Nuclear Wikipedia

8/3/2019 Nuclear Wikipedia

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Nuclear power

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia"Atomic Power" redirects here. For the film, see Atomic Power (film).

This article is about the power source. For nation states that are nuclear powers, see List of stateswith nuclear weapons.

The Susquehanna Steam Electric Station, aboiling water reactor. The reactors are located insidethe rectangularcontainment buildings towards the front of the cooling towers.

Three nuclear powered ships, (top to bottom) nuclear cruisersUSS Bainbridge and USS LongBeach with USS Enterprise the first nuclear powered aircraft carrier in 1964. Crew members arespelling outEinstein'smass-energy equivalence formulaE = mc2 on the flight deck.

Nuclear power is the use of sustained nuclear fissionto generate heat and do useful work.Nuclear power plants provide about 6% of the world's energy and 1314% of the world'selectricity,[1] with the U.S.,France, andJapan together accounting for about 50% of nucleargenerated electricity.[2] In 2007, the IAEA reported there were 439 nuclear power reactors inoperation in the world,[3] operating in 31 countries.[4]Also, more than 150 naval vessels using

nuclear propulsion have been built.

There is an ongoing debate about the use of nuclear energy.[5][6][7] Proponents, such as the WorldNuclear Association and IAEA, contend that nuclear power is a sustainable energysource thatreduces carbon emissions.[8]Opponents, such as Greenpeace International andNIRS, believe thatnuclear power poses many threats to people and the environment.[9][10][11]
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nergyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_emissionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#cite_note-bloomberg.com-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenpeace_Internationalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Information_and_Resource_Servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#cite_note-Share-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#cite_note-NC_WARN_.C2.BB_Nuclear_Power-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#cite_note-Sturgis-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_Power_(film)


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Nuclear power plant accidents include theChernobyl disaster(1986), Fukushima Daiichi nucleardisaster(2011), and the Three Mile Island accident (1979).[12]There have also been somenuclear-powered submarine mishaps.[13][14][12] However, the safety record of nuclear power isgood when compared with many other energy technologies.[15] Research into safetyimprovements is continuing[16] and nuclear fusionmay be used in the future.

China has 25 nuclear power reactors under construction, with plans to build many more,[17]whilein the US the licenses of almost half its reactors have been extended to 60 years, [18] and plans tobuild another dozen are under serious consideration. [19] However, Japan's 2011 FukushimaDaiichi nuclear disasterprompted a rethink ofnuclear energy policy in many countries.[20]

Germany decided to close all its reactors by 2022, and Italy has banned nuclear power.[20]

Following Fukushima, the International Energy Agency halved its estimate of additional nucleargenerating capacity to be built by 2035.[21]

Contents

[hide]

1 Useo 1.1 Nuclear fusion

o 1.2 Use in space

2 Historyo 2.1 Origins

o 2.2 Early years

o 2.3 Development

3 Nuclear power plant 4 Life cycle

o 4.1 Conventional fuel resources 4.1.1 Breeding 4.1.2 Fusion

o 4.2 Solid waste

4.2.1 High-level radioactive waste 4.2.2 Low-level radioactive waste 4.2.3 Comparing radioactive waste to industrial toxic waste 4.2.4 Waste disposal

o 4.3 Reprocessing

4.3.1 Depleted uranium 5 Economics 6 Accidents and safety 7 Nuclear proliferation 8 Environmental issues

o 8.1 Climate change

9 Plant decommissioning 10 Debate on nuclear power 11 Nuclear power organizations

o 11.1 Against
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/wiki/Nuclear_power#Usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Nuclear_fusionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Use_in_spacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Originshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Early_yearshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Nuclear_power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Life_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Conventional_fuel_resourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Breedinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Fusionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Solid_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#High-level_radioactive_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Low-level_radioactive_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Comparing_radioactive_waste_to_industrial_toxic_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Waste_disposalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Reprocessinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Depleted_uraniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Accidents_and_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Nuclear_proliferationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Environmental_issueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Plant_decommissioninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Debate_on_nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Nuclear_power_organizationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power#Against


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o 11.2 Supportive

12 Nuclear renaissance 13 Future of the industry 14 See also 15 References

16 Further reading

17 External links

Use

Historical and projected world energy use by energy source, 1980-2030, Source: InternationalEnergy Outlook 2007, EIA.

