Leibniz y Bonnet.pdf

7/28/2019 Leibniz y Bonnet.pdf

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T he R ecep t ion o f Le ibniz 's Ph i losoph y in theW ritings o f Charle s B onn et ( 1 7 2 0 - - 17 93 )OLIVIER RIEPPELPalgiontologisches Inst i tut und Museum der Universi t i i t Zi ir ichKiinstlergasse 168006 Zi i r ich , Sw i tzer land

INTRODUCTIONCharles Bonnet of Geneva, "natural philosopher" as he liked tocall himself, is considered one of the fathers of modem biology inview of the stringent experimental approach that he proposed andexemplified in his early work on parthenogenesis in aphids, onregeneration in lower invertebrates, and on the function of plantleaves. But later in his life he became more and more involved inphilosophical and metaphysical issues, adopting many aspects ofLeibnizian philosophy.Bonnet had his first encounter with Leibniz's T h e o d i c y duringthe winter of 1748:1 his immediate reaction was to dictate amanuscript entitled M~di ta t ions sur l ' un ivers to Pastor Bennelle, a

friend of his, thus initiating a project that was to keep him busy forthe next five years. Following some encouragement by his friendAlbrecht von Hailer, this manuscript was to serve as the basis fortwo of Bonnet's books: C o n s i d & a t i o n s s u r l e s c o r p s o r g a n & &(1762) and Co n te mp la t io n d e l a n a tu re (1764). Indeed, heappeared to have adopted Leibnizianism to such an extent that helater felt the need to defend himself against charges of plagiarismraised against him by Abb6 Pierre Sigorgne and by the philoso-pher Moses Mendelssohn.2 This defense, part of which constituteschapter 7 of Bonnet's famous P a l li n gd n & i e p h i l o s o p h i q u e (1769),provides the material on which to base an investigation of howLeibniz's philosophy was modified and incorporated into biologi-

1. Raymond Savioz, M~moire s au tob iograph iques de Char l e s Bonne t deGendve (Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1948), p. 100.2. Raymond Savioz, ~La phi los oph ie de Charles B on ne t de Gen~ve (Paris:Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1948), p. 20; Jacques Marx, "Charles Bonnetcontre les Lumi~res 1738--1850," Stud. Voltaire Eighteenth Cent . , 156--157(1976), 566--568,604--605.Journa l o f t he Hi s to ry o f B io logy , vol. 21, no. 1 (Spring 1988)pp. 119--145. 1988 b y K l u w e r A c a d e m i c P u b li sh e rs .


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12 0 OLIVIER RIEPPELc a l t h i n k i n g b y C h a r l e s B o n n e t . H i s g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y w a s t o m a k eL e i b n i z ' s m e t a p h y s i c s a m e n a b l e t o b i o l o g y b y p r o v i d i n g i t w i t h am a t e r i a l - - t h a t is, e m p i r i c a l, o r e v e n e x p e r i m e n t a l - - b a si s. 3T h e r e i s l it tl e r e a s o n t o a s s u m e t h a t L e i b n i z i a n i s m w a s i m p o s e do n B o n n e t b y h is e a r l y s u r ro u n d i n g s . R a t h e r , i t w a s C a r t e s i a nr a t io n a l i sm t h a t p r o s p e r e d i n t h e le a r n e d c i rc l e s o f G e n e v a d u r i n gt h e f ir st h a lf o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , h a v in g b e e n i n t r o d u c e d b yJ e a n - R o b e r t C h o u e t ( 1 6 4 2 - - 1 7 3 1 ) , p r o f e s s o r o f p h i l o so p h y a tG e n e v a . 4 C h o u e t c o m b i n e d C a r t e s ia n r a ti o n a li s m w i th a p r o -n o u n c e d i n c li n a ti o n t o w a r d s a n e x p e r i m e n t a l a p p r o a c h - - i n h isl e c tu r e s, h e u s e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e e f f e ct o f v ip e r v e n o m o np i g e o n s a n d c at s. 5 B o n n e t s t u d ie d p h i l o s o p h y u n d e r G a b r i e lC r a m e r ( 1 7 0 4 - - 1 7 5 2 ) , w h o s h a r e d th e G e n e v a n c h ai r f o r m a t h e -m a t i c s w i t h G i o v a n n i L . C a l a n d r i n i . B o n n e t l o v e d a n d a d m i r e dC r a m e r a n d c o n s i d e r e d h i m a s h i s p r i n c i p a l g u i d e t h r o u g h a l lm a t t e r s o f p h i l o s o p h y a n d n a t u r a l h i s t o r y . C r a m e r h i m s e l f w a s as t u d e n t o f C h o u e t ; i n 1 7 2 7 h e h a d v i si te d E n g l a n d w h e r e h eb e c a m e a c q u a i n te d w i t h th e p h i lo s o p h y o f H o b b e s a n d L o c k e ,w h i c h f u r t h e r e n h a n c e d t h e e m p i r i c a l a n d s e n s u al is t o u t l o o k t h a th e t r a n s m i t t e d t o h is s t u d e n t . 6 E m p i r i c i s m a n d s e n s u a li s m w e r ec o m b i n e d w i t h e le m e n t s o f C a r t e s i a n m e c h a n i s m i n C r a m e r ' st h i n k i n g ; t h i s i s e v i d e n t i n h i s r e a c t i o n t o B o n n e t ' s i n i t i a l w o r k o nr e g e n e r a ti o n . 7 B e f o r e h a v in g r e a d L e i b n iz , B o n n e t d e f e n d e d t h ed o c t r i n e o f p r e e x i s ti n g g e r m s l i n k e d t o a n i m m o r t a l a n i m a l s o u la g a i n s t C r a m e r ' s i n c l i n a t i o n t o v i e w t h e p o l y p a n d o t h e r a n i m a l sa s a u t o m a t i o n s . 8

B o n n e t a b s o r b e d b o t h e m p i r i c i sm a n d s en s ua li sm . T h e l a t t e r isp a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t i n h i s E s s a i a n a l y t i q u e s u r l e s f a c u l t~ s d e l ' 6 m e( 1 7 6 0 ) , w h e r e i n h e d e v e l o p e d h is t h e o r y o f t h e " m i x e d - b e in g " th a tis i r r e c o n c i l a b l e w i th L e i b n i z ' s t h e o r y o f p r e e s t a b l i sh e d h a r m o n y( s ee b e lo w ) . H i s a d o p t i o n o f e m p i r i c i s m w a s r e i n f o r c e d b y h isd i s c ov e ry o f R e n r - A n t o i n e F e rc h a u lt d e R r a u m e r ( 1 6 8 3 - - 1 7 5 7 )a s h is s e c o n d g u i d e a n d m u c h - a d m i r e d " o r a c le . " B o n n e t h a d s e e nt h e f i rs t v o l u m e o f R r a u m u r ' s M d m o i r e s p o u r s e r v ir d l 'h i st o ir e d e si n s e c t e s ( 1 7 3 4 ) i n t h e s t u d y o f A m i d e la R iv e , u n d e r w h o m h e

3. M arx, "Bon net eontre les Lumi~res," pp. 82, 86.4. Savioz,Philosophie de Ch arles Bonn et, pp. 5--6.5. Pierre Revillod, Physiciens et naturalistes genevois (Ge nev a: LibrairieKundig, 1942), pp. 6--7.6. Savioz,Philosophie de Cha rles Bonn et, p. 7.7. Savioz,M~moires autobiographiques, p. 68.8. Savioz, Philosophie de Charles Bonnet, p. 67; M arx, "Bonnet contre lesLum ibres," p. 200.


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L e i b n iz ' s P h i l o s o p h y i n t h e W r it in g s o f C h a r l e s B o n n e t 1 2 1h a d s t a r t e d t o s t u d y l a w i n 1 7 3 6 . 9 R 6 a u m u r a l w a y s s t re s s e d t h en e c e s s i t y o f a n e m p i r i c a l a p p r o a c h , w h i c h w a s t o p r e v a i l o v e r t h ea d h e r e n c e t o a b l in d b e l i e f i n g e n e r a l a n d i m m u t a b l e l a w s o fn a t u r e . S u c h l a w s w o u l d a l w a y s b e p r o n e t o e x c e p t i o n s , a s w a sd e m o n s t r a t e d b y t h e d i s c o v e ry o f th e r e g e n e r a t i v e p o w e r s inH y d r a b y A b r a h a m T r e m b l e y ( 1 7 1 0 - - 1 7 8 4 ) , b y th e d is c ov e ry o fp a r t h e n o g e n e s i s i n a p h i d s b y B o n n e t , a n d b y R 6 a u m u r ' s d i s c o v e r yo f t h e p a r t i c u l a r m o d e o f r e p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e H i p p o b o s c i d a e . 1T h u s i t w a s o n l y n a t u r a l f o r B o n n e t t o r e j e c t B e r k e l e y ' s i d e a l i sm Ha n d t o r e a d M a l e b r a n c h e , S w a m m e r d a m , a n d M a l p ig h i - - b u t n o ti n o r d e r t o l e a r n a b o u t t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l i s s u e s t o u c h e d u p o nb y t h e s e a u t h o r s . R a t h e r , h e w a s a t t r a c t e d t o M a l e b r a n c h e ' sR e c h e r c h e d e la v & i t d b y t h e c o m m e n t s t h is a u t h o r o f f e r e d o ni n s e c t s a n d b y h i s d e f e n c e o f t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e e m b o f t e m e n t o fp r e e x i s t e n t g e r m s ; 12 S w a m m e r d a m ' s B i b l i a n a t u r a e h e a d m i r e df o r t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e d e t a i l e d a n a t o m i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n s , 13 a n dM a l p i g h i s e e m s t o h a v e a t t r a c t e d h i m f o r s i m i l a r r e a s o n s . TMH o w -e v e r , a ll o f t h e s e a u t h o r s a l so s u p p o r t e d p r e f o r m a t i o n i s m , o r atl e a s t t h e y c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d i n t h i s s e n s e , w h i c h i m p l i e d a nA u g u s t i n ia n N e o p l a t o n i s m t h a t th e s e a u t h o r s s h a r e d w i th L e i b n iz .T h i s p o i n t m a y b e i l l u st r a te d b y t h e c o n t a c t s L e i b n i z h a d w i thM a l e b r a n c h e . ~5 L e i b n i z a p p l a u d e d M a l e b r a n c h e ' s p h i l o s o p h y , n o tb e c a u s e h e a c c e p t e d t h e l a t t e r ' s o c c a s i o n a l i s m , b u t b e c a u s e h ei n t e r p r e t e d M a l e b r a n c h e a s a s u p p o r t e r o f t h e s am e p r i n c i p l et h a t w a s t o f o r m t h e b a s is o f h is o w n m e t a p h y s i c a l s ys t em :p r a e d i c a t u m i n e s t s u b j e c t o o m n i s v e ra e p r o p o s i t io n i s . A u g u s t i n i a nN e o p l a t o n i s m w a s t o b e c o m e a p p a r e n t i n B o n n e t ' s l a t e r w r i t i n g s ,p a r t i c u l a r l y i n h i s P a l i n g O n d s i e .

D u e t o h is e m p i r i c a l o u t l o o k B o n n e t w a s a t f ir st i n c a p a b l e e v e no f u n d e r s t a n d i n g L e i b n iz ' s d o c t r i n e o f t h e m o n a d s a n d h is t h e o r yo f p r e e s t a b l is h e d h a r m o n y , t h o u g h t s t h a t h e f o u n d j us t a s o b s c u r ea s M a l e b r a n c h e ' s d i c t u m t h a t " m a n p r e c e i v e s ev e r y t h in g inG o d . '1 6 A n d y e t it w il l b e s h o w n b e l o w t h a t b o t h c o n c e p t s , t h e

9. Savioz,M~moires autobiographiques, p. 48.10. Ren6-Antoine Ferchault de R6aum ur, M~moires pour servir d l 'histoiredes insectes (Paris: Imprim erie Roy ale, 1734--42), III, 294, 32 4; VI, lv, 524, 5 69,605.11. Savioz,Mdmoires autobiographiques, p. 171.12. Ibid., p. 93.13. Ibid.,pp. 55--56.14. Ibid., p. 56.15. W illiam H. Barber, Leib niz in France: From Arn au ld to Vol ta ire: A S tudyin French React ions to Le ibniz ianism, 1670--1760 (Oxford: Clarendon Press,1955 ), p. 18.16. Savioz,M~moires autobiographiques, p. 100.


