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METODOLOGI PENELITIAN SASTRAHOTNIAR SIRINGORINGOLEMBAGA PENELITIANGD 4 LT. 1 (418)JALAN MARGONDA RAYA DEPOKhttp://hotniar.gunadarma.ac.idhotniars@staff.gunadarma.ac.idsiringoringoniar@[email protected]
REFERENCESDavid Nunan. Research Methods in Language Learning.Patricia A. Duff. 2008. Case Study Research in Applied Linguistics. Laurence Erlbaum Associates, LondonJanice A. Radway. 1991. Reading Romance : Women, Patriarchy and Popular Literature. University of California Press.Margaret Alston and Wendy Bowles 2003. Research for Social Workers. Allen & UnwinElinor Scarbrough and Eric Tanenbaum. 2007. Research Strategies in the Social Sciences. Oxford University Press.SyllabyKekhususan Penelitian Sastra:Penelitian dan Kritik Sastra Penelitian sastra sebagai ilmuPenelitian Sastra sebagai penelitian KualitatifPerencanaan dan Persiapan Penelitian 1:Langkah-langkah pokok Penelitian Pemilihan masalah dan obyek Penelitian Penyusunan Hipotesis Masalah Populasi dan Sampel Perencanaan dan Persiapan Penelitian 2:Pengembangan dasar-dasar teoriPerencanaan dan Persiapan Penelitian 3Penulisan JudulLatar Belakang Masalah Pentingnya dan kegunaan Penelitian Tujuan PenelitianTinjauan Pustaka Hipotesis MetodologiDaftar PustakaFormat Penulisan Pendekatan dalam penelitian:Pendekatan strukturalPendekatan kesejarahanPendekatan filosofisPendekatan semiotikPendekatan psikologisPendekatan sosiologisPendekatan eklektikalPendekatan antropologiPenekatan feminismePENELITIAN & KRITIK SASTRAPenelitian sastra : memanfaatkan teori. Kelemahan : akibat penyederhanaan, eklektisisme, dan penyimpulan yang salahKeuntungan : peneliti diberi kemudahanSifat teori baik:Mudah disesuaikan dengan ciri-ciri karya yang akan dianalisisMudah disesuaikan dengan metode dan teori yang menyertai
PENELITIAN & KRITIK SASTRASifat teori baik:Dapat dimanfaatkan untuk menganalisis baik ilmu yang sejenis maupun berbedaMemiliki formula yang sederhana, tetapi mengimplikasikan jaringan analisis yang kompleksMemiliki prediksi yang dapat menjangkau objek jauh ke masa depanTeori dan metodeTeori dan metode adalah alat dan cara penelitianTeori dan metode adalah hasil penemuanTeori dan metode adalah ilmu pengetahuanIndikator perkembangan sastra abad 20-21Medium utama sastra adalah bahasa, sedangkan dalam bahasa itu sendiri sudah terkandung problematika yang sangat luasSastra memasukkan berbagai dimensi kebudayaan, sedangkan dalam kebudayaan itu sendiri juga sudah terkandung permasalahan yang sangat beragamTeori utama dalam sastra sudah berkembang sejak jaman Plato dan Aristoteles, yang dengan sendirinya telah dimatangkan dalam berbagai disiplin, khususnya filasafatIndikator perkembangan sastra abad 20-21Kesulitan dalam memahami gejala sastra memicu para ilmuwan untuk menemukan berbagai cara, sebagai teori baruSragam sastra sangat banyak dan berkembang secara dinamis, kondisi sastra yang juga memerlukan cara pemahaman yang berbeda-bedaCIRI PENELITIAN SASTRAHipotesis dan asumsi tidak diperlukan sebab analisis bersifat deskripsi, bukan generalisasi. Gejala sastra tidak berulang, makna yang tidak tetap yang justru merupakan hakikatPopulasi dan sampel tidak mutlak diperlukan, kecuali dalam penelitian tertentu, misalnya penelitian yang melibatkan sejumlah karya atau konsumenKerangka penelitian tidak bersifat tertutup, korpus data bersifat terbuka, deskripsi dan pemahaman berkembang terusCIRI PENELITIAN SASTRATidak diperlukan objektivitas dalam pengertian yang umum sebab peneliti terlibat secara terus-menerus, objektivitas terjadi saat penelitian dilakukanObjek yang sesungguhnya bukanlah bahasa, tetapi wacana, teks, sebab sebagai hakikat diskursi bahasa sudah terikat dengan sistem model kedua dengan berbagai sistem komunikasinya.PARADIGMA PENELITIAN SASTRAFaktor yang mempengaruhi paradigma peneliti:Unsur dalam diri sendiriUnsur luar berupa lingkungan fisikUnsur luar berupa penjelasan metodologi dan teoriParadigma ilmiah:Paradigma fakta sosial (Durkheim)Paradigma definisi sosial (Weber)Paradigma perilaku sosial (Skinner)Faktor yg mempengaruhi paradigma ilmuwanFaktor ontologis, keberadaan objekFaktor epistemologis : cara memperoleh ilmu pengetahuanFaktor aksiologis : penelitian adalah penilaianFaktor metodologis : keseluruhan proses penelitian (termasuk metode, teori, dan teknik)PENELITIAN KUALITATIFAnalisis isiData yang tersedia merupakan bahan yang terdokumentasi (buku, surat kabar, pita rekaman, naskah/manuscript). Ada keterangan pelengkap atau kerangka teori tertentu yang menerangkan tentang dan sebagai metode pendekatan terhadap data tersebut. Pembekalan MP 24 Juli 2008 AKMRTP GlobalmediaKuantitatif vs kualitatifKuantitatifKualitatifUji hipotesis dimana peneliti memulaiMenangkap dan menemukan arti ketika peneliti menjadi terbenam dalam dataKonsep dalam bentuk variabel berbedaKonsep dalam bentuk tema, motif, generalisasi, dan taksonomiPengukuran secara sistematis dibuat sebelum pengumpulan data & distandardisasiPengukuran dibuat dalam cara ad hoc dan seringkali khusus terhadap pengaturan individu atau penelitiPembekalan MP 24 Juli 2008 AKMRTP GlobalmediaKuantitatif vs kualitatifKuantitatifKualitatifData dalam bentuk angka dari pengukuran yang tepatData dalam bentuk kata dan gambar dari dokumen, pengamatan, dan transkripTeorinya adalah sebab-akibat dan deduktifTeori dapat berupa sebab-akibat atau bukan dan sering berupa induktifProsedur adalah standar, dan pengulangan diperhatikanProsedur penelitian adalah khusus, dan pengulangan sangat jarangPembekalan MP 24 Juli 2008 AKMRTP GlobalmediaKuantitatif vs kualitatifKuantitatifKualitatifAnalisa dilakukan dengan memakai statistik, tabel, atau bagan serta membahas bagaimana memperlihatkan hubungan dengan hipotesisAnalisa dilakukan dengan mengekstraksi tema atau generalisasi dari bukti dan pengaturan data untuk memaparkan gambar yang koheren, konsistenLangkah-langkah Pokok Penelitian:Formulasi MasalahRancangan PenelitianPengumpulan DataAnalisis DataInterpretasi HasilPenulisan Laporan PenelitianDiseminasi Temuanoleh Hotniar SiringoringoFormulasi Masalah PenelitianMemutuskan permasalahan yang akan ditelitiPermasalahan penelitian:Ketertarikan pribadiPermasalahan sosialPengujian teoriPenelitian pendahuluanEvaluasi programDll.oleh Hotniar SiringoringoPembentukan Dan Pengkristalan MasalahPengembangan konseptual: identifikasikan dan definisikan dengan tepat konsep yang menjadi fokus penelitianMereview penelitian sebelumnya yang berhubungan dengan topik yang dipilih
21-After a general research problem or topic is selected, it must be narrowed and focused into a precise, researchable problem-Are we interest in all forms of delinquent behavior or only in some types?oleh Hotniar SiringoringoPertanyaan PenelitianKarakteristik pertanyaan ilmiah: Pertanyaan harus dalam terminologi yang dapat diamatiPertanyaan harus diekspresikan sehingga definisi nominalnya tersedia Cakupan kemungkinan jawaban seharusnya jangan dibatasiPertanyaan harus dapat diujiJawaban harus penting paling tidak untuk pihak tertentuoleh Hotniar SiringoringoPetunjuk PraktisPertanyaan penelitian harus sebisa mungkin spesifik dan dinyatakan dengan ringkasJika sejumlah pertanyaan penelitian direncanakan akan diuji, lebih baik menyusunnya dalam bentuk daftar atau penomoran Dalam laporan penelitian, pertanyaan penelitian mengalir dalam narasi secara terstruktur (secara logis terhubung dengan review literatur dan tujuan penelitian)oleh Hotniar SiringoringoTujuan PenelitianEksploratori: pada umumnya sebagai dasar untuk penelitian selanjutnya yang lebih mendalam.Dimulai dengan keterbatasan pengetahuan permasalahan dan menghasilkan pengetahuan dalam level keyakinan rendahLebih berguna ketika area permasalahan relatif baruoleh Hotniar SiringoringoTujuan PenelitianDeskriptif: untuk menemukan fakta atau menggambarkan realitasMenjawab pertanyaan apa dan mengapaMemberikan profil akurat tentang suatu grupMenggambarkan proses, mekanisme atau hubunganMemberikan gambaran verbal atau numerik (mis : persentase)Menemukan informasi untuk menstimulasi penjelasan baruMenciptakan sejumlah kategori atau tipe kalsifikasiMengklarifikasi urutan, tahapan atau langkaholeh Hotniar SiringoringoTujuan PenelitianPrediktif: Fokus pada peramalan, atau membuat proyek kejadian di masa mendatang.Eksplanatori: Menjawab pertanyaan mengapa atau bagaimanaEvaluasi: Menentukan efektifitas program
