Pengendalian Hama Terpadu.doc

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INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT

by Beth Lindblom Patkus

Preservation onsultant

!al"ole# MA

INTR$D%TI$N

A variety o& inse'ts and other "ests atta'k bindin( materials# adhesives# and other substan'es in library andar'hival 'olle'tions) Sin'e some inse'ts are attra'ted to the ti(ht# dark "la'es that abound in stora(e areas# andsin'e many materials are handled in&re*uently# inse'ts and other "ests may do si(ni&i'ant dama(e be&ore theyare dis'overed)

Libraries and ar'hives have traditionally relied on "esti'ides &or routine "est "revention and res"onse toobserved in&estation) Pesti'ides o&ten do not "revent in&estation# ho+ever# and a""li'ation o& "esti'ides a&terthe &a't 'annot 'orre't the dama(e already done) Pesti'ides have also be'ome less attra'tive be'ause o& a(ro+in( a+areness that the 'hemi'als in "esti'ides 'an "ose health ha,ards to sta&& and dama(e "a"er-based

'olle'tions) Ne+er e.termination methods su'h as 'ontrolled &ree,in( and o.y(en de"rivation have sho+n"romise as alternatives &or treatment o& e.istin( in&estations# but like "esti'ides# they do not "reventin&estation) Prevention 'an be a'hieved only throu(h stri't housekee"in( and monitorin( "ro'edures)

Preservation "ro&essionals in'reasin(ly re'ommend a strate(y 'alled inte(rated "est mana(ement /IPM0) Thisa""roa'h relies "rimarily on non-'hemi'al means /su'h as 'ontrollin( 'limate# &ood sour'es# and buildin(entry "oints0 to "revent and mana(e "est in&estation) hemi'al treatments are used only in a 'risis situationthreatenin( ra"id losses or +hen "ests &ail to su''umb to more 'onservative methods)

LIBRAR1 AND AR2I3ES PESTS

Most o& the inse't s"e'ies likely to in&est "a"er 'olle'tions are attra'ted not by the "a"er itsel& but by si,es#adhesives# and star'hes# all o& +hi'h are more easily di(ested than the 'ellulose that makes u" "a"er) Some

inse'ts +ill also atta'k 'ellulose /i)e)# "a"er and 'ardboard0 and "roteins /i)e)# "ar'hment and leather0) Inse'tdama(e does not 'ome solely &rom dinin( habits4 'olle'tions are also dama(ed by tunnellin( and nestin(a'tivities# and by bodily se'retions)

Silver&ish# &irebrats# "so'ids /also 'alled bookli'e0# and 'o'kroa'hes are amon( the most 'ommon library"ests) Silver&ish and &irebrats 'an rea'h u" to 56)7 mm in len(th4 they &eed on "a"er si,in(# 'he+ holes in"a"er /es"e'ially (lossy "a"er0# and dama(e book bindin(s and +all"a"er to (et to the adhesives underneath)They also &eed on te.tiles# "rimarily rayon# 'otton# and linen) They "re&er dark# humid areas that areundisturbed &or lon( "eriods o& time) Pso'ids &eed on mi'ros'o"i' mold (ro+in( on "a"er# and thus their

"resen'e usually indi'ates a humidity "roblem in the stora(e area) They are mu'h smaller than silver&ish and&irebrats /about 5-6 mm0# and may also &eed on "astes and (lues# but they do not "rodu'e holes in "a"er)

o'kroa'hes are omnivorous# but are es"e'ially &ond o& star'hy materials and "rotein4 they +ill eat book"a(es# bindin(s# adhesives# leather# and +all"a"er) o'kroa'hes +ill 'he+ holes in "a"er and bindin(s# butalso 'an badly stain materials +ith their se'retions) o'kroa'hes are thi(mota'ti'# meanin( that they like to'onta't a sur&a'e on all sides o& the body4 they seek very small 'revi'es# bet+een &ramed ob8e'ts and the +all#et')

The above dis'ussion o& library "ests is &ar &rom e.haustive) Additional in&ormation on library and museum"ests 'an be &ound in 2armon# 9y'herman : S'hro'k# and Story# re&eren'ed at the end o& this lea&let)Althou(h other "ests su'h as rodents may be en'ountered in libraries and ar'hives# this lea&let +ill'on'entrate "rimarily on the "revention o& inse't in&estations)

!2AT D$ PESTS EAT;

All inse'ts (o throu(h a metamor"hosis durin( their li&e 'y'le4 their (ro+th "ro'eeds in a series o& ste"s untilthey rea'h adult sta(e) $ther sta(es in'lude e((# larva# "u"a# and nym"h4 not all inse'ts (o throu(h all sta(es)


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+hile others eat shed hair and skin 'ells &rom humans and other animals) Dust mites# +hi'h are numerous andalmost invisible# &eed on this human dander)

Althou(h some inse'ts may not be a dire't threat to 'olle'tions# their "resen'e may attra't inse'ts that do"ose a threat) Some inse'ts &eed on the bodies o& other inse'ts) Most "ests /inse't and other+ise0 are attra'tedby debris &rom human or other animal a'tivities)

Sin'e most buildin(s and 'olle'tions o&&er a seemin(ly endless su""ly o& &ood &or inse'ts and other "ests# it is'lear that the &irst "riority &or e&&e'tive "est "revention must be to eliminate sour'es o& &ood and stron(lyem"hasi,e stri't housekee"in()

2ABITATS AND BREEDING 2ABITS

Inse't s"e'ies re*uire s"e'i&i' ran(es o& tem"erature# relative humidity# and other 'onditions in order to&lourish) The &irst 'ondition &or their "resen'e is the e.isten'e o& o"enin(s in the buildin( envelo"e throu(h+hi'h they 'an enter) $n'e inse'ts have entered a buildin(# they seek out moisture# &ood sour'es# andundisturbed s"a'es &or breedin()

Routes o& entry

Inade*uately sealed +indo+s and doors# or +indo+s and doors that are le&t o"en routinely# 'an "rovide anentry "oint &or inse'ts) ra'ks and 'revi'es in +alls or &oundations or o"enin(s around "i"es 'an also be anentry route) Inse'ts 'an s*uee,e throu(h e.tremely small o"enin(s) 3ents and air du'ts 'an "rovide an entry

"oint &or birds# rodents# and inse'ts) Plantin(s 'lose to a buildin( "rovide an e.'ellent habitat &or inse'ts#+hi'h may then mi(rate into the buildin( throu(h various o"enin(s) Inse'ts also 'an be brou(ht into the

buildin( in books and "a"ers themselves)

limate

$"timum tem"erature &or many inse'ts is bet+een >?-?>@


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It is best to be(in a &ormal "est mana(ement "ro(ram +ith an initial survey o& the buildin( and all 'olle'tionstora(e areas) 2ave there been any "est "roblems in the "ast; I& so# +hat ty"e o& "est +as involved and +hatmaterials +ere a&&e'ted; !hat +as done to solve the "roblem; Any "otential inse't habitats should beeliminated) There are several ste"s that 'an be taken to redu'e the number o& inse'ts in a library or ar'hive)

Routes o& entry

!indo+s and doors should be ti(htly sealed4 +eatherstri""in( may be ne'essary) Doors should not be"ro""ed o"en re(ularly) $"enin(s around "i"es should be sealed# as should 'ra'ks in the +alls or &oundation)3ents should be s'reened to kee" out birds and rodents) A "lantin(-&ree ,one o& about 56 in'hes should bemaintained around buildin(s to dis'oura(e inse'ts &rom enterin() Plantin(s should be "ro"erly 'ared &or andnot over +atered) The area around &oundations should be (raveled and (raded a+ay &rom a buildin( to avoid

basement &loodin()

limate

limate should be moderate4 'onditions should be 'ool and dry4 s"e'i&i's de"end on the needs o& di&&erentmaterials) Tem"erature should be >?@< or lo+er# and relative humidity should be ke"t belo+ a ma.imum o&7C) Maintainin( 'limate 'onditions re'ommended &or the "reservation o& books and "a"er +ill hel" to'ontrol inse't "o"ulations)

!ater sour'es

Pi"es in 'olle'tions areas and other sour'es o& +ater su'h as restrooms# kit'hens# or 'limate-'ontrole*ui"ment should be ins"e'ted routinely to (uard a(ainst +ater leaka(e) !ra" s+eatin( "i"es +ith insulatin(ta"e) lose o&& unused drains or drain"i"e o"enin(s) Roo&s and basements should be ins"e'ted "eriodi'ally toinsure that there is no standin( +ater or &loodin() !here "roblems re'ur# &re*uent ins"e'tions are ne'essary)


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The 'lean ar'hival bo.es 'an be used over and over &or this tem"orary holdin( use as lon( as the 'ontents andbo.es 'ontinue &ree o& eviden'e o& inse'ts) Ideally# o& 'ourse# in'omin( material should be "ro'essed andrehoused in its "ermanent en'losures "rom"tly) Realisti'ally# "ro'essin( may be delayed# and the interior o&

bo.es should be ins"e'ted routinely at least every &e+ +eeks) A tent or motel-ty"e sti'ky tra" 'an be "la'edon a side +all inside ea'h bo. to im"rove monitorin()

I& there is eviden'e o& inse'ts# talk to a "reservation "ro&essional &or detailed advi'e be&ore "ro'eedin(&urther) Materials 'an be va'uumed thorou(hly /assumin( the ob8e'ts are not deteriorated or &ra(ile0 throu(ha nylon or other so&t s'reen# usin( a hi(h-&iltration va'uum) Dis'ard both &ilter and dis"osable ba( outside the

buildin( or in a sealed 'ontainer +hi'h is "rovided &or &ood +astes and is em"tied daily)

Pest monitorin(

E&&e'tive im"lementation o& a "est mana(ement "ro(ram re*uires routine monitorin( o& "est a'tivity) Routinemonitorin( usin( tra"s "rovides in&ormation about the ty"e o& inse't/s0# their entry "oints# the number o&inse'ts# +here they are takin( u" residen'e# and +hy they are survivin() This in&ormation allo+s &oridenti&i'ation o& "roblem areas and develo"ment o& a s"e'ies-s"e'i&i' treatment "ro(ram)

The most 'ommonly used inse't tra"s are sti'ky tra"s# available &rom most hard+are and (ro'ery stores)

Several ty"es are available &lat tra"s# re'tan(ular bo.-sha"ed tra"s /motels0# and tent-sha"ed tra"s) Many'onservators re'ommend the tent tra"s as the easiest to handle) !hatever ty"e and brand is 'hosen#'onsisten'y should be maintained so that data 'an be inter"reted a''urately)

The basi' "ro'edure &or monitorin( is as &ollo+s 50 identi&y all doors# +indo+s# +ater and heat sour'es# and&urniture on a buildin( &loor "lan4 60 identi&y likely inse't routes# and mark tra" lo'ations on a &loor "lan4 0number and date the tra"s4 0 "la'e the tra"s in the area to be monitored# as indi'ated on the &loor "lan4 70ins"e't and 'olle't the tra"s re(ularly4 and >0 re&ine tra" "la'ement and ins"e'tion as ne'essary# a''ordin( tothe eviden'e 'olle'ted) Relo'ate tra"s /i& initial results are ne(ative0 and try a(ain)

I& in&estation is sus"e'ted in a "arti'ular area# "la'e tra"s every 5 &eet) are should be taken to insure thattra"s do not 'ome into 'onta't +ith 'olle'tion materials# sin'e the adhesive 'an 'ause dama(e) he'kin( thetra"s ? hours a&ter "la'ement +ill identi&y the area most seriously in&ested) Tra"s should be ins"e'ted+eekly &or at least three months and should be re"la'ed every t+o months# +hen they are &ull# or +hen they

lose their sti'kiness)

Do'umentation is essential4 monitorin( +ill be useless +ithout it) The number o& inse'ts# the ty"es o& inse'ts#and their sta(e o& (ro+th should all be re'orded &or ea'h tra") Dates and lo'ations o& tra" re"la'ementsshould be noted) Detailed re'ords should also be ke"t o& any other eviden'e o& a'tivity# su'h as live or deadinse'ts or their dro""in(s)

$n'e inse'ts have been tra""ed# they must be identi&ied to determine +hat threat they "ose to 'olle'tions)There are several (ood books +ith dra+in(s and des'ri"tions o& 'ommon library and ar'hives "ests4 these arelisted in the biblio(ra"hy) An e.'ellent resour'e &or identi&i'ation is the lo'al or state A(ri'ultural E.tensiona(en'y# +hi'h +ill usually identi&y inse'ts &ree o& 'har(e /the inse't must be sent to them# and the entire bodymust be inta't0) $ther "otential resour'es in'lude the biolo(y de"artment o& a lo'al university or a lo'alhistory museum +ith an entomolo(ist on sta&&)

