Political Organization and the Maintenance of Order

anthropology’s interest in power and maintenance of order

►political organization refers to the way power is distributed and embedded in societies

►who has power►how does power differ from authority►how is power organized and

administered

distinction between power and authority

►power: ability to bring about results power may be informal and based on

force coercive power versus persuasive power Symbolic power based on positive

expectations of those who accede to it►authority is the socially recognized

right to exert power►legitimacy - the socially recognized

right to hold, use, and allocate power

Eric Wolf: 4 Modalities of Eric Wolf: 4 Modalities of PowerPower

► Potency, capability, charisma (individual)Potency, capability, charisma (individual)► Ability of person to impose its will in social Ability of person to impose its will in social

action upon anotheraction upon another► Tactical or organizational power -- The Tactical or organizational power -- The

instrumentalities through which individuals instrumentalities through which individuals or groups direct or circumscribe the actions or groups direct or circumscribe the actions of othersof others

► Structural power – power that organizes and Structural power – power that organizes and orchestrates the settings themselves & that orchestrates the settings themselves & that specifies the direction & distribution of specifies the direction & distribution of energy flowsenergy flows

Power: Foucault’s panopticon►The shaping of perception►Discursive practices in the absence of

active practitioners►The gaze in the absence of the

perceiving subject►a world in which the gaze, free of all

obstacle, is no longer subjected to the immediate law of truth: the gaze is not faithful to truth, nor subject to it, without asserting, at the same time, a supreme mastery

Foucault on Discourse (and power)

►a form of power that circulates in the a form of power that circulates in the social field and can attach to social field and can attach to strategies of domination as well as strategies of domination as well as those of resistance those of resistance

►the 'discursive field‘ -- the relationship the 'discursive field‘ -- the relationship between language, social institutions, between language, social institutions, subjectivity and power subjectivity and power

► 'disciplinary power' 'disciplinary power'

Band, Tribe, Chiefdom, StateBand, Tribe, Chiefdom, State

►sequence can be replaced with contrast between uncentralized and centralized political systems

►Replace evolutionary perspective with: ethnographic present historical perspective

Uncentralized political systems

►include: bands and tribes►associated with:

subsistence level economies such as foraging small, homogeneous populations little social stratification relatively autonomous groups often relatively mobile without strict

territorial boundaries no formal leader or organization beyond

kinship

the band► small group of politically independent,

through related, households►all social relationships based on kinship► least complex form of political organization

perhaps the oldest form as well►associated with foraging forms of

subsistence►decisions made through consensus

disgruntled leave►no fixed leadership, only informal

recognition of prowess typically male, but females have power as well most successful hunter and most senior woman

The Tribe

►tribal system consists of separate bands or villages

►integrated through lineages, clans, age grades, or other associations cross-cutting kinship and territory less autonomy for greater security

►associated with farming or herding subsistence strategies greater food production

►greater population density

The tribeThe tribe►consists of one or more autonomous

communities which may then form alliances

►may range across a broad territory►social stratification related to kinship and

cross-cutting associations►needs for alliance

defense or raiding pooling of resources capitalize on a windfall often return to autonomous communities

The tribeThe tribe►informal leadership►no centralized leadership►typically someone respected for wisdom

or prowess – charisma & “big men”►group decisions by consensus

leaders may influence through oratory decisions enforced through

►withdrawal of cooperation►gossip►criticism►beliefs that anti-social actions cause disease

The tribeThe tribe► leaders of localized descent groups or a

territorial group►authority is personal

not elected, no formal office status result of personal behavior

► status often achieved through giving away many wives extended kin networks

►Big Women in Vanatinai (Maria Lepowsky) give more mortuary feasts may gain power as sorcerers, healers, gardeners

kinship organization in tribes► clan may be the organizing unit and seat of

political authority elders of clan may form council

► segmentary lineage system – The Ariaal of East Africa

►patrilineal clans maximal lineage, major, minor, minimal lingeage smallest group defined by one great grandfather all segments equal and no leadership above

minimal or primary segments

► form alliances to face threats

Us and ThemUs and Them►Bedouin proverb:

I against my brother; I and my brother against our cousin; I, my brother and our cousin against the neighbors; all of us against the foreigners

►based on complementary or balanced opposition

►a model for ethnicity?

