a mental image; taking notes,

paraphrasing, or summarizing new material)

• Organizational strategies– (e.g., grouping or ordering information to be learned;

outlining an article; creating a hierarchy of material)


Categories of Learning Strategies – 2

• Comprehension monitoring strategies– (e.g., self-questioning)

• Affective strategies – (increasing alertness; relaxation; finding ways

to reduce test anxiety)


Perceptual Preferences

• Print (reading and writing)• Visual (such as graphs and charts)• Aural (auditory, i.e., listening)• Interactive (discussing, asking questions)• Tactile/manipulative (hands-on approaches,

such as touching)• Kinesthetic/psychomotor (role playing, physical

activities)• Olfactory (association of ideas with smell or

taste)


Recent Developments

• The ACT*/ACT-R Approach– learning process is the same regardless of the

material being learned– focuses on the changes that occur as a

learner proceeds from knowing what to do (called declarative knowledge) to knowing how to do it (procedural knowledge)


Learning to Regulate One’s Own Behavior

• Experts develop self-regulation and control strategies through experience

• They can monitor their performance by– quickly checking their work, – accurately judging how difficult a problem is, – Allocating their time, – assessing progress, and – predicting the results of their efforts


Expert and Exceptional Performance

• Expert performance – consistently superior performance on a specified set

of representative tasks for a domain

• Exceptional abilities and performance are acquired – primarily under optimal environmental conditions– acquired through deliberate practice– requires sustaining a very high level of motivation


Deliberate Practice – 1

• Leads to anatomical and physiological adaptations that contribute to high levels of performance

• Maximum practice time that a person can tolerate is four 1-hour sessions per day, separated by periods of rest

• Expert performance is facilitated by planning, reasoning, and anticipation


Deliberate Practice – 2

• Experts are generally expert in a limited performance domain

• The age at which an individual can attain peak performance levels varies based on the domain of expertise


Gagné’s Theory of Instruction

• Focuses on the kinds of things people learn and how they learn them

• Two main components of the theory– taxonomy of learning outcomes (what is

being learned) – techniques needed to teach them


Gagné’s Five Categories

• Each requires a different set of conditions for maximizing learning, retention, and transfer each of which requires a different set of conditions for maximizing learning, retention, and transfer


Verbal Information, or Declarative Knowledge

• Involves the ability to state or declare something, such as a fact or an idea

• Reciting the Bill of Rights or the provisions of the Americans with Disabilities Act are examples of verbal information


Intellectual Skills

• Sometimes called procedural knowledge, are the rules, concepts, and procedures that we follow to accomplish tasks

• Intellectual skills may be simple or complex

• English grammar is an example of an intellectual skill


Cognitive Strategies (Strategic Knowledge)

• The skills used to control learning, thinking, and remembering

• Cognitive strategies allow us to determine what procedural knowledge and verbal information we need to perform a task

• For example, an IRS representative uses a cognitive strategy when selecting the auditing approach to take for a particular tax audit


Attitudes

• Internal states of mind that can influence which of several behaviors we may choose

• Attitudes are often highly resistant to change


Motor Skills

• Involve using our bodies to manipulate something

• Writing, icing a cake, and balancing a tray of dishes are examples of motor skills.

• Motor skills are learned by practicing the movement, and in doing so the quality of the movement should improve


Importance of Categories

• According to Gagné, these five categories are important because they differ: – First, as human performances – Second, because the requirements for their learning

are different despite the pervasiveness of such general conditions as contiguity and reinforcement

– Third because the effects of learning, the continued learning, appear also to differ from each other

– Successful performance on any given task requires learning in one or more of these five categories


Instructional Events and Conditions of Learning

Type of Capability

Instructional Event Verbal Information Intellectual Skill

• Gaining Attention

• Informing learner of objective

• Introduce stimulus change• Indicate what kind of verbal question to be answered

• Variations in sensory mode (same for all)• Provide description

and example of the

expected performance

SOURCE: From Principles of Instructional Design 4th edition by GAGNE/WAGER. © 1992. Reprinted with permissionof Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning: [email protected]. Fax 800 730-2215.

Table 3-6



Type of Capability


• Stimulating recall of prerequisites• Presenting the stimulus information

• Stimulate recall of context of organized information• Present information in propositional form

• Provide description and example of the expected performance• Present examples of relevant rules and concepts


Table 3-6



Type of Capability


• Provide learning guidance

• Eliciting the performance

• Provide verbal linjs to a larger meaningful context• Ask for information in learner’s own words (paraphrase)

• Provide verbal cues for proper combining/ sequencing of rules of concepts• Ask learner to apply rules or concepts to new examples


Table 3-6



Type of Capability


• Providing feedback

• Assessing performance

• Confirm the correctness of statement of information

• Learner restates information in paraphrased form

• Confirm the correctness of rule or concept application

• Learner demonstrate application of rules or concepts


Table 3-6



Type of Capability


• Enhancing retention and transfer of information

• Provide verbal links to additional areas of information

• Provide spaced reviews including a variety of examples


Table 3-6



Type of Capability

Cognitive Strategy Attitude Motor Skill

• Clarify the general nature of the solution expected

•Stimulate recall of task strategies and associated intellectual skills

• Provide examples of the desired choice of action

• Stimulate recall of relevant information, skills, and human model identification

• Provide a demonstration of expected performance

• Stimulate recall of sub-routine and part-skills


Table 3-6



Type of Capability


• Present novel problems

•Provide prompts and hints to novel solutions

• Present human model, demonstrating choice of personal action

•Provide for observation of model’s choice of action, and of reinforcement received by model

• Provide external stimuli for performance, including tools or implements

• Provide practice with feedback on performance achievement


Table 3-6



Type of Capability


• Ask for problem solution

• Confirm originality of problem solution

• Ask learner to indicate choices of action in real or simulated situations

• Provide direct or vicarious reinforcement of action choice

• Ask for execution of performance

• Provide feedback on degree of accuracy and timing of performance


Table 3-6



Type of Capability


• Learner originates a novel solution

• Provide occasions for a variety of novel solutions

• Learner makes desired choice of personal action in real or simulated situation• Provide additional varied situations for selected choice of action

• Learner executes performance of total skill

• Learner continues skill practice


Table 3-6

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