Modules 20 – 22

Learning Theory

Introduction

Learning: relatively permanent changes in behavior due to experience

Measured objectively (i.e., behavior must be observable and recordable)

Behaviorist perspective

Introduction—How do we learn? Conditioning: process by which

associations are learned– Two types: Classical conditioning and operant

conditioning– Classical Conditioning: two stimuli are

associated to produce behavior– Operant conditioning: consequence is

associated with the behavior Observational Learning: learn by

watching others’ behaviors

Classical Conditioning:Introduction Ivan Pavlov Russian physiologist Studied digestion in dogs Discovered dogs were salivating in

response to experimenter’s footsteps in anticipation of food

Called these “psychic secretions”

Classical Conditioning:

Introduction Classical conditioning: type of learning

in which one stimulus is associated with another

Learning occurs through repeated pairings of neutral stimulus (footsteps) with natural stimulus (food)

Most basic form of learning Also called Pavlovian Conditioning or

Respondent Conditioning

Classical Conditioning:Important Terms Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): stimulus

that triggers response Unconditioned response (UCR): unlearned

or natural response to UCS (reflex) Conditioned stimulus (CS): neutral stimulus

that comes to elicit (cause) conditioned response

Conditioned response (CR): learned response to previously neutral stimulus (CS)

Classical Conditioning:Paradigm Before Conditioning

–UCS→ UCR

CS → No response During Conditioning

–CS + UCS → UCR After Conditioning

–CS → CR

Classical Conditioning:Paradigm with example Before Conditioning

–Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)

Bell (CS) → No response During Conditioning

– Bell (CS) + Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR) After Conditioning

–Bell (CS) → Salivation (CR) Video Clip: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CpoLxEN54ho

Classical Conditioning:Examples

Fears and phobiasFood aversions (one-trial

learning)Dentist’s drillPolice sirens and lightsOthers???

Find the UCS, UCR, CS, CR in the following:

The door to your house squeaks loudly when you open it. Soon, your dog begins wagging its tail when the door squeaks.

The nurse says, “This won’t hurt a bit,” just before stabbing you with a needle. The next time you hear “This won’t hurt,” you cringe in fear.

You have a meal at a fast food restaurant that causes food poisoning. The next time you see a sign for that restaurant, you feel nauseated.

Classical Conditioning:Types (in order of best learning)

Delayed conditioning: CS precedes and overlaps presentation of UCS

Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS presented at same time (begin and end simultaneously)

Trace conditioning: CS presented and stops with gap before presentation of UCS

Backward conditioning: UCS presented before CS

Basic Principles of Learning

Acquisition = how is it learned Extinction = how is it “forgotten” Generalization = when is response

also given Discrimination = when is it given

only in specific situations

Classical Conditioning:

Acquisition Acquisition: how is beh learned

–Conditioning occurs because of repeated pairings of CS and UCS

–Learn association btn CS and UCS Learning curve increases rapidly

and then levels off

Classical Conditioning:Factors that affect Acquisition Order and timing of CS and UCS

– Most important—critical for learning– Delayed conditioning is best– CS seems to signal UCS but needs to overlap

to be associated Intensity of CS and UCS (food aversions) How connected are CS and UCS → how

well does CS predict UCS

Classical Conditioning:Extinction Extinction: elimination of learned

response due to removal of UCS Gradual process Does not erase what is learned Spontaneous recovery: re-emergence

of extinguished response after period of time away (CR is not as intense)

Classical Conditioning:Extinction

Classical Conditioning:Generalization Generalization: tendency to respond to

stimuli that are similar to CS In Pavlov’s experiment, dog would

salivate to different tones Other examples:

–Food aversions start with one type of seafood and are associated with others

–Phobias–Others ???

Classical Conditioning:Discrimination Discrimination: tendency not to respond

to similar stimuli, but only to original CS In Pavlov’s experiments, dog was trained

to salivate only to certain tone. Examples

– Food aversions in some cases, may only respond to fish but will eat shellfish

– Others ???

Classical Conditioning:Higher-Order Learning Can CS become UCS? Yes Higher-order conditioning: by

pairing learned CS with new stimulus, the original CS acts as the UCS

Example – dog salivates to bell and then bell is paired with light

Classical Conditioning:Applications Phobias: extreme fear of specific

stimulus John Watson’s research (Little

Albert) Wanted to demonstrate behavioral

explanation for phobias Created phobia in Little Albert Ways to treat phobias have been

developed using the principles of Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning:Systematic Desensitization Systematic Desensitization: decreases

phobic response by substituting an incompatible response

Works by re-conditioning/re-learning Process:

– Client creates hierarchy of fear-producing stimuli

– Learns progressive muscle relaxation– Begins with lowest stimuli on hierarchy

and tries to substitute relaxation– Continue up hierarchy until actually

dealing with stimulus

Classical Conditioning:Flooding Flooding: fear-producing stimuli

presented continuously until fear response decreases until extinguished– Uses principle of extinction to treat

phobia

Classical Conditioning:Other applications Advertisements Social attitudes

Classical Conditioning Video Links http://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=TJ3dLm2j5uk http://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=e1g3y0SRbVc Frasier: http://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=2c4_l2oe22U The Office: http://vimeo.com/35754924 Dog training: http://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=tPAnp6Oxc6E

New Major Topic: Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning involved

learning through association of neutral stimulus with a stimulus that caused a reflexive response.