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122 OLIVIER RIEPPELmonads and the idea of preestablished harmony, influencedBonnet as he composed his P a l i n g ~ n O s i e p h i l o s o p h i q u e . Whatimmediately attracted him to Leibniz's T h e o d i c y was its treatmentof the problem of free will and Leibniz's optimism. Bonnet cer-tainly was predisposed to accept Leibniz's views on these mattersby his religious education -- indeed, Calvinism with its strongemphasis on predestination is more compatible with Leibnizianmetaphysics than is Catholicism, as is shown by the reaction ofAntoine Arnauld (1612 -- 1664) to Leibniz. 17-

Bonnet first encountered the T h e o d i c y in the edition ofLeibniz's works by Louis Dutens, printed in Geneva in 1748.18 Hewas impressed by the preface and by the contents of Part One,which he cited repeatedly. Bonnet must also have known Leibniz'sfamous letter to Pierre Varignon that received wide attentionthroughout Europe as it provoked the scandal of 1751 betweenSamuel K6nig, a Swiss disciple of Christian Wolff, and Pierre-Lou is de Maupertuis, then president of the Berlin Academy ofSciences. 19 This letter provides a thorough exposit ion of theprinciple of continuity, including the proposi tion of equivalence ofspatial and temporal continuity that was to form the basis of thePal ing~n~s ie . The letter also contains Leibniz's famous "predic-tion" of the existence of zoophytes as organized beings linking theplant and animal kingdoms within the s c a l a n a t u r a e , a predictionthat Bonnet found gloriously corroborated by Trembley's dis-covery of the polyp.2 Cramer had edited two volumes of corre-spondence between Leibniz and Johann Bernoulli; 21 some of theseletters, particularly those dating from the years 1698 and 1699,contain important remarks of Leibniz concerning his notion of theinfinite -- a notion that Bonnet was to comment upon in thecontext of his preformation theory. Finally, Part Seven of thePaling~nOsie is based on the French edition of Leibniz's works,published by R. E. Raspe in 1765, which made the importantN o u v e a u x e s s a i s s u r l ' e n t e n d e m e n t h u m a i n available for the firsttime. 22 A very valuable summary of Leibniz's views had beenavailable since 1695 under the title S y s t d m e n o u v e a u d e l a n a t u r ee t d e la c o m m u n i c a t i o n d e s su b s ta n c e s, published in the J o u r n a ld es S a v a n t s Y The treatise touches upon most issues of Leibnizian

17. Barber,Leibniz in France,pp. 10--17.18. Marx,"Bonnetcontre les Lumi6res,"p. 80.19. Barber,Leibniz in France,pp. 144--145.20. Marx,"Bonnetcontre les Lumi6res,"p. 83.21. JoesphF. Scott, "Cramer, Gabriel,"Dict. Sci. B iog., 3: 460.22. Marx,"Bonnetcontre les Lumi6res,"p. 83.23. Barber,Leibn iz in France.


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L e i b n i z ' s P h i l o s o p h y i n t h e W r it in g s o f C h a r l e s B o n n e t 1 2 3m e t a p h y s i c s t h a t w o u l d h a v e i n t e r e s t e d B o n n e t : a to m i s t s a s w e ll a sC a r t e s i a n s a r e c r i t i c i z e d , t h e m o s t b a s i c i d e a s t h a t w e r e l a t e r t or e a p p e a r i n t h e M o n a d o l o g y a r e m e n t i o n e d , a n d h i s v i e w s o np r e f o r m a t i o n i s m a r e e x p r e s s e d , c i t i n g S w a m m e r d a m , M a l p i g h i ,L e e u w e n h o e k , H a r t s o e k e r , a n d M a l e b r a n c h e in th e i r s u p p or t .

A n o t e m i gh t b e a d d e d o n t h e q u e s ti o n o f w h e t h e r B o n n e t w a si n f lu e n c e d b y c o n t e m p o r a r y s u p p o r t e r s o f L e i b n i z ia n i sm , i n p a r -t i c u la r b y C h r i s ti a n W o l f f. T h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e t h a t t h is w a s t h ec a se . T h e g r e a t e p i g e n e s i s t C a s p a r F r i e d r i c h W o l f f w a s i n f l u e n c e db y C h r i s t i a n W o l f f . 24 C . F . W o l f f p o s t u l a t e d a v i s e s s e n t i a l i s t oa c c o u n t f o r th e f o r m a t i o n o f a n e m b r y o , a n d t h u s a d h e r e d t o av i t a l i s t i c p o s i t i o n t h a t m i g h t , i n a r o u n d a b o u t w a y , d e r i v e f r o mL e i b n i z i a n m e t a p h y s i c s . B o n n e t f i r s t l e a r n t a b o u t W o l f f ' s w r i t i n g sin a l e t te r f r o m A l b r e c h t v o n H a i l e r d a t e d M a r c h 4 , 1 7 6 0 . 25 H ek e p t h i m s e l f i n f o r m e d o n t h e d e t ai ls o f th e H a i l e r - W o l f f d e b a t e ,b u t i n h i s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e h e a l w a y s s i d e d w i t h h i s f r i e n d H a i l e ra n d h a i l e d th e l a t t e r' s s u p p o s e d r e f u t a t i o n o f t h e W o l f f i a n t h e o r yo n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f th e b l o o d v e ss el s in t h e e m b r y o , s h o w i n gn e g l e c t o r a l m o s t d i sd a i n f o r W o l ff . B o n n e t r e j e c t e d t h e p r o p o s i -t i o n o f a v i s e s s e n t i a l i s , w h i c h h e c o n s i d e r e d a s a n o c c u l t f o r c es i m i l a r t o N e e d h a m ' s f o r c e v d g ~ t a t r i c e o r B u f f o n ' s m o u l e s i n t ~ r i -eurs . 26 I n f a ct , h e d o e s n o t s e e m t o h a v e e v e n u n d e r s t o o d W o l f f 'st h e o r y p r o p e r l y . H e d i d n o t n o t i c e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e re n c eb e t w e e n M a u p e r t u i s ' s a n d W o l f f ' s n o t i o n s o f e p i g e n e si s , f o r h eb e l i e v e d t h a t b o t h o f t h e m s u p p o r t e d t h e at o m i st ic m o d e l o fg r o w t h o f t h e e m b r y o b y t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f p a r ts . 27 H o w e v e r ,W o l f f d i d n o t b a s e h is t h e o r y o f g e n e r a t i o n o n a t o m i s m , a s d i dM a u p e r t u i s a n d B u f f o n ; r a t h e r, h e f o l l o w e d H a r v e y ' s l ea d a n dc o n s i d e r e d o n e o r g a n t o r e p r e s e n t t h e m a t e r i a l b a s i s f o r t h ed e v e l o p m e n t o f th e n e x t o n e , th e w h o l e p r o c e s s o f e m b r y o g e n e s i sr e s e m b l i n g t h e v e g e t a t i o n o f a p l a n t. 28 W h a t B o n n e t m o s t v i o l e n t l yo b j e c t e d t o i n W o l f f 's - - o r a n y o t h e r - - t h e o r y o f e p ig e n e si s w a st h e i d e a t h a t m a t e r c o u l d b e e n d o w e d w i t h t h e p r o p e r t y t o g u i d e

24. Shirley A. Roe, Matter , Life, an d Generation: Eighteenth-Century Em bry -o logy and the H a i l e r -Wol f f Deba te (Cambridge: Cambridge University P ress,1981), p. 10 3.25. Otto Sonntag, The Correspondence be tween Alb rech t yon Hai ler andChar les Bonn et (Bern: Han s Huber, 1983), p. 19 3.26. Cha rles Bonnet, "II M rmo ire sur la reproduction des m em bers de lasalaman dre," in Oeuvres d'his toire naturelle et de philo sop hie d e Charles Bo nne t,18 vols. (Neuch~tel: Sam uel Fauche , 1779--83), XI, 1 36 -- 137.27. Sonntag, Correspondence, p. 410.28. Caspar Friedrich Wolff, Theorie von der Generation (Berlin: FriedrichW ilhelm Bimstiel, 1764), pp. 188 , 192,21 0--21 1.


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1 2 4 O L I V I E R R I E P PE Le m b r y o n i c d e v e l o p m e n t , a p r o p e r t y t h at B o n n e t c o n s i d e r e d t o b ea n a t t r ib u t e o f d i v i n e p r o v i d e n c e .O P T I M I S M

" T h e o p t i m i s m i s t h e m o s t p r e c i o u s a s p e c t o f L e i b n i z 's p h i lo s o -p h y , " w r o t e B o n n e t t o h i s f r i e n d A l b r e c h t v o n H a i l e r . 29 A sH a l l e r ' s i l l n e s s g r e w m o r e a n d m o r e s e r i o u s , B o n n e t t r i e d t oc o n s o l e h i m :

T o c o n c e i v e o f d e a t h a s a d o o r t o f o r t u n a t e e t e r n i ty , toc o n c e i v e o f d e a t h n o t a s a t e r m i n a t i o n o f l if e b u t r a t h e r a s t h eb e g i n n i n g o f a n e w l i f e , a s a t r u e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , m e a n s t od e p r i v e d e a t h o f i ts s t in g . 3

T h i s s t a t e m e n t e x p r e s s e s th e w h o l e e s s e n c e o f th e P a l i n g ~ n ~ s i e , ab o o k t h a t w a s w r i t t e n t o p r o v i d e a s c ie n ti fi c b a s i s f o r th e d o g m a o fr e s u rr e c t io n . B o n n e t h i m s e l f h a d r e p e a t e d l y f o u n d c o n s o l a t i o nt h r o u g h h is b e li e f in a g r ac i o u s a n d b e n e v o l e n t G o d - - f ir s t w h e nh e w a s s t ru c k b y e y e t r o u b l e s th a t r e n d e r e d m i c r o s c o p i c a l w o r kd i ff i cu l t, a n d t e m p o r a r i l y i m p o s s i b l e , f o r h i m , 3~ a n d a g a i n w h e n h i sw i f e h a d a n a c c i d e n t t h a t f o r e v e r d e p r i v e d B o n n e t o f h is h o p e o fb e c o m i n g a f a t h e r . 32

L e i b n i z h a d b a s e d h i s o p t i m i s m o n t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e " b e s t o fa ll p o s s i b l e w o r l d s . " H e a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t t h e w o r l d w e li v e i n isn o t p e r f e c t l y g o o d : G o d c o u l d n o t h a v e c r e a t e d e v e r y t h in g in as t a te o f a b s o l u t e p e r f e c t i o n , f o r t h e n t h e o b j e c t s o f c r e a t i o n w o u l da l l h a v e b e e n i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m o n e a n o t h e r a s w e l l a s f r o mG o d h i m s el f. I m p e r f e c t i o n m u s t b e t h e a t t r ib u t e o f t h e c r e a t e dm a t e r i a l w o r ld . Y e t G o d h a d e n v i s a g e d a ll p o s s i b l e w o r l d s t h a tc o u l d b e c r e a t e d , w i t h a l l t h e m a n i f o l d c o n s e q u e n c e s t h e y w o u l db e a r i n t i m e a n d s p a c e , a n d f r o m t h e s e i n n u m e r a b l e p o s s i b lew o r l d s h is b e n e v o l e n c e h a d c h o s e n t h e b e s t o n e f o r m a t e r i a lc r e a t i o n .