Nuclear power installed capacity and generation, 1980 to 2007 (EIA).

The status of nuclear power globally(click image for legend)See also:Nuclear power by country and List of nuclear reactors
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As of 2005, nuclear power provided 6.3% of the world's energy and 15% of the world'selectricity, with the U.S.,France, and Japan together accounting for 56.5% of nuclear generatedelectricity.[2] In 2007, the IAEA reported there were 439 nuclear power reactors in operation inthe world,[3] operating in 31 countries.[4] As of December 2009, the world had 436 reactors.[22]

Since commercial nuclear energy began in the mid 1950s, 2008 was the first year that no new

nuclear power plant was connected to the grid, although two were connected in 2009.[22][23]

Annual generation of nuclear power has been on a slight downward trend since 2007, decreasing1.8% in 2009 to 2558 TWh with nuclear power meeting 1314% of the world's electricitydemand.[1] One factor in the nuclear power percentage decrease since 2007 has been theprolonged shutdown of large reactors at theKashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plantin Japanfollowing theNiigata-Chuetsu-Oki earthquake.[1]

The United States produces the most nuclear energy, with nuclear power providing 19%[24]of theelectricity it consumes, while France produces the highest percentage of its electrical energyfrom nuclear reactors80% as of 2006.[25]In the European Union as a whole, nuclear energy

provides 30% of the electricity.

[26]

Nuclear energy policydiffers among European Unioncountries, and some, such asAustria, Estonia, Ireland and Italy, have no active nuclear powerstations. In comparison, France has a large number of these plants, with 16 multi-unit stations incurrent use.

In the US, while the coal and gas electricity industry is projected to be worth $85 billion by2013, nuclear power generators are forecast to be worth $18 billion. [27]

Many military and some civilian (such as some icebreaker) ships usenuclear marine propulsion,a form ofnuclear propulsion.[28] A few space vehicles have been launched using full-fledgednuclear reactors: the Soviet RORSATseries and the American SNAP-10A.

International research is continuing into safety improvements such aspassively safe plants,[16] theuse ofnuclear fusion, and additional uses of process heat such as hydrogen production (insupport of a hydrogen economy), fordesalinating sea water, and for use in district heatingsystems.

Nuclear fusion

Main articles:Nuclear fusionand Fusion power

Nuclear fusion reactions have the potential to be safer and generate less radioactive waste than

fission.[29][30]

These reactions appear potentially viable, though technically quite difficult and haveyet to be created on a scale that could be used in a functional power plant. Fusion power has beenunder intense theoretical and experimental investigation since the 1950s.

Use in space

Bothfission and fusion appear promising forspace propulsionapplications, generating highermission velocities with less reaction mass. This is due to the much higher energy density of
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nuclear reactions: some 7 orders of magnitude (10,000,000 times) more energetic than thechemical reactions which power the current generation of rockets.

Radioactive decayhas been used on a relatively small scale (few kW), mostly to powerspacemissions and experiments by using radioisotope thermoelectric generators such as those

developed at Idaho National Laboratory.

History

Origins

This section needs additional citations forverification. Please helpimprove this articleby adding citations toreliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged andremoved. (November 2010)

See also:Nuclear fission#History

The pursuit of nuclear energy forelectricity generation began soon after the discovery in theearly 20th century that radioactive elements, such as radium, released immense amounts ofenergy, according to the principle ofmassenergy equivalence. However, means of harnessingsuch energy was impractical, because intensely radioactive elements were, by their very nature,short-lived (high energy release is correlated with shorthalf-lives). However, the dream ofharnessing "atomic energy" was quite strong, even it was dismissed by such fathers ofnuclearphysics like Ernest Rutherfordas "moonshine." This situation, however, changed in the late1930s, with the discovery ofnuclear fission.