TREATMENT MET2$DS

It is im"ortant to remember that si(htin( one or t+o inse'ts is an o''asion &or monitorin( to determine thee.tent o& the "roblem4 it is not ne'essarily a 'risis situation) In the "ast# inse't si(htin(s o&ten o''asioned anindis'riminate use o& "esti'ides)

I& a serious inse't in&estation o''urs# or i& inse't "roblems do not res"ond to the "reventive te'hni*uesdis'ussed above# dire't treatment &or inse't in&estation may be ne'essary) This strate(y should be used as alast resort) Both 'hemi'al and non-'hemi'al treatments are available4 non-'hemi'al means should be used+herever "ossible)

hemi'al treatments

Pesti'ides are divided into 'ate(ories# de"endin( on the +ay they are used and their "hysi'al state)

ommon 'hemi'al treatments used to 'ontrol inse'ts in'lude aerosol s"rays4 attra'tants /+hi'h lure inse'tsinto tra"s# sometimes killin( them04 baits and "ellets /+hi'h are eaten by the inse'ts04 'onta't and residuals"rays /normally s"rayed into 'ra'ks and 'revi'es4 these kill on 'onta't and=or by absor"tion o& the "esti'ide+hen the inse't +alks throu(h the residue04 dusts /e)()# bori' a'id or sili'a dust# +hi'h dehydrate inse'ts orinter&ere +ith internal +ater re(ulation04 &o((in( 'on'entrates /these use e*ui"ment that sus"ends a "esti'ideand oil &ormulation in the air04 &umi(ants /these e."ose in&e'ted material to a lethal (as04 and residual andva"or "est stri"s /the inse't absorbs "esti'ide by +alkin( a'ross residual "est stri"s# +hile "esti'ide


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eva"orates &rom va"or "est stri"s to be'ome a &umi(ant0) Re"ellents /su'h as mothballs0 are also sometimesused4 these are meant to dis'oura(e rather than kill inse'ts)

-? months0 until monitorin( in the s"a'e indi'ates that the inse't "roblemhas been solved) Detailed do'umentation o& ea'h "hase o& treatment should be maintained) Like 'hemi'altreatments# &ree,in( "rovides no residual bene&its) I& 'olle'tions are not returned to a +ell maintained stora(earea# rein&estation +ill almost 'ertainly o''ur)

Modi&ied atmos"heres have been used +idely in the a(ri'ultural and &ood industries to 'ontrol inse't

in&estation) The term re&ers to several "ro'esses de'reased o.y(en# in'reased 'arbon dio.ide# and the use o&inert (ases# "rimarily nitro(en) 3arious e."eriments +ith modi&ied atmos"heres have been undertaken by'ultural institutions over the "ast 5 years# +ith (enerally su''ess&ul results) Modi&ied atmos"heres sho+(reat "romise# but additional resear'h is needed to determine o"timum e."osure times and methods &or

"arti'ular ty"es o& inse'ts) There a""ears to be no obvious dama(e to 'olle'tions# but little resear'h has beendone on lon(-term e&&e'ts) There is "otential dan(er to sta&& &rom e."osure to hi(h levels o& 'arbon dio.ide# i&that is used# but there are no residual e&&e'ts on 'olle'tions)


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Modi&ied atmos"heres 'an be a""lied 50 in a traditional &umi(ation 'hamber or a "ortable &umi(ation bubbleor 60 in lo+-"ermeability "lasti' ba(s) !ith a 'hamber or a bubble# materials are "re"ared &or treatment/*uarantined# do'umented# and loaded into the treatment 'hamber0# air is eva'uated &rom the 'hamber# and'arbon dio.ide /(enerally about >C 'on'entration0 or nitro(en /to a'hieve an atmos"here o& less than 5Co.y(en0 is introdu'ed) $n'e the desired atmos"heri' 'on'entration is rea'hed# 'onditions are maintained at a

s"e'i&i' tem"erature and relative humidity &or the re*uired amount o& time)$n'e treatment is &inished# the va'uum is released# the 'arbon dio.ide or nitro(en is removed# the 'hamber isaerated# and materials are removed to a *uarantine area so that the e&&e'tiveness o& treatment 'an be assessed)The "ro'ess &or treatin( materials in lo+-"ermeability "lasti' ba(s is similar# e.'e"t that materials are sealedin ba(s +ith an o.y(en s'aven(er that +ill redu'e the o.y(en level in the en'losure to less than +hat isneeded &or inse't res"iration) In some 'ases# the ba(s are "ur(ed +ith nitro(en be&ore sealin()

In the tests 'ondu'ted thus &ar# a variety o& e."osure times# tem"eratures# and relative humidities have beenused) Sin'e re*uirements &or a'hievin( an a''e"table kill rate seem to vary a''ordin( to the ty"e o& inse't

bein( e.terminated and the ty"e o& "ro'ess bein( used# there are not yet any (enerally-a''e"ted (uidelines &orthe a""li'ation o& modi&ied atmos"heres) Al+ays 'onta't a "reservation "ro&essional &or advi'e be&ore

"ro'eedin( +ith modi&ied atmos"here treatment)

2eat 'an e&&e'tively e.terminate inse'ts4 it has been used +idely in &ood "ro'essin( and medi'ine) A

tem"erature o& 5@< &or at least one hour +ill kill most inse'ts) 2eat should not be used to eliminate inse'ts&rom "a"er 'olle'tions# ho+ever# be'ause heat at the levels needed to kill inse'ts (reatly a''elerates o.idationand "a"er a(in(4 materials 'an be'ome brittle and other+ise dama(ed)

Gamma radiation is used to sterili,e 'osmeti's# &ood and a(ri'ultural "rodu'ts# medi'al su""lies# and hos"italand lab e*ui"ment) It "oses some dan(er to "ersonnel durin( treatment# but there is no residual radiation inthe treated material) Gamma radiation 'an be e&&e'tive a(ainst inse'ts# but the minimum lethal dose &orvarious s"e'ies is still unkno+n and is a&&e'ted by variables su'h as 'limate 'onditions and the nature o& thein&ested material) Most im"ortant# resear'h has sho+n that (amma radiation may initiate o.idation and 'auses'ission o& 'ellulose mole'ules4 it has the "otential to seriously dama(e "a"er-based materials) There is also a'umulative e&&e't &rom re"eated e."osures) As a result# (amma radiation is not re'ommended)

Rumors about the e&&e'tiveness o& mi'ro+aves &or killin( inse'ts have 'ir'ulated in the library 'ommunityover the "ast several years) Mi'ro+aves are used su''ess&ully in the &ood# a(ri'ultural# and te.tile industries

to 'ontrol inse'ts# but this strate(y is not re'ommended &or library 'olle'tions) Mi'ro+aves have a limited"enetration# and may not "enetrate thi'k books) Their e&&e'tiveness also de"ends on the ty"e o& inse't and theintensity and &re*uen'y o& the radiation) Mi'ro+ave ovens vary in intensity# so it is e.tremely di&&i'ult todetermine standard times and tem"eratures &or treatment) The "rimary ar(ument a(ainst mi'ro+aves is thedan(er o& dama(e to treated materials) Eviden'e &rom a variety o& e."eriments indi'ates that "a(es and'overs 'an s'or'h4 metal atta'hments like sta"les 'an 'ause ar'in(4 and adhesives 'an so&ten# 'ausin( "a(esto deta'h &rom their bindin(s in 'ertain books)


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JInte(rated Pest Mana(ement)J Audiovisual De"artment# %niversite du Kuebe' a Montreal and anadianonservation Institute and entre de onservation du Kuebe') 5FF7) 3ideota"e# 66 minutes) A "ro&essionally

"rodu'ed video that "rovides (ood basi' in&ormation &or museums and ar'hives) omes +ith a short#in&ormative booklet that (ives the key "oints and su((ests &urther readin()

But'her-1oun(hans# Sherry# and Gret'hen E) Anderson) A 2olisti' A""roa'h to Museum Pest Mana(ement)Ameri'an Asso'iation &or State and Lo'al 2istory /AASL20 Te'hni'al Lea&let 5F5 /5FF0) Nashville# TNAASL2) Detailed# "ra'ti'al advi'e &or 'ontrollin( a ran(e o& "ests 'ommonly &ound in museums) This andother e.'ellent "ubli'ations 'an be ordered throu(h their !eb site# htt"==+++)aaslh)or(=# by +ritin( to 7hur'h Street# Suite ># Nashville# TN 65F-667# or by tel) >57=677-6F5)

anadian onservation Institute) JPreventin( In&estations ontrol Strate(ies and Dete'tion Methods#J andJDete'tin( In&estations ) "") and "") Short lea&lets +ritten "rimarily &or museums "rovidin( (eneral in&ormation aboutmonitorin( +ith tra"s and ins"e'tin( a buildin( &or in&estation)

Daniel# 3inod# Gordon 2anlon# and Shin Maeka+a) JEradi'ation o& Inse't Pests in Museums %sin(Nitro(en)J !AA Ne+sletter 57) /Se"tember 5FF0 57-5F) Des'ribes Getty onservation Institute tests o&lo+-o.y(en atmos"heres &or treatment o& "est-in&ested museum ob8e'ts) Air +as re"la'ed +ith nitro(en in a

ba( en'a"sulatin( the in&ested ob8e't so that the o.y(en 'on'entration +as redu'ed to less than )5C)Available online at htt"=="alim"sest)stan&ord)edu=+aa'=)

Elert# erstin# and Shin Maeka+a) JRentokil Bubble in Nitro(en Ano.ia Treatment o& Museum Pests)JStudies in onservation 6 /5FF0 6-76) Des'ribes tests 'ondu'ted on a 'ommer'ially available "ortable&umi(ation en'losure to determine its suitability &or nitro(en &umi(ation) Addresses set-u"# sa&ety'onsiderations# and limitations o& the te'hnolo(y)

Goldber(# Lisa) JA 2istory o& Pest ontrol Measures in the Anthro"olo(y olle'tions# National Museum o&Natural 2istory# Smithsonian Institution)J Hournal o& the Ameri'an Institute &or onservation 7)5 /S"rin(5FF>0 6-) An interestin( revie+ o& "est eradi'ation te'hi*ues /"arti'ularly "esti'ides and &umi(ants0 usedat the National Museum o& Natural 2istory durin( the 5Fth and 6th 'enturies) Dis'usses the e&&e'ts o& su'hte'hni*ues on the 'olle'tions)

2armon# Hames D) Inte(rated Pest Mana(ement in Museum# Library# and Ar'hival


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$de(aard# Nan'y) JInse't Monitorin( in MuseumsJ4 and Dale Paul ronkri(ht) JInse't Tra"s in onservationSurveys)J Both in !AA Ne+sletter 5)5 /Hanuary 5FF50 5F-6) Both arti'les o&&er "ra'ti'al ti"s &ormonitorin( inse't "o"ulations usin( various ty"es o& tra"s) Available online at

htt"=="alim"sest)stan&ord)edu=+aa'=)

Parker# Thomas A) Study on Inte(rated Pest Mana(ement &or Libraries and Ar'hives) Paris %NES$#General In&ormation Pro(ram and %NISIST# 5F??) Publi'ation number PGI-??=!=6) 55F "") E.'ellent

"ubli'ation 'overin( the basi's o& "est mana(ement &or 'ultural institutions)

Story# eith $) A""roa'hes to Pest Mana(ement in Museums) !ashin(ton# D Smithsonian Institution#5F?7# 5>7 "") $ut o& "rint) Some o& the 'hemi'al-treatment in&ormation is outdated# but identi&i'ation andIPM strate(ies are (ood)

!ellheiser# Hohanna G) Non'hemi'al Treatment Pro'esses &or Disin&estation o& Inse'ts and


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INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT

i-Baik %hm Entomolo(y Division# National Institute o& A(ri'ultural S'ien'e : Te'hnolo(y RuralDevelo"ment Administration 67# Seodun-Don(# +onseon-u# Su+on yun(ki-Do 5- Re"ubli' o&orea

5FFF-7-5

Inte(rated Pest Mana(ement /IPM0 is a''e"ted +orld-+ide as the best +ay to "rote't 'ro"s +ith redu'ed"esti'ide use) 2o+ever# IPM has several +eak "oints +ith re(ard to ambi(uous de&initions# as +ell asdi&&i'ulties in im"lementation) Several national IPM "ro(rams are dis'ussed as 'ase studies# and the needs o&IPM in terms o& "oli'y# or(ani,ation# resear'h# e.tension# and evaluation) ase studies o& su''ess&ul IPM

