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Principles of Information Systems Session 03 Data Organization
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Page 1: Principles of Information Systemssecure.com.sg/courses/BIS/Lecutre_Handouts/S03-L03_Data...ConverngDecimaltoBinary% To"convertdecimal"to"binary"is"also"very"simple,"you"simply"divide"the"decimal"value"

Principles of Information Systems Session 03 Data Organization

Page 2: Principles of Information Systemssecure.com.sg/courses/BIS/Lecutre_Handouts/S03-L03_Data...ConverngDecimaltoBinary% To"convertdecimal"to"binary"is"also"very"simple,"you"simply"divide"the"decimal"value"

Part  01  –  Data  Representa/on  

Page 3: Principles of Information Systemssecure.com.sg/courses/BIS/Lecutre_Handouts/S03-L03_Data...ConverngDecimaltoBinary% To"convertdecimal"to"binary"is"also"very"simple,"you"simply"divide"the"decimal"value"

Going  Digital    

•  A  computer  is:  –  A  CD  player  –  Video  player  –  Family  photo  album  –  And  more…  

•  Digi;zing  means  conver;ng  analog  signals  to  1s  and  0s  

Analog  

Digital  

3  

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Binary  Digits:  1  and  0    

•  Binary  digits  represent  leBers,  numbers,  colours,  shapes,  &  more  

•  The  on  state  is  1  •  The  off  state  is  0  •  RAM  

–  Presence  or  absence  of  an  electrical  charge  •  DISK    

–  Magne;c  arrangement  

•  CD  –  Permanent  microscopic  pits  

•  Fiber  Op;c      –  Pulses  of  light  

Only  2  states  possible  

On   Off  

4  

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Octal  

•  Octal  or  base-­‐8  is  used  as  a  shorthand  to  store  data  in  the  older,  8-­‐bit  computers  (e.g.  vintage  Atari  video  games)  

•  A  single  octal  digit  represents  three  binary  digits  

001    111    110    111    010    

5  

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Hexadecimal  

•  Hexadecimal  or  base-­‐16  is  used  as  a  shorthand  to  display  binary  contents  of  RAM  or  disk  storage  

•  A  single  hexadecimal  digit  represents  four  binary  digits  

•  Two  hexadecimal  digits  can  be  used  to  represent  an  eight-­‐bit  byte  

0011  1111  0111  1010    

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Decimal,  Binary,  Octal  and  Hexadecimal  

Decimal   Binary   Octal   Hex   Decimal   Binary   Octal   Hex  

0   00000   0   0   9   01001   11   9  

1   00001   1   1   10   01010   12   A  

2   00010   2   2   11   01011   13   B  

3   00011   3   3   12   01100   14   C  

4   00100   4   4   13   01101   15   D  

5   00101   5   5   14   00110   16   E  

6   00110   6   6   15   01111   17   F  

7   00111   7   7   16   10000   20   10  

8   01000   10   8   17   10001   21   11  

7  

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Conver/ng  Decimal  to  Binary  To  convert  decimal  to  binary  is  also  very  simple,  you  simply  divide  the  decimal  value  by  2  and  then  write  down  the  remainder,  repeat  this  process  un;l  you  cannot  divide  by  2  anymore,  for  example  let's  take  the  decimal  value  157:    

157  ÷  2  =  78  with  a  remainder  of  1  78  ÷  2  =  39  with  a  remainder  of  0  39  ÷  2  =  19  with  a  remainder  of  1  19  ÷  2  =  9  with  a  remainder  of  1  9  ÷  2  =  4    with  a  remainder  of  1  4  ÷  2  =  2    with  a  remainder  of  0  2  ÷  2  =  1    with  a  remainder  of  0  1  ÷  2  =  0    with  a  remainder  of  1  

 

Next  write  down  the  value  of  the  remainders  from  boBom  to  top  (in  other  words  write  down  the  boBom  remainder  first  and  work  your  way  up  the  list)  which  gives:    