In 1932, James Chadwickdiscovered theneutron, which was immediately recognized as apotential tool for nuclear experimentation because of its lack of an electric charge.Experimentation with bombardment of materials with neutrons led FrdricandIrne Joliot-Curie to discoverinduced radioactivityin 1934, which allowed the creation of radium-likeelements at much less the price of natural radium. Further work by Enrico Fermi in the 1930sfocused on using slow neutronsto increase the effectiveness of induced radioactivity.Experiments bombarding uranium with neutrons led Fermi to believe he had created a new,transuranic element, which he dubbed hesperium.

Constructing the core ofB-Reactorat Hanford Site during the Manhattan Project.
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But in 1938, German chemists Otto Hahn[31] andFritz Strassmann, along with Austrian physicistLise Meitner[32] and Meitner's nephew, Otto Robert Frisch,[33]conducted experiments with theproducts of neutron-bombarded uranium, as a means of further investigating Fermi's claims.They determined that the relatively tiny neutron split the nucleus of the massive uranium atomsinto two roughly equal pieces, contradicting Fermi. This was an extremely surprising result: all

other forms ofnuclear decay involved only small changes to the mass of the nucleus, whereasthis processdubbed "fission" as a reference to biologyinvolved a complete rupture of thenucleus. Numerous scientists, including Le Szilrd, who was one of the first, recognized that iffission reactions released additional neutrons, a self-sustaining nuclear chain reactioncouldresult. Once this was experimentally confirmed and announced by Frdric Joliot-Curie in 1939,scientists in many countries (including the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany,and the Soviet Union) petitioned their governments for support of nuclear fission research, juston the cusp of World War II.

In the United States, where Fermi and Szilrd had both emigrated, this led to the creation of thefirst man-made reactor, known as Chicago Pile-1, which achievedcriticality on December 2,

1942. This work became part of the Manhattan Project, which madeenriched uranium and builtlarge reactors to breedplutoniumfor use in the firstnuclear weapons, which wereused on thecities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

The first light bulbs ever lit by electricity generated by nuclear power at EBR-1 at what is nowIdaho National Laboratory.

After World War II, the prospects of using "atomic energy" for good, rather than simply for war,were greatly advocated as a reason not to keep all nuclear research controlled by militaryorganizations. However, most scientists agreed that civilian nuclear power would take at least adecade to master, and the fact that nuclear reactors also produced weapons-usable plutoniumcreated a situation in which most national governments (such as those in the United States, theUnited Kingdom, Canada, and the USSR) attempted to keep reactor research under strict

government control and classification. In the United States, reactor research was conducted bythe U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, primarily atOak Ridge, Tennessee,Hanford Site, andArgonne National Laboratory.

Work in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and USSR proceeded over the course ofthe late 1940s and early 1950s. Electricity was generated for the first time by a nuclear reactor onDecember 20, 1951, at theEBR-I experimental station nearArco, Idaho, which initiallyproduced about 100 kW. Work was also strongly researched in the US on nuclear marine
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propulsion, with a test reactor being developed by 1953 (eventually, the USS Nautilus, the firstnuclear-powered submarine, would launch in 1955). In 1953, US President Dwight Eisenhowergave his "Atoms for Peace" speech at theUnited Nations, emphasizing the need to develop"peaceful" uses of nuclear power quickly. This was followed by the 1954 Amendments to theAtomic Energy Act which allowed rapid declassification of U.S. reactor technology and

encouraged development by the private sector.

Early years

Calder Hall nuclear power station in the United Kingdom was the world's first nuclear powerstation to produce electricity in commercial quantities.[34]

On June 27, 1954, the USSR's Obninsk Nuclear Power Plantbecame the world's first nuclearpower plant to generate electricity for apower grid, and produced around 5 megawatts of electricpower.[35][36]

Later in 1954, Lewis Strauss, then chairman of theUnited States Atomic Energy Commission(U.S. AEC, forerunner of the U.S.Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the United StatesDepartment of Energy) spoke of electricity in the future being "too cheap to meter".[37] Strausswas very likely referring to hydrogen fusion[38][39]which was secretly being developed as partofProject Sherwood at the timebut Strauss's statement was interpreted as a promise of verycheap energy from nuclear fission. The U.S. AEC itself had issued far more conservativetestimony regarding nuclear fission to the U.S. Congress only months before, projecting that"costs can be brought down... [to]... about the same as the cost of electricity from conventionalsources..." Significant disappointment would develop later on, when the new nuclear plants didnot provide energy "too cheap to meter."

