Politics, Leadership, Politics, Leadership, and Social Controland Social Control

The BIG QuestionsThe BIG Questions What does political anthropology cover? What are the major cross-cultural forms of political

organization and leadership? How are politics and political organization

changing? How do different cultures maintain social control? What are cross-cultural patterns of social conflict

and violence? How does cultural anthropology contribute to

world peace and order?

Political AnthropologyPolitical Anthropology

focuses on human behavior and thought as it it relates to power in both stateless and state societies who has power and who does not? how much power do certain people have? how do people obtain and maintain power? how is power abused? how are politics and government organized? what are the relationships between politics and

other aspects of culture?

Politics and CulturePolitics and Culture is politics a human universal?

depends on how you define politics the term comes from the Greek word

“politikos,” meaning of/relating to citizens similar to the Greek work “polis,” meaning

city both having to do with a more complex level

of civilization

when looked at in more general terms, politics is the process where groups of people make collective decisions

which is something we can apply cross-culturally

Politics and CulturePolitics and Culture

all societies have some form of organization and social control involves making and enforcing rules and

settling disputes the degree to which these things are

institutionalized varies politics from a cross-cultural perspective

can be analyzed in terms of the use of: power authority influence

PoliticsPolitics power

the ability to bring about results can be done through forceful means

authority the right to take certain forms of action based on status differs from power in that power can be wielded

without authority influence

the ability to achieve a desired end by exerting social or moral pressure on a person or group

Political OrganizationPolitical Organization existence of groups for the purposes of controlling

people's behavior and maintaining social order the distribution of power within a group or groups societies differ in their political organization based on

three key dimensions: 1) extent to which political institutions are distinct from

other aspects of the social structure in small-scale societies, distinctions might not be clear, ex: the

family unit might be the only structure or institution

2) extent to which authority is concentrated into specific political roles

that is, are political roles ordered hierarchically with more power at the top levels

Political OrganizationPolitical Organization 3) level of political integration

the size of the territorial group that comes under the control of the political structure

these dimensions help us categorize the many forms of political organization into four main types bands tribes chiefdoms states

roughly correspond with major modes of livelihood

overlap/blending occurs

BandsBands basic social unit found in many foraging societies

longest-standing form of political organization characterized by being kinship based and having

no permanent political structure flexible membership

most bands number between 20 and 50 people may make up larger group that congregates from time

to time conflicts within bands minimal and are solved

informally leave one band and join another

BandsBands bands are integrated by kinship and marriage and

not by politics no political allegiances

political life is embedded within the wider social structure hard to determine what is a political decision and what is

a decision based on family dynamics leadership roles in band societies are informal

all members are equal, with leaders having authority or influence based on respect, but not coercive power

levelling mechanisms

often change

The MbutiThe Mbuti indigenous pygmy group from

Congo foragers basically egalitarian

band as highest form of organization leadership depends on context (ex:

those good at hunting, will lead a hunt)

decisions made as a group, discussed around campfire

disagreements or offenses may result in scorn, beating, or banishment

Simple BandsSimple Bands usually no larger than one's extended

family structured in this way as well

leadership informal elder male members serving as leaders major decisions through consensus of all

adult members allied with other bands through marriage usually have names as identifiers

often associated with prominent geographical feature in territory

Composite BandsComposite Bands groupings of families

sometimes in the hundreds less cohesive

leadership still informal, yet more defined big men whose leadership is based more

on influence rather than authority are able to hunt larger herds of animals

have to cooperate to maneuver herds into situations of mass slaughter, such as cliffs

ex: Comanche of southern Great Plains

TribesTribes comprises several bands or lineage

groups share a similar language and lifestyle occupy distinct territory often connected through clan structure,

where people claim descent from a common ancestor

more formal than a band kinship still the primary basis for membership 100 to several thousand people

