IMRAD

For what good science tries to eliminate, good art seeks to provoke – mystery, which is lethal to one, and vital to another.

John FowlesThe French Lieutenant’s Woman

Description to Analysis

• Early journals published “descriptive” papers• Descriptive used in “letters” journals, case reports• Methodology became more important• Growth of journals & standards

– Structure to save space– Make editing & review easier by rigid “indexing”

• IMRAD logic defined by question– What question (problem) was studied? Introduction– How was the problem studied? Methods– What were the findings? Results– What do the findings mean? Discussion

IMRAD Outline

• Distinctive style with clear partsTitle What is this paper about?Introduction Why you did this work? What is its purpose?Methods What materials did you use? How did you use them?Results What did you discover?Discussion What do your findings mean?

• IMRAD can be modified– If several methods are used, combine Methods with Results– If results are complex, combine Results with Discussion.

• Think of the reader: create events in the reader’s mind

Basic Outline

Physical sciences

Introduction

Methods

Results

Discussion

Social Sciences

Introduction

Theoretical analysis

Applications

Conclusions

Sample Analytical OutlineNatural/Physical Sciences

CHAPTER I - IntroductionStatement of the problem & purposeSignificance of the studyResearch questions and/or hypotheses

CHAPTER II - MethodologyPopulation and samplingInstrumentation (include copy in appendix)Procedure and time frameAnalysis plan (type of statistical tests)

Validity and reliabilityAssumptionsScope and limitations

CHAPTER III - ResultsCHAPTER IV – Discussion & Conclusions

Summary (of what you did and found)Discussion (why you think you found what you did)Recommendations (based on your findings)

REFERENCES

Chapter I - Introduction

• Put yourself in your reader's position - would you continue reading?

• Catch the reader’s attention: get them "turned on" about the subject. Review pertinent literature

Justification and objectives

• Present tense

Statement of the problem & purpose

Significance of the study

Research questions or hypotheses

IntroductionVital Statements

Statement of Problem• Focus of your research: one sentence

with 1-3 paragraphs of elaboration

• Are looking for – something wrong

– something that needs close attention

– new methods (old do not work)

Fair trade policies are creating political instability and a loss of income in developing countries.

• Elaborate on the problem. – how the problem relates to important

topics (business, environment, governance…)

– give dramatic and concrete illustrations

Statement of Purpose• A single statement or paragraph that

explains what you intend to do– Method of investigation

– Principle results of investigation

– Principle conclusion(s) suggested by results

The goal of this study is to

overcome the difficulty with ...discover what impacts... explain the causes and effects of ...refine our current understanding of ...provide a new interpretation of ...understand the relationship between…

To accomplish this…

Introduction Significance of the Study

• This section (paragraph) creates a perspective for looking at the problem.

• It points out how your study relates to the larger issues.

• Uses a persuasive rationale to justify the reason for your study.

• Explains why the purpose is worth pursuing.

• The significance of the study answers the questions:

Why is your study important?

To whom is it important?

What benefit(s) will occur if your study is done?

IntroductionLiterature and Definitions

• Review of the literature– shows what previous researchers have discovered

– length depends upon research in the area you are investigating

– If you are exploring a new area, literature review should cite similar areas of study or studies that lead up to the current research

– Never say that your area is so new that no research exists.

• Define when appropriate– Operational definitions (definitions that you have formulated for the study)

For the purpose of this research, improvement is operationally defined as post-test score minus pre-test score.

– abbreviations

“An equal opportunity employer, M & F.” (NIH ad in Journal of Virology)

Muscular and fit?

Musical and funny?

Mature applicant in his fifties?

IntroductionResearch Questions

HypothesesLists the research questions or hypotheses

• Hypothesis – not a fact– Statement beyond the known to the next logical anticipation

– Must fit the known information (cited literature)

– Must be testable (experiment)

• Research question – requires an answer– clearly states without elaboration

– what you are specifically going answer, determine, explain…

The research question for this study will be, What are the attitudes of...

This study will determine if a cause/effect relationship exists between...

Primary literature

• Peer-reviewed scientific journals, results of original research

• Text books or internet sources• normally not used in scientific papers

• use sparingly

• an adjunct to the primary literature.