In 1955 the United Nations' "First Geneva Conference", then the world's largest gathering ofscientists and engineers, met to explore the technology. In 1957EURATOM was launchedalongside the European Economic Community (the latter is now the European Union). The sameyear also saw the launch of the International Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA).
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The Shippingport Atomic Power Station in Shippingport, Pennsylvania was the first commercialreactor in the USA and was opened in 1957.

The world's first commercial nuclear power station, Calder Hall in Sellafield, England wasopened in 1956 with an initial capacity of 50 MW (later 200 MW).[34][40] The first commercialnuclear generator to become operational in the United States was the Shippingport Reactor(Pennsylvania, December 1957).

One of the first organizations to develop nuclear power was theU.S. Navy, for the purpose ofpropellingsubmarines andaircraft carriers. The first nuclear-powered submarine,USSNautilus (SSN-571), was put to sea in December 1954.[41] Two U.S. nuclear submarines,USS Scorpion and USS Thresher, have been lost at sea. Several serious nuclear and radiationaccidents have involved nuclear submarine mishaps.[12][14] The Soviet submarine K-19 reactoraccident in 1961 resulted in 8 deaths and more than 30 other people were over-exposed toradiation.[13]The Soviet submarine K-27reactor accident in 1968 resulted in 9 fatalities and 83other injuries.[14]

The U.S. Army also had a nuclear power program, beginning in 1954. The SM-1 Nuclear PowerPlant, at Fort Belvoir,Virginia, was the first power reactor in the U.S. to supply electrical energyto a commercial grid (VEPCO), in April 1957, before Shippingport. TheSL-1 was a U.S. Armyexperimental nuclear power reactorat theNational Reactor Testing StationineasternIdaho. Itunderwent a steam explosion and meltdown in January 1961, which killed its three operators.[42]

Development

History of the use of nuclear power (top) and the number of active nuclear power plants(bottom).
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Washington Public Power Supply System Nuclear Power Plants 3 and 5 were never completed.

Installed nuclear capacity initially rose relatively quickly, rising from less than 1gigawatt (GW)in 1960 to 100 GW in the late 1970s, and 300 GW in the late 1980s. Since the late 1980sworldwide capacity has risen much more slowly, reaching 366 GW in 2005. Between around1970 and 1990, more than 50 GW of capacity was under construction (peaking at over 150 GWin the late 70s and early 80s) in 2005, around 25 GW of new capacity was planned. More than

two-thirds of all nuclear plants ordered after January 1970 were eventually cancelled.[41] A totalof63 nuclear units were canceled in the USA between 1975 and 1980.[43]

During the 1970s and 1980s rising economic costs (related to extended construction timeslargely due to regulatory changes and pressure-group litigation)[44]and falling fossil fuel pricesmade nuclear power plants then under construction less attractive. In the 1980s (U.S.) and 1990s(Europe), flat load growth and electricity liberalization also made the addition of large newbaseload capacity unattractive.

The 1973 oil crisis had a significant effect on countries, such as France and Japan, which hadrelied more heavily on oil for electric generation (39%[45][verification needed] and 73% respectively) to

invest in nuclear power.[46] Today, nuclear power supplies about 80% and 30% of the electricityin those countries, respectively.

Some local opposition to nuclear power emerged in the early 1960s,[47] and in the late 1960ssome members of the scientific community began to express their concerns.[48] These concernsrelated to nuclear accidents, nuclear proliferation,high cost of nuclear power plants, nuclearterrorism andradioactive waste disposal.[49] In the early 1970s, there were large protests about aproposed nuclear power plant inWyhl, Germany. The project was cancelled in 1975 and anti-nuclear success at Wyhl inspired opposition to nuclear power in other parts of Europe and NorthAmerica.[50][51] By the mid-1970s anti-nuclear activism had moved beyond local protests andpolitics to gain a wider appeal and influence, and nuclear power became an issue of major public