associated with horticulture and pastoralism

TribesTribes more formal leadership than band

qualifications include hard worker, generous, and good social skills

part-time basis in charge of determining movements of people and

herds, planting and harvesting, and times for feasts and celebrations

relies on authority rather than power confederacies are tribal formations that meet from

time time for things like festivals segmentary model involves gathering of confederacies

during times of threat, who break up once threat is gone

ChiefdomsChiefdoms political organization that includes permanently

allied tribes and villages under one chief who possesses power large populations

integrate a number of local communities in a formal and permanent way

centralized and socially complex hereditary systems of social ranking and economic

stratification chiefly versus non-chiefly groups; difference in status chiefship is an office that must always be filled

if a chief dies or retires, a new one must take their place often a member of previous chief's family

ChiefdomsChiefdoms chief's duties include:

regulation of production and redistribution of goods

solving disputes planning and leading raids on other groups sometimes decisions are made in

conjunction with an advisory council historical chiefs have included both men

and women women rulers very prominent in West Africa

ex: Ashanti of Ghana and Edo of Nigeria

State SocietiesState Societies a centralized political unit

encompassing many communities includes a bureaucratic structure leaders possess coercive power most formal and complex form of

political organization have taken various forms; are not just

“modern,” examples include: Greek city-states kingdom of Bunyoro in Uganda, dating

back to the 16th century

Origin of StatesOrigin of States Neolithic Revolution

regulation of production and distribution of goods and labor

providing services irrigation, priests, social servants

why would people choose to give up some of their autonomy to join state societies?

three theories: voluntaristic hydraulic coercive

Voluntaristic Theory of State FormationVoluntaristic Theory of State Formation

put forth by archaeologist V. Gordon Childe (1936) introduction of intensive agriculture during

Neolithic created food surpluses surpluses freed up segment of population

from food production allowed them to engage in new occupational

roles increase in specialization necessitated more

political integration to mediate and protect special interest groups and provide economic superstructure to enable optimum efficiency

Hydraulic Theory of State Hydraulic Theory of State FormationFormation

put forth by Karl Wittfogel (1957) suggested that farmers using small-

scale irrigation in arid or semi-arid areas recognize the economic advantages of surrendering autonomy

benefits of merging multiple small communities into larger entities to provide large-scale irrigation

archaeological evidence suggests that large states developed before introduction of large-scale irrigation (Mexico and Mesopotamia)

Coercive Theory of State FormationCoercive Theory of State Formation set forth by Robert Carneiro (1970)

suggested that the state is a direct result of warfare

only operates under certain environmental conditions

areas that have limited land for agriculture and need to expand in order to support populations

ex: Incas of Peru – Inca state developed in narrow valleys by the ocean

land pressure created competition, competition created warfare

centralized political units developed to conduct warfare and administer to subjugated peoples

State SocietiesState Societies states have more power over their members and

state leaders have more responsibilities: engage in international relations

may use force defensively to maintain borders or offensively to expand territory

monopolize the use of force and maintenance of order through various mechanisms

laws, courts, police maintain armies and other enforcement groups membership is defined by the state, not necessarily by

birth sometimes not all citizens are granted equal rights

State SocietiesState Societies states keep track of their citizens

through census systems states have the power to tax

citizens cash taxes are a new occurrence, in-

kind taxation (tribute of goods) previously

states manipulate information done in order to “protect the state

and its leaders” directly through censorship,

restriction of access, or propaganda indirectly through influence on the

media

Symbols and the StateSymbols and the State states and state leaders often

utilize symbols to maintain power monumental architecture

direct symbol of the ability to use power to organize labor and resources

incorporation of religious leaders and institutions

inter-relationships between powerful structures

ideology as a tool specific kinds of clothing

elite versus “one of the people”