W i t h h is t h e o r y o f " m i x e d - b e i n g s " ( ~ t r e s - m i x t e s , t o b e d i s c u s s e din m o r e d e t a il b e l o w ) , B o n n e t g a v e t h e i d e a o f th e " b e s t o f al lp o s s i b l e w o r l d s " a p h y s i c a l b a si s : " [M a n ] h a s b e e n c r e a t e d f o r h isf u t u r e , a n d f o r a f u t u r e w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o h is q u a l if i c a ti o n a s a

29. Sonntag, Correspondence, p. 929, letter dated March 26, 177 1.30. Ibid.,p. 980, letter dated Novem ber 22, 1771 .31 . Savioz, M ~m oires autobiographiques, p. 84.32. Ibid.,p. 184.


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L e i b n i z' s P h i l o s o p h y i n t h e W r it in g s o f C h a r l e s B o n n e t 1 2 5m i x e d - b e i n g . '3 3 M a n a s a m i x e d - b e i n g i s a l w a y s i n f e r i o r t o t h e" f r e e i n t e l l i g e n c e s " o f t h e c e l e s t i a l h i e r a r c h y , b e c a u s e i n m a n t h es o u l i s t i e d t o a m a t e r i a l b o d y t h a t i m p o s e s r e s t r i c t i o n s o n t h ep e r f e c ti o n o f t h e s o u l ' s p e r c e p t io n s . M a n ' s f o r t u n e c a n n e v e r b ea b s o l u t e s i n c e h i s p e r c e p t i o n s a r e a l w a y s l e s s t h a n a b s o l u t e l yp e r f e c t , b u t h i s f o r t u n e is a s g r e a t a s i t c a n p o s s i b l y b e . 34 G o d ' sb e n e v o l e n c e h a s p r e o r d a i n e d m a n ' s p e r f e c t io n in th e c o u r s e o f hi sp a l i n g e n e s i s . L i k e L e i b n i z ' s m o n a d s , m a n ( a n d w i t h h i m a l l o t h e ro r g a n i z e d b e i n g s ) s t r i v e s t o w a r d s g r e a t e r p e r f e c t i o n , t o w a r d si n c r e a s e d p o w e r s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l p e r c e p t i o n . 35 G o d h a s " p r e -o r d a i n e d f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h m a n w i l l b ee l e v a t e d t o t h e s p h e r e o f a n g e l s '3 6 a n d w i ll t h u s a c q u i r e t h ep e r f e c t p e r c e p t i o n o f t h i s w o r l d t o w h i c h e n d h e w a s i n f a c tc r e a te d . 37

T H E P R I N C I P L E O F C O N T I N U I T Y A N D T H EP E R F E C T I B I L I T Y O F M I N D A N D B O D Y

B o n n e t h a d b e e n a s u p p o r t e r o f p r e f o r m a t i o n is m b e f o r er e a d i n g L e i b n i z ' s T h e o d i c y , a n d h i s d i s c o v e r y o f p a r t h e n o g e n e s i si n a p h i d s s e e m e d a p r o o f o f t h e o v i st p o s it io n , w h i c h c l a i m e d t h a tt h e p r e f o r m e d e m b r y o w a s c o n t a i n e d i n th e f e m a l e eg g.38 L eib niz ,a t l e a s t i n h i s l a t e r w o r k , a d h e r e d t o t h e a n i m a l c u l i s t t r a d i t i o n ,w h i c h h e l d t h a t t h e e m b r y o i s p r e f o r m e d i n t h e m a l e s p e r m a t o -z o o n . I n s p it e o f t h is d i f f e re n c e , B o n n e t w a s p l e a s e d t o n o t eL e i b n i z 's s u p p o r t f o r p r e f o r m a t i o n i s m , q u o t i n g t h e p r e f a c e a s w e lla s s e c t io n 9 0 o f t h e T h e o d i c y . 39 H e u s e d t h e L e i b n i z i a n p r i n c ip l eo f c o n t i n u i t y to s a n c t i o n t h e s c i e n ti fi c s t a tu s o f p r e f o r m a t i o nt h e o r y :

N a t u r e n e v e r p r o c e e d s b y s a l t a ti o n s . E v e r y t h i n g h a s it s s u ff i-c i e n t r e a s o n , o r i t s i m m e d i a t e c a u s e . T h e a c t u a l s t a t e o f a no r g a n iz e d b o d y is th e c o n s e q u e n c e o r t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e

33. Cha rles Bon net, La palingdn~sie ph i losoph ique , ou ld~es sur l '~ ta t pass~et sur l 'd ta t fu tur des d tres vivants (Genev a: C. Philibert and B. C hirol, 1769 ), I,309; II, 115 .34. Ibid.,I, 267.35. Ibid., II, 29.36. Ibid., II, 56.37. Ibid.,II, 50.38. Savioz,M~m oi res au t ob i ograph iques , pp. 49, 55, 68, 80, 92--93.39. Bonnet, Paling~ndsie, I, 273.


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126 OLIV1ER RIEPPELpreceding state, or to put it more correctly, the present state ofan organized being is determined by the preceding state.4

Applied to organisms, this must mean that every stage of embryo-genesis is contained in the preceding stage. The development ofthe embryo is an unbroken chain of events, depending on thecontinuity among the various parts that are being developed. Theparts of the T o u t o r g a n i q u e cannot exist separately; rather, theyare "so manifestly linked together and subordinated to oneanother, that the existence of some presupposes the existence ofothers. '41 From the principle of continuity thus followed the lawof the correlation of the parts of an organism?2 To his friendAlbrecht von Hailer Bonnet wrote on October 11, 1770, com-menting on Paul-Henri d'Holbach's S y s t ~ m e d e l a n a t u r e : " . . . i tsuffices to show you a hand and a foot in order for you to guessthe whole. '43 The correlat ion of the parts of an organism logicallyresults in the theory of preformation: "From all this I have drawn ageneral conclusion that I believe to be philosophical; namely, thatthe T o u t s o r g a n i q u e s have been preformed from the begi nn ing. ..' ~ 44

Bonnet used the concept of the correlation of the parts of anorganism to support preformationism against the materialists ofthe French Enlightment who denied divine Providence and finalcauses in nature. Influenced by Gassendi's atomism, authors likeBuffon, Maupertuis, and Diderot held that the embryo forms bythe successive juxtaposition of parts; the guiding principle ( c a u s af o r m a l i s ) of embryogenesis must be inherent in matter itself. ForBonnet, all parts of the organism had to coexist and hence had tobe present from the very beginning of embryonic development.The embryo was designed by God who is the sufficient reason forits existence, and its development served the purpose of theactualization of God's idea. Some decades later, the reactionaryGeorges Cuvier, a late supporter of preformationism,45 success-fully applied the law of the correlation of parts to the analysis ofvertebrate fossils.

40. CharlesBonnet,Considerations sur les co rps organis~s,2nd ed. (Amster-dam: Marc-MichelRay, 1768), I, 4--5.41. Bonnet,Paling~nOsie,I, 355.42. Charles Bonnet, Contemplation de la nature (Amsterdam: Marc-MichelRay, 1764), I, 154; see also ibid., p. xxiv.43. Sonntag,Correspondence,p. 890.44. Bonnet,Paling~n~sie,356.45. William Coleman, Georges Cuvier, Zoologist (Cambridge, Mass.: Har-vard UniversityPress, 1964), pp. 162-- 164.


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Leibniz's Philosophy in the Writings of Charles Bonnet 127Continuity prevails not only within, but also between organisms.Leibniz's M o n a d o l o g y was derived from, and provided a meta-

physical basis for, the ancient concept of the scala naturae thatwas rooted in Phythagorean philosophy.46 Leibniz based the scalanaturae on the graded powers of perception of the monads.Bonnet had already outlined his concept of the Great Chain ofBeing in his Trait~ d'insectologie in 1745, that is, prior to readingLeibniz.47 In this Contemplat ion de la nature (1764), as well as inhis Paling~ndsie phi losophique (1769), it becomes evident thatBonnet thought of the scala naturae as a hierarchy of successivelevels of perfection. Perfection was primarily viewed in terms ofincreasing corporeal complexity correlated with increasing powersof perception. In the ~tre-mixte (see below), the qualities ofperception of the soul depend on the perfection of the bodythrough which the soul obtains sensations from the outer worldand through which the soul must act.

Leibniz had understood perfection in a somewhat different,more metaphysical, sense, as meaning individuation. God hadcreated the monads, each of which was accorded its individualpotential of perception. These potential powers of perception wereto develop -- that is, to become actualized -- in the course of timeas a consequence of each monad's entelechy striving towardsperfection. Development and perfection thus meant the successiveactualization of the potential individuality that was accorded toeach soul at the moment of its original creation. Bonnet tried toget away from pure metaphysics by linking the perfection of thesoul to the perfection of the material body.48 He claimed to havedeveloped his concept of the perfection of mixed-beings, viewedas an ascent through the successive levels of increasing complexityof the ladder of life, independently of Leibniz, and he based hisclaim on a comparison of his ideas with section 89 of theTheodicy . Yet Leibniz had expressed his optimism in other partsof the Theod icy in a sense that comes close to Bonnet's views onpalingenesis -- for example, in section 341. 49 Whether construedindependently or not, the notions of perfectibility of Leibniz andBonnet share one basic similarity: both authors view developmentand consequent perfection from an Augustinian perspective, as theactualization of a preconceived divine idea or plan.

4 6 . M a r x , " B o n n e t c o n t r e l e s L u m i b r es , " p p . 3 5 8 - - 3 5 9 .4 7 . C h a r l e s B o n n e t , T r a i t~ d ' i n s e c t o lo g i e , o u O b s e r v a t i o n s s u r l es p u c e r o n s(Pa ri s : D uran d L ib ra i r i e , 1745) .4 8 . B o n n e t , Pa l in g ~n ~s i e , I , 287.49 . Ib id . , I , 271 .


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12 8 OLIVIER RIEPPELC o n t i n u i t y d i c t a t e s t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f p a r ts . T h e o r g a n i s m , t h e

m i c r o c o s m , fo r m s a T o u t o r g a n i q u e , a u n i f i e d w h o l e . I f c o n t i n u i t ya l s o p r e v a i l s b e t w e e n o r g a n i s m s - - t h a t i s , i n t h e m a c r o c o s m - -t h e n t h e u n i v e r s e m u s t l ik e w i s e r e p r e s e n t o n e u n i f ie d w h o l e , w h i c hin tu r n m i r r o rs t h e o n e a n d o n l y G o d o f C r e a ti o n :

P h i l o s o p h y p r o v i d e s u s w i t h t h e m o s t d i g n i f i e d i d e a s a b o u t t h eu n i v e r s e . I t i s s h o w n t o r e p r e s e n t a s y s t e m a t i c o r h a r m o n i o u sc o l l e c t i o n o f a ll b e i n g s t h a t h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d . I t f o r m s a s i ng les y s t e m b e c a u s e a ll o f i ts p a r t s a r e , s o t o s p e a k , r o o t e d w i t h ino n e a n o t h e r , a n d a ll c o n v e r g e t o p r o d u c e t h is U n i q u e W h o l et h a t d e m o n s t r a t e s s o e v i d e n t l y t h e U n i t y a n d t h e I n t e l li g e n c e o ft h e F i r s t C a u s e . 5