protest.[52]Although it lacked a single co-ordinating organization, and did not have uniformgoals, the movement's efforts gained a great deal of attention.[53] In some countries, thenuclearpower conflict "reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology controversies".[54] In France, between 1975 and 1977, some 175,000 people protested against nuclear power inten demonstrations.[55] In West Germany, between February 1975 and April 1979, some 280,000people were involved in seven demonstrations at nuclear sites. Several site occupations were alsoattempted. In the aftermath of theThree Mile Island accident in 1979, some 120,000 peopleattended a demonstration against nuclear power in Bonn.[55] In May 1979, an estimated 70,000
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people, including then governor of California Jerry Brown, attended a march and rally againstnuclear power in Washington, D.C.[56]Anti-nuclear power groupsemerged in every country thathas had a nuclear power programme. Some of these anti-nuclear power organisations arereported to have developed considerable expertise on nuclear power and energy issues.[57]

The abandoned city ofPripyatwith Chernobyl plant in the distance.

Health and safety concerns, the 1979 accident at Three Mile Island, and the 1986 Chernobyldisasterplayed a part in stopping new plant construction in many countries,[58][59] although thepublic policy organization Brookings Institution suggests that new nuclear units have not beenordered in the U.S. because of soft demand for electricity, and cost overruns on nuclear plantsdue to regulatory issues and construction delays.[60]

Unlike the Three Mile Island accident, the much more serious Chernobyl accident did notincrease regulations affecting Western reactors since the Chernobyl reactors were of theproblematic RBMKdesign only used in the Soviet Union, for example lacking "robust"containment buildings.[61] Many of these reactors are still in use today. However, changes weremade in both the reactors themselves (use of low enriched uranium) and in the control system

(prevention of disabling safety systems) to reduce the possibility of a duplicate accident.

An international organization to promote safety awareness and professional development onoperators in nuclear facilities was created: WANO; World Association of Nuclear Operators.

Opposition in Ireland and Poland prevented nuclear programs there, while Austria (1978),Sweden (1980) and Italy (1987) (influenced by Chernobyl) voted in referendums to oppose orphase out nuclear power. In July 2009, the Italian Parliament passed a law that canceled theresults of an earlier referendum and allowed the immediate start of the Italian nuclear program.[62]

One Italian minister even called the nuclear phase-out a "terrible mistake".[63]

Nuclear power plant
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Cattenom Nuclear Power PlantMain article:Nuclear power plant

Just as many conventional thermal power stations generate electricity by harnessing the thermalenergy released from burningfossil fuels, nuclear power plants convert the energy released from

the nucleus of an atom via nuclear fission that takes place in a nuclear reactor. The heat is fromthe reactor core by a cooling system removes heat and used to generate steam which drives asteam turbine connected to a generatorwhich produces electricity.

Life cycle

The nuclear fuel cycle begins when uranium is mined, enriched, and manufactured into nuclearfuel, (1) which is delivered to a nuclear power plant. After usage in the power plant, the spentfuel is delivered to a reprocessing plant (2) or to a final repository (3) for geological disposition.In reprocessing 95% of spent fuel can be recycled to be returned to usage in a power plant (4).Main article:Nuclear fuel cycle

A nuclear reactor is only part of the life-cycle for nuclear power. The process starts with mining(see Uranium mining). Uranium mines are underground, open-pit, orin-situ leachmines. In anycase, the uranium ore is extracted, usually converted into a stable and compact form such asyellowcake, and then transported to a processing facility. Here, the yellowcake is converted touranium hexafluoride, which is then enriched using various techniques. At this point, theenriched uranium, containing more than the natural 0.7% U-235, is used to make rods of theproper composition and geometry for the particular reactor that the fuel is destined for. The fuelrods will spend about 3 operational cycles (typically 6 years total now) inside the reactor,generally until about 3% of their uranium has been fissioned, then they will be moved to a spentfuel pool where the short lived isotopes generated by fission can decay away. After about 5 yearsin a spent fuel pool the spent fuel is radioactively and thermally cool enough to handle, and it canbe moved to dry storage casks or reprocessed.