10011101  =  157  8  

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Conver/ng  Binary  to  Decimal  To  convert  binary  into  decimal  is  very  simple  and  can  be  done  as  shown  below:    Say  we  want  to  convert  the  8  bit  value  10011101  into  a  decimal  value,  we  can  use  a  formula  like  that  below:    

27  26  25  24  23  22  21  20    128    64    32    16    8    4    2    1      1      0      0      1    1    1    0    1  

 As  you  can  see,  we  have  placed  the  numbers  1,  2,  4,  8,  16,  32,  64,  128  (powers  of  two)  in  reverse  numerical  order,  and  then  wriBen  the  binary  value  below.    To  convert,  you  simply  take  a  value  from  the  top  row  wherever  there  is  a  1  below,  and  then  add  the  values  together.    For  instance,  in  our  example  we  would  have  128  +  16  +  8  +  4  +  1  =  157.    For  a  16  bit  value  you  would  use  the  decimal  values  1,  2,  4,  8,  16,  32,  64,  128,  256,  512,  1024,  2048,  4096,  8192,  16384,  32768  (powers  of  two)  for  the  conversion.    Because  we  know  binary  is  base  2  then  the  above  could  be  wriBen  as:    1*27  +  0*26  +  0*25  +  1*24  +  1*23  +  1*22  +  0*21  +  1*20  =  157.    

9  

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Encoding  Systems:  Bits  and  Bytes  

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Part  02  –  Data  Organiza/on  (File  System)  

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The Hard Disk

•  Modern  disks  are  organized  at  two  levels:  • Physical  Organiza;on  

– “Plan”  for  using  the  medium  – Sectors,  Cylinders,  Clusters,  Blocks  – Contains  12  disk  plaBers  stacked  on  a  spindle  – This  is  fixed  at  the  hardware  level  

•  Logical  Organiza;on  – “Plan”  for  storing  data  on  the  disk  – Par;;ons,  Folders  and  Files  

Hard  Disk  Organiza/on  

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The Hard Disk

•  Fixed  magne;c  disk  •  Hard  disk  

–  1  to  5.25  inches  –  20  GB  to  2  TB  –  Contains  12  disk  plaBers  stacked  on  a  spindle  

–  Disk  spins  over  a  read/write  head  

–  Access  arms  float  over  the  disk  

•  Portable  hard  disk  –  External  hard  disk  

•  Interchangeable  hard  disk  –  Portable  hard  disk  to  swap  out  

Hard  Disk  –  Physical  Organiza/on  

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•  Data  are  stored  in  tracks    –  80  tracks  on  a  diskeBe  –  Thousands  on  hard  disks  

•  Sectors  are  used  to  store  and  retrieve  data  –  Recording  surface  is  divided  in  pie  slices  

–  Hard  disks  have  thousands  of  sectors  

•  Adjacent  sectors  form  clusters  –  Each  cluster  is  numbered  

Hard  Disk  –  Physical  Organiza/on  

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The  process  of  accessing  data  has  4  steps.      1.    Seek    2.    Rotate    3.    Se[le    4.    Data  transfer  

Hard  Disk  –  Physical  Organiza/on  

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At the logical level, disks are organized as a series of files, within directories, located on a disk partition.

Disk Partition

With improvements in disk addressability, partitioning of disks is now used mainly to host more

than one file system on a single

physical medium.

Hard  Disk  –  Logical  Organiza/on  

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File System

Each Operating System will have a list of file systems that it supports. For example, Windows supports:

FAT, FAT16, FAT32, NTFS, as well as file systems for CD and DVD.

A file system is created when you “format” a partition.

This file system provides a Master Boot Record (to help the system start), an Index (table) of positions on the disk where files can be located, and a table connecting file positions to the file’s name and parent directory.

Hard  Disk  –  Logical  Organiza/on  

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File Fragmentation

As the system allocates space on the disk (a cluster of blocks) over time, files eventually become non-contiguous or “fragmented”.

This slows down working

with the files, due to the 4

access steps being repeated

multiple times.