Kelayakan penelitian:WaktuBiaya/anggaranKualifikasi penelitiUpto dateoleh Hotniar SiringoringoUNIT ANALISISUnit analisis : objek atau elemen spesifik yang karakteristiknya digambarkan data yang dikumpulkanIndividualGroupOrganisasiProgram27-An important element in the process of shaping and refining a research problem is the decision regarding the unit of analysis to be investigated
-Social artifacts are simply any material products produced by people. (e.g., newspaper, buildings, movies, books, magazines, automobiles, songs, graffiti, and so on.oleh Hotniar SiringoringoDATASumber : Primer Teknik pengumpulan dataSekunder memformulasikan permasalahanSumber : Ensiklopediabuku teksHandbooksartikel majalah dan surat kabar dan sejenisnya Laporan keuanganDll.oleh Hotniar SiringoringoMETODE PENGUMPULAN DATA Survei:Wawancara pribadiWawancara teleponKuesionerPengamatanLangsungTidak langsungPercobaan oleh Hotniar SiringoringoSKALA PENGUKURANTipe Data:Klasifikasi, dimana data digunakan hanya untuk mengelompokkan atau respon pendek. Tidak ada tingkatan dalam klasifikasi.Urutan, dimana angka yang digunakan mempunyai urutan yang berarti.Jarak, dimana jarak antara angka diurutkan.Titik asal, serial angka mempunyai titik awal unik yang diindikasikan oleh angka 0.oleh Hotniar SiringoringoSKALA PENGUKURANNominalOrdinalIntervalRasio oleh Hotniar SiringoringoSUMBER KERAGAMAN PENGUKURANRespondenfaktor situasionalPengukurInstrumenoleh Hotniar SiringoringoProposal Penelitianoleh Hotniar SiringoringoJudul penelitian padat dan ringkas tidak melebihi 12 kataMenggambarkan permasalahan yang akan ditelitiMemuat variabel penelitianMenunjukkan hipotesis penelitianTidak perlu menggambarkan metode yang akan digunakanTidak perlu menggambarkan unit analisisJangan gunakan singkatanoleh Hotniar SiringoringoPendahuluan latar belakang masalah : ringkas dan padat menjelaskan apa yang melatarbelakangi diperlukannya penelitian.Rumusan Masalah : merupakan ringkasan dari latar belakang masalah, memuat pertanyaan penelitianTujuan Penelitian : menjelaskan apa yang akan dilakukan dan dihasilkan dari penelitianoleh Hotniar SiringoringoLatar belakang masalah jangan menggunakan kalimat umum.Langsung ke pokok permasalahanGunakan kalimat efektif2-3 paragraf, atau 1 halaman sudah cukupPengungkapan permasalahan bisa berdasarkan manfaat yang diharapkan atau berdasarkan research gap yang ada.oleh Hotniar SiringoringoRumusan masalahHarus bisa dibuat dalam bentuk kalimat tanyaJawabannya terukurTersedia metode yang dapat digunakan untuk menyelesaikannyaBukan pertanyaan umum yang sudah ada jawabannyaMerupakan pertanyaan penting, paling tidak untuk pihak tertentuoleh Hotniar SiringoringoContoh : Berapa besar kepercayaan pemirsa terhadap iklan televisi? televisi sudah dapat ditemukan di mana-manaSetiap orang dapat menonton televisi, baik di perkotaan maupun di pedesaan yang sangat tertinggalApakah masyarakat pedesaan yang sangat tertinggal dapat menonton televisi?oleh Hotniar SiringoringoLandasan TeoriTeori terbaru dari sumber primer : jurnalBukan definisiTeori yang akan digunakan dalam pembahasan, yang juga menunjukkan adanya research gapTidak memindahkan secara lengkap huruf dan tanda baca dari sumbernya, tapi dituliskan menggunakan kalimat sendiri dengan tidak mengubah artinyaoleh Hotniar SiringoringoLandasan TeoriMerujuk artikel yang dibaca dengan menuliskan nama dan tahunSemakin banyak sumber yang dikutip untuk teori yg sama, teori yg dikutip semakin kuat.Contoh : oleh Hotniar SiringoringoMetode PenelitianHarus lengkap, sistematis, dan terstrukturMenjelaskan bagaimana penelitian dilakukanPembaca dapat mengulang penelitian persis sama dengan yang dilakukan penelitiMenjelaskan data, variabel, hipotesis (bila