Conventional fuel resources

Main articles: Uranium marketand Energy development - Nuclear energy
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Fusion poweradvocates commonly propose the use ofdeuterium, ortritium, bothisotopes ofhydrogen, as fuel and in many current designs alsolithiumandboron. Assuming a fusion energyoutput equal to the current global output and that this does not increase in the future, then theknown current lithium reserves would last 3000 years, lithium from sea water would last 60million years, and a more complicated fusion process using only deuterium from sea water

would have fuel for 150 billion years.[73]

Although this process has yet to be realized, manyexperts believe fusion to be a promising future energy source due to the short lived radioactivityof the produced waste, its low carbon emissions, and its prospective power output.

Solid waste

For more details on this topic, see Radioactive waste.See also: List of nuclear waste treatment technologies

The most important waste stream from nuclear power plants is spent nuclear fuel. It is primarilycomposed of unconverted uranium as well as significant quantities of transuranic actinides

(plutonium and curium, mostly). In addition, about 3% of it is fission products from nuclearreactions. The actinides (uranium, plutonium, and curium) are responsible for the bulk of thelong-term radioactivity, whereas the fission products are responsible for the bulk of the short-term radioactivity.[74]

High-level radioactive waste

Main article: High-level radioactive waste management

Spent nuclear fuel stored underwater and uncapped at the Hanford site in Washington, USA.

The world's nuclear fleet creates about 10,000 metric tons of high-level spent nuclear fuel eachyear.[75]High-level radioactive waste management concerns management and disposal of highlyradioactivematerials created during production of nuclear power. The technical issues in

accomplishing this are daunting, due to the extremely long periods radioactive wastesremaindeadly to living organisms. Of particular concern are two long-lived fission products,Technetium-99(half-life 220,000 years) andIodine-129(half-life 15.7 million years),[76] whichdominate spent nuclear fuel radioactivity after a few thousand years. The most troublesometransuranic elements in spent fuel areNeptunium-237 (half-life two million years) andPlutonium-239 (half-life 24,000 years).[77] Consequently, high-level radioactive waste requiressophisticated treatment and management to successfully isolate it from thebiosphere. This
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Disposal of nuclear waste is often said to be the Achilles' heel of the industry.[86] Presently, wasteis mainly stored at individual reactor sites and there are over 430 locations around the worldwhere radioactive material continues to accumulate. Experts agree that centralized undergroundrepositories which are well-managed, guarded, and monitored, would be a vast improvement.[86]

There is an "international consensus on the advisability of storing nuclear waste in deep

underground repositories",[87]

but no country in the world has yet opened such a site.[87][88][89][90]

Reprocessing

For more details on this topic, seeNuclear reprocessing.

Reprocessing can potentially recover up to 95% of the remaining uranium and plutonium inspent nuclear fuel, putting it into newmixed oxide fuel. This produces a reduction in long termradioactivity within the remaining waste, since this is largely short-lived fission products, andreduces its volume by over 90%. Reprocessing of civilian fuel from power reactors is currentlydone on large scale in Britain, France and (formerly) Russia, soon will be done in China and

perhaps India, and is being done on an expanding scale in Japan. The full potential ofreprocessing has not been achieved because it requiresbreeder reactors, which are not yetcommercially available. France is generally cited as the most successful reprocessor, but itpresently only recycles 28% (by mass) of the yearly fuel use, 7% within France and another 21%in Russia.[91]

Reprocessing is not allowed in the U.S.[92] The Obama administration has disallowedreprocessing of nuclear waste, citingnuclear proliferation concerns.[93]In the U.S., spent nuclearfuel is currently all treated as waste.[94]

Depleted uranium

Main article: Depleted uranium

Uranium enrichment produces many tons ofdepleted uranium(DU) which consists of U-238with most of the easily fissile U-235 isotope removed. U-238 is a tough metal with severalcommercial usesfor example, aircraft production, radiation shielding, and armoras it has ahigher density than lead. Depleted uranium is also controversially used in munitions; DUpenetrators (bullets orAPFSDS tips) "self sharpen", due to uranium's tendency to fracture alongshear bands.[95][96]

Economics

Main article: Economics of new nuclear power plants
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This graph illustrates the potential rise in CO2 emissions if base-load electricity currentlyproduced in the U.S. by nuclear power were replaced by coal or natural gas as current reactors gooffline after their 60 year licenses expire. Note: graph assumes all 104 American nuclear powerplants receive license extensions out to 60 years.