"ro(rams sho+ed they +ere all (ood at de&inin( their ob8e'tives and "roblems# and +ere able to harmoni,e"oli'y# resear'h# and e.tension in their im"lementation) To develo" IPM "ro(rams &or the 65st 'entury#dire'tional resear'h and e.tension seems to be needed# rather than the develo"ment o& ne+ te'hnolo(y)

INTR$D%TI$N


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maintain "rodu'tivity# im"rove the environment# and "rote't the health o& 'onsumers and &armers) These arethe reasons +hy IPM is no+ +el'omed by everyone# and 'alled Jall thin(s to all "eo"leJ) No+adays# the IPMa""roa'h is the 'entral theme &or 'ombatin( "ests that a&&e't human and animal health)

2IST$RIAL RE3IE!The theory and "rin'i"les su""ortin( IPM have been develo"ed over the last years) Prior to !orld !ar II#

"est 'ontrol +as a''om"lished "rimarily throu(h 'ultural "ra'ti'es su'h as tilla(e and rotation# andme'hani'al removal o& "ests) A&ter !orld !ar II# DDT and other or(ani' inse'ti'ides 'ame into use+orld+ide to 'ontrol inse't "ests) The "eriod &rom the late 5Fs throu(h to the mid-5F>s has been 'alledthe JDark A(esJ o& "est 'ontrol /Ne+som 5F?0)

The re(ular use o& "esti'ides +as the basis o& "est 'ontrol "ra'ti'es on almost all &arms in industriali,ed'ountries in the early 5F7s) Most early resear'hers &o'used on the develo"ment and a""li'ation o&

"esti'ides) By the 5Fs# &armers had 'ome to rely on "esti'ides# and other 'ontrol methods +ere not even'onsidered) Re(ular s"ray "ro(rams +ere develo"ed on a routine "reventive basis# +hi'h "rovided a shield o&

"esti'ide "rote'tion +hether the "est +as "resent in dama(in( numbers or not)

Shortly a&ter the introdu'tion o& 'ontrol "ro(rams based on "esti'ides# ho+ever# resistan'e# resur(en'e# and

residual "roblems be(an to emer(e) Some &armers e."erien'ed disaster be'ause they 'ould not 'ultivate 'ro"sany more# sin'e no "esti'ide 'ould 'ontrol the "ests on their &arms# or the 'ost be'ame too hi(h) Perha"s themost alarmin( e.am"le o& this is the 'otton &ields in Peru# E(y"t# entral Ameri'a# and Te.as /%SA0) In ane&&ort to 'ontrol "ests in 'otton# some &armers in'reased the a""li'ation o& hi(hly to.i' "esti'ides to >a""li'ations durin( the (ro+in( season) %nder these 'onditions# the 'ost o& "est 'ontrol made the "rodu'tiono& 'otton "ro&itless# and the industry 'olla"sed in some areas)

Inte(rated 'ontrol /I0# the term &irst a""lied to IPM# +as develo"ed and introdu'ed as a 'on'e"t in the%nited States in the late 5F7s) I +as develo"ed to harmoni,e 'hemi'al 'ontrol and biolo(i'al 'ontrol) It+as Smith and Allen /5F70 +ho established I as a ne+ trend in e'onomi' entomolo(y) The early 'on'e"t+as based on the "remise that "esti'ides 'ould have a minimum im"a't on the natural enemies o& the "est i&a""lied at the 'orre't time and under the 'orre't 'onditions)

JE'onomi' thresholdJ# another im"ortant 'on'e"t in IPM# +as introdu'ed at that time) It is based on the

kno+led(e that "est "o"ulations &lu'tuate naturally) ontrol measures should only be used to "revent anin'reasin( "est "o"ulation &rom rea'hin( the e'onomi' in8ury level) The Je'onomi' in8ury levelJ +as de&inedas the lo+est density that +ill 'ause e'onomi' dama(e) These 'on'e"ts remained the ma8or theme o& IPMthrou(hout mu'h o& the 5Fs)

The &o'us o& IPM be(an to shi&t to non-"esti'idal ta'ti's in the 5F?s# in'ludin( e."anded use o& 'ultural'ontrols# introdu'tion o& resistant "lants# and biolo(i'al 'ontrol) Althou(h a mass o& resear'h results on thee&&e'tiveness o& IPM +ere "ublished durin( the 5Fs and 5F?s# IPM +as not im"lemented by &armers on alar(e s'ale be&ore the 5FFs) $ne o& the ma8or reasons +as the la'k o& e.tension su""ort)

In the 5FFs# e.tension te'hni*ues and "oli'y have been em"hasi,ed stron(ly in the develo"ment o& IPM)The 'hara'teristi's o& IPM in ea'h de'ade are summari,ed in 21PERLINJhtt"==+++)a(net)or(=library=ima(e=ebt)htmlJ Table O)

DE3EL$PING AN IPM S1STEM

The IPM "ro'ess be(ins +ith &indin( 'urrent "est "roblems in the lo'al 'ro""in( system# and seeks todevelo" a solution to these) Ne.t# IPM is systemati'ally 'ombined +ith other ta'ti's# e.tension "lans andim"lementation "ro(rams to "rovide an inte(rated system o& "est 'ontrol) Some mi(ht say that IPM is morelikely to su''eed early i& 'ountries im"ort and ado"t IPM models +hi'h have +orked +ell else+here)2o+ever# an IPM model &rom abroad 'annot ne'essarily be a""lied dire'tly# be'ause ea'h IPM system isdevelo"ed to solve "roblems s"e'i&i' to lo'al 'onditions) Thus# an IPM system should be set u" &or a s"e'i&i'area# and develo"ed in tar(et &ields by trial and error) $ther IPM systems 'annot be a solution# merely a (oodre&eren'e)

In (eneral# the ma8or 'om"onents that deserve 'onsideration in "re"arin( any IPM system in'lude

De&inin( the tar(et or (oal o& the system4

Settin( u" a "ro(ram# in'ludin( or(ani,ation and bud(et4

Resear'h and develo"ment# in'ludin( a revie+ o& kno+led(e and te'hnolo(y develo"ed "reviously4

E.tension to &armers and im"lementation by &armers in their o+n &ields4

Analysis and evaluation o& the im"a't o& the "ro(ram4 and


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De&inin( Tar(et and Poli'y

A redu'tion in "esti'ide use is 'onsidered to be one o& the most im"ortant "oli'ies in the +orld# &rom both thee'onomi' and environmental "oint o& vie+) IPM has no+ been ado"ted by most 'ountries as a +ay o&a'hievin( this (oal) 2o+ever# the strate(y is di&&erent in ea'h 'ountry) In (eneral# "oli'ies o& most 'ountriesare aimed at redu'in( "esti'ide use by 7C +ithin a 'ertain "eriod o& time)

In the Netherlands# the main "roblem +as that the use o& "esti'ides e."ressed as in"ut "er he'tare "er year+as very hi(h 'om"ared to other 'ountries) S'ientists in the Netherlands 'on'luded that the environment had

been "olluted and that under(round +ater sour'es +ere endan(ered) Nature had tended to lose its sel&-re(ulatin( 'a"a'ity# +hile a(ri'ulture itsel& +as +restlin( +ith an ever-in'reasin( number o& resistant "ests/Baerselman 5FF50) !ith this dia(nosis# they started to "re"are a lon(-term "oli'y "lan &or 'ro" "rote'tion in5F?) Their Multi-1ear ro" Prote'tion Plan +as "resented in Hune 5FF5) The aim o& this "lan +as to halvethe use o& "esti'ides by the year 6)

In $ntario# anada# the redu'tion o& "esti'ides +as ado"ted as "oli'y even thou(h anadas 'onsum"tion o&"esti'ides +as very lo+ 'om"ared to other 'ountries) The motivation +as mainly "oliti'al) Publi' o"inion"olls in $ntario had indi'ated that the "ubli' +ere 'on'erned about "esti'ides &rom the "ers"e'tive o& bothhealth and the environment) The ele'torate made their 'hoi'e in the late summer o& 5F?) Kuite sim"ly# the

"arty +hi'h +on the ele'tion and be'ame the rulin( "arty had as one o& their "lat&orms a "romise to redu'e

"esti'ides by 7C by the year 66) !hy 7C; It had a ni'e rin( to it# as did other "ro(rams) The "ubli'doesnt +ant terms su'h as C or >C# even i& these are lo(i'al redu'tions determined by s'ientists)

Ten million anadian dollars +ere made available &or the &irst &ive years) Three broad areas o& e&&ort +ereidenti&ied) These +ere the edu'ation o& &armers /5 million0# resear'h / 7)> million0# and in&rastru'tureo& "est mana(ement and edu'ation "ersonnel /) million0) The &unds +ere made available at a rate o& 6million "er year /Sur(eoner and Roberts 5FF0)

In the %nited States# the national (oal o& im"lementin( IPM methods on 7C o& the nations 'ro"land +asannoun'ed in Se"tember 5FF /Sorensen 5FF0) This (oal re"resents a 'ommitment by the &ederal(overnment to +ork +ith its state and "rivate se'tor "artners to hel" &armers im"lement "est mana(ementa""roa'hes that rely less on "esti'ides# are more sustainable# are e*ually e&&i'ient e'onomi'ally# and still

"rovide "eo"le +ith a 'hea"# sa&e and "lenti&ul &ood su""ly)

Thirteen 'ountries in Southeast Asia have be(un national IPM "ro(rams +ith the su""ort o& the ) This +as the &irst in the +orld# and +as very su''ess&ul) S+edens a""roa'h +as toado"t a more strin(ent re(istration "oli'y &or ne+ "esti'ides# and to rene+ the li'ense &or all "reviouslyre(istered "esti'ides +ith stri'ter 'riteria /roeker 5FF50) This stri't re(istration "oli'y +as subse*uentlyado"ted in many other Euro"ean 'ountries# in'ludin( Denmark and the Netherlands) In Indonesia# the key to

the IPM "ro(rams su''ess +as the bannin( o& inse'ti'ides by "residential de'ree in 5F?# &ollo+in( anoutbreak o& the bro+n "lantho""er /enmore 5FF>0)

Im"lementin( IPM

National IPM "ro(rams 'an usually o"erate e&&e'tively by harnessin( the 'oo"eration o& e.istin(or(ani,ations su'h as universities# national resear'h institutes and the national e.tension system) In some'ases# ho+ever# ne+ or(ani,ations +ere established s"e'i&i'ally to im"lement IPM "ro(rams) An e.am"le o&this a""roa'h is the enter &or Tro"i'al Pest Mana(ement /TPM0 in Australia) TPM is a 8oint ventureinvolvin( &our or(ani,ations the Kueensland De"artment o& Primary Industries# the SIR$ Division o&Entomolo(y# the %niversity o& Kueensland and the Kueensland De"artment o& Lands) About ? sta&& areinvolved in this 8oint venture# "rovidin( a ran(e o& dis'i"lines to ta'kle a series o& "roblems /Norton 5FF70)

In the %nited States# the National IPM Plan redire'ts e.istin( and ne+ resour'es o& the De"artment o&A(ri'ulture and its land (rant university "artners into a sin(le 'oordinated e&&ort to address im"ortant "est'ontrol "roblems &or di&&erent 'ro""in( systems and 'ro" "rodu'tion re(ions)

In the 'ase o& Italy# there are &e+ e."erimental stations &or a(ri'ulture) Most o& those +hi'h do e.ist belon(to the Ministry o& A(ri'ulture# +hile re(ional (overnments mana(e the e.tension servi'e) Re(ional(overnments &und the resear'h done by universities and other institutions) E.tension o&&i'ers are em"loyed

by


12/54

The Euro"ean IPM !orkin( Grou" +as set u" in 5FF6 to stren(then "oli'y and resear'h# and (ive Euro"emore im"a't +ithin the international IPM e&&ort) The a'tivities o& the Euro"ean Grou" have been sustained byEuro"ean ommission &undin(# to(ether +ith su""ort &rom "arti'i"atin( institutions)

Basi'ally# the 'ommon &a'tors in the or(ani,ation o& national IPM "ro(rams are "lannin(# resear'h anddevelo"ment# e.tension# edu'ation# and (eneral su""ort) These elements are universal# +hether the "ro(ram

has a ne+ or(ani,ation or not)