F o r L e i b n i z , e a c h m o n a d w a s a n i n d iv i d u al m i r r o r o f t h e w h o l eu n i v e r s e , w i t h o u t t h e l e a s t v o i d , w h i l e B o n n e t a d m i t t e d " a p e r f e c tp a r a l le l i sm o f t h e a s t r o n o m i c w i t h t h e o r g a n i c s y s te m . '5 1 T h i sp a r al le l is m b e t w e e n m i c r o c o s m a n d m a c r o c o s m b e c o m e s c ru c i al i fc o n t i n u i t y , w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s s p a t i a l o r d e r , i s a l s o p o s t u l a t e d t od e t e r m i n e t e m p o r a l o r d e r a n d v i ce v er sa , a s i t w a s b y L e i b n i z inh is le t t e r t o V a r i g n o n f i r st p u b l i s h e d b y K r n i g i n 1 75 1 .5 2T h e i n d i v i d u a l s t a t e o f p e r f e c t i o n o f a n o r g a n i s m i s p o t e n t i a l l ye x is ti ng f r o m t h e t i m e o f C r e a t i o n , b e c a u s e i t w a s t h e n p r e f o r m e db y G o d . Y e t t h e i n d i v i d u a l o r g a n i s m r e a c h e s i ts s ta t e o f p e r f e c t i o no n l y th r o u g h i ts o n t o g e n e t i c d e v e l o p m e n t o r " e v o l u t i o n " i n t im e ,d u r i n g w h i c h i t p a s s e s t h r o u g h a s e r i e s o f r e v o l u t i o n s o r m e t a -m o r p h o s e s l e a d in g f r o m o n e s ta t e o f c o m p l e x i t y t o t h e n e x t h i g h e ro n e . W h a t i s t r u e f o r t h e m i c r o c o s m m u s t a l s o h o l d f o r t h em a c r o c o s m - - t h e a c t u a li z a ti o n o f t h e u n iv e r s e m u s t h a v e f o l lo w e dt h e s a m e l a w o f o r d e r . T h e l o g ic a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f t hi s v ie w isB o n n e t ' s Pal ing~nds i e : a d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d , " e v o l v in g " a l o n g t h es c a l a n a t u r a e t o e v e r - h i g h e r l e v e ls o f p e r f e c t i o n , p a r a l l e l e d b y a n dm i r r o r e d i n t h e o n t o g e n e t i c d e v e l o p m e n t o f in d i vi d ua l o r g a n -ism s . 53 T h e s c a l a n a t u r a e , w h i c h is a s p a t ia l p r i n c i p l e o f o r d e r

50. Ibi d., I, 242--243; see also Charles Bonnet, "Principes philosophiques,"in Oeuv res d'Histoire Naturelle et de Philosophie (see n. 26 above), XV III, 250 --251; and idem , Contemplation, I, 24 2; II, 74--77. For the later development ofthis concept into the i de a of a "un it6 de plan de composition" in the earlynineteenth century see M arx, "Bon net contre les Lumi~res," pp. 3 61--385.51. Bonnet, Paling~n~sie,I, 262.52. Gottfried W ilh elm L ei bn iz , "Ueber das Kontinuit~itsprinzip," inHauptschriflen zur Grundlegung der Philosophie, ed. Ernst Cassirer (Hamburg:Felix M einer, 1966 ), II, 76.53. Bonnet, PalingOn~sie,I, 178--179.


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L e i b n i z 's P h i l o s o p h y i n t h e W r it in g s o f C h a r l e s B o n n e t 1 2 9c o e t e r n a l w i t h th e d i v i n e m i n d , b e c o m e s s u c c e s s iv e l y a c t u a l i z e d int h e c o u r s e o f t im e .P R E F O R M A T I O NThe Notion of the Infini te

T h e t h e o r y o f p r e f o r m a t i o n , e s p e c ia l ly i f c o u c h e d i n t e r m s o femboi tement a s b y B o n n e t ( s e e b e lo w ) , p r e s u p p o s e s t h e p o s si b i li t yo f in f i n i te s m a l l n e s s o f o r g a n i c b e i n g s . R 6 a u m u r , i n t h e f ir s tv o l u m e o f h i s Mdmoires pour servir d l'histoire des insectes, w a sc o n c e r n e d w i th t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e s u p e r f ic i a l h a i rs i n c a t e r -p i l l a r s d u r i n g t h e m o u l t i n g p r o c e s s . W h e n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e p o s s i -b i l i t y o f t h e i r p r e e x i s t e n c e w i t h i n t h e h a i r s p r i o r t o m o u l t i n g , h es t a t e d t h a t " n a t u r e w o r k s a s s m a l l a s s h e w i s h e s. " 54 B o n n e t q u o t e dt his s t a t e m e n t r e p e a t e d l y t h r o u g h o u t h is w o r k .

L e i b n i z , o n e o f th e f o u n d e r s o f i n fi n it e si m a l c a l cu l u s , s u p p o r t e dt h e i n f i n i te d i v i s ib i l it y o f a l l m a t t e r a g a i n s t t h e a t o m i s t s ' v i e w , a sD e s c a r t e s h a d b e f o r e h i m . I n h i s l e t t e r s t o J o h a n n B e r n o u l l i ,L e i b n i z d e f e n d e d p r e f o r m a t i o n w i t h t h e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t " n a t u r e i sn o t s u b j e c t t o u l t i m a t e l im i t s ." 55

B o n n e t , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c o u l d n o t s o ea s il y a c c e p t L e i b n i z 'sn o t i o n o f t h e i n f in i te . In c h a p t e r 7 o f h is Consid&ations sur lescorps organis~s, b a s e d o n h i s e a r l i e r m a n u s c r i p t Meditations surl'univers, 56 h e j u d g e d t h e i n f i n it e d i vi si b il it y o f m a t t e r a " g e o m e t r i -c a l t r u t h b u t a p h y s i c a l e r r o r . '57 H e a d m i t te d , h o w e v e r , t h a t m a nc a n n o t k n o w t h e u l t i m a t e l i m i ts o f t h e d i v i si b il it y o f m a t t e r , d u e t ot h e i m p e r f e c t i o n o f h u m a n p e r c e p t i o n . 5s R e f e r r i n g t o t h e w o r k o fL o u i s B o u r g u e t , w h o r e f u t e d c a l c u l a t i o n s t h a t w e r e d e s i g n e d t od e s t r o y t h e t h e o r y o f embo item ent, 59 B o n n e t s t a t e d : " E v e r ym a t e r i a l b o d y i s n e c e s s a r i l y f i n i t e ; a l l i t s p a r t s n e c e s s a r i l y h a v e

54. R6aumur, M~moires pour servir d l'histoire des insectes, I, 181.55. Gottfried W ilhelm Le ibniz, "Letter to Berno ull i , 20--30 September1698," in Hauptsehriften zur Grundlegung der Philosophie (se e n. 52. ab ove), II,374.56. Savioz, Mdmoires autobiographiques, pp. 10 1, 209; see al so Bonnet,Considerations, I, v ii, xi.57. Bonnet, Considdrations,I, 88.58. Bonnet, Paling~n~sie,I, 107.59. Bonnet, Considerations, II, 23 0; see also C harles Bonnet, "M 6moire surles Germ es," in Oeuvres d'historie naturelle et de philosophie (see n. 26 above),X, 4; and Louis Bourguet, Lettres philosophiques sur la formation des sels et descrystaux et sur la g~n~ration et le m~eanisme organique des plantes et desanimaux (Am sterdam: Francois l'Hon or6, 1729), pp. 133--140.


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130 OLIVIER RIEPPELfixed limits: but these limits are unknown to US. '60 If the createdbo dy were infinite, would it not be like God ?

Bonnet had yet another reason to reject the notion of infinitywith respect to the physical world. In his P a l i n g ~ n ~ s i e he claimedthat the world had gone through an unknown number of revolu-tions, and hence that our globe was of unknown age. But admittingan infinite number of revolutions would imply an eternal world.The coexistence of the Cr eation with the eternal Cre ator -- that is,the eternity of the world -- was one of the Averroist thesescondemned in the years 1270 and 1277. Bonnet would thus havetouched upon an age-old controversy within Christian philoso-phy. 61 He decide d to adh ere to the mor e or thodo x claim that allthat has been materially created must have had a definite begin-ning in time. Consequently, an infinite number of earthly revolu-tions could not be admitted. 62" E n v e l o p p e m e n t " v e rs u s " E m b o i t e m e n t "

In addition to the fact that Leibniz supported animalculism andBonnet ovism, there were other differences in their views on pre-formation. Bonnet termed Leibniz's views a theory of e n v e l o p p e -m e n t , to which he op pos ed his theory of e m b o f t e m e n t .

After having hesitated a long time to choose between thetheories of the universal dissemination versus the encapsulationwithin one another of the preformed germs, Bonnet decided infavour of e m b o f t e m e n t , "and I have given the reasons for thisdecision. '63 One of the reasons was the supposed de mons tra tionof e m b o f t e m e n t in the hen's egg by Alb recht von Haller. 64 Ofimportance were also Spallanzani's and Bonnet's own experimentsand thoughts on regeneration in lower invertebrates and insalamanders. 65 Doubtles sly Bonn et was further influenced by

60. Bonnet, Considkrations, I, 88; see also Charles Bonnet, "Recueil dedivers passages de Leibnitz," in Oeu vres d 'histoire naturel le et de ph iloso ph ie (seen. 26 above), XVIII, 22; and idem "Vue du Leibnitianisme," in ibid., XVIII, 85--86.61. Marx ("Bonnet contre les Lumi~res," p. 94) stresses the fact that theJudeo-Christian tradition of thought postulated a definite end of the createdworld, which also renders an eternal cycle of revolutions impossible.62. Bonnet, Paling~n~sie, I, 254.63. Savioz,Mkmoires autobiographiques, p. 340.64. Bonnet, Considerations, I, ix, 145--146; see also Sonntag, Correspond-ence , pp. 109--111.65. Bonnet, ConsidOrations, II, 24, 37; see also Charles Bonnet, "Mrmoiressur la reproduction des membres de la salamandre aquatique," in Oeuvresd'histoire naturel le et de ph ilo so ph ie (see n. 26 above), XI, 62--150.


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Leibniz's Philosophy in the Writings of Charles Bonnet 13 1reading Malebranche,66 Rraumur, 67 Malpighi,68 and Abb6Pluche.69 Finally, the development of his views on palingenesisadded further arguments in favour of e m b o f t e m e n t (to be dis-cussed below), although Bonnet still hesitated to endorse thisdoctrine in an introductory chapter to his Pal ing~n~s i e . TMStarting with the work of Swammerdam, the theory of pre-formation was based on the analogy with insect metamorphosis,and it was also linked to metaphysical questions concerning thenature of generation and death. Bonnet had read the Frenchtranslation of Swammerdam's Bib l ia na tura e . 71 In this work,published posthumously, Swammerdam reiterated his views onmetamorphosis, which, according to him, consisted of nothingmore than the development and growth of preexistent structures.Extending this concept to the problem of generation and death,Swammerdam concluded that generation would represent, not thecreation of something de novo, but simply the development ofpreexistent structures. Conversely, death does not imply thetermination of existence; rather, it represents the metamorphosisto a future existence. There is no real death or generation innature. For Swammerdam, metamorphosis became a naturalmetaphor for the dogma of resurrection. 72 The basic idea is anancient one -- it was already expressed by Basilius Magnus in hisH e x a e m e r o n .

66 . S av i oz , M~ m oi res au t ob iograph i ques, p . 92 .6 7 . I b id ., p. 4 9 : s ee a ls o R e n r - A n t o i n e F e r c h a u l t d e R r a u m u r , " S u r l esd i v e r s e s r e p r o d u c t i o n s q u i s e f o n t d a n s l e 6 c r e v is s e s , l e s o m a r s , l e s c r a b e s , e tc ., e t

e n t r e a u t r e s s u r c e l l e s d e l e u r ja m b e s e t d e l e u r s 6 c a i ll e s, " M~m . Acad . Roy . Sc i .( 1 7 1 2 ) , 2 2 6 - - 2 4 5 ; R r a u m u r , Mdmoires pour servir d l 'his toire des insectes, I ,1 8 1 , 3 5 9 - - 3 6 0 .

68 . S av i oz , MOmoires autobiographiques , p . 5 6 ; s e e a l s o B o n n e t , Considera-tions, I , 1 2 9 . I t i s n o t c l a i m e d h e r e t h a t M a l p i g h i s u p p o r t e d t h e p r e f o r m a t i o n i s tt h e o r y o f em bo f t em en t ; i t i s o n ly s t a te d t h a t B o n n e t u n d e r s t o o d h i m i n t h is s e n s e.

