Hindawi Publishing CorporationGeography JournalVolume 2013 Article ID 325808 9 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552013325808
Review ArticleTectonic Control on Drainage Network Evolution inthe Upper Narmada Valley Implication to Neotectonics
Girish Ch Kothyari and B K Rastogi
Institute of Seismological Research Raisan Gandhinagar Gujarat 382 009 India
Correspondence should be addressed to Girish Ch Kothyari kothyarigirish krediffmailcom
Received 15 May 2013 Revised 12 August 2013 Accepted 17 August 2013
Academic Editor Biswajeet Pradhan
Copyright copy 2013 G Ch Kothyari and B K Rastogi This is an open access article distributed under the Creative CommonsAttribution License which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work isproperly cited
Convergence of the Indian plate towards Eurasia is reflected in neotectonics along several zones throughout the Indian plateNeotectonics of the upper Narmada river basin following one of the active Son-Narmada Fault (SNF central part) zones in centralPeninsular India has been studied through tectonic geomorphometric parameters The study area is 175 km wide and 400 km longvalley and catchment area of upperNarmada river basin inMadhyaPradesh stateHigh resolutionASTERdata indicates neotectonicfeatures like sudden changes in drop of Narmada river floor at two locations around Jabalpur formed by conjugate normal faultsCross profiles indicate uplift of the entire area by a few hundred meters south of the Son-Narmada south fault Basin asymmetryparameter indicates northward shifting of the river course from middle of the basin due to uplift of the southern block
1 Introduction
Cratonic part of central India has witnessed reactivation dur-ing Precambrian Later during Cretaceous a sim1600 km longand 200 km wide ENE-WSW trending rift zone developed incentral Indian peninsula [1]Three pericontinental rift basinswere formed in the western margin of the Indian shield TheSon-Narmada rift developed in parallel to the Satpura trendduring late Cretaceous while the Cambay graben formed incolinearity with the Dharwar trend during early Cretaceous[2] The Son-Narmada fault (SNF) zone has a Precambrianancestry which separates Vindhyan basin to its north andthe Gondwana belt southwards [3] In both northern andsouthern regions of the Son-Narmada lineament verticalblock movements have been reported [3 4] Due to thesemovements the Bijawar group of rocks within the SNF zonegot uplifted during the time of sedimentation in VindhyanSupergroup [5] Presence of series of ENE-WSW trendingsubsurface structures within the sediments of Cambay basinsuggests extension of Satpura trend across the basinTheNE-SW Aravalli-Delhi trend is well reflected in northern part ofCambay basin [2 6] Faults and lineaments aremainly alignedparallelsubparallel to the major tectonic grains Along
the marginal faults of Cambay basin the Deccan Trapshave been downfaulted (3000ndash5000m) throw being morein eastern marginal fault has resulted in asymmetric grabenstructure [7ndash10] The Son-Narmada faultlineament andTapi north Fault have ENE-WSW trend and control thecourse of main drainage system [11] The Son-Narmada-Tapi (SONATA) zone extends WNW up to the shore ofthe Arabian Sea Represented by a fault pair SONATAdefines Narmada rift valley and Satpura horst Tapi Faultmarks the southern boundary of the Satpura range andnorthern boundary of Tapi alluvium Several hot springs arereported in close proximity of this fault zone Importantlineaments present in this area includeWest Coast Jaisalmer-Barwani Rikhabdev Chambal-Jamnagar Kishangarh-Chipri(NE corner of Figure 1) and Pisangan-Vadnagar lineaments[2] (Figures 1(a) and 1(b)) The SNF zone divides the Indianplate into two halves and has a long tectonic history datingback to the Archaean time trending ENE-WSW Both Nar-mada and Tapi rivers all through their courses follow thesetectonic trends (Figures 1(a) and 1(b)) Geophysical studies inthe SNF zone reveal that this is a zone of intense deep seatedfaultingwhich reactivated around 25ndash22 and 15ndash09Ga [12]The faults dip steeply by 70∘ndash80∘ [13] The throw of the faults
2 Geography Journal
Vyara
Shahada
Baroda
Rajpipla
Rajpur
DohadGodhra
Ahmedabad
Broach
Basic volcanicsQuaternary sedimentsProterozoic fold belt
Ancient shear zoneHot springQuaternary sedimentary fillActive fault with downthrow amount Active tear fault
FFFF
F
F
F
F F
F
Mah
i R
Barwani F
Harda
Central In
dian S Z
Son R
Tapi R
Tan Shear Z
74∘
24∘
24∘
22∘
76∘
78∘
80∘
Pachmarhi
Katni
Bhopal
Indore
Rajpipla
100 km
200 m
74∘
76∘
80∘
1000 m
1000 m
(b)
Figure 1 (a) Geological map of Narmada river valley shows major lineaments in the area [2] (b) Map shows active grabens the Narmadagraben in the north and Tapi graben in the south [15 23] Elevations of a few points are given
Geography Journal 3
785 79 795 80 805 81 815
23
22
235
225
3004005006007008009001000
12001100
1300
Narsihapur
Nainpur
Chilpi
Jabalpur
Amarkantak
SNNF
SNNF
SNSF
SNSF
North Tapti Fault Central Indian Shear Zone
78∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘
∘
∘
∘
∘