Develo"in( o& Ta'ti's &or IPM

The s"e'i&i' "attern o& IPM is de"endent on lo'al 'ro""in( systems) Any IPM "ro(ram has to be both"ra'ti'al and hi(hly s"e'i&i'# in order to meet the so'ial and environmental re*uirements +hi'h (ro+ers ands'ientists "er'eive as im"ortant) 2o+ever# to some e.tent 'ountries are likely to have mu'h the same (eneralstrate(y in develo"in( IPM "ro(rams) In %SA# 'onsiderable attention has been (iven# &irst to basi' resear'h/+hi'h is most im"ortant &or the develo"ment o& the a""lied s'ien'es0# and se'ondly to interdis'i"linary+ork# +ith s"e'i&i' resear'h (rou"s solvin( "roblems o& im"lementation and ta'ti'al matters) 7 entomolo(ists +ere +orkin( &or the e.tension servi'e in 5F6# be&ore

e.tension IPM "ro(rams +ere initiated on a +ides"read basis) By 5F?7# this number had (ro+n to 6F? /Allenand Ra8otte 5FF0)

In the (reenhouse IPM o& the Netherlands and En(land# a 'lose relationshi" amon( resear'hers# develo"mentand e.tenstion +orkers# and (ro+ers has resulted in the ra"id trans&er and use o& in&ormation about biolo(i'al'ontrol in (reenhouses) ommer'ial "rodu'ers o& natural enemies served as a "rivate e.tension servi'e# sin'enatural enemies are essential in the (reenhouse IPM /van Lenteren 5F?F# !ardlo+ 5FF50)

ey to the su''ess o& the Inter-'ountry Ri'e IPM Pro(ram +as sho+in( ho+ 'losely outbreaks o& bro+n"lantho""er are related to overuse o& broad-s"e'trum inse'ti'ides)


13/54

5 e'onomi' evaluations o& IPM "ro(rams in 'otton# soybeans# ve(etables# &ruits#"eanuts# toba''o# 'orn# and al&al&a have been "ublished /Norton and Mullen 5FF0) These evaluations

indi'ate that "esti'ide use# on avera(e# has de'reased &or seven out o& ei(ht 'ommodities) osts o& "rodu'tionde'reased or remained un'han(ed in &our out o& the &ive 'ommodities) 1ields in'reased &or si. out o& theseven# and net returns in'reased &or all seven 'ommodities) Monetary risks to &armers de'reased in all three'ases in +hi'h this +as evaluated) A national study o& IPM "ro(rams over the three-year "eriod endin( in5F?7 re"orted a total e'onomi' bene&it o& 7? million "er year in nine 'ommodities /


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A "oli'y environment that en'oura(es IPM4

The "arti'i"ation o& (ro+ers and other end users# in the +hole resear'h and develo"ment "ro'ess4 and

A system that "rovides resear'h and de'ision su""ort to &a'ilitate the ada"tation o& IPM to 'han(es in"rodu'tion "ra'ti'es# "est status and 'ontrol te'hnolo(y /Norton 5FF70)

PR$SPETS


15/54

roeker# G) 5FF5) ro" "rote'tion "oli'y in S+eden A retros"e'tive vie+ and some thou(hts &or the &uture)In Pro'eedin(s o& an I$B 'on&eren'e# JBiolo(i'al 'ontrol and inte(rated 'ro" "rote'tion To+ardsenvironmentally sa&er a(ri'ultureJ# 3an Lenteren# H)) and $)M)B) de Ponti /Eds)0# "") 57F-5>)

Lee# G)S)# H)) 1oo# H)$) Lee# S)2) an( and S)1) 2on() 5FF7) E."eriments on the sele'tion o& inse'ti'ideand "esti'ide a""li'ation systems a(ainst Thri"s "almi) Annual Resear'h Re"ort o& NIAST 7?-77) /Inorean0)

3an Lenteren# H)) 5F?F) Im"lementation and 'ommer'iali,ation o& biolo(i'al 'ontrol in !estern Euro"e) InInternational Sym"osium on Biolo(i'al ontrol Im"lementationJ) NAPP$) Bulletin No) >) "") 7-)

Ne+som# L)D) 5F?) The ne.t run( u" the inte(rated "est mana(ement ladder) Bulletin o& Entomolo(i'alSo'iety o& Ameri'a 6> >F-)

Norton# G) 5FF7) oo"erative strate(ies &or "est mana(ement Makin( it ha""en) In Pro'eedin(s o& theInternational !orksho" on Pest Mana(ement Strate(ies in Asian Monsoon A(roe'osystems# N) 2okyo# andG) Norton /Eds)0# "") 65-6?)

Norton# G)!)# and H) Mullen) 5FF) E'onomi' Evaluation o& Inte(rated Pest Mana(ement Pro(rams ALiterature Revie+) 3ir(inia oo"erative E.tension Publi'ation ?-56) 556 "")

Pimentel# D)# D) Ando+# R) Dyson-2udson# D) Gallaham# S) Ha'obson# M) Irish# S) roo"# A) Moss# I)S'hreiner# M) She"ard# T) Thom"son# and B) 3in,ant) Environmental and so'ial 'osts o& "esti'ides A

"reliminary assessment) $ikos 56>5)

Ra8otte# E)G)# R)


16/54

Inte(rated "est mana(ement - the (ood# the bad and the (eneti'ally modi&ied

Hust as there is more than one +ay to skin a 'at# &ry an e(( or eat an i'e-'ream# there are many +ays to beata(ri'ultural "ests) ombinin( di&&erent "est 'ontrol strate(ies is the basis o& inte(rated "est mana(ement /Bo.

50) It 'an be a""lied# in theory at least# to any kind o& "est - vertebrate# invertebrate# "lant# ba'teria# &un(i orvirus)

In "art# the develo"ment o& inte(rated "est mana(ement /IPM0 is a res"onse to the &ailure o& many 'hemi'al"esti'ides to "rovide lon(-term solutions to "est "roblems) !hile some "esti'ides have dramati' e&&e'ts +hen&irst a""lied# many "ests develo" resistan'e to the 'hemi'al over time and o&ten re-emer(e to "la(ue anindustry) It 'an be'ome a vi'ious 'ir'le - the &armer in'reases the rate o& "esti'ide a""li'ation# "rodu'in(in'reasin(ly resistant su"er-bu(s) Lar(e *uantities o& the "oisons enter the soils and +ater+ays o& the re(ion#+ith sometimes un&oreseen and devastatin( e&&e'ts on the environment and human health)

Pest resistan'e in the $rd

!hen lar(e "lantations o& 'otton +ere established in !estern Australias $rd River valley in the 5F>s# the

'ater"illars /larvae0 o& t+o s"e'ies o& heliothis moth moved in) These destru'tive "ests +ere 'ontrolledinitially by "esti'ides# but# "retty soon# they started develo"in( resistan'e)


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) Ada"tability)


18/54

Biointensive Inte(rated Pest Mana(ement /IPM0


19/54

Summary

Re&eren'es

JonventionalJ and JBiotensiveJ IPM

Pest mana(ement is an e'olo(i'al matter) The si,e o& a "est "o"ulation and the dama(e it in&li'ts is# to a (reate.tent# a re&le'tion o& the desi(n and mana(ement o& a "arti'ular a(ri'ultural e'osystem) !e humans 'om"ete+ith other or(anisms &or &ood and &iber &rom our 'ro"s) !e +ish to se'ure a ma.imum amount o& the &oodresour'e &rom a (iven area +ith minimum in"ut o& resour'es and ener(y) 2o+ever# i& the a(ri'ultural systemdesi(n and=or mana(ement is &aultymakin( it easy &or "ests to develo" and e."and their "o"ulations or#'onversely# makin( it di&&i'ult &or "redators and "arasites o& "ests to e.istthen +e +ill be e."endin(unne'essary resour'es &or "est mana(ement) There&ore# the &irst ste" in sustainable and e&&e'tive "estmana(ement is lookin( at the desi(n o& the a(ri'ultural e'osystem and 'onsiderin( +hat e'olo(i'al 'on'e"ts'an be a""lied to the desi(n and mana(ement o& the system to better mana(e "ests and their "arasites and

"redators)

The desi(n and mana(ement o& our a(ri'ultural systems need re-e.aminin() !eve 'ome to a''e"t routineuse o& biolo(i'al "oisons in our &ood systems as normal) But routine use o& syntheti' 'hemi'als re"resents

si(ni&i'ant ener(y in"uts into the a(ri'ultural system# and 'arries both obvious and hidden 'osts to the &armerand so'iety) Attem"tin( to im"lement an e'olo(y-based dis'i"line like IPM in lar(e mono'ultures# +hi'hsubstitute 'hemi'al in"uts &or e'olo(i'al desi(n# 'an be an e.er'ise in &utility and ine&&i'ien'y) IPM# as it +asori(inally 'on'eived# "ro"osed to mana(e "ests thou(h an understandin( o& their intera'tions +ith otheror(anisms and the environment) Most o& the de&initions &or IPM listed in The Database o& IPM Resour'es/DIR0 +ebsite# htt"==+++)i"mnet)or(=DIR=U# des"ite some di&&eren'es in em"hasis# a(ree +ith this ideaand have the &ollo+in( elements in 'ommon

V A 'on'e"tion o& a mana(ed resour'e# su'h as a 'ro""in( system on a &arm# as a 'om"onent o& a &un'tionin(e'osystem) A'tions are taken to restore and enhan'e natural balan'es in the system# not to eliminate s"e'ies)Re(ular monitorin( makes it "ossible to evaluate the "o"ulations o& "est and bene&i'ial or(anisms) The

"rodu'er 'an then take ste"s to enhan'e natural 'ontrols /or at least avoid or limit the disru"tion o& natural'ontrols0 o& the tar(et "est/s0)

V An understandin( that the "resen'e o& a "est does not ne'essarily 'onstitute a "roblem) Be&ore a "otentiallydisru"tive 'ontrol method is em"loyed# a""ro"riate de'ision-makin( 'riteria are used to determine +hether ornot "est mana(ement a'tions are needed)

V A 'onsideration o& all "ossible "est mana(ement o"tions be&ore a'tion is taken)

V A "hiloso"hy that IPM strate(ies inte(rate a 'ombination o& all suitable te'hni*ues in as 'om"atible amanner as "ossible4 it is im"ortant that one te'hni*ue not 'on&li't +ith another /50)

2o+ever# IPM has strayed &rom its e'olo(i'al roots) riti's o& +hat mi(ht be termed W'onventionalX IPMnote that it has been im"lemented as Inte(rated Pesti'ide Mana(ement /or even Im"roved Pesti'ideMarketin(0 +ith an em"hasis on usin( "esti'ides as a tool o& &irst resort) !hat has been missin( &rom thisa""roa'h# +hi'h is essentially rea'tive# is an understandin( o& the e'olo(i'al basis o& "est in&estations /see&irst bullet above0) Also missin( &rom the 'onventional a""roa'h are (uidelines &or e'olo(y-basedmani"ulations o& the &arm a(roe'osystem that address the *uestions

V !hy is the "est there;

V 2o+ did it arrive;

V !hy doesnt the "arasite="redator 'om"le. 'ontrol the "est;

INL%DEPIT%RE Yd JEYYPerkuliahanYYPest Mana(ementYYBiointensive Inte(rated Pest Mana(ement/IPM0Z&ilesYYbioi"m'hart5)8"(J YQ MERGE


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Prior to the mid-5Fs# ly(us bu(s +ere 'onsidered to be the key "est in ali&ornia 'otton) 1et in lar(e-s'alestudies on inse'ti'idal 'ontrol o& ly(us bu(s# yields in untreated "lots +ere not si(ni&i'antly di&&erent &romthose on treated "lots) This +as be'ause the inse'ti'ides o&ten indu'ed outbreaks o& se'ondary le"ido"terouslarvae /i)e)# 'abba(e loo"er# beet army+orm# and boll+orm0 and mite "ests +hi'h 'aused additional dama(eas +ell as "est resur(en'e o& the ly(us bu( itsel&) These results# &rom an e'onomi' "oint o& vie+# seem

"arado.i'al# as the ly(us bu( treatments +ere 'ostly# yet the treated "lots 'onsistently had lo+er yields /i)e)#it 'ost &armers money to lose money0) This "arado. +as &irst "ointed out by R) van den Bos'h# 3) Stern# andL) A)