Hard  Disk  –  Logical  Organiza/on  

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Part  03  –  Data  Organiza/on  (Database)  

Chapter  05  

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Principles  and  Learning  Objec/ves  

•  Data  management  and  modeling  are  key  aspects  of  organizing  data  and  informa;on    – Define  general  data  management  concepts  and  terms,  highligh;ng  the  advantages  of  the  database  approach  to  data  management  

– Describe  the  rela;onal  database  model  and  outline  its  basic  features  

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Principles  and  Learning  Objec/ves  (con/nued)  

•  A  well-­‐designed  and  well-­‐managed  database  is  an  extremely  valuable  tool  in  suppor;ng  decision  making    –  Iden;fy  the  common  func;ons  performed  by  all  database  management  systems  and  iden;fy  popular  user  database  management  systems  

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Principles  and  Learning  Objec/ves  (con/nued)  

•  The  number  and  types  of  database  applica;ons  will  con;nue  to  evolve  and  yield  real  business  benefits  –  Iden;fy  and  briefly  discuss  current  database  applica;ons  

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Why  Learn  About  Database  Systems?  

•  Database  systems  process  and  organize  large  amounts  of  data  

•     Examples:  – Marke;ng  manager  can  access  customer  data  – Corporate  lawyer  can  access  past  cases  and  opinions  

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Introduc/on  

•  Database:  an  organized  collec;on  of  data  •  Database  management  system  (DBMS):  group  of  programs  to  manage  database  – Manipulates  database  –  Provides  an  interface  between  database  and  the  user  of  the  database  and  other  applica;on  programs  

•  Database  administrator  (DBA):  skilled  IS  professional  who  directs  all  ac;vi;es  related  to  an  organiza;on’s  database  

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Data  Management  

•  Without  data  and  the  ability  to  process  it,  an  organiza;on  could  not  successfully  complete  most  business  ac;vi;es  

•  Data  consists  of  raw  facts  •  To  transform  data  into  useful  informa;on,  it  must  first  be  organized  in  a  meaningful  way  

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The  Hierarchy  of  Data  

•  Bit  (a  binary  digit):  represents  a  circuit  that  is  either  on  or  off  

•  Byte:  typically  made  up  of  eight  bits  •  Character:  a  byte  represents  a  character;  the  basic  building  block  of  informa;on  –  Can  be  an  uppercase  leBer,  lowercase  leBer,  numeric  digit,  or  special  symbol  

•  Field:  typically  a  name,  number,  or  combina;on  of  characters  that  describes  an  aspect  of  a  business  object  or  ac;vity  

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The  Hierarchy  of  Data  (con/nued)  

•  Record:  collec;on  of  related  data  fields  •  File:  collec;on  of  related  records  •  Database:  collec;on  of  integrated  and  related  files  

•  Hierarchy  of  data  – Bits,  characters,  fields,  records,  files,  and  databases  

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The  Hierarchy  of  Data  (con/nued)  

Figure 5.1: The Hierarchy of Data

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Data  En//es,  A[ributes,  and  Keys  

•  En/ty:  generalized  class  of  people,  places,  or  things  (objects)  for  which  data  is  collected,  stored,  and  maintained  

•  A[ribute:  characteris;c  of  an  en;ty  •  Data  item:  specific  value  of  an  aBribute  •  Key:  field  or  set  of  fields  in  a  record  that  is  used  to  iden;fy  the  record  

•  Primary  key:  field  or  set  of  fields  that  uniquely  iden;fies  the  record  

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Data  En//es,  A[ributes,  and  Keys  (con/nued)  

Figure 5.2: Keys and Attributes

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 The  Database  Approach  

•  Tradi/onal  approach  to  data  management:  separate  data  files  are  created  and  stored  for  each  applica;on  program  

•  Database  approach  to  data  management:  a  pool  of  related  data  is  shared  by  mul;ple  applica;on  programs  – Offers  significant  advantages  over  the  tradi;onal  file-­‐based  approach  

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The  Database  Approach  (con/nued)  

Figure 5.3: The Database Approach to Data Management

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The  Database  Approach  (con/nued)  

Table 5.1: Advantages of the Database Approach

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The  Database  Approach  (con/nued)  

Table 5.1: Advantages of the Database Approach (continued)

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The  Database  Approach  (con/nued)  

Table 5.2: Disadvantages of the Database Approach

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Data  Modeling  and  the  Rela/onal  Database  Model  

•  When  building  a  database,  an  organiza;on  must  consider:  – Content:  What  data  should  be  collected  and  at  what  cost?  