Gender and the StateGender and the State contemporary states are generally

hierarchical and patriarchal exclude members of lower classes and

women from equal participation highly patriarchal states maintain male

dominance through ideologies the imposition of purdah in Muslim

theocracies pre-Communist China's beliefs on strength

and dependability of women versus men trend in socialist states of attempts of

increasing women's roles in politics quotas for parliamentary positions

Gender and the StateGender and the State only 16 percent of the world's

parliamentary members are women regional differences range from

40% in Scandinavian states, to 8% in Arab states

some notable female politicians: Indira Gandhi in India Golda Meir in Israel Benazir Bhutto in Pakistan Michele Bachelet in Chile Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf in Liberia

many come from political families

Changing Politics: The Changing Politics: The Emergence of the Nation-StateEmergence of the Nation-State

nation and state, although used in combination, are two distinct concepts

nation a group of people who share a common symbolic identity,

culture, history, and often, religion state

a particular type of political structure distinct from a band, tribal society, or chiefdom

the term nation-state refers to a group of people sharing a common cultural background and unified by a political structure that they all consider legitimate

Changing Politics: The Changing Politics: The Emergence of the Nation-StateEmergence of the Nation-State

important to note that modern nation-states do not really fit this definition populations that live within them are

rarely homogeneous encompass a variety of cultural groups some of them really do not like each

other and others who would like their own autonomous state

for example, Palestinians living on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip in Israel are constantly in conflict with the Israeli state

Imagined CommunitiesImagined Communities

Benedict Anderson (1983) suggested that states employ symbolic strategies to create/maintain shared identity: imposition of a national language construction of monuments and

museums that emphasize unity use of songs, dress, poetry, and

media messages nationalism

Changing PoliticsChanging Politics

transnationalism reaching beyond or transcending national borders

the interconnectivity between people, despite national boundaries

involves globalization and migration democratization

transformation from authoritarian to democratic regimes

includes: end of torture, liberation of political prisoners, lifting of

censorship, and toleration of opposition relaxation versus true democratization

StatisticsStatistics according to Freedom House, an organization

that tracks political trends: by the end of 2005, 22 of the world’s 192

governments were electoral democracies, up from 66 countries 18 years earlier

between 1975 and 2005: number of free countries increased from 40 to 89 number of partially free countries increased from 53 to 58 number of countries deemed not free declined from 65 to

45

DifficultiesDifficulties despite general trend toward democracy, there

have been some obstacles change problematic

transformation from highly authoritarian to democratic nonfit between Western-style democracy and local

political traditions based on aspects such as kinship or tribal allegiance

arrests, violence, and sometimes murder of protesters in various countries Iran, Yemen, Syria, Libya

EgyptEgypt in Egypt, Hosni Mubarak was

ousted after an 18 day demonstration he was in power for 30 years while he claimed to have been fairly

elected by the democratic process, many question the validity of these elections

influenced by recent events in Tunisia, the people called for his resignation by protesting in Tahrir Square, a major public place in the capitol of Cairo

role of social media

EgyptEgypt during this revolution, many people suffered

violence and death as many as 150 people died during these protests

and around 2,000 people were reported to be injured

there have, however, been some major steps forward in reforming the political process

Internet and DemocracyInternet and Democracy

in order for the Internet to be a democratizing force, it must provide access to all people, not just those who can afford the technology

governments and corporations have often been complicit in inhibiting the spread of free information

Western technology firms have helped the Chinese government limit free expression by blocking access to political websites and selling filtering equipment

Internet and DemocracyInternet and Democracy in December 2005, at the

request of the Chinese government, Microsoft closed down the blog of a Chinese journalist who was critical of the government

officials at Yahoo! admitted it had helped the Chinese government sentence a dissident to 10 years in prison by identifying him as the sender of a banned e-mail message

Critical Legal AnthropologyCritical Legal Anthropology

legal anthropology looking at the way laws serve to maintain social

cohesion functionalist approach

critical legal anthropology is a critique of the status quo the study of how law and judicial institutions serve

to maintain and expand dominant power interests rather than protecting marginal people

focuses on state-level societies where this degree of inequality is most prominent