21/54

s"e'ies kno+n to be resistant to herbi'ides rose &rom ? to 6# and the number o& "lant "atho(ens resistantto &un(i'ides (re+ &rom 5 to 57) Resistan'e to inse'ti'ides is so 'ommon more than 7 s"e'ies that nobody is really kee"in( s'ore 21PERLIN Jhtt"==attra)n'at)or(=attra-"ub=i"m6)htmlJ Yl J6J /60O)

Resur(en'e Pesti'ides o&ten kill o&& natural enemies alon( +ith the "est) !ith their natural enemieseliminated# there is little to "revent re'overed "est "o"ulations &rom e."lodin( to hi(her# more dama(in(

numbers than e.isted be&ore "esti'ides +ere a""lied) Additional 'hemi'al "esti'ide treatments only re"eatthis 'y'le)

Se'ondary Pests Some "otential "ests that are normally ke"t under (ood 'ontrol by natural enemies be'omea'tual "ests a&ter their natural enemies are destroyed by "esti'ides) Mite outbreaks a&ter "esti'ide a""li'ationsare a 'lassi' e.am"le)

Residues $nly a minute "ortion o& any "esti'ide a""li'ation 'onta'ts the tar(et or(anism) The remaindermay de(rade harmlessly# but too o&ten +ater# +ind# and soil +ill 'arries "esti'ides to non-tar(et areas andor(anisms# a&&e'tin( the health o& human and +ildli&e "o"ulations) Publi' 'on'erns over residues aredee"ened by the la'k o& resear'h and kno+led(e about "ossible syner(isti' intera'tions bet+een "esti'ideresidues and the hundreds o& other syntheti' 'hemi'al residues no+ &ound in the environment)

The Pest Mana(er = E'osystem Mana(er

The "est mana(er is the most im"ortant link in a su''ess&ul IPM "ro(ram) The mana(er must kno+ thebiolo(y o& the "est and the bene&i'ial or(anisms asso'iated +ith the "est# and understand their intera'tions+ithin the &arm environment) As a detailed kno+led(e o& the "est is develo"ed# +eak links in its li&e 'y'le

be'ome a""arent) These +eak links are "hases o& the li&e 'y'le +hen the "est is most sus'e"tible to 'ontrolmeasures) The mana(er must inte(rate this kno+led(e +ith tools and te'hni*ues o& biointensive IPM tomana(e not one# but several "ests) A more a''urate title &or the "est mana(er is We'osystem do'tor#X &or he orshe must "ay 'lose attention to the "ulse o& the mana(ed e'osystem and stay abreast o& develo"ments in IPMand 'ro"="est biolo(y and e'olo(y) In this +ay# the e'osystem mana(er 'an take a "roa'tive a""roa'h tomana(in( "ests# develo"in( ideas about system mani"ulations# testin( them# and observin( the results) IPMo"tions may be 'onsidered "roa'tive or rea'tive) Proa'tive o"tions# su'h as 'ro" rotations and 'reation o&habitat &or bene&i'ial or(anisms# "ermanently lo+er the 'arryin( 'a"a'ity o& the &arm &or the "est) The'arryin( 'a"a'ity is determined by &a'tors like &ood# shelter# natural enemies 'om"le.# and +eather# +hi'ha&&e't the re"rodu'tion and survival o& a s"e'ies) ultural 'ontrols are (enerally 'onsidered to be "roa'tive

strate(ies) The se'ond set o& o"tions is more rea'tive) This sim"ly means that the (ro+er res"onds to asituation# su'h as an e'onomi'ally dama(in( "o"ulation o& "ests# +ith some ty"e o& short-term su""ressivea'tion) Rea'tive methods (enerally in'lude inundative releases o& biolo(i'al 'ontrols# me'hani'al and

"hysi'al 'ontrols# and 'hemi'al 'ontrols)

Proa'tive Strate(ies /ultural ontrol0

\ 2ealthy# biolo(i'ally a'tive soils /in'reasin( belo+(round diversity0

\ 2abitat &or bene&i'ial or(anisms /in'reasin( above(round diversity0

\ A""ro"riate "lant 'ultivars

ultural 'ontrols are mani"ulations o& the a(roe'osystem that make the 'ro""in( system less &riendly to the

establishment and "roli&eration o& "est "o"ulations) Althou(h they are desi(ned to have "ositive e&&e'ts on&arm e'olo(y and "est mana(ement# ne(ative im"a'ts may also result# due to variations in +eather or 'han(esin 'ro" mana(ement)

arryin( a"a'ity o&


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e.udates vary &rom "lant s"e'ies to "lant s"e'ies and this variation in&luen'es the ty"e o& or(anismsasso'iated +ith the root e.udates />0)


23/54

Mana(ement &a'tors should also be 'onsidered)


24/54

Altered "lantin( dates 'an at times be used to avoid s"e'i&i' inse'ts# +eeds# or diseases)


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By their very nature# "esti'ides de'rease the biodiversity o& a system# 'reatin( the "otential &or instability and&uture "roblems) Pesti'ides# +hether syntheti'ally or botani'ally derived# are "o+er&ul tools and should beused +ith 'aution)

reation o& habitat to enhan'e the 'han'es &or survival and re"rodu'tion o& bene&i'ial or(anisms is a 'on'e"tin'luded in the de&inition o& natural bio'ontrol)


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Althou(h (enerally used in small or lo'ali,ed situations# some methods o& me'hani'al="hysi'al 'ontrol are&indin( +ider a''e"tan'e be'ause they are (enerally more &riendly to the environment)

Pest Identi&i'ation

A 'ru'ial ste" in any IPM "ro(ram is to identi&y the "est) The e&&e'tiveness o& both "roa'tive and rea'tive"est mana(ement measures de"end on 'orre't identi&i'ation) Misidenti&i'-ation o& the "est may be +orse thanuseless4 it may a'tually be harm&ul and 'ost time and money) A&ter a "est is identi&ied# a""ro"riate ande&&e'tive mana(ement de"ends on kno+in( ans+ers to a number o& *uestions) These may in'lude

[ !hat "lants are hosts and non-hosts o& this "est;

[ !hen does the "est emer(e or &irst a""ear;

[ !here does it lay its e((s; In the 'ase o& +eeds# +here is the seed sour'e;


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bioti' &a'tors# es"e'ially +eather# on "est and bene&i'ial "o"ulations should also be noted) Re'ord-kee"in( issim"ly a systemati' a""roa'h to learnin( &rom e."erien'e) A variety o& so&t+are "ro(rams are no+ availableto hel" (ro+ers kee" tra'k o&and a''essdata on their &arms in"uts and out"uts)

Time and Resour'esA su''ess&ul biointensive IPM "ro(ram takes time# money# "atien'e# short- and lon(-term "lannin(#&le.ibility# and 'ommitment) The "est mana(er must s"end time on sel&-edu'ation and on makin( 'onta'ts+ith E.tension and resear'h "ersonnel) Be a+are that some IPM strate(ies# su'h as in'reasin( bene&i'ialinse't habitat# may take more than a year to sho+ results)

A +ell-run biointensive IPM system may re*uire a lar(er initial outlay in terms o& time and money than a'onventional IPM "ro(ram) In the lon( run# ho+ever# a (ood biointensive IPM "ro(ram should "ay &or itsel&)Dire't "esti'ide a""li'ation 'osts are saved and e*ui"ment +ear and tear may be redu'ed)

hemi'al ontrols

In'luded in this 'ate(ory are both syntheti' "esti'ides and botani'al "esti'ides) Syntheti' "esti'ides 'om"rise

a +ide ran(e o& man-made 'hemi'als used to 'ontrol inse'ts# mites# +eeds# nematodes# "lant diseases# andvertebrate and invertebrate "ests) These "o+er&ul 'hemi'als are &ast a'tin( and relatively ine."ensive to

"ur'hase)

Pesti'ides are the o"tion o& last resort in IPM "ro(rams be'ause o& their "otential ne(ative im"a'ts on theenvironment# +hi'h result &rom the manu&a'turin( "ro'ess as +ell as &rom their a""li'ation on the &arm)Pesti'ides should be used only +hen other measures# su'h as biolo(i'al or 'ultural 'ontrols# have &ailed tokee" "est "o"ulations &rom a""roa'hin( e'onomi'ally dama(in( levels)

I& 'hemi'al "esti'ides must be used# it is to the (ro+ers advanta(e to 'hoose the least-to.i' "esti'ide that+ill 'ontrol the "est but not harm non-tar(et or(anisms su'h as birds# &ish# and mammals) Pesti'ides that areshort-lived or a't on one or a &e+ s"e'i&i' or(anisms are in this 'lass) E.am"les in'lude inse'ti'idal soa"s#horti'ultural oils# 'o""er 'om"ounds /e)()# bordeau. mi.0# sul&ur# bori' a'id# and su(ar esters /60)

Biorational "esti'ides) Althou(h use o& this term is relatively 'ommon# there is no le(ally a''e"ted de&inition/60) Biorational "esti'ides are (enerally 'onsidered to be derived &rom naturally o''urrin( 'om"ounds or are&ormulations o& mi'roor(anisms) Biorationals have a narro+ tar(et ran(e and are environmentally beni(n)


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beetle +as &irst re"orted in 5F? and 'aused severe e'onomi' "roblems be(innin( in 5FF5) In 5FF5 and&ollo+in( years# 'ontrol 'osts +ere as hi(h as 56=he'tare in distri'ts most seriously a&&e'ted# in 'ontrast to7-=he'tare in areas +here resistan'e +as not a "roblem /670) The less a "rodu't is a""lied# the lon(er a

"est "o"ulation +ill remain sus'e"tible to that "rodu't) Routine use o& any "esti'ide is a "roblemati' strate(y)

Botani'al "esti'ides are "re"ared in various +ays) They 'an be as sim"le as "ureed "lant leaves# e.tra'ts o&

"lant "arts# or 'hemi'als "uri&ied &rom "lants) Pyrethrum# neem &ormulations# and rotenone are e.am"les o&botani'als) Some botani'als are broad-s"e'trum "esti'ides) $thers# like ryania# are very s"e'i&i') Botani'alsare (enerally less harm&ul in the environment than syntheti' "esti'ides be'ause they de(rade *ui'kly# butthey 'an be 8ust as deadly to bene&i'ials as syntheti' "esti'ides) 2o+ever# they are less ha,ardous to trans"ortand in some 'ases 'an be &ormulated on-&arm) The manu&a'ture o& botani'als (enerally results in &e+er to.i'

by-"rodu'ts)

om"ost teas are most 'ommonly used &or &oliar disease 'ontrol and a""lied as &oliar nutrient s"rays) Theidea underlyin( the use o& 'om"ost teas is that a solution o& bene&i'ial mi'robes and some nutrients is 'reated#then a""lied to "lants to in'rease the diversity o& or(anisms on lea& sur&a'es) This diversity 'om"etes +ith

"atho(eni' or(anisms# makin( it more di&&i'ult &or them to be'ome established and in&e't the "lant)

An im"ortant 'onsideration +hen usin( 'om"ost teas is that hi(h-*uality# +ell-a(ed 'om"ost be used# toavoid 'ontamination o& "lant "arts by animal "atho(ens &ound in manures that may be a 'om"onent o& the

'om"ost) There are di&&erent te'hni*ues &or 'reatin( 'om"ost tea) The 'om"ost 'an be immersed in the +ater#or the +ater 'an be 'ir'ulated throu(h the 'om"ost) An e&&ort should be made to maintain an aerobi'environment in the 'om"ost=+ater mi.ture) ATTRA has more in&ormation about 'om"ost teas# available onre*uest)

Pesti'ide a""li'ation te'hni*ues

As monetary and environmental 'osts o& 'hemi'al "esti'ides es'alate# it makes sense to in'rease thee&&i'ien'y o& 'hemi'al a""li'ations) orre't no,,le "la'ement# no,,le ty"e# and no,,le "ressure are veryim"ortant 'onsiderations) Misdire'ted s"rays# ina""ro"riate no,,le si,e# or +orn no,,les +ill ultimately 'ostthe (ro+er money and in'rease the risk o& environmental dama(e)

I& the monitorin( "ro(ram indi'ates that the "est outbreak is isolated to a "arti'ular lo'ation# s"ot treatment o&

only the in&ested area +ill not only save time and money# but +ill 'onserve natural enemies lo'ated in other"arts o& the &ield) The (ro+er should also time treatments to be least disru"tive o& other or(anisms) This is yetanother e.am"le +here kno+led(e about the a(roe'osystem is im"ortant) !ith the in'reasin( "o"ularity o&no-till and related 'onservation tilla(e "ra'ti'es# herbi'ide use has in'reased) $ne +ay to in'rease a""li'atione&&i'ien'y and de'rease 'osts o& herbi'ide use is throu(h band a""li'ation) Another e.am"le o& bait-inse'ti'ide te'hnolo(y is the boll +eevil bait tube) It lures the boll +eevil usin( a syntheti' se. "heromone)Ea'h tube 'ontains about 6 (rams o& malathion# +hi'h kills the boll +eevil) This te'hni*ue redu'es the