– Access:  What  data  should  be  provided  to  which  users  and  when?  

– Logical  structure:  How  should  data  be  arranged  so  that  it  makes  sense  to  a  given  user?  

– Physical  organiza6on:  Where  should  data  be  physically  located?  

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Data  Modeling  

•  Building  a  database  requires  two  types  of  designs  – Logical  design:  abstract  model  of  how  the  data  should  be  structured  and  arranged  to  meet  an  organiza;on’s  informa;on  needs  

– Physical  design:  starts  from  the  logical  database  design  and  fine-­‐tunes  it  for  performance  and  cost  considera;ons  

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Data  Modeling  (con/nued)  

•  Data  model:  diagram  of  data  en;;es  and  their  rela;onships  

•  En/ty-­‐rela/onship  (ER)  diagrams:  data  models  that  use  basic  graphical  symbols  to  show  the  organiza;on  of  and  rela;onships  between  data  

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Data  Modeling  (con/nued)  

Figure 5.4: An Entity-Relationship (ER) Diagram for a Customer Order Database

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The  Rela/onal  Database  Model  

•  Rela/onal  model:  describes  data  in  which  all  data  elements  are  placed  in  two-­‐dimensional  tables,  called  rela;ons,  that  are  the  logical  equivalent  of  files  – Each  row  of  a  table  represents  a  data  en;ty  – Columns  of  the  table  represent  aBributes  – Domain:  allowable  values  for  data  aBributes  

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The  Rela/onal  Database  Model  (con/nued)  

Figure 5.5: A Relational Database Model

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The  Rela/onal  Database  Model  (con/nued)  

•  Selec/ng:  eliminates  rows  according  to  certain  criteria  

•  Projec/ng:  eliminates  columns  in  a  table  •  Joining:  combines  two  or  more  tables  •  Linking:  manipula;ng  two  or  more  tables  that  share  at  least  one  common  data  aBribute  to  provide  useful  informa;on  and  reports  

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The  Rela/onal  Database  Model  (con/nued)  

Figure 5.6: A Simplified ER Diagram Showing the Relationship Between the Manager, Department, and Project Tables

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The  Rela/onal  Database  Model  (con/nued)  

Figure 5.7: Linking Data Tables to Answer an Inquiry

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The  Rela/onal  Database  Model  (con/nued)  

•  Data  cleanup:  process  of  looking  for  and  fixing  inconsistencies  to  ensure  that  data  is  accurate  and  complete  –  Eliminate  redundancies  and  anomalies  

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The  Rela/onal  Database  Model  (con/nued)  

Table 5.3: Fitness Center Dues

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The  Rela/onal  Database  Model  (con/nued)  

Table 5.5: Dues Paid

Table 5.4: Fitness Center Members

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Database  Management  Systems  (DBMSs)  

•  Crea;ng  and  implemen;ng  the  right  database  system  ensures  that  the  database  will  support  both  business  ac;vi;es  and  goals  

•  DBMS:  a  group  of  programs  used  as  an  interface  between  a  database  and  applica;on  programs  or  a  database  and  the  user  

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Overview  of  Database  Types  

•  Flat  file  –  Simple  database  program  whose  records  have  no  rela;onship  to  one  another  

•  Single  user  – Only  one  person  can  use  the  database  at  a  ;me  –  Examples:  Access,  FileMaker,  and  InfoPath  

•  Mul;ple  user  – Allows  dozens  or  hundreds  of  people  to  access  the  same  database  system  at  the  same  ;me  