6 9 . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f e a r l y i n f l u e n c e s o n B o n n e t s e e a ls o S a v io z , Phi l oso -phie de Char les Bonnet , p p . 2 1 - - 2 2 ; a n d M a r x , " B o n n e t c o n t r e l es L u m i b r e s ," p p .5 7 - - 5 8 .7 0 . B o n n e t , Paling~ndsie, I , 107 .

71 . S av i oz , M~m oi res au t ob i ograph iques , p. 55 .7 2 . P e t e r J . B o w l e r ( " P r e f o r m a t i o n a n d P r e - E x i s t e n c e i n th e S e v e n t e e n t hC e n t u r y , " Z Hist. Biol., 4 [ 1 9 7 1 ] , 2 2 1 - - 2 2 4 ) g i v e s a s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t i n t e r -p r e t a t i o n o f S w a m m e r d a m ' s w o r k t h a n t h e o n e a d o p t e d h e r e . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t od i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n p r e f o r m a t i o n o r p r e e x i s t e n c e o f r u d i m e n t s o f t h e e s s e n t i a lf o r m o r s t r u c t u r e , a n d t h e i r s u c c e s s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e i n d i v id u a l . J a nS w a m m e r d a m d i d a d h e r e t o a n " e p i g e n e ti c " - - i.e., s u c c es s iv e - - d e v e l o p m e n t o fp r e f o r m e d r u d i m e n t s ; h e c o m p a r e s m e t a m o r p h o s i s w i t h t h e b u d d i n g o f p l a n t s( B i be l de r Na t ur [L e i pzi g : J . F . G l ad i t s ch , 1 752 ] , pp . 3 , 90 ) , a com pa r i so n t o beu s e d l a t e r b y K . F . W o l f f t o i l l u s t r a t e h i s n o t i o n o f e p i g e n e t i c d e v e l o p m e n t . Y e t


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1 3 2 OLIVIER RIEPPELLeibniz held (1) that animals must be accorded a soul, sincethey show signs of sensibility; (2) that every soul must always be

linked to a body; and (3) that all souls, including those of animals,are immortal. If the Neoplatonic concept of metempsychosis(migration of the soul from one body to another) is rejected,preformation must follow as a logical consequence from thesepremises. Leibniz cited Swammerdam and claimed to follow thelatter's views, as can be seen from the preface of his Theod icy . Hewrites there that death simply "wraps up" or "disguises" somethingthat has been visible before, which means that the organism isreduced to a "physical point." Generation would constitute thereverse process. The soul thus remains attached to the same bodythroughout the cycle of death and resurrection.Bonnet admits 73 that prior to Haller's studies on the develop-ment of the chick he had entertained a view that came close to thetheory of e n v e l o p p e m e n t , which he expounded in chapter 6 of hisCons idera t ions sur l e s corps organ is~s . He envisaged the pre-formed germ as consisting of a folded net of "elementary fibers"that determine the organism's essential form and structure. Deve-lopment and growth would result from the assimilation of nutritiveparticles ( "molecu les" ) into this net of elementary fibers. Bonnetlater refined this model of development and growth under theinfluence of Haller's concept of the tela c e l l t l l o s a , 74 using thedevelopment of molluscan shells and of bone as described byHrr issant as a model. 75 Following the theory of e n v e lo p p e m e n t ,death would represent the reversed process; the germ wouldreturn to its original condition of a folded net of elementary fibers.

S w a m m e r d a m s t r e s s e d t h a t th e a n i m a l d e v e l o p s " f r o m i n v i s ib l e y e t e s se n t i a lo r i g i n s p r e s e n t i n t h e m a t e r n a l b o d y " ( p . 1 1 5 ) . H e f u r t h e r n o t e d t h a t t h e p u p ad o e s n o t c h a n g e t o b e c o m e a w i n g e d i n s e c t ; r a t h e r , i t i s t h e s a m e c a t e r p i l l a r , t h es a m e p u p a t h a t g i v e r i s e t o a w i n g e d a n i m a l b y t h e s u c c e s s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t o fp a r t s o r o r g a n s a l r e a d y p r e s e n t i n t h e c a t e r p i l l a r ( p p . 3 - - 4 ) . A p p l i e d t o t h ep r o b l e m o f g e n e r a ti o n , th i s m e a n t t h a t " th e r e i s n o g e n e r a t i o n i n n a t u re , b u t o n l ya d e v e l o p m e n t , a g r o w t h o f p a r t s , a n d n o c h a n g e i s i n v o l v e d " (p . 1 6 ) . T h e d e n i a lo f c h a n g e i s d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t a t o m i s t i c m o d e l s o f g e n e r a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , i n s e c tm e t a m o r p h o s i s d o e s n o t i m p l y t h e r e a l d e a t h o f la r v a l s ta g e s a n d a n e w o r i g i n o ft h e i m a g o ; r a t h e r , t h e l a r v a l s ta g e s n e v e r t r u l y d ie , t h e i m a g o i s n o a n i m a l f o r m e dd e n o v o . D e v e l o p m e n t o r m e t a m o r p h o s i s d o n o t i m p l y t h e o r i g i n o f s o m e t h i n gn e w , b u t o n l y t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f w h a t a l r e a d y e x i s t s . U n d e r s t o o d i n t h i s s e n s e ,S w a m m e r d a m a c c e p t s m e t a m o r p h o s i s a s a n a l le g o r y o f r e s u r r e c t io n ( p . 9 ).

7 3 . B o n n e t , Paling~n~sie, 1 , 2 7 6 - - 2 8 0 .7 4 . S o n n t a g , Correspondence, p p . 8 1 - - 8 3 ; s e e a l so B o n n e t , Paling~n~sie, I,4 1 3 .7 5 . B o n n e t , Paling~n~sie, I, 4 0 5 - - 4 1 4 .


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L e i b n i z 's P h i l o s o p h y i n t h e W r it in g s o f C h a r l e s B o n n e t 1 3 3I n h i s Paling~nOsie , h o w e v e r , B o n n e t h a d t o r e je c t t h e t h e o r y o f

e n v e l o p p e m e n t . T h e P a l i n g ~ n d s i e w a s m e a n t t o p r o v i d e a n e m p i r i-c a l b a s is f o r th e d o g m a o f r e s u r r e c t i o n . D e a t h a n d g e n e r a t i o n ,w h e n u n d e r s t o o d a s m e t a m o r p h o s e s in th e s e n se o f L e i b n i z ,w o u l d i n d e e d e x p l a i n p h y s ic a l r e s u r r e c t io n . Y e t , i f d e a t h m e a n ts i m p l e e n v e l o p p e m e n t , h o w w o u l d r e s u r r e c t i o n b e p o s s i b l e f o r am a n w h o h a d l o st his h e a d a n d w i th it h is m e m o r y a n d so ul? 76B o n n e t n o t e d t h a t t h e s a m e o b j e c t i o n h a d i n d e p e n d e n t l y b e e nr a i s e d a g a i n st L e i b n i z b y J . B e m o u l l i . 77 I n v i e w o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s ,B o n n e t h a d t o d e v e l o p a n e w t h e o r y , f o ll o w i ng t h e d o c t r i n e o fe m b o f t e m e n t . H e n o w d i s ti n g u i sh e d t w o t y p e s o f p r e e x i s t e n tg e r m s . TM T h e f i rs t t y p e s e r v e s t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f a g iv e n f o r m o fo r g a n i s m s d u r i n g a g iv e n e p o c h o f e a r t h h i s to r y : " . . . t h e T o u t so r g a n i q u e s h a v e b e e n o r i g i n a l l y p r e f o r m e d , a n d t h o s e o f t h e s a m es p e c i e s h a v e b e e n e n c a p s u l a t e d w i t h i n o n e a n o t h e r s o t h a t t h e yc a n d e v e l o p f r o m o n e a n o t h e r . " 79 T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n i n d iv i d -u a l n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d s t o i t s d e a t h , w h i c h r e s u l t s i n i t s r e d u c t i o n " t op o w d e r . '8 H o w e v e r , w i t h i n t h e T o u t o r g a n i q u e a n o t h e r t y p e o fg e r m is e n c a p s u l a t e d : t h e g e r m o f r e s t i t u t io n . I t is a n i n d e s t r u c t i -b l e, " e t h e r e a l " b o d y , e n c l o s e d w i th i n t h e b r a i n o f a n im a l s ( w i th i nt h e c o r p u s c a l l o s u m o f th e h u m a n b r a in ) ; it n o t o n l y r e p r e s e n t s t h et r u e s e a t o f t h e i m m o r t a l s o u l, it al so c o n t a i n s t h e n e w a n dp e r f e c t e d b o d y t h a t w il l d e v e l o p a t t h e t i m e o f r e s u r r e c t i o n . 81

C o n t r a s t i n g h i s t h e o r y o f e m b o f t e m e n t w i t h t h e v i e w h e l d b yL e i b n i z , B o n n e t c r i ti c i z e d t h e l a t te r 's c o n c e p t o f m e t a m o r p h o s i s . 82L e i b n i z , h e c h a r g e d , h a d n o t m e d i t a t e d e n o u g h o n S w a m m e r d a m ' sw r i ti n g s a n d h e n c e h a d t h o u g h t t h a t t h e b u t t e r f l y w o u l d r e s u l tf r o m t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o r e v o l u t i o n o f t h e a c t u a ll y v is ib le b o d y o ft h e c a t e r p i l l a r . B o n n e t , h o w e v e r , m a i n t a i n e d t h a t i t i s a n o t h e ri n v i s i b l e b o d y , e n c a p s u l a t e d w i t h i n t h e c a t e r p i l l a r , t h a t w i l l e v e n -t u a l l y e v o l v e i n t o a b u t t e r f l y . T h e n e w o r g a n s o f t h e b u t t e r f l y a r ee n c a p s u l a t e d w i t h i n t h o s e o f t h e c a t e r p i l l a r , a s i n a c a s e , a n d w i llg r a d u a l l y e m e r g e f r o m i t . T h i s , B o n n e t c l a i m e d , h a d b e e n e x p e r i -

76. Ibid.,I, 280--281.77. Bon net, "Recu eil de divers passages de Le ibnitz," p. 37.78. Savioz, Philosophie de Charles Bonnet; see a ls o Lorin A nderson,Charles Bonnet and the Order of N ature (Dordrecht and London: D. Reidel,1982).79. Bonnet, Paling~n~sie,I, 356.80. Bonnet, Contemplation, II, 22.81. Ch arles Bonnet, Es sai analytique sur les facult~s de l~m e (Copenhagen:Fr~res CI. et A nt. Philibert, 1760), pp. 477--482; see also Bon net, Paling~n~sie,I, 176--177, 199, 285.82. Bonnet, Paling~n~sie,I, 302.