ada), teknik pengumpulan data (jika data primer), atau prosedur percobaan lengkap, dan teknik analisis data.jenis penelitian:Kualitatifkuantitatifoleh Hotniar SiringoringoLAPORAN PENELITIANJenis-jenis laporan penelitian:MonografArtikel ilmiahLaporan ringkasLaporan untuk administrator dan pembuat keputusanPENDEKATANPENELITIANFew termsparole: any particular meaningful use of spoken or written language (also called "performance")langue: the underlying system of sounds, forms, and rules of combination of a language which make meaningful communication possible (a speaker's implicit knowledge of this system is called "competence")Few termsPrinciple of difference: in any language, difference from other elements in the linguistic system, rather than any positive property or correspondence to something existing outside the linguistic system, establishes identity and thus creates meaning.Sounds ("phonemes"): compare bag, beg, big, bog, bugForms ("morphemes"): compare its and it'sWords ("semanthemes"): compare beautiful and ugly Sentences ("syntax"): compare Mark loves Mary and Mary loves Mark.Few termsSign : composed of the union ofSignifier: sequence of sounds or marks on a page (e.g., c-h-a-i-r) Signified: concept or meaning (idea of a chair)
This whole sign stands in an arbitrary relation to its Referent, an externally existing object or action (the actual object on which I am sitting); this relation exists only because it is conventionally agreed upon within a particular language community. Saussure felt that linguists must bracket off the real object, direct their study away from the referent and concentrate solely on the sign in order to fully understand the workings of languageStructuralism Approacha method of enquiry, applying linguistic theory to a wide array of objects and activities; heavily influenced by cultural anthropology, especially that of Claude Lvi-Strauss, who studied myths, kinship systems, rituals, etc. Interested in langue rather than parole, in particular cultural phenomena primarily as these reveal the structures and rules of the general system Structuralism ApproachRegards signifying systems as culturally variable but the deep laws that govern these as universal, even as rooted in unchanging structures of the human mind (e.g. the creation of meaning through binary opposition--beautiful vs. ugly--and the effort to find a reconciling middle term--the "ugly duckling") Structuralist literary critics attempt to identify the smallest meaningful units in a work ("mythemes," "deep structures") and study their modes of combination with a view to understanding how meaning is created rather than interpreting the actual meaning conveyed by the particular text Structuralism Approache.g. Vladimir Propp in Morphology of the Folk Tale identified 31 fairy tale elements (e.g., hero leaves home; hero receives warning or prohibition; hero violates warning; villain discovers essential information about hero; etc.) which may not all appear in every tale but which always follow certain sequencesA structuralist approach to The Awakening might deal with a topic like "the nature/culture dichotomy," analyzing the oppositions between sea/land, Grand Isle/New Orleans, Kentucky farm childhood/Creole society adulthood, infatuation/marriage with swimming providing a possible middle term (social activity, bathing suits, controlled passage from land to sea to land) which in the end fails to reconcile the dichotomy (nakedness, land to sea to drowning)Structuralism ApproachStructuralists are not concerned with consumption of literature, about what happens when people actually read the works, about the role of literature in social relations.Historical ApproachThe relationship of the work to history. The impact of the work on history and the importance of historical knowledge in understanding a work. How history and literature inform and affect each other Historical ApproachCharles Busha and Stephen Harter detail six steps for conducting historical research :the recognition of