Systems of Social ControlSystems of Social Control social control

mechanisms by which behavior is constrained and directed into acceptable channels, maintaining conformity

every society must ensure that most of the people behave themselves most of the time depending on the size and complexity of a given

society, these methods of social control will be more or less formal

can be as informal as simply learning through socialization what is allowed, or as formal as mandates, sanctions, or laws

Social ControlSocial Control two major instruments/mechanisms:

norms accepted standards for how people should

behave usually unwritten and learned

unconsciously found in all societies

laws binding rules created through custom or

official enactment defines correct behavior and the

punishment for misbehavior more common and more elaborate in

state-level societies

Informal Social ControlsInformal Social Controls most often found in small-scale societies, but

sometimes used in state-level societies in combination with more formal methods ostracization

forcing the offender to leave the group public opinion

what the general public thinks about an issue this forms the basis of social pressure to behave

Informal Social ControlsInformal Social Controls

degradation ceremonies deliberate societal mechanisms designed to publicly

humiliate someone who has broken a social norm corporate lineages

kinship groups whose members engage in daily activities together

often help socialize people into correct behavior as well as exerting pressure and control over its members

ex: making sure that marriages are fairly planned and correctly performed

Formal Social ControlsFormal Social Controls also practiced in a variety of societies

some only done in state societies, some only in non-state, some in both

song duel (often performed by the Inuit) means of settling disputes over wife stealing involving the use of

song and lyrics to determine one’s guilt or innocence the more abusive and cleverly written a song is against other

person, the more cheers one gets whoever has the best song is determined the winner

Formal Social ControlsFormal Social Controls oaths

the practice of having the supernatural bear witness to the truth of what a person says

a formal declaration, usually performed in combination with a ritual act like signing a document or swearing on the Bible

ordeals painful and possibly life-threatening test inflicted on someone

suspected of wrongdoing some ordeals have nothing to do with the potential guilt of a

person for example, some African societies put the accused's hand

into boiling water, if that person is not guilty, the god or gods of that society will prevent harm from coming to them

Legal SystemsLegal Systems

legal systems can be informal or formal, simple or complex

self-help legal systems are more like the former found in societies without centralized political

systems band or tribe-level societies

can be further divided into familial and mediator systems

Self-Help Legal SystemsSelf-Help Legal Systems familial

if offended, individual or family becomes the authority the community supports the victim and the

consequences of the crime are recognized by consensus

ex: Comanche wife-stealing mediator

slightly more formal offended party still has authority but a third party is

called upon to negotiate a solution mediator cannot impose settlement, but is generally

agreed upon ex: Nuer leopard-skin chiefs

Court SystemsCourt Systems the court holds authority in this system

exist only in societies with centralized political leadership

chiefdoms or states operate with formal public hearings, including

judges separation between criminal law and civil law can be divided into three categories:

incipient courts courts of mediation courts of regulation

Court SystemsCourt Systems incipient courts

sometimes found in tribal societies, but mostly chiefdoms

judicial authorities meet, sometimes informally, to privately discuss issues and their solutions

evidence not formally collected, nor are the parties consulted

courts of mediation judges attempt to reach compromise solutions that will

restore social cohesion based on cultural norms and values

courts of regulation use codified laws, much like our own

Social Control in StatesSocial Control in States increased specialization of roles related to law

police, judges, lawyers policing - exercise of social control through processes of

surveillance and the threat of punishment trials and courts

court system where lawyers, judges, and juries are used to ensure justice and fairness in determining guilt and punishment

power-enforced punishment prisons - forcible detainment, emerged with state capital punishment - requires great deal of power

ex: Aztecs

Social Conflict and ViolenceSocial Conflict and Violence most, if not all, societies face conflict, despite any

mechanisms for social control that are in place vary in scale

some only involve two people, others multiple groups include:

interpersonal conflict banditry feuding ethnic conflict revolution warfare nonviolent conflict