other examples of tribal organization

►age-grade & age sets organization►association organization

Cree military societies and warriors’ clubs

AGE AS A FORM OF SOCIAL AGE AS A FORM OF SOCIAL DIVISIONDIVISION

►AGE-SETS, AGE GRADES, AGE MATESAGE-SETS, AGE GRADES, AGE MATES► differentiation of social role based on age, differentiation of social role based on age,

commonly found in small-scale societies of commonly found in small-scale societies of North America and tribal groups of East North America and tribal groups of East AfricaAfrica

► Age sets are a type of sodality Age sets are a type of sodality ► Age grades may be marked by changes in Age grades may be marked by changes in

biological state, such as pubertybiological state, such as puberty►Or by socially recognized status changes Or by socially recognized status changes

such as marriage and the birth of a childsuch as marriage and the birth of a child► Persons of junior grade may defer to those Persons of junior grade may defer to those

of more senior grade who in turn teach, test, of more senior grade who in turn teach, test, or lead their juniorsor lead their juniors

Ariaal Age Sets (E. Africa Ariaal Age Sets (E. Africa pastoralists)pastoralists)

► rigid system of age-setsrigid system of age-sets► apply primarily to men; women automatically apply primarily to men; women automatically

become members of the age-set of their husbandsbecome members of the age-set of their husbands► groups of the same age (give or take five years or groups of the same age (give or take five years or

so) are initiated into adult life during the same so) are initiated into adult life during the same periodperiod

► The age-set is a permanent groupingThe age-set is a permanent grouping lasts throughout the life of its memberslasts throughout the life of its members

► a hierarchy of gradesa hierarchy of grades junior warriors, senior warriorsjunior warriors, senior warriors junior elders (sometimes classed as senior warriors), junior elders (sometimes classed as senior warriors),

and senior eldersand senior elders► the ones who make decisions affecting the whole tribethe ones who make decisions affecting the whole tribe

tribal organization

►term used differently than in popular usage

►not a catch-all for anyone not living in a state or those considered to be inferior tribalism = chaotic political situation

►also not equivalent to usage by some aboriginal groups today

Centralized political systems► include: chiefdoms and states►associated with:

intensive agricultural or industrialization►technology becomes more complicated► labour specialization increases

large, diverse population less mobility opportunity for control of resources appears appearance of coercive force male leaders more frequent political authority is concentrated in a single

individual (chiefdoms) or a body of individuals (the state)

chiefdom

►a regional polity in which one or more local groups are organized under a single ruling individual – the chief – who is at the head of a ranked hierarchy of people

The ChiefThe Chief

►Divine king – macrocosm and microcosmDivine king – macrocosm and microcosm►status determined by closeness to chief►office of chief often hereditary

passing to son or to sister’s son►also based on talents►often conceived as a semi-sacred position

►may amass personal wealth to add to power

chiefdomchiefdom

►a true authority figure with a formal office► can distribute resources

associated with redistributive economies chief controls surpluses and labour may collect taxes or tribute may recruit labour for community projects

► irrigation, a temple, a palace can conscript for military

► recognized hierarchy linked to chief► tend to be unstable ►may form confederacies

Iroquois League of Five Nation, Algonquin Confederacy

chiefdomchiefdom

► Rank societyRank society►do not have unequal access to economic

resources or to power, but they do contain social groups having unequal access to prestige

►unequal access to prestige often reflected in position of chief to which only some members of a specified group in the society can succeed

►Ascribed status

Band & tribe vs. chiefdomBand & tribe vs. chiefdom

►in band and tribal societies competitive displays & conspicuous consumption by individuals disappears & anyone foolish enough to boast how great he is gets accused of witchcraft & is stoned to death

►reciprocity predominates, not redistribution

the state►the most formal of political

organizations and is one of the hallmarks of civilization

►political power is centralized in a government which may LEGITIMATELY use force to regulate the affairs of its citizens

►Weber’s monopoly on the legitimate use of force

The state: The state: associated with --

►increased food production (agriculture and industry)

►irrigation and transformation of landscape

►increased population►fixed territory►developed market system►appearance of cities developed urban

sector

The state: The state: associated with --

►appearance of bureaucracy►military►usually an official religion►delegation of authority to maintain

order within and without its borders

►right to control information►authority is formal and impersonal

Holding office and the person

The state: The state: associated with --

►differentiation in population appears – social stratification

►appearance of ethnicity►permanent, heritable inequality

slaves, castes and classes

►social conflict increases