• Popular magazines (e.g., National Geographic, Time) are not considered primary literature

Common mistakes

• Go into too much detail

• Excessive background

• What you did in your experiment–belongs in the Methodology

– findings belong in Results

ExampleAlthough the water economies of a number of species of amphibians have been studied, the majority of these investigations have not been specific in nature (Smith et al., 1998). Such studies have often sought to elucidate adaptive differences among species (Schmid, 1965; Ralin and Rogers, 1972; Gillis, 1979). Although developmental stages of amphibians often occupy different habitats, corresponding changes in physiological parameters have been relatively unstudied.

The red-spotted newt (Notophthalmus viridescens) has a more complex life cycle than many amphibians. Following a brief larval development, these organisms metamorphose and become terrestrial salamanders, the red-efts. After spending up to seven years in this habitat, these sub-adults go through a second metamorphosis to become aquatic adults (newts) that spend the remainder of their lives in water (Conant, 1975).

In view of the difference in habitats occupied by these two stages it was hypothesized that newts and salamanders should differ in terms of their water economy. Specifically, terrestrial efts should have lower rates of evaporative water loss and be more tolerant to dehydration than aquatic newts.

Chapter II - Methodology

• Describes your basic research plan

• Consists of– Population and sampling

– Instrumentation

– Procedure and time frame

– Analysis plan (type of statistical tests)• Validity and reliability

• Assumptions

• Scope and limitations

MethodologyPopulation and sampling

The basic research paradigm is: 1) Define the population2) Draw a representative sample from the population3) Do the research on the sample4) Infer your results from the sample back to the population

Population description: precise and concise single statement

The population for this study is defined as

carnivores in the region of…

women in southern Uganda who…

all economic communities in Asia influenced by fair trade policies.

MethodologyInstrumentation

• If using a survey designed by someone else, state the source of the survey.

• Describe the theoretical constructs that the survey is attempting to measure.

• Include a copy of the survey in the appendix

How to write the Methods section

What materials did you use?

How did you use them? • Write in the past tense – passive, 3rd person

• Write carefully – no room for error

• Sampling procedures – detailed to replicate

• Scientific method requires that your results must be reproduced

Samples were subjected to electrophoresis. (Too little detail.)

• Avoid jargon or slang: We ran the proteins on a gel. (Slang)

Chapter III – Results• verbal summary of representative data• not merely a collection of tables and figures without explanatory text • interpret what a table or figure illustrates. • 5 keys to writing a good results section:

(1) Present the results in an orderly sequence, following the sequence of the Methods

(2) If tables and figures summarize your data, construct first as a basis for writing

(3) Interpret/summarize – do not repeat – information in tables and figures

Results of the water quality analysis are shown in Table 1.Nitrogen concentrations in the stream increased during 1999 (Table 1).

(4) Present the facts: avoid discussion of results

(5) Use statistical tests as background material to support more general statements.

How to write the ResultsWhat did you discover?

• Should stand out on its own– Nothing but results– All results you intend discuss later

• Emphasize answer(s) to your question(s) at beginning of a paragraph• Follow with secondary results – with supporting information• Exclude results that are not relevant• Supervisor (reader) looking for your ability to discriminate and interpret

– Filling pages with raw data does neither– End should easily draw to accept/reject hypothesis in Discussion

• Figure and Tables– Should be readable without text, and vice versa– Text reinforces important aspects of table and figure– Charts show trends, relationships between variables– Tables report precise numerical information and compare data– If you have only one or two rows of data, write one or two sentences instead

• You may combine Results and Discussion

Chapter IV – Discussion

• Did results support hypothesis/ answer research question?

• If hypothesis was refuted, provide an explanation

• Compare your results with others – Does your data agree with current models or refute them?

– How has your investigation added knowledge?

How to write the DiscussionWhat do your findings mean?

• Answer specific questions addressed in Introduction• Show how your findings relate to existing knowledge• Explain what is new, why your results are important• Indicate what next steps might be• Discuss possible errors or limitations of your methods• Distinguish between facts and speculation• Use end of the Introduction as your starting point

Chapter V – Conclusion• It is important to have a strong summary

– Last chance to make an impression

– Restate the main idea of your topic/thesis statement

– Summarize the sub-points, e.g.• State significance of Results/Discussion of investigation

• Explain why readers should align with your position

– Call for action or overview future research possibilities.