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13 4 OLIVIER RIEPPELm e n t a l l y d e m o n s t r a t e d b y R 6 a u m u r ' s s tu d ie s o n t h e m o u l ti n gp r o c e s s o f c a t e r p i ll a r s. 83 S w a m m e r d a m ' s o w n w r it in g s a r e n o tu n e q u i v o c a l o n t h is i s su e : th e t e x t o f h i s B i b l i a n a t u r a e i s c o m -p a t ib l e w i th b o t h t h e s e v ie w s o n m e t a m o r p h o s i s ( se e c o m m e n t s o nS w a m m e r d a m i n n . 7 2 a b o v e ).P r e e x is te n c e o f t h e S o u l a n d t h e P r o b l e m o f T r a ns c re a ti o n

B o t h L e i b n iz a n d B o n n e t a c c e p t e d t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e im m a t e-r ia l it y o f th e s o u l t h a t m u s t b e c o m b i n e d w i t h a n o r g a n i c b o d y . I fp r e f o r m a t i o n i n t h e s e n s e o f p r e e x i s t e n c e o f th e b o d y is p o st u -l a te d , t h e s o u l m u s t l ik e w i s e p r e e x i s t if n o t r a n s m i g r a t i o n o f t h es o ul , o r m e t e m p s y c h o s i s , i s t o o c c u r . 84 Q u o t i n g s e c t i o n 9 0 o fL e i b n i z ' s T h e o d i c y , B o n n e t e x p r e s s e d h i s p l e a s u r e a t f i n d i n g h i sv i ew s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h o s e o f t h e g r e a t m e t a p h y s i c i a n . 85 T h ep r e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e so u l h a d b e e n d e d u c e d b y B o n n e t b e f o r e h ee n c o u n t e r e d t h e T h e o d i c y , a s b e c o m e s c l e a r f r o m t h e d e b a t e h eh a d w i th C r a m e r i n 1 7 4 1 . 86 I n 1 7 4 5 , B o n n e t c o r r e s p o n d e d w i thC a s p a r K u n z ( - - C u e n t z ) , a p h i l o s o p h e r f r o m S t . G a l l e n , S w i t z e r -l a n d , w h o h a d p u b l i s h e d a t re a t i se i n f o u r v o l u m e s e n t i t le d E s s a id ' u n s y s t ~ m e n o u v e a u c o n c e r n a n t l a n a t u r e d e s ~ t r e s s p i r i t u e l s( N e u c h ~ t e l , 1 7 4 2 ) . 87 T o K u n z ' s e x p o s i t i o n o f a p u r e l y m e c h a n i s t i cm o d e l o f g e n e r a ti o n , B o n n e t o p p o s e d h is v i ew s o n p r e f o r m a t i o n . 88T h e d e b a t e s o o n c e n t e r e d o n t h e p o l y p ( H y d r a v i r i d i s ) a n d i t sa m a z i n g c a p a b i l it ie s o f r e g e n e r a t i o n a n d m u l t i p li c a ti o n , a s d e -s c ri b e d b y B o n n e t 's c o u s in A b r a h a m T r e m b l e y . T h e p o l y p w as t os e r v e as a t e s t f o r t h e c o m p e t i n g v i ew s o n g e n e r a t i o n .

C o m m e n t i n g o n T r e m b l e y ' s e x p er im e n t s o n t h e p o ly p , R 6 a u m u rh a d a s k e d: " W h a t k i n d o f a s o u l w o u l d t hi s b e t h a t, li k e t h e b o d y ,w o u l d l e n d i ts e lf t o b e i n g c u t u p i n t o p i e c e s, a n d w h i c h w o u l dr e g e n e r a t e i t s e lf ? '89 - - a q u e s t i o n a l so r a i se d b y P i e r r e L y o n e t .9R 6 a u m u r ' s i n t e r e st in t h e p r o b l e m o f r e g e n e r a t io n g o e s b a c k t ot h e y e a r 1 7 1 2 , w h e n h e p u b l i sh e d a p a p e r o n r e g e n e r a t i o n i nc r u s t a c e a n s . 91 I n t h is p a p e r h e n o t o n l y c o m p a r e d g e n e r a t i o n w i t hr e g e n e r a t i o n , h e a l s o e n v i s a g e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f

83. Bonnet,Contemplation, I, 285--286.84. Bonnet, Paling~nOsie,I, 275.85. Ibid., I, 273 .86. Marx,"Bon net contre les Lum i6res,"p. 200.87. Ibid., pp. 201--202.88. Savioz,MO moires autobiographiques, pp. 68, 91.89. R6aumur, M~moirespo ur servir ~ l'histoire des insectes, V I, lxvii.90. M arx, "Bonnet contre les Lum i6res,"p. 410.91. R6a um ur, "Sur les divers reproductions," pp. 226--245.


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Leibniz's Philosophy in the Writings of Charles Bonnet 135preformed "germs of regeneration" that would effect the repair ofany lost extremities. Confronted with Trembley's polyp, Rraumurhad recourse to his old ideas: The polyp cut into pieces wouldregenerate whole individuals by the development of germs ofregeneration scattered throughout its body and containing apreexistent soul. This was the hypothesis adopted by Bonnet.92Related to the problem of the preexistent soul is the question oftranscreation. This concept goes back to Aristotle and hishypothesis of a hierarchy of souls, which were believed to guideembryonic development. Each developing organism first goesthrough a vegetative phase of growth guided by the vegetative soul.The animal, or sensitive, soul assumes its guiding function in thedeveloping animal as it becomes capable of perception andmovement. The rational soul is a divine endowment restricted toman; its actualization during postembryonic development con-sequently requires God's interference, a process called transcrea-tion. Leibniz adopted this concept as part of his preformationism.Following Leeuwenhoek, he considered the spermatic animalcules,even those of human males, to be true animals not endowed with arational soul. If a human spermatozoon was conceived by a femaleand thus had the chance to develop -- that is, to metamorphoseinto a human being -- the endowment of its soul with rationalityrequired God's interference: a transcreation took place. Thehypothesis of transcreation helped to avoid a theological dilemma:only very few of all available sperms ever had the chance to evolveinto a human being; since the remaining ones were considered tohave no rational soul, there was no need to assume that God hadviolated the harmony of nature by creating an inexplicable super-abundance of human souls .93

Bonnet quotes section 91 of Leibniz's Theodicy to documentthe latter's adherence to the doctrine of transcreation,94 but hedoes not note that in section 397 Leibniz developed an alternativetheory to avoid transcreation. He called this new theory "traduc-tion," but he does not seem to have followed it up in his otherwritings. Bonnet, on the other hand, had rejected transcreation inhis Essai analytique already, since his view of nature as beinggoverned by secondary causes only -- and hence as beingaccessible to empirical investigation -- was incompatible with the

92. Savioz, Mdm oi res au t ob i ograph iques , p . 92 ; s ee a l so Bonne t , Considera-tions, I I, 6 5 - - 7 0 ; a n d i d e m , Cont em pl a t i on , I, 2 5 4 - - 2 5 5 .93 . J acques Roge r , La sc ience de l a v i e dans l a pensde f ran f a i s e du XV I 1Fsi~cle, 2nd ed . (Pa r is : A r m an d Co l i n , 1971) , p. 369 .9 4 . B o n n e t , Paling~ndsie, I , 2 8 3 - - 2 8 9 .


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13 6 OLIVIER RIEPPELa s s u m p t i o n o f s p o n t a n e o u s d i v i n e i n t e r f e r e n c e .95 B a s e d o n h i st h e o r y o f t h e ~ t r e - m i x t e , B o n n e t c o n s i d e r e d th e m e t a m o r p h o s i s o ft h e a n i m a l s o u l i n t o a r a t i o n a l s o u l to b e a p r o c e s s o f p e r f e c t i o na c c o m p a n y i n g t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f t h e p h y s i c a l m a c h i n e r y , d u r i n go n t o g e n e s i s 96 a s w e l l a s d u r i n g p a l i n g e n e s i s 97 _ _ t h e t w o p r o c e s s e sr u n n i n g i n p a r a l l e l . 98" L 'I ~ T R E - M I X T E " V E R S U S T H E C O N C E P T O FP R E E S T A B L I S H E D H A R M O N Y

B o n n e t a n d L e i b n i z a g r e e d t h a t t h e s o u l m u s t a l w a y s b ec o m b i n e d w i t h a n o r g a n ic b o d y . T h e q u e s t i o n t h e n a r is es h o w s o ula n d b o d y a r e i n t e r r e la t e d a n d w o r k t o g e t h e r h a r m o n i o u s l y .

F o r L e i b n i z , t h e s o u l , o r m o n a d , w a s a n i m m a t e r i a l " s i m p l es u b s t a n c e " a n d , a s s u c h , i n c a p a b l e o f i n te r a c t i n g w i th t h e m a t e r i a lb o d y . B u t h o w , t h e n , c a n t h e s o u l r e c e i v e a n y i m p r e s s i o n s f r o mt h e o u t e r w o r l d t h r o u g h t h e s e n se o r g a n s ? H o w c a n t h e so u l ca u s et h e b o d y t o a c t a c c o r d i n g t o i t s i n t e n t ? T o s o l v e t h i s p r o b l e m ,L e i b n i z f o r m u l a t e d h i s t h e o r y o f p r e e s t a b li s h e d h a r m o n y , a c c o r d -in g t o w h i c h G o d h a d p r e d e t e r m i n e d t h e o r d e r o f p e r c e p t i o n s a n dt h e a c t io n s o f b o d y a n d s o u l i n su c h a w a y t h a t t h e t w o w o u l da l w a y s f i n d t h e m s e l v e s i n c o m p l e t e h a r m o n y w h i l e s t i l l b e i n gc o m p l e t e ly i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m o n e a n o th e r : " M o n a d s h a v e n ow i n d o w s t h r o u g h w h i c h a n y t h i n g c a n e n t e r o r e m e r g e . '99 S o u l a n db o d y a r e l ik e tw o c l o c k s t h a t h a v e b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d a n d s e t i n t os y n c h r o n o u s m o t i o n b y G o d .

B o n n e t r e j e c te d t h e c o n c e p t o f p r e e s ta b l i sh e d h a r m o n y , c o n -s i d er i n g i t a n " i n g e n i o u s w o r k o f f ic t io n , th e m a i n m e r i t o f w h i c h i si ts o ri g in a l it y ." 1 H e e v e n t h o u g h t t h a t t h e d o c t r i n e o f p r e e s t a b -l is h e d h a r m o n y w a s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h th e p r i n c i p l e o f c o n t i n u -i ty , 11 d i s r u p t i n g t h e c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n b o d y a n d s o u l t h a t w a st o b e c o m e t h e ba sis o f J o h a n n C a s p a r L a v a t e r 's ( 1 7 4 1 - - 1 8 0 1 )p h y s i o g n o m y . 12 H e t h e r e f o r e o p p o s e d L e i b n iz ' s p h i l o s o p h y w i tht h e c o n c e p t o f th e ~ t r e - m i x t e , w h i c h h e d e v e l o p e d i n h i s E s s a ia n a l y t i q u e s u r le s f a c u l t d s d e l ' ~ m e ( 1 7 6 0 ) a n d f u r t h e r re f i n e d i n

95. Bonnet, Essai an alytique p. 491.96. Bonnet, Palingdn~sie,I, 288.97. Ibid.,I, 199 .98. Ibid.,I , 17 8--17 9,28 8--28 9.99. Go ttfried W ilhelm Leibniz, "M onadolog y," n Hauptschrifien zur Grund-legungderPhilosophie (see n. 52 above), II, 7, p. 436.100. Bon net, "Vue du Leibnitianisme,"p. 104.101. Bonnet, Paling~n~sie,I, 295.102. M arx, "Bonnet contre les Lumibres,"pp. 572--573.