"esti'ide used in 'otton &ields by u" to ?C and 'onserves bene&i'ials) It is most e&&e'tive in mana(in( lo+#early-season "o"ulations o& the boll +eevil)

Inte(rated !eed Mana(ement Systems

!eeds as 'om"etitors in 'ro"s "resent a number o& uni*ue 'hallen(es that need to be re'o(ni,ed +hendevelo"in( mana(ement strate(ies) The intensity o& +eed "roblems durin( a (ro+in( season +ill bein&luen'ed by +eed "o"ulation levels in "revious years) The a.iom Wone years seedin( e*uals seven years+eedin(X is a"t)

!eed 'ontrol 'osts 'annot ne'essarily be 'al'ulated a(ainst the 'urrent years 'ro" "rodu'tion 'osts) !eeds"resent a "hysi'al "roblem &or harvestin() No.ious +eed seed mi.ed +ith (rain redu'es the "ri'e "aid to(ro+ers) I& the seed is sold &or 'ro" "rodu'tion the +eed 'an be s"read to ne+ areas)


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_su""orts a broad base and diversity o& &arms and the health o& rural 'ommunities

_de"ends on ener(y &rom the sun and on natural biolo(i'al "ro'esses &or &ertility and "est mana(ement

_'an last inde&initely

IPM and sustainable a(ri'ulture share the (oal o& develo"in( a(ri'ultural systems that are e'olo(i'ally and

e'onomi'ally sound) IPM may be 'onsidered a key 'om"onent o& a sustainable a(ri'ulture system)A "remise 'ommon to IPM and sustainable a(ri'ulture is that a healthy a(roe'osystem de"ends on healthysoils and mana(ed diversity) $ne o& the reasons modern a(ri'ulture has evolved into a system o& lar(emono'ultures is to de'rease the ran(e o& variables to be mana(ed) 2o+ever# a system +ith &e+ s"e'ies# mu'hlike a table +ith too &e+ le(s# is unstable)

Ta'ti's that 'an be inte(rated into +eed mana(ement systems in'lude

WRotation 'ro"s# +hen a''om"anied by 'are in the use o& "ure seed# is the most e&&e'tive means yet devised&or kee"in( land &ree o& +eeds) No other method o& +eed 'ontrol# me'hani'al# 'hemi'al# or biolo(i'al# is soe'onomi'al or so easily "ra'ti'ed as a +ell-arran(ed se*uen'e o& tilla(e and 'ro""in()XSour'e Lei(hty#lyde E) 5F?) ro" Rotation) ") >-6F) In Soils and Men# 5F? 1earbook o& A(ri'ulture) %)S) Govt)Print) $&&i'e# !ashin(ton# D) [ Prevention The ba'kbone o& any su''ess&ul +eed mana(ement strate(y is

"revention) It is im"ortant to "revent the introdu'tion o& seeds into the &ield throu(h sour'es like irri(ation

+ater or manure)

[ ro" rotation A "ra'ti'al and e&&e'tive method o& +eed mana(ement /dis'ussed in "revious se'tions0)

[ ultivation Steel in the `FJ bet+een ro+s0 soybean "lantin(s) The &aster the leaves shade the (round# the less +eeds+ill be a "roblem)

!EED PRE3ENTI$N

!EED PRE3ENTI$N 2ave a lon(# diverse rotation

So+ 'lean seed

Prevent +eed seed &ormation

Avoid im"orted &eeds or manures

om"ost all manure thorou(hly

ontrol +eeds in &ield borders

Delay "lantin( the 'ro" /&or &aster 'ro" (ro+th and *ui'ker (round 'overa(e0

Maintain (ood soil *uality2erbivores attle# (eese# (oats# and inse'ts 'an be used to redu'e "o"ulationso& s"e'i&i' +eeds in s"e'ial situations) attle# &or e.am"le# relish Hohnson (rass) !eeder (eese +ere'ommonly used in 'otton &ields be&ore the advent o& herbi'ides) Musk thistle "o"ulations 'an be satis&a'torilyredu'ed by 'ro+n- and seed-eatin( +eevils) Goats may be used &or lar(e stands o& various no.ious +eeds)

[ Ad8ustin( herbi'ide use to situation 2erbi'ide sele'tion and rate 'an be ad8usted de"endin( u"on +eedsi,e# +eed s"e'ies# and soil moisture) 1oun( +eeds are more sus'e"tible to 'hemi'als than older +eeds) Byinte(ratin( a variety o& ta'ti's# &armers 'an redu'e or eliminate herbi'ide use)


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"ro(rams are 'onstantly bein( revised or &ine-tuned# and o''asionally under(o a si(ni&i'ant overhaul as theintrodu'tion o& a e+ te'hnolo(y or ne+ "est makes the "resent IPM "ro(ram obsolete)

The best sour'e o& in&ormation on 'onventional IPM is the oo"erative E.tension Servi'e /ES0 asso'iated+ith the land-(rant university in ea'h state) Booklets and &a't sheets des'ribin( IPM "ro(rams and 'ontrolmeasures &or a +ide ran(e o& 'ro"s and livesto'k are available &ree or &or a small 'har(e)


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Resear'h is "ro'eedin( on natural endo"hytes &un(i or ba'teria that have a symbioti' /mutually bene&i'ial0relationshi" +ith their host "lantand their e&&e'ts on "lant "ests) This resear'h mi(ht yield "rodu'ts that'ould be used to ino'ulate "lants a(ainst 'ertain "ests) Problems asso'iated +ith soil erosion and +ater*uality are (enerally the result o& +eed 'ontrol measures like tilla(e# herbi'ides# 'ultivation# "lantin( date and

"attern# et') /0) In the &uture# resear'h +ill &o'us not on sym"toms# su'h as soil erosion# but on basi'

"roblems su'h as ho+ to sustainably mana(e soils) !eeds# as an im"ortant &a'et o& sustainable soilmana(ement# +ill 'onse*uently re'eive more em"hasis in IPM or Inte(rated ro" Mana(ement /IM0"ro(rams)

$n-&arm Resour'es

As &arm mana(ement strate(ies be'ome in'reasin(ly &ine-tuned to "reserve a "ro&itable bottom line# the'onservation# utili,ation# and develo"ment o& on-&arm resour'es +ill take on added im"ortan'e) In the 'onte.to& IPM# this +ill mean (reater em"hasis on soil mana(ement as +ell as on 'onservin( bene&i'ial or(anisms#retainin( and develo"in( bene&i'ial habitats# and "erha"s develo"in( on-&arm inse'taries &or rearin(

bene&i'ial inse'ts)

IPM $n-line

There is an in'reasin( body o& in&ormation about "rodu'tion# marketin(# and re'ordkee"in( available to(ro+ers via the Internet) The Internet is also a (ood sour'e o& in&ormation about IPM# bene&i'ial inse'ts#

"rodu'ts# and "est 'ontrol o"tions &or individual 'ro"s) IPM s"e'ialists are (eneratin( hi(h-*uality +ebsitesas a modern edu'ational delivery tool# and many E.tension Servi'e lea&lets are no+ bein( made available inele'troni' &ormat only)

IPM erti&i'ation and Marketin(

erti&i'ation o& 'ro"s raised a''ordin( to IPM or some other e'olo(y-based standards may (ive (ro+ers amarketin( advanta(e as "ubli' 'on'erns about health and environmental sa&ety in'rease)


32/54

ATTRA is the national sustainable a(ri'ulture in&ormation servi'e o"erated by the National enter &orA""ro"riate Te'hnolo(y under a (rant &rom the Rural Business-oo"erative Servi'e# %)S) De"artment o&A(ri'ulture) These or(ani,ations do not re'ommend or endorse "rodu'ts# 'om"anies# or individuals) NAThas o&&i'es in 7#


33/54

ANALISIS AGR$E$SISTEM

DALAM PENGENDALIAN 2AMA TERPAD%

PENDA2%L%AN

Pen(endalian 2ama Ter"adu /P2T0 adalah suatu sistem "en(elolaan hama den(an memadukanlin(kun(an dan dinamika "o"ulasi hama# meman&aatkan semua teknik dan metoda yan( 'o'ok seharmonismun(kin# dan mem"ertahankan "o"ulasi hama di ba+ah amban( kerusakan ekonomi)

Pada saat a+al dilontarkan (a(asan konse" P2T oleh Stern et al) /5F7F0# ter"ikir oleh mereka untukmemadukan "en(endalian yan( meru"akan "otensi biolo(is yan( da"at men(atur kehidu"an seran((a yan(dian((a" seba(ai hama den(an "en(endalian yan( bertu8uan membunuh seran((a hama /"estisida0) Namundalam "erkemban(an selan8utnya konse" P2T ber"rinsi" dasar seba(ai "en(endalian yan( se'ara ekonomisharus men(untun(kan# ekolo(is da"at di"ertan((un(8a+abkan# dan sosiolo(is da"at diterima)

Pendekatan ekolo(is dalam P2T berarti "en(etahuan tentan( hama# tanaman dan lin(kun(an

meru"akan dasar untuk men(emban(kan strate(i dan taktik "en(endalian)Pendekatan konse" adalah s"esi&ik sasaran# s"esi&ik tem"at# dan +aktu se'ara interdisi"liner dan

lintas sektoral)

Strate(i P2T adalah menahan "o"ulasi hama# bukan memusnahkannya# den(an tu8uanmen(o"timalkan hasil "en(endalian# dan bukan semata-mata "roduksi yan( tin((i) Tu8uan tersebut da"atdi'a"ai melalui "eman&aatan kekuatan "en(endali alami se"erti 'ua'a# ketahanan tanaman inan(# dan musuhalami) ua'a tidak da"at dimani"ulasi se'ara lan(sun(# sedan(kan ketahanan inan( dan "eman&aatan musuhalami da"at dian((a" seba(ai landasan ba(i usaha yan( da"at ditem"uh) Peman&aatan maksimal dari &aktor-&aktor mortalitas di alam tersebut hanya da"at di'a"ai a"abila "erusakan ,at-,at ra'un terhada" lin(kun(an

berada "ada tin(kat minimum)

AGR$E$SISTEMA(roekosistem meru"akan suatu unit yan( tersusun oleh total kom"lek or(anisme dalam suatu

daerah "ertanian bersama-sama den(an lin(kun(an "endukun(nya# yan( kemudian lin(kun(an terseburdimodi&ikasikan oleh manusia melalui berba(ai ke(iatan "ertanian# industri# rekreasi# dan sosial)

Ilmu yan( men(emban(kan dan men(a"likasikan "endekatan-"endekatan a(roekosistem disebutanalisis a(roekosistem /Agroecosystem Analysis0) Analisis ini men((ambarkan hubun(an antar kom"onen-kom"onen ke(iatan manusia yan( salin( tindak /interaction0# dan hubun(an timbal balik antara sub sistemyan( satu den(an sub sistem lainnya# yan( se'ara keseluruhan akan mem"en(aruhi sub sistem lin(kun(analami /ecology0)

Melalui mekanisme sistem "en(elolaan lin(kun(an# maka rekomendasi yan( diberikan selaludidasarkan "ada model "en(elolaan lin(kun(an yan( bersi&at lintas disi"lin atau lintas sektoral) $leh karenaitu "en(ambilan ke"utusan "en((unaan suatu sistem memerlukan "en(ka8ian tentan( realitas se'ara

menyeluruh dari masin(-masin( sub sistem# sehin((a sistem yan( di(unakan meru"akan sistem yan( benar-benar da"at menun8an( keberhasilan ker8a untuk men'a"ai tu8uan se'ara o"timal# tan"a menimbulkandam"ak ne(ati& terhada" or(anisme# ekosistem mau"un a(roekosistemnya)

Ekosistem tanaman "ertanian meru"akan kom"lek unit ekolo(i den(an berba(ai &aktoryan( salin( berinteraksi) Tanaman "ertanian bukan meru"akan suatu unit yan( terisolasi# namun meru"akan

ba(ian dari suatu sistem ekolo(i yan( meli"uti hubun(an antara bebera"a ti"e lahan "ertanian# "erkayuan#sun(ai# (ulma atau lahan yan( tidak ditanami)

om"onen utama tanaman "ertanian meli"uti tanaman itu sendiri# (ulma atau tanamanlainnya# tanah dan biotanya# keseluruhan kondisi lin(kun(an &isik dan kimia+i# s"e'ies hama den(an &aktormortalitas alaminya# termasuk "enyakit dan s"e'ies berman&aat# artro"oda kom"etitor terhada" "akan danruan(# dan keseluruhan ke(iatan manusia# termasuk di dalamya adalah usaha manusia dalam men(elolasistem)