Operant Conditioning involves learning through the connection of a consequence with a behavior.

Operant Conditioning:EL Thorndike and Trial-and-Error Learning

Research– Placed cat in “puzzle box”– Cat needed to hit lever to open door to get

food– With successive trials, cat would hit lever

sooner

Law of effect: beh followed by satisfying outcome is stamped in or repeated, while behaviors followed by negative or no outcome are extinguished

Video clip

Operant Conditioning: Introduction—BF Skinner B.F. Skinner

– Behaviorist– Major books: Beyond Freedom and

Dignity and Walden Two– Skinner box: structured environment

that allowed for control of response and outcome

Operant Conditioning: Introduction—Definition Operant conditioning: process by

which organism learns to behave in ways that produce desirable outcomes

Other ways to say this:– Learning to behave because of

effects/results of beh– Beh influenced by consequences

Operant Conditioning: Paradigm

S + R → R+ S = stimulus

– Something that signals that reinforcement is likely if you respond,

R = response– Specific behavior

R+ = reinforcement– Consequence of beh that increases

likelihood that beh is repeated

Operant Conditioning:Reinforcement

Reinforcement: anything that increases likelihood that beh will be repeated–Primary and secondary

reinforcement (more later)–Positive and negative

reinforcement (more later)

Operant Conditioning:Reinforcement (cont’d) Primary versus secondary

reinforcement– Primary reinforcement: anything

that is naturally reinforcing or automatically reduces drive or need (e.g., food, warmth, attention)

– Secondary reinforcement: anything that has acquired ability to be reinforcing (e.g., money, stickers, etc.)

Operant Conditioning:Reinforcement (cont’d) Positive and negative

reinforcement– Positive reinforcement: addition of

stimulus that increases likelihood beh is repeated

– Negative reinforcement: removal of stimulus that increases likelihood beh is repeated

Operant Conditioning:Punishment Punishment: any stimulus that

decreases likelihood that beh is repeated– Positive punishment: addition of

stimulus to decrease behavior

– Negative punishment: removal of stimulus to decrease behavior

Operant Conditioning:Reinforcement and Punishment Reviewed

Increases behavior

Decreases behavior

Add stimulus to situation

Remove stimulus

from situation

Operant Conditioning:Avoidance and Escape Learning Escape learning: When our

response to aversive stimulus (something we don’t like) removes that stimulus– Example → parents yelling at you b/c

you came home late– You apologize and say it will not

happen again– So, they STOP yelling at you

Operant Conditioning:Avoidance and Escape Learning (cont’d)

Avoidance learning: when our response prevents aversive stimulus (consequence) from occurring– Example → You come home late.– You apologize to your parents

BEFORE they begin to yell at you.– They do not yell at you

Operant Conditioning:Schedules of reinforcement Introduction

– How often beh is reinforced has influence– Discovered by accident out of necessity– Financial concerns required Skinner not to reinforce

every behavior– Led to hypothesis concerning the impact of altering

how often behavior is reinforced– Continuous reinforcement: reward given for beh

every single time– Partial (or intermittent) reinforcemetn: reward

given part of the time Two ways to vary how often

– According to number of responses (ratio)– According to when response occurs (interval)

Operant Conditioning:Schedules of reinforcement (cont’d) Fixed ratio: reinforcement given after

set # of responses– Response-to-reinf ratio remains constant– Tend to see burst of responses until

reinforced, then see pause in response rate

– Examples → CD clubs, frequent flyer miles Variable ratio: reinforcement given

after varying/changing # of responses– Constant high rate of response (WHY?)– Examples → slot machine

Operant Conditioning:Schedules of reinforcement (cont’d) Fixed interval: reinf. given for first response

given after set time period– “Wait for it.”– Produces slow, scalloped response pattern– Learn that certain period of time must pass– Examples → Tests on every Friday– Fixed interval: reinf. given for first response given

after set time period Variable interval: reinf. given for first

response after varying period of time– Slow but steady response patterns– Examples → pop quizzes

Video clip

Operant Conditioning:Schedules of Reinforcement

Set Changing

Number of responses

Time

Identify the schedule of reinforcement–

Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio, Fixed Interval,

or Variable Interval

1. Rat gets food every third time it presses the lever

2. Getting paid weekly no matter how much work is done

3. Getting paid for every ten boxes you make

4. Hitting a jackpot sometimes on the slot machine

5. Winning sometimes on the lottery you play once a day

6. Checking cell phone all day; sometimes getting a text

7. Buy eight pizzas, get the next one free

8. Fundraiser averages one donation for every eight houses visited

9. Kid has tantrum, parents sometimes give in

10. Repeatedly checking mail until paycheck arrives

FRFIFRVRVI/VRVIFRVRVRFI

Operant Conditioning:Principles of Learning

Acquisition–Shaping: reinforce successive approximations of desired behReinforce initially for getting closeVideo clips