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L e i b n i z ' s P h i l o s o p h y i n t h e W r i ti n g s o f C h a r l e s B o n n e t 1 3 7h is C o n t e m p l a t i o n d e l a n a t u r e ( 1 7 6 4 ) a n d i n th e Pal ingdn~s iep h i l o s o p h i q u e ( 1 7 6 9 ) . T h e o r g a n i s m i s a m i x e d - b e i n g c o m p o s e do f t h e i m m a t e r i a l so u l a n d t h e o r g a n i c o r m a t e r i a l b o d y . W i th i nth is m i x e d - b e i n g , b o d y a n d s o u l c a n a c t o n e a c h o t h e r r e c ip r o c a ll y .T h e o b j e c t s o f th e o u t e r w o r l d s t i m u l a t e s e n s e - s p e c i f ic n e r v e f i b e r st h a t p a s s f r o m t h e i r s e n s e o r g a n t o t h e b r a i n . T h e s t i m u l u s i st r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e b r a i n , w h i c h t h u s r e c e i v e s " i m p r e s s i o n s f r o m t h eo u t e r w o r l d " 103 i n t h e t r u e s e n s e o f th e w o r d . T h e s o u l c a n t h e nt r a c e t h e s e i m p r e s s i o n s . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e s o u l c a n e x e r t a " m o v i n gf o r c e " ( f o rc e m o t r i c e ) TM o n t h e b o d y a c c o r d i n g t o i t s i n t e n t i o n s ,a l t h o u g h i t re m a i n s u n c l e a r h o w it c a n d o s o:

I th e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r t h e u n i o n o f b o d y a n d s o u l, a n d t h e i rre c i p ro c a l i n f l u e n c e o n o n e a n o t h e r , as a p h e n o m e n o n o f w h i c hI s tu d y t h e l a w s , b u t o f w h i c h I p r o f e s s t o p r o f o u n d l y i g n o r e t h eh o w . I c o n f e s s n o t t o k n o w h o w m o v e m e n t c a n c a u s e a n i d e aa n d I a ls o d o n o t k n o w h o w a n i d e a c a n c a u s e m o v e m e n t . . . . 105

B o n n e t th u s a d o p t e d t he s a m e k i n d o f N e w t o n i a n a t t it u d e t o w a r d sh i s t h e o r y o f t h e ~ t re - m i x t e t h a t A l b r e c h t v o n H a i l e r h a d a d o p t e dt o w a r d s t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e i r ri ta b i li ty o f t h e m u s c l e f i b er . 16A l t h o u g h t he t ru e c a u s e o f t he o b s e r v e d p h e n o m e n o n is u n k n o w n ,i t c a n n e v e r t h e l e s s b e a d m i t t e d a s a n o b s e r v a b l e f a c t t h e l a w s o fw h i c h c a n b e s t u d i e d .

S o u l a n d b o d y m u s t s o m e h o w b e c o n n e c t e d b y t he " a ct io n s a n dm o d i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e n s i b l e f i b e r s " 107 o f t h e b r a i n , w h i c h a t t h es a m e t i m e f o r m t h e m a t e r ia l o r p h y s ic a l b a si s o f m e m o r y . M e m o r yi n t u r n d e t e r m i n e s t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f a n o r g a n i c b e i n g - - o r , i no t h e r w o r d s , t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f a n o r g a n i c b e i n g is c o m p o s e d o f,a n d d e t e r m i n e d b y , t h e i m p r e s s i o n s o f t h e o u t e r w o r l d t h a t t h eb o d y t r a n s m i t s t o t h e s o u l v i a t h e s e n s i b l e n e r v e f i b e r s o f t h eb r a i n ; 18 t h e r e is n o n e e d n o r r o o m t o e v o k e i n n a t e i d e a s. T h ep e r s o n a l i t y w i l l g r o w m o r e c o m p l e x i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e r i c h n e s so f i ts e x p e r i e n c e , a n d h e n c e o f it s r e c o l l e c ti o n s .

103. Bonnet, Palingdn~sie,I, 1 77; see also idem, Contemplation, I, xl, 92.104. Bonnet, Contemplation, I, xliii.105. Bonnet, Ess ai analytique, p. 5.106. Roe, M atter, Life, and Generation, p. 100; see also Bonnet, Contempla-tion, I, xvi; and idem, Paling~n~sie,I, 83.107. Bonnet, Essai analytique, p. 459; see also Bonnet, Con templation, I,xxxix--xl; and idem, Palingdndsie,I, 14, 177.108. Bonnet, Essa i analytique, pp. 457--458; see also idem, Palingdn~sie, I,177.


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13 8 OLIVIER RIEPPELF o r B o n n e t , t h e t h e o r y o f t h e m i x e d - b e i n g h a d t w o i m p o r t a n t

c o n s e q u e n c e s : it h e l p e d t o e x p l a i n th e p e r f e c t i o n a n d p e r f e c t ib i l it yo f t h e s o u l w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e t o t r a n s c r e a t i o n , a n d i t p r o v i d e da p h y s ic a l b as is f o r t h e P r o t e s t a n t s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e L a s tJ u d g m e n t w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e to t h e N e o p l a t o n i c c o n c e p t o fm e t e m p s y c h o s i s .

I f t h e p e r c e p t i o n s o f th e s o u l d e p e n d o n t h e i m p r e s s i o n st r a n s m i t t e d t o i t b y t h e b o d y , t h e n t h e l e v e l o f p e r f e c t i o n o f t h eb o d y a n d i ts s e n s e o r g a n s w i ll d e t e r m i n e t h e l e v e l o f p e r f e c t i o n o ft h e f a cu l ti e s o f t h e s o u l. J u s t a s d u r i n g o n t o g e n y t h e h u m a n b o d y isg r a d u a l l y p e r f e c t e d , r i s i n g f r o m a n a n i m a l - l i k e t o a h u m a n c o n d i -t i o n , s o t h e s o u l w i l l l i k e w i s e e x p e r i e n c e t h e s a m e p e r f e c t i o n ,f u r t h e r r e in f o r c e d b y e d u c a t i o n ; n o t r a n s c r e a ti o n n e e d s t o b ei n v o k e d . 19 I n p a r a l le l , i f a n a n i m a l i s e l e v a t e d t o t h e l e v e l o fh u m a n i t y d u r i n g i t s p a l i n g e n e s i s , i t s s o u l w i l l l i k e w i s e b e p e r f e c t e da n d b e c o m e r a t io n a l o n t h e b as is o f p u r e ly p h y s ic a l m e c h a n i sm s ,t h a t is s e c o n d a r y c a u s e s . 11

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f o r g a n i c b e in g s , t h e i r p a li n g en e s is , r e su l ts i nt h e i r p e r f e c t i o n . 111 G o d ' s b e n e v o l e n c e h a s p r o v i d e d t h e m e a n s o fp e r f e c t i o n b y t h e p r e f o r m a t i o n o f g e r m s o f r e s u rr e c ti o n . Y e t, h o wc o u l d m a n o r a n y o t h e r o r g a n i z e d b e i n g a c q u i r e a n y n o t i o n o fG o d ' s b e n e v o l e n c e , if h e c o u l d n o t , w i th t h e h e l p o f m e m o r y ,c o m p a r e h is s t a te o f p e r f e c t i o n w i th f o r m e r a n d le ss p e r f e c tc o n d i t i o n s ? H o w c o u l d m a n o r a n y o t h e r o r g a n i z e d b e i n ga c k n o w l e d g e G o d ' s r e c o m p e n s e o r p u n i s h m e n t o n t h e o c c a si o n o ft h e L a s t J u d g m e n t , i f h e h a d n o r e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e d e e d s o f h isf o r m e r l if e ? 112 - - a q u e s t i o n t h a t is h a r d t o r e c o n c i l e w i t hL e i b n i z ' s a n d B o n n e t ' s v i e w o f a p e r v a d i n g d i v i n e p r e d e t e r m i n a -t i o n o f a ll l if e. H 3 L e i b n i z w r o t e t h a t i t i s t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e s e l f( " l e m o i , " i n B o n n e t ' s t e r m i n o l o g y 1 1 4 ) , a n d i t s r e c o l l e c t i o n s , t h a tr e n d e r t h e p e r s o n a l i t y s u sc e p t ib l e o f p u n i s h m e n t o r r e c o m -p e n s e J 15 F o r B o n n e t , t h e s e n s a ti o n o f p r o g r e ss - - o f r e c o m p e n s e ,o r o f p u n i s h m e n t - - w a s li ke w is e c o n n e c t e d t o m e m o r y . H isc o n c e p t o f th e e m b o f t e m e n t o f th e g e r m o f r e s u r r e c t i o n i n t h e ~ t r e -m i x t e h e l p e d h i m t o a v o i d a n y r e c o u r s e t o m e t e m p s y c h o s i s , w h i c hh a d b e e n v i g o r o u s l y r e j e c te d b y L e i b n i z a n d w h i c h B o n n e t

109. Bonnet, Paling~n~sie, I, 287--289.110. Ibid., I, 199,204.111. Bonnet, Essai analytique, p. 469.112. Ibid., pp. 474--475; see also Bon net, Paling~n~sie, I, 310--311.113 . M arx, "Bonnet contre les Lum ibres,"p. 132.114. Bonnet, Essai analytique, p. 457.115. Gottfried W ilhelm L eibn iz, "Metaphysische Abhandlung," in Haupt-schriften zu r G rundlegung d er Philosophie (see n. 52 above), II, 183.


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Leibniz's Philosophy in the Writings of Charles Bonnet 139rejected with reference to Pauline theology.116 If a caterpillarmetamorphoses to form a butterfly, if an animal species moves upthe ladder of perfection during its palingenesis, if man is resur-rected and thereby acquires the new, glorious, and incorruptiblebody promised by Revelation, the soul cannot be postulated tomigrate from the old body into the new one, because it wouldthereby lose all memory. The personality of the organism would bedestroyed, because all memory is based on lasting physical impres-sions on the fibers of the brain of the former body. But if weassume that the brain of the butterfly is preexistent and encapsu-lated within that of the caterpillar, if we admit that the future andperfected body along with its brain are preexistent within theethereal germ of resurrection that is also the seat of the immortalsoul, then no metempsychosis needs to be evoked. The actualbrain of animals and man would contain in an encapsulatedmanner the preexistent future brain and could therefore transmitthe impressions of all memory onto the latter's fibers. If the newbody develops, its brain will already bear the recollections of theformer life? 17 The personali ty of the Tout organique is thuspreserved.In the course of its palingenesis the immortal soul migrates upthrough the ladder of life 11s _ a view that implies an essentialisticspecies concept: 119 species are immutable entities, created andpreformed from the beginning and defined by their immortal soul.Palingenesis does not entail the evolution of new species fromantecedent ones. Rather, each species proceeds through the scalanaturae as an entity, separated from all other such entities: "...each species is a unique Whole, forever persisting; but it isdestined to appear, from one period to the next, in the guise of anew form, or of new modifications. '12 This is an all-importantdifference between Bonnet's views on palingenesis and modernevolutionism.On a psychological level, Bonnet completely avoided Leibniz'sconcept of preestablished harmony, but not so in his view ofnature. The Palingdn~sie postulated a series of revolutions, each ofwhich would destroy the surface of the globe and, with it, all livingbeings. The indestructible germs of restitution would develop intonew and more perfected organisms when the surface of the globe

1 1 6 . M a r x , " B o n n e t c o n t r e le s L u m i ~ r e s , " p . 9 0 .1 1 7 . B o n n e t , Essai analytique, p p . 4 6 9 - - 4 7 5 .1 1 8 . B o n n e t , Contemplation, I , 2 2 7 .1 1 9 . B o n n e t , Paling~ndsie, I I , 128 .1 2 0 . I b id . , I , 2 5 8 ; s e e a l s o S a v io z , Philosophie de Charles Bonnet, p . 1 3 7 .