Interpersonal ConflictInterpersonal Conflict usually only involves a couple of people

household disputes between family members or roommates

between neighbors or residents of the same town

over resources or territory between people in a relationship

dating, spousal violence can be fairly nonviolent or very violent

yelling at your neighbor over their dog murdering your neighbor for stealing your

cattle

BanditryBanditry aggressive conflict that involves

socially patterned theft practiced by a person or group who

are socially marginalized and gain status from this illegal activity

sometimes a form of creating social ties Crete, Greece: stealing and counter-

stealing of sheep until a mediator comes in and resolves the tension by creating loyalty between two parties

mythification Robin Hood

FeudingFeuding intergroup aggression that involves long-term,

retributive violence may be lethal between families, groups of families, or tribes motivated by revenge exacerbated by change or outside stress/pressure

ex: Thull village in northern Pakistan Hatfields and the McCoys

West Virginia Union versus Confederates

Ethnic ConflictEthnic Conflict two main reasons:

when a dominant group tries to oppress or even eliminate a subordinate group

when a subordinate group attempts to gain more autonomy

while identity (ethnicity = common language, history) is often at the heart, functional reasons also play a role scarcity of land and resources as

pressure ex: Central Asia where many ethnic

groups exist and with the effects of the Cold War

RevolutionRevolution a form of conflict involving illegal

and usually violent actions by subordinate groups that seek to change the status quo

occurs in a variety of societies monarchies, colonies, developing

countries, totalitarian states urban versus rural origins for

revolutions cities as origin, ex: Iran, Egypt agrarian revolutions, ex: French,

Russian

WarfareWarfare definition of war has changed over time

is it always officially declared? does one always know who one's enemy is?

we can define war loosely: organized conflict involving group action directed against

another group using lethal force critical military anthropology

study of the military as a power structure views armed forces through critical lens:

how is the military used as an instrument of power or oppression?

how has militarization (intensification of labor and resources that are allocated to maintaining militaries) affected society?

Nonviolent ConflictNonviolent Conflict James Scott's (1985) term

“weapons of the weak” nonviolence utilizes methods that do

not require resources marginalized people do not often have

resources to use or the political capital and protection needed for open, organized political activity

can include hunger strikes, protests, sit-ins, desertion, feigned ignorance, slander, humor

famous figures: Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.

Key ThemesKey Themes we can roughly categorize political organizations

in terms of aspects like power, authority, and influence the 4 types of political organization also roughly

correspond with the modes of livelihood different societies have many different ways of

maintaining social control there are also a variety of ways that conflict can

occur in societies political organizations and forms of social control

have changed over time and will continue to change

Social Inequality and Social Inequality and StratificationStratification

The Big QuestionsThe Big Questions

How does identity relate to inequality?

What are social groups and how do they vary cross-culturally?

What is social stratification and inequality?

What is the difference between caste and class?

What are some of the reasons for inequality?

IdentityIdentity

identity often serves as the basis for the formation of social groups, as well as the origins of social stratification and inequality

often based on micrcultural traits like “race,” ethnicity, class, and gender

Race and EthnicityRace and Ethnicity

“race” refers to the classification of people into groups on the basis of supposedly homogeneous and largely superficial biological traits such as skin color or hair characteristics

ethnicity refers to a shared sense of identity among a group based on heritage, language, and culture

both often serve as a way for people to identify themselves and others

RaceRace race is one of the main bases for inequality

racism often based on notion that different “races” act and think certain ways because of a biological basis (brain size, head shape)

Boas set out to de-link allegedly inborn, racial attributes from behavior

ex: people with similar head size from different cultures behaved differently, while people with different head sizes within the same culture behaved similarly

for Boas and his students, race was not a biological reality

we see today that race is, however, a social reality > cultural construct

ClassClass class is a category based on a person's

economic position in society usually measured in terms of income or wealth manifested in terms of lifestyle

identifying markers such as dress, cars, houses, even type of speech used

class also serves as a means for identification of self and other haves vs. have nots rich vs. poor

Social GroupsSocial Groups

what kinds of groups do people form/belong to that are not on the basis of kin relationships?

how are people classified in such groups? do they join them or are they born into

them? what holds these groups together? how do groups deal with leadership

and participation?