• Can combine with Discussion

• To distinguish from Results– Past tense for Results

– Present tense for Discussion/Conclusions

• Note: statistics never prove anything, only indicate that the opposite is unlikely and give a measure of how unlikely.

• Do not claim too much

Review Sample Analytical OutlineCHAPTER I – Introduction present tense

Statement of the problem & purposeSignificance of the studyResearch questions and/or hypotheses

CHAPTER II – Methodology past tensePopulation and samplingInstrumentation (include copy in appendix)Procedure and time frameAnalysis plan (type of statistical tests)

Validity and reliabilityAssumptionsScope and limitations

CHAPTER III – Results past tenseCHAPTER IV – Discussion & Conclusions present tense

Summary (of what you did and found)Discussion (why you think you found what you did)Recommendations (based on your findings)

REFERENCES

From Outline to First Draft

• Find a time and place to write• Start with easiest section, and write simply• It might be helpful to write in this order:

– Methods or Theoretical Analysis– Introduction– Results or Applications or Conclusions (discuss with a friend)– Discussion

• Revise working title• Write Abstract• Bury the first draft for a while

The Working Title

First and last thing a reader will seeFactual but stand out Declarative rather than neutral:

Influence of poverty on revolution does not say what happened Poverty incites revolution … does

Positive, brief and specificBegin with keywords – makes immediately clear what was studiedVerbs instead of abstract nouns

Treatment of single-cell protein for aquafeedHow to treat single-cell protein for aquafeed

Avoid abbreviations‘OCs o-t-c’ was actually used in The Lancet (1993)Oral contraceptives over-the-counter

Don’t worry, you’ll change it

Revised Title

Short , concise, concrete: reflect exactly what you did in your study.

Example 1 - Gender and Poverty doesn’t tell much about the paper. How Female Circumcision Reduces Family Income in Sub-Sahara Africa tells the reader what is in the paper.

Example 2 – On the discovery of a useful new laboratory research method for isolating and purifying the lactose-degrading enzyme β-galactosidase from the economically important, yogurt-producing bacterial species Lactobacillus bulgaricus needs streamlining!

Example 3 – Studies on a snake, again too brief. Controlling Thermal Ecology of Timber Rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus) in Ås, Norwaynotes what snake, where, what kind of study

Abstract

Why did you start? What did you do, and how?

What did you find?What do your findings mean?

How well does it work?

• One paragraph, generally 50-200 words• Write with non-specialist in mind• Never refer to information not in the paper• Use active verbs, and use past tense for what was found• Avoid acronyms, abbreviations – or define them

How to make your first draft easier to write

1. Break the complex into simple components Try for consistent progress. Go for the easiest tasks that have a specific beginning and end.

2. Prioritize tasks Make a list. Set deadlines.

3. Limit time Use a calendar and estimate time to achieve tasks.

4. Put placeholders If the right words won’t come, skip it and keep writing.

Tip: When you “know” you need to write something particular, but can’t find the words to do it, put a placeholder as a reminder.

5. Take a break. Get away from your writing – overnight if possible. Why?

(1) It let’s you see what you really wrote, not what you meant to write,

(2) It helps you see the writing from the reader’s view, not the writer’s.

(3) You’re more apt to view work as if someone else wrote it.

1st Draft – Watch out

• Strive for completion not perfection

• Focus on logic not style

“Blood samples were taken from 48 informed and consenting patients… the subjects ranged in age from 6 months to 22 years.” (Pediatr. Res. 6:26, 1972)

• Do not underestimate

– quantity of time you need

– quality of work your supervisor expects

Don’t run grammar check

Stating an action without stating the agent of the action.To determine its respiratory quotient, the organism was…Was the organism capable of determining the quotient?

Having completed the study, the bacteria were of no further interest.Who completed the study?

Syntax: how words are arrangedAfter standing in boiling water for an hour, examine the flask.

PunctuationEmploying a straight platinum wire rabbit, sheep and human blood agar plates were inoculated…

Run Spell-Check

• If you have two options and are uncertain, use both.

• Later, see if you selected the right word from the theatrical (theoretical?) options.

We rely on theatrical calculations to give the lifetime of a star on the main sequence. (Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 1:1000, 1963)