The economics of new nuclear power plants is a controversial subject, since there are divergingviews on this topic, and multi-billion dollar investments ride on the choice of an energy source.Nuclear power plants typically have high capital costs for building the plant, but low fuel costs.Therefore, comparison with other power generation methods is strongly dependent onassumptions about construction timescales and capital financing for nuclear plants as well as thefuture costs of fossil fuels and renewables as well as for energy storage solutions for intermittentpower sources. Cost estimates also need to take into accountplant decommissioning and nuclearwastestorage costs. On the other hand measures to mitigateglobal warming, such as acarbon taxorcarbon emissions trading, may favor the economics of nuclear power.

In recent years there has been a slowdown of electricity demand growth and financing hasbecome more difficult, which has an impact on large projects such as nuclear reactors, with verylarge upfront costs and long project cycles which carry a large variety of risks.[97]In EasternEurope, a number of long-established projects are struggling to find finance, notably Belene inBulgaria and the additional reactors at Cernavoda in Romania, and some potential backers havepulled out.[97] Where cheap gas is available and its future supply relatively secure, this also posesa major problem for nuclear projects.[97]

Analysis of the economics of nuclear power must take into account who bears the risks of futureuncertainties. To date all operating nuclear power plants were developed bystate-owned orregulatedutility monopolies[98] where many of the risks associated with construction costs,operating performance, fuel price, accident liability and other factors were borne by consumersrather than suppliers. In addition, because the potential liability from a nuclear accident is sogreat, the full cost of liability insurance is generally limited/capped by the government, which theU.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commissionconcluded constituted a significant subsidy.[99] Manycountries have now liberalized theelectricity market where these risks, and the risk of cheapercompetitors emerging before capital costs are recovered, are borne by plant suppliers andoperators rather than consumers, which leads to a significantly different evaluation of theeconomics of new nuclear power plants.[100]
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Following the 2011 Fukushima I nuclear accidents, costs are likely to go up for currentlyoperating and new nuclear power plants, due to increased requirements for on-site spent fuelmanagement and elevated design basis threats.[101]

Accidents and safety

The neutralityof this section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page.Please do not remove this message until thedispute is resolved.(September 2011)

See also:Nuclear safety,Nuclear and radiation accidents, andLists of nuclear disasters andradioactive incidents

Some seriousnuclear and radiation accidentshave occurred.Nuclear power plant accidentsinclude the Chernobyl disaster(1986), Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster(2011), and the ThreeMile Island accident (1979).[12] Nuclear-powered submarine mishaps include the K-19 reactoraccident (1961),[13] the K-27 reactor accident (1968),[14] and the K-431 reactor accident (1985).[12]

International research is continuing into safety improvements such aspassively safe plants,[16]

and the possible future use ofnuclear fusion.

Nuclear power has caused far fewer accidental deaths per unit of energy generated than othermajor forms of power generation. Energy production from coal, natural gas, and hydropowerhave caused far more deaths due to accidents.[citation needed] Nuclear power plant accidents rank firstin terms of their economic cost, accounting for 41 percent of all property damage attributed toenergy accidents.[102]

Nuclear proliferation

Many technologies and materials associated with the creation of a nuclear power program have adual-use capability, in that they can be used to make nuclear weapons if a country chooses to doso. When this happens a nuclear power program can become a route leading to the atomic bombor a public annex to a secret bomb program. The crisis overIran's nuclear activities is a case inpoint.[103]

A fundamental goal for American and global security is to minimize the nuclear proliferationrisks associated with the expansion of nuclear power. If this development is "poorly managed orefforts to contain risks are unsuccessful, the nuclear future will be dangerous".[103]

A "number of high-ranking officials, even within the United Nations, have argued that they can

do little to stop states using nuclear reactorsto produce nuclear weapons".[104]

A 2009 UnitedNations report said that:

The revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide dissemination of uraniumenrichment and spent fuel reprocessing technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferationas these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable in nuclear weapons.[104]

Environmental issues
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