a historical problem or the identification of a need for certain historical knowledge.the gathering of as much relevant information about the problem or topic as possible.if appropriate, the forming of hypothesis that tentatively explain relationships between historical factors.Historical ApproachCharles Busha and Stephen Harter detail six steps for conducting historical research :The rigorous collection and organization of evidence, and the verification of the authenticity and veracity of information and its sources.The selection, organization, and analysis of the most pertinent collected evidence, and the drawing of conclusions; andthe recording of conclusions in a meaningful narrative.Historical ApproachSource of information :Primary source (involve logic, intuition, persistence, common sense):personal diarieseyewitness accounts of eventsoral historiesSecondary sourcesHistorical ApproachHarter and Busha list three principles to consider when conducting historical research:Consider the slant or biases of the information you are working with and the ones possessed by the historians themselves.This is particularly true of qualitative research. Consider an example provided by Gaye Tuchman:Let us assume that womens letters and diaries are pertinent to ones research question and that one can locate pertinent examples. One cannot simply read them.one must read enough examples to infer the norms of what could be written and how it could be expressed.For instance, in the early nineteenth century, some (primarily female) schoolteachers instructed girls in journal writing and read their journals to do so.How would such instruction have influenced the journals kept by these girls as adults?it is useful to view the nineteenth-century journal writer as an informant. Just as one tries to understand how a contemporary informant speaks from specific social location, so too one would want to establish the social location of the historical figure. One might ask of these and other diaries: What is the characteristic of middle-class female diary writers? What is the characteristic of this informant? How should one view what this informant writes?Quantitative facts may also be biased in the types of statistical data collected or in how that information was interpreted by the researcherHistorical ApproachThere are many factors that can contribute to historical episodes. Evidence should not be examined from a singular point of view.Historical ApproachThe disadvantages of the historical method: Researchers are likely to be biased in interpreting historical sources. Interpreting sources is very time consuming. Computerized content analysis is costly to quantitatively analyze -- programs of this type take large blocks of computer core time and make analysis much more expensive than standard statistical procedures used in evaluating survey data. The sources of historical materials may well be problematic -- for example women are more likely than men to keep diaries, not all records are kept in consistent patterns, original authors bring their own perspectives and biases to the interpretation of events. Due to the lack of control over external variables, historical research is very weak with regard to the demands of internal validity. Historical ApproachThe advantages of historical analysis: The historical method is unobtrusive -- the act of research does not affect the results of the study. The historical method is well suited for trend analysis. Compared to longitudinal designs, content analysis is usually less expensive. There is no possibility of researcher-subject interaction. Philosophical ApproachDisadvantages:This approach is useful for such works as Alexander Pope's "An Essay on Man," which does present an obvious moral philosophy. It is also useful when considering the themes of works (for example, man's inhumanity to man in Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn).Finally, it does not view literature merely as "art" isolated from all moral implications; it