–  Examples:  Oracle,  Sybase,  and  IBM  

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Providing  a  User  View  

•  Schema:  descrip;on  of  the  en;re  database  – Typically  used  by  large  database  systems  to  define  tables  and  other  database  features  associated  with  a  person  or  user  

•  A  DBMS  can  reference  a  schema  to  find  where  to  access  the  requested  data  in  rela;on  to  another  piece  of  data  

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Crea/ng  and  Modifying  the  Database  

•  Data  defini/on  language  (DDL):  collec;on  of  instruc;ons  and  commands  used  to  define  and  describe  data  and  rela;onships  in  a  specific  database  – Allows  the  database’s  creator  to  describe  the  data  and  rela;onships  that  are  to  be  contained  in  the  schema  

•  Data  dic/onary:  detailed  descrip;on  of  all  the  data  used  in  the  database  

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Crea/ng  and  Modifying  the  Database  (con/nued)  

Figure 5.10: Using a Data Definition Language to Define a Schema

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Crea/ng  and  Modifying  the  Database  (con/nued)  

Figure 5.11: A Typical Data Dictionary Entry

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Storing  and  Retrieving  Data  

•  When  an  applica;on  program  requests  data  from  the  DBMS,  the  applica;on  program  follows  a  logical  access  path  

•  When  the  DBMS  goes  to  a  storage  device  to  retrieve  the  requested  data,  it  follows  a  path  to  the  physical  loca;on  (physical  access  path)  where  the  data  is  stored  

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Storing  and  Retrieving  Data  (con/nued)  

Figure 5.12: Logical and Physical Access Paths

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Manipula/ng  Data  and  Genera/ng  Reports  

•  Data  manipula/on  language  (DML):  commands  that  manipulate  the  data  in  a  database  

•  Structured  Query  Language  (SQL)  – Adopted  by  the  American  Na;onal  Standards  Ins;tute  (ANSI)  as  the  standard  query  language  for  rela;onal  databases  

•  Once  a  database  has  been  set  up  and  loaded  with  data,  it  can  produce  reports,  documents,  and  other  outputs  

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Manipula/ng  Data  and  Genera/ng  Reports  (con/nued)  

Table 5.6: Examples of SQL Commands

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Database  Administra/on  

•  Role  of  the  database  administrator  (DBA):  plan,  design,  create,  operate,  secure,  monitor,  and  maintain  databases  

•  DBA  works  with  both  users  and  programmers  •  A  data  administrator  is  responsible  for  defining  and  implemen;ng  consistent  principles  for  a  variety  of  data  issues,  including  sepng  data  standards  and  data  defini;ons;  a  nontechnical  posi;on  

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Popular  Database  Management  Systems  

•  Popular  DBMSs  for  end  users  include  Microsoq’s  Access  and  FileMaker  Pro  

•  Complete  database  management  soqware  market  includes:  –  Soqware  for  professional  programmers  – Databases  for  midrange,  mainframe,  and  supercomputers  

•  Examples  of  open-­‐source  database  systems:  PostgreSQL  and  MySQL  

•  Many  tradi;onal  database  programs  are  now  available  on  open-­‐source  opera;ng  systems  

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Special-­‐Purpose  Database  Systems  

•  Some  specialized  database  packages  are  used  for  specific  purposes  or  in  specific  industries  –  Israeli  Holocaust  Database  (www.yadvashem.org)  – Hazmat  database  – Art  and  An;que  Organizer  Deluxe  

•  Special-­‐purpose  database  by  Tableau  can  be  used  to  store  and  process  visual  images  

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Selec/ng  a  Database  Management  System  

•  Important  characteris;cs  of  databases  to  consider  – Database  size  – Database  cost  – Concurrent  users  – Performance  –  Integra;on  – Vendor  

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Using  Databases  with  Other  Sojware  

•  DBMSs  can  act  as  front-­‐end  or  back-­‐end  applica;ons  – Front-­‐end  applica;ons  interact  directly  with  people  or  users  

– Back-­‐end  applica;ons  interact  with  other  programs  or  applica;ons  

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Database  Applica/ons  

•  Today’s  database  applica;ons  manipulate  the  content  of  a  database  to  produce  useful  informa;on  