Landasan "en(elolaan hama didasarkan "ada "en(etahuan yan( rin'i tentan( ekosistem"ertanaman) Pernyataan tersebut tam"ak mudah dan sederhana# namun dalam kenyataannya san(at kom"lekdan kemun(kinan tidak akan "ernah da"at di&ahami se'ara len(ka") a8ian tentan( ekosistem tanaman

"ertanian "ada suatu +ilayah /daerah# ne(ara0 da"at di"akai seba(ai a'uan# namun belum tentu da"atditera"kan "ada +ilayah lainnya) Setia" +ilayah mem"unyai variasi tin(kat "erbedaan# antara laindisebabkan oleh "erbedaan varietas yan( ditanam dalam sistem "en(elolaan yan( berbeda# "erbedaanlin(kun(an &isik dan lin(kun(an tanaman suatu +ilayah# dan bahkan dalam kenyataannya "ada +ilayah yan(sama mun(kin terda"at variasi tin(kat "erbedaan)


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Entomolo(ist telah berusaha men(emban(kan "en(etahuan tentan( a(roekosistem tanaman"ertanian dan keterkaitan-keterkaitan yan( ada di dalam sistem tersebut# namun "emahaman tersebutdian((a" masih kuran( len(ka") Meski"un seran((a-seran((a berman&aat telah banyak dikenal# namun "erludilen(ka"i data tentan( hubun(an antara "o"ulasi total kom"lek s"e'ies-s"e'ies berman&aat terhada"

"o"ulasi hama /Reynold et al)# 5F70)

ANALISIS AGR$E$SISTEM DAN EP%T%SAN PENGENDALIAN

Modi&ikasi seba(ai akibat "erlakuan iri(asi atau "emu"ukan# "en((unaan varietas yan(berbeda# 8arak tanam# 'ara ber'o'ok tanam# +aktu tanam dan umur tanaman# akan ber"en(aruh terhada""o"ulasi hama dan s"e'ies berman&aat)

A(roekosistem "ola tanam /mi.ed 'ro""in(0 di daerah tro"ika memiliki diversitas ve(etasiyan( 'uku" tin((i# keberadaan tanaman relati& "ermanen di la"an(an# stabilitas iklim 'uku" tin((i dantin(kat isolasi relati& rendah) Pendekatan tradisional untuk strate(i "en(endalian hama dalam "ola tanamtersebut adalah "enekanan terhada" biolo(i dan "erilaku hama# "emantauan "o"ulasi hama# dan "endu(aantin(kat kerusakan ekonomi)

Pratanam)- Sisa tanaman lain sebelumnya da"at meru"akan sumber in&eksi seran((a hama ba(itanaman berikutnya# oleh karena itu sebelum tanam tanaman "ertanian /yan( sedan( diu"ayakan0 sebaiknyadilaksanakan sanitasi)

Meledaknya "o"ulasi dan seran(a hama tanaman di bebera"a daerah "en(emban(antanaman budidaya didu(a karena &aktor sanitasi yan( kuran( di"erhatikan)

Sisa tanaman sebelumnya sebaiknya di'abut kemudian dibakar karena meru"akan saran(yan( baik ba(i seran((a hama)

Saat Tanam)- Pen(aturan +aktu tanam berdasarkan ,ona iklim)

ara Ber'o'ok Tanam)- Bebera"a modi&ikasi "ada tanaman "ertanian da"at seba(ai "en(endalianden(an 'ara ber'o'ok tanam /'ultural 'ontrol0 "ada hama-hama tertentu /Reynold et al)# 5F70)

ebi8akan umum yan( da"at ditem"uh antara lain memaksimumkan "en((unaan tanamaninan( resisten yan( siner(is den(an ti(a "endekatan "en(endalian yan( umum dikenal# yaitu

/a0 Penekanan)- Menekan "o"ulasi hama "ada "ertanaman den(an menurunkan daya tariktanaman terhada" hama dan men(halan(i "er"indahan hama di dalam tanaman) Taktik yan( da"at di(unakanadalah menanam tanaman "enutu" tanah# menanam tanaman "eran(ka"# dan menanm den(an "ola stri"'ro""in( atau 'am"uran antara tanaman yan( resisten den(an yan( rentan)

/b0 Pen(aturan)- Penin(katan kera(aman tanaman ditu8ukan untuk men(konservasi danmemaksimumkan aksi musuh-musuh alami# terutama untuk hama yan( berstrate(i intermediate /antara r dan0) ondisi yan( menun8an( ba(i musuh alami da"at di'i"takan den(an 'ara "emakaian mulsa# menanam

tanaman liar yan( da"at menyediakan makanan /madu# nektar# te"un(sari0 ba(i musuh alami de+asa# daninan( atau man(sa alternati& ba(i musuh alami)

/'0 Pembatasan sumber daya untuk menin(katkan kom"etisi intras"e'ies diantara seran((ahama) Misalnya memilih tanaman yan( se'ara alami memiliki 'arryin( 'a"a'ity /0 rendah# sehin((amendoron( ter8adinya kanibalisme diantara seran((a hama)

ontoh

Tanaman 8a(un( da"at di(unakan seba(ai "eran(ka" ba(i "en((erek buah ka"as 2)armi(era) Rambut 8a(un( se(ar meru"akan tem"at yan( menarik ba(i n(en(at 2) armi(era untuk meletakkantelur /S8a&aruddin et al)# 5FF0) A"abila dikaitkan den(an u"aya untuk memilih tanaman 8a(un( yan( se'aramor&olo(is tahan terhada" 2) armi(era# sementara itu "ada umumnya larva 2) armi(era bersi&at kanibalisme#

maka seran(an hama tersebut akan semakin ke'il 8auh di ba+ah amban( "en(endalian)Tum"an(sari tanaman ka"as den(an ka'an( hi8au# ternyata ka'an( hi8au da"at ber&un(si

seba(ai "eran(ka" kutu daun A"his (ossy"ii Glover# dan meru"akan tem"at yan( baik ba(i "erkemban(biakan "o"ulasi musuh alami A"his# misalnya kumban( "redator dari &amili o''inellidae# Laba-laba# dansemut merah)

Tanaman Tahan 2ama) etahanan tanaman terhada" seran((a hama 8u(a di"en(aruhi oleh"emu"ukan) Dosis "u"uk nitro(en /N0 san(at ber"en(aruh terhada" "o"ulasi seran((a di la"an(an) Tanaman


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yan( terlalu banyak di"u"uk N# "ertumbuhannya akan rimbun dan hal ini akan menarik seran((a hamatertentu) Selain itu (i,i tanaman berubah sehin((a lebih disukai seran((a)

Tanaman tahan hama mem"unyai arti "entin( dalam Pen(elolaan 2ama Ter"adu antaralain "ada situasi seba(ai berikut

a) Siklus hama terlemah untuk da"at dikendalikan /!eakest Link0 "endek)b) Tanaman men(alami "enurunan nilai ekonomi /har(a 8ual0)

') 2ama selalu ada dan meru"akan &aktor "embatas dalam usaha mem"erbaiki keberhasilantanaman untuk areal yan( luas)

d) ara "en(endalian yan( lain tidak ada atau tidak mun(kin dilakukan)

e) Pada daerah terisolir dan trans"ortasi sulit)

&) Masyarakat belum men(ado"si "en((unaan "estisida)

Musuh Alami 2ama)- onse" IPM antara lain meli"uti as"ek ekolo(i# yaitu lin(kun(an musuhalami dan 8arin(-8arin( makanan di lin(kun(an tersebut# dan as"ek teknolo(i# yaitu "raktik ber'o'ok tanam

yan( disesuaikan kondisi lin(kun(an setem"at) Pen(etahuan tentan( 8arin(-8arin( makanan "ada komoditassuatu tanaman "ertanian san(at berman&at ba(i keberhasilan "en(endalian hayati# karena da"at men(etahui

berba(ai s"e'ies musuh alami setem"at yan( ber"otensi menekan "erkemban(an "o"ulasi hama) Disam"in(itu 8u(a da"at diketahui keterkaitan antara komoditas suatu tanaman den(an kom"lek komoditas tanamanlainnya# ditin8au dari se(i hama) Dimun(kinkan adanya hama-hama suatu tanaman yan( da"at menyeran(komoditas lain# yan( berarti terda"at keterkaitan antara musuh alami "ada hama suatu tanaman den(an hamakomoditas lain)

Dalam hubun(annya den(an musuh alami ini# maka "erlu diketahui "eranan musuh alamidalam menekan "o"ulasi hama# sehin((a da"at men(konservasi dan memani"ulasi# a(ar lebih e&ekti&)

edudukan Pen(endalian 2ayati dalam Pen(elolaan 2ama

a) Pen(endalian 2ayati yan( mandiri

1aitu a"abila suatu hama mem"unyai bebera"a musuh alami yan( menyeran( &ase tumbuhyan( berbeda)

ontoh Pemakan daun 8eruk /Pa"illo memmon-memmon0 telurnya di"arasitir oleh$en'yrtus s")# dan larva serta ke"om"on(nya di"arasitir oleh Tetrasti'hus s")

b) Pen(endalian 2ayati seba(ai kom"onen Pen(elolaan 2ama

ontoh "ada kela"a $ry'tes rhino'eros larva da"at dikendalikan oleh 8amur Metarrhi,iumaniso"liae4 larva# ke"om"on(# dan de+asanya da"at dikendalikan Ba'ulovirus /Rhabdion0 ory'tes)

ara Pen(endalian Non-Pestisida Lainnya 1an( ditem"uh)- Pen(endalian se'ara mekanis "erluditera"kan "ada bebera"a 8enis seran((a) %lat yan( telah melam"aui instar keem"at "ada umumnya sulitdikendalikan den(an insektisida# maka "erlu dikendalikan den(an 'ara mekanis# yaitu den(an 'ara memun(utulat tersebut# kemudian dimatikan) ara ini da"at 8u(a dilakukan "ada kelom"ok telur S) litura den(an 'aramemen'et kelom"ok telur tersebut yan( umumnya diletakkan "ada "ermukaan daun ba(ian ba+ah# ataumemetik daun tersebut untuk dimusnahkan) Demikian 8u(a ulat S) litura instar "ertama sam"ai keti(a yan(

"ada umumnya masih hidu" berkelom"ok di sekitar bekas "aket telur) Terhada" ulat dan "u"a S) dero(ataserta "u"a S) &lava da"at 8u(a dilakukan den(an 'ara se"erti di atas)

umban( 2y"ome'es s*uamosus /hama tanaman ka"as0 da"at dikum"ulkan den(an 'aramen((oyan(-(oyan(kan tanaman ka"as# karena si&at seran((a tersebut senan( men8atuhkan diri a"abilater8adi (etaran yan( keras) Seran((a yan( 8atuh ditam"un( dalam ember yan( berisi larutan insektisida)Sehin((a "en((unaan insektisida da"at lebih hemat dan relati& lebih aman)

ara Pen(endalian (enetik)- Pada umumnya dilakukan teknik "emandulan seran((a hama /Bhama0) Teknik yan( umum dilakukan adalah "enyinaran sinar (amma dari obalt >) !alau"un se'arakimia# yaitu den(an men((unakan hemosterilant 8u(a da"at dilakukan# namun 'ara tersebut lebih banyakdam"ak ne(ati&nya terhada" or(anisme lain yan( berman&aat dan termasuk "ada manusia)

Persyaratan yan( harus di"enuhi a(ar "en(endalian (enetik melalui teknik "emandulanseran((a hama da"at berhasil den(an baik# yaitu

a) 2arus mem"unyai 'ara "embiakan yan( murah dan 'e"at /e&isien0)

b) Pemandulan tidak ber"en(aruh terhada" "erilaku seran((a# misal daya sain( den(an8antan normal masih teta" sama)