recognizes that literature can affect readers, whether subtly or directly, and that the message of a work--and not just the decorous vehicle for that message--is important.Philosophical ApproachAdvantages:Detractors argue that such an approach can be too "judgmental." Some believe literature should be judged primarily (if not solely) on its artistic merits, not its moral or philosophical content. Semiotics Approachsystematic study of signs and signifying systems (a field of study which frequently uses the method of structuralism); may treat as quasi-languages objects and activities not immediately apparent as signs (often called "codes"; e.g., "gastronomic code":"phonemes": elements considered edible (calves' brains but not eye of newt; snails but not insects)"morphemes": possible combinations of such elements (hot fudge but not gravy on ice cream)"syntax": order and method of consuming these elements (meat and potatoes before ice cream; use of fork and spoon)Semiotics ApproachEmphasis on langue rather than parole, on how meaning is created in these signifying systems rather than on what the particular meaning is; interested in relational aspects of signifying systems Literary semioticians are particularly interested in poetry, which may be analyzed as foregrounding the signifier, calling attention to its sound and appearance on the page, etc. A semiotic approach to The Awakening might deal with a topic like "eating as sign," studying the relations of all references to eating in the novel, analyzing these into codes to determine their underlying system, possibly relating them to other codes in the novel (e.g., dress). Sociological Approachdirected to understanding (or placing) literature in its larger social context; it codifies the literary strategies that are employed to represent social constructs through a sociological methodology. Sociological criticism analyzes both how the social functions in literature and how literature works in society. Psychological ApproachWhat the work tells us about the human mind. Literature as a tool of psychoanalysisFeminism ApproachFeminist scholars differentiate sex from gender and view the latter as a socially/culturally constructed category. Gender is learned and performed; it involves the myriad and often normative meanings given to sexual difference by various cultures. Feminists may differ in the importance they assign to sex, which is a biologically based category, but the idea that gender norms can be changed is central to feminist theory
Feminism ApproachAlthough sex/gender systems differ cross-culturally, most known societies have used and still use sex/gender as a key structural principle organizing their actual and conceptual worlds, usually to the disadvantage of women. Hence feminist scholars argue that gender is a crucial category of analysis and that modes of knowledge which do not take gender into account are partial and incomplete.
Feminism ApproachFeminist scholars also seek to question and transform androcentric systems of thought which posit the male as the norm. In practice this means not only revealing and critiquing androcentric biases, but also attempting to examine beliefs and practices from the viewpoint of the other, treating women and other marginalized groups as subjects, not merely objects.
Feminism ApproachFeminists believe that existing inequalities between dominant and marginalized groups can and should be removed. Feminist scholarship has an acknowledged and accepted political dimension, as opposed to the hidden political dimension of scholarship that claims to be neutral and objective. With regard to scholarship, the political goal of feminist work is broader than simply a stronger emphasis on women, though that is an important part of it; the goal is to revise our way of considering history, society, literature, etc. so that neither male nor female is taken as normative, but both are seen as equally conditioned by the gender constructions of their culture (as indeed we, the observers, are).