•  Common  manipula;ons  are  searching,  filtering,  synthesizing,  and  assimila;ng  the  data  contained  in  a  database  using  a  number  of  database  applica;ons  

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Linking  Databases  to  the  Internet  

•  Linking  databases  to  the  Internet  is  important  for  many  organiza;ons  and  people  

•  Seman;c  Web  – Developing  a  seamless  integra;on  of  tradi;onal  databases  with  the  Internet  

– Allows  people  to  access  and  manipulate  a  number  of  tradi;onal  databases  at  the  same  ;me  through  the  Internet  

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Data  Warehouses,  Data  Marts,  and  Data  Mining  

•  Data  warehouse:  database  that  collects  business  informa;on  from  many  sources  in  the  enterprise,  covering  all  aspects  of  the  company’s  processes,  products,  and  customers  

•  Data  mart:  subset  of  a  data  warehouse  •  Data  mining:  informa;on-­‐analysis  tool  that  involves  the  automated  discovery  of  paBerns  and  rela;onships  in  a  data  warehouse  

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Data  Warehouses,  Data  Marts,  and  Data  Mining  (con/nued)  

Figure 5.17: Elements of a Data Warehouse

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Data  Warehouses,  Data  Marts,  and  Data  Mining  (con/nued)  

Table 5.8: Common Data-Mining Applications

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Business  Intelligence  

•  Business  intelligence  (BI):  process  of  gathering  enough  of  the  right  informa;on  in  a  ;mely  manner  and  usable  form  and  analyzing  it  to  have  a  posi;ve  impact  on  business  strategy,  tac;cs,  or  opera;ons  – Turns  data  into  useful  informa;on  that  is  then  distributed  throughout  an  enterprise  

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Business  Intelligence  (con/nued)  

•  Compe//ve  intelligence:  aspect  of  business  intelligence  limited  to  informa;on  about  compe;tors  and  the  ways  that  knowledge  affects  strategy,  tac;cs,  and  opera;ons  

•  Counterintelligence:  steps  an  organiza;on  takes  to  protect  informa;on  sought  by  “hos;le”  intelligence  gatherers  

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Distributed  Databases  

•  Distributed  database  – Database  in  which  the  data  may  be  spread  across  several  smaller  databases  connected  via  telecommunica;ons  devices  

– Gives  corpora;ons  more  flexibility  in  how  databases  are  organized  and  used  

•  Replicated  database  – Database  that  holds  a  duplicate  set  of  frequently  used  data  

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Online  Analy/cal  Processing  (OLAP)  

•  Soqware  that  allows  users  to  explore  data  from  a  number  of  different  perspec;ves  

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Online  Analy/cal  Processing  (OLAP)  (con/nued)  

Table 5.9: Comparison of OLAP and Data Mining

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Object-­‐Oriented  and  Object-­‐Rela/onal  Database  Management  Systems  

•  Object-­‐oriented  database:  database  that  stores  both  data  and  its  processing  instruc;ons  – Method:  procedure  or  ac;on  – Message:  request  to  execute  or  run  a  method  

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Object-­‐Oriented  and  Object-­‐Rela/onal  Database  Management  Systems  (con/nued)  

•  Object-­‐oriented  database  management  system  (OODBMS):  group  of  programs  that  manipulate  an  object-­‐oriented  database  and  provide  a  user  interface  and  connec;ons  to  other  applica;on  programs  

•  Object-­‐rela/onal  database  management  system  (ORDBMS):  DBMS  capable  of  manipula;ng  audio,  video,  and  graphical  data  

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Visual,  Audio,  and  Other  Database  Systems  

•  Databases  for  storing  images  •  Databases  for  storing  sound  •  Virtual  database  systems:  allow  different  databases  to  work  together  as  a  unified  database  system  

•  Other  special-­‐purpose  database  systems  – Spa;al  data  technology:  stores  and  accesses  data  according  to  the  loca;ons  it  describes  and  permits  spa;al  queries  and  analysis  


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