Social GroupsSocial Groups

a social group is a cluster of people beyond the domestic unit who are usually related on grounds other than kinship common groupings include microcultural distinctions

such as race/ethnicity, gender, age, and institutions shape group identity, organizations, and relationships

among and between groups

the presence and amount of social groups varies from society to society; some cultures group people according to kinship while others emphasize other social relationships more

Social GroupsSocial Groups

two basic categories of social groups: primary

consists of people who interact with each other on a face-to-face basis, knowing each other personally

involves more accountability in terms of rights and obligations

ex: college clubs

secondary consists of people who identify with each other on some

common ground but who may never meet with one another or interact with each other personally

ex: members of online communities/forums

Social GroupsSocial Groups

formal vs. informal many groups are formally organized, often including

actual membership and recognition ex: members of the American Anthropological

Association

other groups are informal and are characterized by being smaller and less visible more often know each other personally organization is less hierarchical do not have legal recognition

Social GroupsSocial Groups

on the continuum ranging from smaller, primary groups to larger and more formal groups friendships clubs and fraternities countercultural groups cooperatives self-help groups

FriendshipFriendship close social ties between at least

two people informal voluntary, people choose their friends primary, personal interaction involving

mutual support (financial, emotional) generally non-kin, often between

social equals with exceptions depending on rigidity of stratification

takes different forms in different cultures and microcultures

Clubs and FraternitiesClubs and Fraternities defined in terms of a sense of

shared identity and objectives can be homogeneous or

heterogeneous in terms of certain microcultural aspects ex: Intervarsity Christian Fellowship

(institution and religion vs. ethnicity and age)

ex: Abelam men's houses can be inclusive or exclusive

free to everyone vs. paying dues ex: books clubs vs. college honor

societies

Countercultural GroupsCountercultural Groups

sometimes people identify themselves, or are identified by others, as outside of the mainstream culture

these people often still group themselves based on similarities in beliefs, backgrounds, and

experiences despite variation within and between these

groups, a common theme is the importance of bonding and shared initiation

GangsGangs groups of people, found mainly in

urban areas, who are often considered a social problem by law enforcement can be formally (street gangs,

organized crime syndicates) or informally (youth gangs) organized

include symbolic markers of inclusion (tattoos, colors, clothing)

rituals of initiation ex: Masta Liu in the Solomon

Islands (youth) or the Yakuza of Japan (syndicate)

CooperativesCooperatives

economic groups in which surpluses are shared among the members and decision making is based on the democratic principles of one person = one vote most common forms are agricultural and credit, but

can also include craft cooperatives organized around groups of people who use their skills to make items like clothes, furniture, or pottery

done for economic, political, and social reasons being able to form groups allows people to provide more

products and have more power, but also allows for bonding and the sharing of ideas

Case Study: Sugar Case Study: Sugar Farming in Farming in

Western IndiaWestern India state of Maharashtra sugar industry largely owned and operated through

farmer cooperatives despite shareholder's only growing one to two acres of

sugar cane, sugar industry is huge part of state's economy, rivaling iron and steel industries

as a group, they are able to pay for expensive processing machinery

due to simple rural stratification practices, cooperatives thrive here, unlike in northern India

Self-Help GroupsSelf-Help Groups formed to achieve specific

personal goals coping with illness (depression,

cancer, PTSD) or bereavement lifestyle changes (weight loss) ex: AA, NA, Weight Watchers

with the increase in use of the Internet, self-help and other social groups have been able to form large, virtual communities for people in widespread areas of the world