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14 0 OLIVIER RIEPPELw a s r e s to r e d . H o w e v e r , e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s o n e a r t h h a d t oc h a n g e a c c o r d i n g l y , s i n c e o t h e r w i s e th e n e w o r g a n i s m s w o u l d n o tb e h a r m o n i o u s l y a d a p t e d t o th e i r e n v i r o n m e n t . G o d t h e r e f o r e h a dt o p r e d e t e r m i n e n o t o n l y t h e p a l in g e n e s is o f t h e o r g a n i z e d b e in g s ,b u t a l so t h e c o n c o m i t a n t c h a n g e s o f t h e w o r l d t h a t h a r b o r s t h e m .O r g a n i sm s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t h a d t o c h a n g e a c c o r d i n g to a p la n o fp r e e s ta b l is h e d h a r m o n y :

I th u s c o n j e c t u r e t h a t t h e g e r m s o f a ll o r g a n i z e d b e i n g s h a v eb e e n p r e f o r m e d f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t e d a c c o r d i n gt o d e f i n e d r e l a t i o n s t o t h e v a r i o u s r e v o l u t i o n s t h a t o u r p l a n e tw a s t o g o t h r o u g h ) 21

T H E M O N A D V E R S U S T H E G E R MB o n n e t ' s e m p i r i c i sm r e n d e r e d i t d i ff ic u l t f o r h i m t o c o m e t o

g r i p s w i t h L e i b n i z ' s m e t a p h y s i c a l c o n c e p t o f t h e m o n a d 2 2 2 A sn o t e d a b o v e , L e i b n i z c o n s i d e r e d t h e m a t e r i a l o b j e c t , w h i c h m u s th a v e s o m e g i v e n e x t e n s i o n , a s i n f i n it e l y d i v is i b le . T h i s h o l d s f o r ap i e c e o f m a r b l e a s w e ll a s f o r a n o r g a n i c b o d y , i f i t w e r e s e p a r a t e df r o m i ts s o u l . 123 I n c o n t r a s t , t h e m o n a d w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a" s i m p l e s u b s t a n c e , " i m m a t e r i a l a n d h e n c e i n d i v i s i b l e a n d i n d e -s t ru c t ib l e ( e x c e p t b y a n a c t o f G o d ) . T h e m o n a d is a s tr ic t lym e t a p h y s i c a l e n t i ty , y e t c o n n e c t e d t o a m a t e r i a l b o d y ; 124 i tr e p r e s e n t s t h e b o d y ' s e n t e l e c h y , o r i ts " s o u l . " 125 I t is t h e e s s e n c e o fu n i t y a n d i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f t h e o r g a n i c b e i n g , w h i c h i s i n a s t a t e o fc o n t i n u o u s m o v e m e n t , d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d c h a n g e t o w a r d s p e r f e c -t io n . B o n n e t , h o w e v e r , r e p e a t e d l y m i s u n d e r s t o o d t h e m o n a d i n am a t e r i a l i s t i c s e n s e :

I t is m o s t o b v i o u s t h a t e v e r y p a r t i c u l a r b o d y i s n o t h i n g b u t a na s s e m b l a g e o f p a r ts : th e s e i n t u r n a r e n o t h i n g b u t a n a s s e m b l a g eo f p a r t i c le s . I f o n e p r e s s e s t h is s u b d i v i s i o n t o i t s u l ti m a t e l i m i ts ,o n e w o u l d h a v e e n d e d u p w i t h m o n a d s ; i n s te a d , o n e ha ss t o p p e d w i t h a t o m s . 126121. Bonnet, Paling~n~sie,I, 253; see also W olfgang Lef~v re,Die Entstehungder biologischen Evo lutionstheorie (Frankfurt a.M.: Ullstein, 1984), pp. 225,227.122. Savioz,M~ moires autobiographiques,p. 101.123. Gottfried W ilhelm Le ibniz, "Letter to A rnau ld, 28 Novem ber to 8December 1686," in Hauptschriften zur Grundlegung der P hilosophie (see n. 52above), II, 209--212 .124. Gottfried W ilhelm Leibniz, Die Theodizee, ed. Morris Stockhammer(Hamburg: Felix Meiner, 19 68), p. 41.125. Leibniz, "Monadology," 63.126. Bon net, "Vu e du Leibnitianisme,"p. 74 ; see also ibid., p. 67.


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L e i b n l z 's P h i l o s o p h y i n t h e W r it in g s o f C h a r l e s B o n n e t 1 4 1B o n n e t e v e n u s e d t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e m o n a d t o o p p o s e t h e i de a o fa n i n f i n i te d i v i si b i li t y o f m a t t e r . 127 H e w a s a w a r e t h a t h e h a dm i s i n te r p r e t e d t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l c o n c e p t o f t h e m o n a d i n am a t e r i a li s t ic s e n s e , 128 b u t t h is d i d n o t c h a n g e t h e m o t i v a t i o nu n d e r l y i n g h is m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , n a m e l y , t h e s e a r c h f o r a ne m p i r i c a l a s p e c t o f L e i b n i z i a n m e t a p h y s i c s : " H e [ L ei b ni z] d o e sn o t , a s I h a v e d o n e , g u i d e t h e r e a d e r t h r o u g h t h e r o a d s o fo b s e r v a t i o n a n d a n a ly s is ." ~ 9

B o n n e t m a y h a v e d e v e l o p e d h is h y p o t h e si s o f t h e " g e rm o fr e s t it u t i o n " o n t h e b a s i s o f hi s m a t e r i al i st ic c o n c e p t i o n o f th em o n a d . B y i t s i n d e s t r u c t i b i l i t y , i t s i n d i v i s i b i l i t y , a n d i t s c r e a t i o nf r o m t h e b e g in n i ng , t h e g e r m o f r e s u r r e c ti o n s h a r e s s o m e o f th ep r o p e r t i e s o f t h e m o n a d . A n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o L e i b n i z 's m e t a -p h y s i c a l p r i n c i p l e o f i n d i v i d u a t io n , o r i n d i v i d u a l p e r f e c t i o n , t h eg e r m o f r e s u r r e c t i o n i s t h e p h y s i c a l p r i n c i p l e o f p e r f e c t i o n i n th eo r g a n i c w o r ld . B o n n e t d e s i g n a t e d t h e g e r m o f re s u r r e c t i o n a s a n" e t h e r e a l b o d y , '~ 3 s t a ti n g t h a t e t h e r w a s f o r h i m a " r e a l s u b -s t a nc e " a d m i t te d b y " m o d e m p h i l o s o p h e r s ." 131 T h e m o d e r n p h i -l o s o p h e r s a l l u d e d t o w e r e N e w t o n a n d A l b r e c h t v o n H a i l e r .N e w t o n ' s g r a v i ta t io n a l f o r c e w a s d e e m e d a n o c c u l t q u a li ty b yC a r t e s i a n s , s i n c e i t a c t e d o n d i s t a n t b o d i e s a n d h e n c e d i d n o tc o n f o r m t o th e C a r t e s i a n l aw s o f m o t i o n . N e w t o n w o u l d n o ta c c e p t t h e c h a r g e o f o c c u l t is m , h o w e v e r , a n d m a i n t a i n e d t h a t th ec o n c e p t o f g r a v i t y p e r f e c t l y s e r v e d t o e x p l a i n o b s e r v a t i o n a l f a c t so f n a t u r e e v e n i f i ts e s s e n c e w a s n o t f u l ly u n d e r s t o o d . I n t h isc o n t e x t i t i s w o r t h w h i l e t o r e c a ll t h e L e i b n i z i a n p a i r o f n o t i o n s , " t oe x p l a i n " a n d " t o u n d e r s t a n d . '132 G r a v i t a t i o n s e r v e d t o e x p l a i n t h eo b s e r v a b l e m o v e m e n t s o f h e a v e n l y b o d i e s , e v e n th o u g h t h e n a t u r eo f t h e g r a v i ta t i o n a l f o r c e w a s n o t u n d e r s t o o d . N e w t o n l a t e r t ri e d t or e m e d y t h i s s it u a t i o n w i th t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a s u b t le " e t h e r e a ls u b s t an c e " o r " s p i r i t u s , " c o m p a r a b l e t o t he " s p i r i t u s v i n i , " a n a g e n tt h a t p e n e t r a t e s a l l s o l i d b o d i e s a n d p r o v i d e s g r a v i t a t i o n w i t h am e c h a n i s t i c b a s is . 133 H e a l so h a d r e c o u r s e t o " e t h e r " i n o r d e r t oe x p l ai n , i n te r a li a, t h e f u n c t i o n o f th e r e t i n a a n d t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n

12 7. Ibid., pp. 85--86.128 . Ibid., p. 83 n. 3.129. Bon net, "Recu eil de divers passages de L eibnitz," p. 15.130. Bonnet, Essai analytique, p. 480; see also idem , Paling~n~sie, I, 176--177.131. Bonnet, Essai analytique, p. 478.132. Ernst Cassirer, Philosophie de r Aufkliirung (T/ibingen: J. C . B . M ohr[Paul Siebeck], 1932), p. 110.133. W olfgang R6d, Geschichte d er Philosophie, Ba nd VII. Die Philosophieder Ne uzeit 2, yon N ew ton bis Rousseau (Mun ich. C. H. B eck, 1984), pp. 21--26.


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14 2 OLIVIER RIEPPELof nervous impulses. Similarly, Albrecht von Hailer supported histeacher Hermann Boerhaave's concept of a subtle fluid or" s p i r i t u s " to explain the physiology of nerves, in contradistinctionto Throphile de Bordeu who, like Swammerdam, believed thenerves to function analogously to vibrating strings. TM

A note may also be added on Newton's inclination towardsalchemy and on his interests in the fabrication and transmutationof gold. In alchemy, ether stood as a symbol for M e r c u r i u s as animmaterial s p i r i t u s of transformation or metamorphosis. 135 Etherthus appears as an appropriate substance from which to constructthe germ of restitution, the principle of metamorphosis of theorganic beings in the course of their paiingenesis.The congruence of Leibniz's concept of the monad andBonnet's concept of the germ of resurrection is incomplete,however. The assumption of a reciprocal influence between bodyand soul in the ~ t r e - m i x t e is incompatible with the doctrine ofpreestablished harmony. Also, Bonnet strictly addressed theproblem of organized beings only, excluding all considerations ofinorganic matter. Leibniz's M o n a d o l o g y , on the other hand, wasdesigned to deal with the problem of all kinds of appearances inthis world, and hence it does not imply a dichotomy betweenorganic and inorganic matter.MONADOLOGY VERSUS PALINGENESIS

There is little doubt that the M o n a d o l o g y represents theculminating point of Leibniz's metaphysics, just as the P a l i n g d n d s i erepresents the climax of Bonnet's theorizing. Bonnet acknowl-edged his debt to Leibniz 136 but differed radically from his idol inhis emphasis on empiricism and sensualism. What the two authorshad in common was a basic optimism grounded in their firm beliefin a benevolent Creator.In his T h e o d i c y Leibniz asserted that the benevolent Creator,according to his own nature, has necessarily created the best of allpossible worlds. This assertion implied that God had imagined amultiplicity of possible worlds from which he had chosen the bestone for material creation. God had an idea, coetemal with his own

134. ThEophile de Bordeu, Recherches anatom iques s ur la position desglandes et sur leur action (Paris: G.-F. Quillau P~re, 1751); Swammerdam,Bibe lderNatur , p. 331.135. Carl Gustav Jung, Studien iiber alchemistische Vorstellungen. Gesarn-mel te Werke Ba nd 13 (Olten und Freiburg .Br.: Walter Verlag, 1978), p. 235.136. Bonnet,"VueduLeibnitianisme,"pp.104--105.


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Leibniz's Philosophy in the Writings of Charles Bonnet 143being, of his Creation and of all its temporal consequences prior toits actualization. This is clearly reminiscent of Augustinian Neo-platonism. The development and correlated perfection of themonad means a process of individuation, or of successive actua-lization of the wholeness of the individual as it was preconceivedby God at the time of its creation. The process is goal-directed andserves the fulfilment of God's purpose. Individual freedom meansnothing but an active participation in the inescapable process ofindividuation.Leibniz's scheme is essentially static, which is why his optimismwas ridiculed as being paradoxical -- for example, by Voltaire.Everything is preordained, and if development implies change, thischange must, in a sense, be illusionary, since it corresponds toeternal divine ideas. Bonnet adopted the same kind of AugustinianNeoplatonism. His P a l i n g ~ n ~ s i e means nothing more than theactualization of the Creator's plan in the course of time:

The multiple revolutions would have changed more and morethe primitive form and structure of the organized beings, just asthey would have changed the external and internal structure ofthe globe. I have said it before; I am easily convinced that itwould be impossible for us to recognize a horse, a chicken, asnake, if we could see them in the first form they had at the timeof their Creation.137This statement is not meant to imply transformism in any truesense, meaning an open-ended process. Rather, the essence, thesoul of all created species remains the same throughout.

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