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') Akan lebih berhasil 8ika ko"ulasi betina hanya satu kali)

d) Hantan mandul harus dile"as "ada saat "o"ulasi rendah# karena 8umlah yan( dile"as akansemakin e&isien)

e) Dikaitkan den(an 'ara "en(endalian yan( lain /misal den(an insektisida0# "o"ulasi rendah

baru "ele"asan 8antan mandul)

ara Pen(endalian Den(an Pestisida /Pen(endalian imia+i0)-

euntun(an "en((unaan "estisida dalam Pen(elolaan 2ama

5) Pestisida meru"akan satu-satunya 'ara "en(endalian yan( "raktis untuk menekan "o"ulasihama yan( mendekati amban( ekonomi)

6) Pestisida memiliki tindakan kurati& untuk men(hindarkan ter8adinya kerusakan ekonomik)

) Pestisida mena+arkan berba(ai kisaran dalam si&at# 'ara "en((unaan dan yan( lain untukberba(ai keadaan hama)

) Pestisida har(anya relati& masih rendah sehin((a da"at memberikan "enda"atan "etani

yan( tin((i# sehin((a usaha taninya teta" men(untun(kan)

eterbatasan "en((unaan "estisida dalam Pen(elolaan 2ama

5) Ter8adinya ketahanan hama=seran((a terhada" "estisida)

6) Ter8adinya letusan hama kedua)

) Ter8adinya "erbesaran hayati melalui rantai makanan)

) Adanya "en(aruh meru(ikan ba(i s"e'ies bukan sasaran)

7) Bahaya residu "estisida ba(i lin(kun(an)

>) Bahaya lan(sun( ba(i si "emakai dan ba(i keselamatan manusia)

Ti(a "rinsi" "en((unaan "estisida dalam Pen(elolaan 2ama

5) Prinsi" 5C "embunuhan tak di"erlukan)

6) Men((anti kebiasaan "en((unaan "estisida berdasarkan kalender den(an "erlakuanberdasarkan amban( ekonomik)

) Pen((unaan "estisida harus da"at didukun( oleh analisis ekolo(i dan ekonomi)

DA


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Selayan( Pandan( Pen(endalian /Pen(elolaan0 2ama Tanaman Perkebunan

Pada umumnya tanaman keras dibudidayakan seba(ai tanaman "erkebunan)eadaan stabil "ertanaman "erkebunan di daerah tro"ik menun8ukkan bah+a ke(iatan se8umlah

besar hama "otensial san(at ditekan berat oleh musuh-musuh alaminya# sehin((a memun(kinkan untuk"en(emban(an "en(endalian hayati terutama den(an teknik konservasi dan au(mentasi)

onservasi musuh alami adalah u"aya melestarikan musuh alami hama yan( telah ada disuatu +ilayah den(an men8a(a keberadaannya dan melindun(i dari ke"unahan)

Musuh alami akan teta" berada "ada suatu ekosistem# a"abila

Ekosistem 'uku" stabil

etersediaan inan( 'uku"

Inan( tidak ber(e8olak terlalu kuat

Telah ter'atat bebera"a 'ontoh keberhasilan dan "eranan u"aya konservasi dan au(mentasidalam "enera"an "en(elolaan hama)

ita semua telah se"akat menerima konse" "en(elolaan hama /"est mana(ement0 yan(bukan hanya "emaduan 'ara atau taktik "en(endalian# atau seba(ai konse" yan( 8u(a memadukan disi"linilmu# ke(iatan# sarana dan dana dalam suatu "ro(ram "en(endalian hama)

ontoh asus Pada Perkebunan ela"a Sa+it

Pen((an((u %tama adalah

2ama %lat A"i Thosea bisura Moore

%lat anton( remasto"sy'he "endula Hoanis

Gulma

Pen(endalian den(an

"en((unaan insektisida bers"ektrum luas yan( intensi&

"en(endalian (ulma yan( intensi& terutama den(an herbisida

Hustru Serin( ter8adi eks"losi kedua hama utama tanaman kela"a sa+it tersebut

Men(a"a hal tersebut da"at ter8adi ;

Ternyata

Pen((unaan herbisida men(akibatkan men(erin(nya (ulma di ba+ah "ertanaman kela"asa+it# disam"in( itu "en((unaan insektisida berakibat banyak "arasit kedua 8enis hama tersebut terbunuhatau mati) Salah satu "enyebab yan( nyata adalah bah+a "arasit tersebut kekuran(an "akan tambahanyan(beru"a ne'tar yan( dihasilkan (ulma berbun(a# se"erti Eu"horbia (eni'ulata dan E) "runi&olium)

Disam"in( itu 8u(a diketahui bah+a "arasit-"arasit se"erti A"antelas s")# Aulosa"hes s")#Eo,enilla e*uatorial# A"hadnus ri&i"es# E'hthromor"ha a(restoria# antho"im"la s")# serin( di8um"aimen(un8un(i kedua 8enis tersebut di atas untuk menda"atkan ne'tar yan( dihasilkannya) Sementara ituantho"im"la s") dan Sar'o"ha(a s") serin( beristirahat "ada A(eratum 'ony,oides dan A) ma.ina'um)

Hadi


38/54

Pembersihan (ulma tidak selalu memberi man&aat# dan hal ini seba(ai bukti bah+a Dirty


39/54

Pen((unaan Insektisida Pyethroid Sintetis /L-yhalothrin = Matador0 ber"eran san(at "entin( dalam"elaksanaan Sistem Pen(endalian Dini# karena

Beker8a 'e"at men(endalikan hama /Ra"id no'kdo+n0# sehin((a hama belum meluas)

2emat

San(at akti& "ada "en((unaan dosis rendah

Akti&itas 'uku" luas terhada" berba(ai s"e'ies hama "erkebunan dari ordo Le"ido"tera# 2emi"tera#oleo"tera# Di"tera mau"un A'arina# sehin((a tidak "erlu menyediakan insektisida den(an bahan akti& yan(

bera(am)

Sistem S"ot yan( dilakukan akan men8amin keberhasilan den(an 8umlah individu "ohon yan(disem"rot lebih sedikit) A"ala(i adanya si&at re"elensia /menolak seran((a hama0# maka tidak hanyamen(endalikan hama "ada "etak yan( disem"rot# akan teta"i 8u(a menurunkan "o"ulasi hama "ada "etaksekelilin(nya)

Toksisitas rendah terhada" seran((a "enyerbuk# se"erti lebah madu)

Beker8a (anda seba(ai ra'un "erut dan kontak# sehin((a disam"in( sesuai seba(ai S"ot S"ray "adaSistem Pen(endalian Dini# 8u(a 'o'ok untuk $verall S"ray "ada taha" "ersia"an memasuki Sistem

Pen(endalian Dini)

Insektisida Baru Pen(hambat Pembentukan hitin /hlor&lua,uran# 'ontoh Atabron0

Pen(hambat "embentukan 'hitin /hitin Inhibitor0 atau Insektisida Pen(atur Tumbuh /Inse'ti'ideGro+th Re(ulator0 kulit luar larva# sehin((a tidak ter8adi "erubahan &ase dari suatu instar ke instar

berikutnya# maka ter8adi kematian larva atau ber"eran seba(ai larvisida)

Selekti&

Men(endalikan larva khususnya dari (olon(an Le"ido"tera# Di"tera dan oleo"tera# yan( umumnyameru"akan hama utama "erusak daun dan buah "ada tanaman "erkebunan)

Seran((a de+asa dari 8enis hama-hama tersebut di atas a"abila terkena sem"rotan akanmen(hasilkan telur yan( tidak sem"urna=tidak menetas)

er8a lambat# namun akti& memberantas hama yan( resisten terhada" or(ano&os&at# karbamat dan"yrethroid)

Men(endalikan hama tertentu /san(at e&ekti& untuk ulat a"i "ada "erkebunan kela"a sa+it0# tan"amem"en(aruhi "o"ulasi "arasit# "redator dan seran((a ber(una yan( lain)

Mode $& A'tion#- hanya beker8a kati& setelah melalui saluran "en'ernaan# +alau"un "ada dosistin((i 8u(a beker8a seba(ai ra'un kontak)

Toksisitas terhada" (olon(an mamalia /binatan( berdarah "anas0 san(at rendah# sehin((a san(ataman "en((unaannya# baik ba(i tena(a "enyem"rot mau"un lin(kun(an

Hadi

hlor&lua,uran mem"unyai "ros"ek yan( baik untuk di(unakan dalam Pen(elolaan 2amaTanaman Perkebunan)

PENGENDALIAN 2AMA PASA PANEN /2AMA G%DANG=2AMA BA2AN DALAMSIMPANAN0

Pen(antar

Tanaman atau "roduksinya serin( men(alami kerusakan-kerusakan di la"an(an) Setelahdi"anen kadan(-kadan( "roduksi tersebut masih men(alami kerusakan-kerusakan di dalam sim"anan)kerusakan tersebut da"at disebabkan oleh hama /seran((a# tikus# burun(# dan seba(ainya0# mau"un "enyakit/terutama 8amur0 dan "enyebab lain)

Dalam kaitannya den(an hama (udan(# "roduksi tidak terbatas "ada "roduksi tanaman#namun termasuk "roduksi suatu industri# se"erti sim"anan bahan dari tulan(# denden( ke8u dan lain-lain)


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Sementara itu "roduksi tanaman hendaknya di"andan( dalam arti luas# tidak terbatas "ada buah atau bi8i yan(da"at disim"an lama# namun 8u(a meli"uti bahan-bahan yan( beru"a daun kerin(# kayu dan lain-lain)

Dalam hal ini istilah (udan( tidak hanya beru"a ban(unan yan( da"at ditutu" ra"at# akanteta"i termasuk "ula setia" tem"at yan( da"at di"akai untuk menyim"an baran() Tem"at-tem"at tersebuttan"a mem"erdulikan bentuk# ukuran# dan letaknya# dalam kaitannya den(an hama "as'a "anen da"at

dian((a" seba(ai (udan()

Bebera"a kasus telah menun8ukkan besarnya keru(ian akibat seran(an hama (udan()Se'ara teknis keru(ian hama (udan( meli"uti dua as"ek# yaitu kuantitas dan kualitas) Se'ara kuantitas sudah

8elas# yaitu bah+a hama tersebut merusak=makan bahan dalam sim"anan# sehin((a volume berkuran(#sedan(kan se'ara kualitas yaitu men(otori bahan dalam sim"anan# yan( "ada akhirnya da"at menimbulkan

bau yan( tidak enak /bahasa Ha+a a"ek0# demikian "ula rasa 8u(a akan berkuran( atau berubah sama sekali#a"ala(i a"abila ter8adi kom"likasi seran(an antara hama den(an "enyakit /terutama 'enda+an0) Pen(ertianrasa enak itu meman( subyekti akan teta"i da"at dibuktikan se'ara obyekti& dari sektor "erda(an(an)

Tu8uan utama mem"ela8ari hama bahan dalam sim"anan adalah men(etahui 'ara"en(endaliannya) %ntuk men'a"ai tu8uan tersebut di"erlukan "en(etahuan tentan( hubun(an antara &aktorluar den(an hama itu sendiri) Ilmu "en(etahuan tersebut disebut Ekolo(i hama (udan()


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ISSN 5>-6>6

Inte(rated Pest Mana(ement-Biolo(i'al ontrol Natural Enemies

A) NAL all No)lA(?y 5F?F0)

Interest in develo"in( IPM into 'ro" mana(ement systems be(an in the 5F>s) redit &or the IPM'on'e"t is (iven to Dr) Roy 1earbook o& A(ri'ulture# " 575) NAL all No) lA(?y 5F?>0)

The biolo(i'al 'ontrol strate(y +as born in a 'itrus (rove in 5??F# in +hat is no+ the 'ity o& LosAn(eles# ali&ornia /JBiolo(i'al ontrol Turns 5 This 1earJ by Hessi'a Morrison# A(ri'ultural Resear'h#3 /Mar 5F?F0 n # " ) NAL all No) 5)F? A(?0) The release o& 56F im"orted Australian vedalia beetlesresulted in dramati' redu'tion o& the 'ottony 'ushion s'ale +hi'h had threatened ali&ornias 'itrus industry)The te'hni*ue o& releasin( an im"orted or(anism that establishes itsel& and s"reads to "ermanently 'ontrol a

"est is today kno+n as the 'lassi'al biolo(i'al 'ontrol 'on'e"t /o")'it)0) Su''ess&ul 'lassi'al bio'ontrol meansthat no &urther 'osts are re*uired to kee" the "est under 'ontrol)

Natural Enemies Problems

Althou(h sim"le in 'on'e"t# the "ro'ess o& lo'atin( the "la'e o& ori(in o& the non-native "est andthen &indin( and introdu'in( natural enemies &am

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Pengendalian Hama Terpadu.doc

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