Social StratificationSocial Stratification consists of hierarchical relationships between

different groups, as though they were arranged in layers

stratified groups may be unequal on a variety of measures material resources, power, education, and status

people in dominant groups are usually interested in maintaining social order while people in subordinate, less powerful groups are more interested in change

appeared late in human history, most likely with emergence of agriculture

Social InequalitySocial Inequality Weber (1946)

suggested there are three basic criteria by which one can measure the level of social inequality

how much access do people have to: wealth (material objects that have value in a society) power (the capacity to produce intended effects on

oneself, other people, social situations, or the environment)

prestige (social honor or respect within in a society) these aspects often interrelated, but can also

operate independently ex: classical pianists might have prestige, but little wealth

Types of SocitiesTypes of Socities

Fried (1967) distinguished three types of societies based on

levels of social inequality: egalitarian rank stratified

Egalitarian SocietiesEgalitarian Societies recognize few differences in status, wealth,

and power no person or group has appreciably more of

these traits than any other personal differences in skill and/or knowledge,

of course, occur high esteem is earned, not able to be transformed

into wealth or power, and cannot be transferred to heirs

number of high status positions not fixed any person capable can fill these positions

commonly found in highly mobile foraging societies

ex: !Kung people, Inuit, and Hadza of Tanzania

Rank SocietiesRank Societies societies in which people have unequal

access to prestige and status but not unequal status to wealth and power fixed number of high status positions

ex: position of chief is largely hereditary, but standard of living is not noticeably different from an ordinary person

most prominent examples found in Oceania and Native American groups of the Northwest Coast ex: Nootka of British Columbia

people ranked within families based on primogeniture (eldest child, usually son, has rights to inherit the family's estate)

Stratified SocietiesStratified Societies

characterized by considerable inequality in power, wealth, and prestige this inequality is both permanent and formally

recognized by members of that society (institutionalization)

therefore, some people or groups have little or no access to basic resources while others have no or very little barriers to the acquisition of such things

the more complex the society, the more complex the system of stratification

Stratified SocietiesStratified Societies

two main forms of stratified societies: class caste

connected to the two main forms of status or position: ascribed achieved

Status/PositionStatus/Position how does one acquire their status? ascribed status/position

a person's standing in society based on qualities that the person has gained through birth

achieved status/position a person's standing in society based on qualities

that the person has gained through action while achieved status is often associated with

the class system (potential for social mobility) and ascribed status is associated with the caste system, there are exceptions

Achieved Status: ClassAchieved Status: Class class is closely tied with economics

class and status do not always match (getting money in disreputable ways)

generally informal one does not sign up to be a member of the middle

class groups under specific class headings (labor unions,

country clubs) generally thought to be achieved by means

of attaining wealth can also be ascribed, ex: heirs and heiresses

are born into rich families and generally stay that way while poor people born into poor families generally stay that way as well

Theories of ClassTheories of Class class is central to Marxist theory

Marx suggested that, in terms of Industrial Europe, one could separate society into the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, the haves and the have nots

because the haves have access to the means of production (resources), they are able to exploit the have nots

conflict between the classes will eventually lead to the downfall of capitalism

Theories of ClassTheories of Class Durkheim (1895) viewed class differences as basis

for social solidarity two main forms of solidarity:

mechanical cohesion among similar groups less enduring relationships created due to lack of mutual

need organic

cohesion among groups with different abilities and resources more enduring relationships created due to need and the

provision of complementary resources to different groups suggested that mechanical more associated with

less complex society

Ascribed StatusAscribed Status ascribed systems of stratification usually based on

divisions of people into unequally ranked groups, for ex. on the basis of “race,” ethnicity, and caste