– Teaching pigeon to play ping pong– Dog agility training– Fred

Operant Conditioning:Principles of Learning Acquisition (cont’d)

– Effect of schedule of reinforcement on acquisition

Quickest learning → continuous reinforcement (every beh)

Strongest overall response → variable (partial reinforcement) schedules

– Reinforcement versus punishment Reinforcement works best Reinf demonstrates correct response

Operant Conditioning:Principles of Learning (cont’d) Extinction: elimination of learned

response b/c it is not longer reinforced– Extinction happens most quickly in fixed

ratio schedule of reinf– Extinction < likely with variable schedules

—WHY?– Partial reinforcement is best to avoid

extinction– Spontaneous recovery: return of

extinguished response after rest period (you never forget how to ride a bike)

Operant Conditioning:Principles of Learning (cont’d) Generalization: learning to respond to

similar stimuli– Example → studying in Psych leads to good

grades, so now you study in other classes

Discrimination: learning to respond differently to similar stimuli– Example → how you act in one class

versus another

Operant Conditioning:Applications Behavior Modification/Behavior change

– Behavior modification: use of operant conditioning principles to change or modify beh

– Token economy– Examples → Villa Maria’s behavior mod program– Video clip: Big Bang Theory– Video Clip: Cheers Shock Therapy

Depression– Martin Seligman’s research– Learned helplessness: ind learns that response is

not connected to outcome– So, they stop responding

Superstitions Others

– Video

Operant Conditioning Videos Intro: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8vIbuoktew Shaping: http://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=OCUWHP4YDgU Schedules of Reinforcement: http://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=i0ad2NSwGb0

Contrasting Types of Conditioning

Organism associates events.

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Basic Idea Associating events/stimuli with each other

Associating chosen behaviors with resulting events

Response Involuntary, automatic reactions such as salivating

Voluntary actions “operating” on our environment

AcquisitionNS linked to US by repeatedly presenting NS before US

Behavior is associated with punishment or reinforcement

Extinction CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone

Target behavior decreases when reinforcement stops

Spontaneous Recovery

Extinguished CR starts again after a rest period (no CS)

Extinguished response starts again after a rest (no reward)

Generalization When CR is triggered by stimuli similar to the CS

Response behavior similar to the reinforced behavior.

Discrimination Distinguishing between a CS and NS not linked to U.S.

Distinguishing what will get reinforced and what will not

New Major Topic:

Cognitive Factors in Learning Classical Conditioning and

Operant Conditioning => ind must experience conditioning directly

Social Learning Theory (subtopic)

Cognitive Maps (subtopic)

Social Learning Theory:Introduction Albert Bandura Bobo Doll studies Children observed live model hitting

bobo clown doll After observing this, they were given

opportunity to play in the room with bobo doll

Children engaged in similar behavior Even when they had witnessed

aggression against a live clown

Social Learning Theory

Observational Learning: occurs when individual’s beh changes after viewing another ind engage in specific beh

Social Learning Theory:Four Important Processes Attention (first)

– Must pay attention to beh when it is modeled

– Characteristics of model are important Similar in age, gender, race, etc. Also if considered prestigious, competent, etc.

Retention (second)– Must remember behavior– Involves use of imagery and language

Social Learning Theory:Four Important Processes Reproduction (third)

– Must be capable (intellectually and physically) of reproducing beh

– Our ability to imitate improves with practice → even when just imagining ourselves engaging in beh

Social Learning Theory:Four Important Processes Motivation (fourth)

– Observer performs beh when motivated to perform it

– Motivation comes from presence or absence of reinforcement or punishment

– Motivation Past reinforcement → they have been rewarded Promised reinforcement → they believe they will

be rewarded Vicarious reinforcement → they observed

another being rewarded

Social Learning Theory

Distinction between acquiring behavior and performing behavior– Attention and Retention → acquire beh– Reproduction and Motivation → perform

Reinforcement causes us to demonstrate what we have learned– Operant conditioning => we must experience

reinforcement directly to learn– Observation Learning => can learn without direct

reinforcement

Bobo Doll Video

Cognitive Factors in Learning:New topic—Cognitive Maps Edward Tolman Cognitive map: mental picture of

location in space Research

– Placed rat in maze and allowed it to explore (no reinforcement)

– When reintroduced to maze and food placed at end, rats learned correct route more quickly

– When shortest route blocked, would take next shorted route

Cognitive Maps (cont’d) Latent learning: learning that

occurs but is only exhibited when there is opportunity for reinforcement– Beh only given when motivated by

possibility of reinforcement– Example → when preparing for test

Learning videos– Classical conditioning (marines)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DUa_F2OJT0k&playnext=1&list=PL5323550EAE54D712&feature=results_video

– Operant conditioning (marines) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tMMNkxxXVK

I– Observational learning

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eqNaLerMNOE&list=PL5323550EAE54D712&index=32