“race” racial stratification results from contact (colonization,

slavery, migrations) between two formerly separate groups

discrimination often intrinsically linked with class ex: South African policy of apartheid

legally sanctioned segregation, white dominance began with migration and settlement of Europeans (Dutch) depictions of Africans as lazy and lustful served as rationale

for slavery and domination, despite black majority

Ascribed Status: EthnicityAscribed Status: Ethnicity according to Comaroff (1987), ethnicity is

a sense of group membership based on a shared sense of identity because this often comes out of a shared

history, it can serve as the basis for the claiming of entitlements to resources (ex: land)

can also serve as yet another way to put people into groups

ex: the Chinese government has strict definitions for group membership, with the Han ethnic group being the majority

minority groups often live on (literal) margins of society, such as Tibet, Yunnan, Xinjiang, and Inner Mongolia

Ascribed Status: CasteAscribed Status: Caste rigid form of social stratification in

which membership is determined by birth and social mobility is basically nonexistent

the caste system a form of social stratification linked

with Hinduism in which a person is born into a particular group

found mainly in Hindu India, as well as Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Fiji

based on sacred Hindu texts that categorize society into four major categories or varnas

The Hindu Caste SystemThe Hindu Caste System Madelbaum (1970)

according to a Hindu origin myth the four varnas originated from the body of primeval man

the highest caste, the Brahmans (priests and scholars), came from his mouth

the Kshatriyas (warriors) emanated from his arms

the Vaishyas (merchants) came from his thighs and the Shudras (cultivators, laborers, and

servants) sprang from his feet therefore, there is a religious/ideological

aspect to this system of social stratification based around the notion of purity

higher castes = more pure

The Hindu Caste SystemThe Hindu Caste System

the first three varnas go through a ritual ceremony of initiation and “rebirth” to symbolize their high status, purity, and “twice-born” nature

The Hindu Caste SystemThe Hindu Caste System beneath the four varnas is a

group that is considered to be so low that they are outside of the system itself formerly known in English as

“untouchables” based on the idea that higher

castes are not allowed to touch them for fear of literal and spiritual contamination

have adopted the term dalit, meaning “oppressed” or “ground down”

The Hindu Caste SystemThe Hindu Caste System

within the four main varnas are hundreds, maybe even thousands, of local groups known as jatis (birth group) ex: brahmans can be divided into priestly and non-

priestly jatis, priestly brahmans can be divided into household priests, temple priests, and funeral priests

it is of note that despite the strict rules about interaction between castes, there is a large degree of interdependence because of the complex division of labor based on

caste, each jati relies on many others to fulfill their daily needs (Durkheim's organic solidarity)

The Hindu Caste SystemThe Hindu Caste System traditionally caste has been associated with little

social mobility maintained through practice of endogamy, spatial

separation (neighborhoods), use of wealth by upper castes to sponsor festivals

however, “up-casting” exists instance in 4th century BCE where Valmiki, writer of the

Ramayana, was elevated because of his skill at poetry other strategies exists such as gaining wealth, education,

migration, political activism those seeking to elevate status often take on cultural markers of

“twice-born” (wearing sacred thread, practicing vegetarianism) in 1949 the Indian Constitution outlawed discrimination on

the basis of caste; 20th century saw institution of policies, success of which is still debatable

Maintaining InequalityMaintaining Inequality besides physical force, how is inequality maintained?

ideologies ideas and beliefs that legitimize and reinforce inequalities in

stratified societies can be religious or secular ex: heavenly ordained monarchy in Europe vs. political

ideologies concerning the rich and poor can be seen in two main theories for analysis

functional stratification is a way to reward individuals who contribute most

to a society's well-being conflict

stratification benefits mainly the upper stratum and is the cause of most social unrest and conflict in society

Key ThemesKey Themes identity plays a big role in the formation of social

groups, as well as being the basis for social stratification and inequality

social groups can have a variety of beliefs, values, and goals

social stratification and inequality varies depending on the society under study complex societies often have highly complex ways of

organizing society one's status within society can be achieved, ascribed, or

both inequality find its root in things like ideology