Figure 2 Digital elevation model (DEM) of upper Narmada valley showing development of major landforms and position of major faultscontrolling the drainage basin SNNF is Son-Narmada north fault and SNSF is Son-Narmada south fault
is of the order of 1500 to 1800m [14] The Narmada grabenis displaced by 20ndash30m along multiplicity of transverse tearfaults Pleistocene sedimentary terraces in SNF zone are tilted20ndash25∘ in the tract Hardi-Jabalpur and are also displaced 10ndash15m near Navagram [15]The seismic structure and existenceof sedimentary basin of SONATA zone is interpreted byMurty et al [16] and Kumar et al [17] using 2D crustalseismic velocity models and 2D gravity modeling by Mishra[18] Verma and Banerjee [19] Sridhar and Tewari [20] andMishra et al [21]The high Bouguer gravity anomaly betweenJabalpur andMandla suggests localized uplift of SNSF and thepresence of a magmatic body at different depths Murty et al[16] have concluded that the upper Vindhyans directly overliethe Archaean basement between Hirapur and NarsinghgarhBetween Narsinghgarh and Katangi the Vindhyan basinconsists of the upper and lower Vindhyans [22] Narmadafault zone is divided into two parts namely Son-Narmadanorth fault (SNNF) and Son-Narmada south fault (SNSF)Using the basin morphology and drainage network anattempt has been made to understand the role of geologicalstructure in the evolution of drainage basin
2 Tectonic Setting andStratigraphy of (SONATA)
The Satpura range is bounded by Narmada graben in thenorth and the Tapi graben in the south Seismic reflection andwide angle reflection data across the Son-Narmada lineamentclearly bring out its graben character underneath the Deccanlavas in the west [24 25] These demonstrate presence ofa horst like feature between the north Narmada fault andthe south Narmada fault in the eastern part [22] (Figures1(a) and 1(b)) The 1300 km long Narmada river in centralIndia flows through three major bedrock gorges separatedby alluvial basins In the downstream direction these are theMarble Canyon near Jabalpur Punasa Gorge near Khandwaand Dhadgaon Gorge west of Barwani [26] These horst likefeatures are associated with a midcrustal and Moho upwarpimplying its formation as a result of deep seated tectonics in
the Precambrian time [27]The grabens exhibit high heat flowof 290plusmn50mWperm2 in the Tattapani-Jhor area inNarmadarift and 97ndash135mWm2 at Salbardi in the Tapi valley [13]Thegraben is continuing to subside along delimiting fault Therecent activity on the faults defining the graben is evidentfrom abrupt eastward swing and reaches up to northerlyflowing tributaries of the Narmada river along the foot ofthe alluvial scarp parallel to the graben fault Various faultblocks and their alluvial cones are consequently sunken andtilted up to 300m [15] in depth as seen in seismic profile [22]which shows that the basement-sediment contact is formedat 200ndash300m depth The Narmada-Tapi domain is thus abelt of tectonic resurgence where streams show deflectionof channels as is evident from their longitudinal profiles(Figure 2) In the lower reaches of the Narmada there wasslow subsidence of the basin during the late Pleistocene timefollowed by inversion of movement in the Holocene [11]
The SONATA zone in central Indian shield divides theIndian plate into two halves and has a long tectonic historydating back to the Archaean times [27] and trends in ENE-WSW direction and is laterally traceable for more than1000 km [11] It demarcates the Peninsular India into twogeologically distinct provinces the Vindhyan-Bundelkhandprovince to the north and the Deccan province to the southThe Narmada and Tapi rivers throughout their course followthese tectonic trends that are also known as central Indiantectonic zone (CITZ) [12 28ndash30] The zone witnessed large-scale tectonothermal events associated with large graniticintrusions around 25ndash22 and 15ndash09Ga [12] It was againreactivated during the Deccan volcanic eruption during LateCretaceous-Palaeocene [11 31] The region is crisscrossed byE-W-trending dykes which were probably formed due tomain centre of eruptive activity [32] and the zone is ther-momechanically and seismically vulnerable in the frameworkof contemporary tectonism [32] Seismic reflection and wideangle reflection data of Dixit et al [25] reveal three Tertiarysedimentary subbasins the Mehmadabad-Jambusar basinthe Jambusar-Kosamba basin and the Kosamba-Bilimorabasin These basins are vertically offset relative to each otheralong high-angle faults and the maximum depth (sim95 km)
4 Geography Journal
to the graniticProterozoic basement (58ndash60 km sminus1) in theregion occurs in the Jambusar-Broach area Near-surfacesedimentary rocks within the subbasins are underlain byDeccan Trap volcanics (475ndash52 km sminus1) which have alsobeen vertically offsetted [25] The westward extension of thiszone into the lower Narmada valley exhibits a less complexstructural setting In the lower Narmada basin it is expressedas a single deep-seated fault (NSF) confirmed by the deepseismic sounding studies [25 33] Seismic reflection studieshave firmly established that the NSF is a normal fault in thesubsurface and becomes markedly reverse near the surface[34] Reactivation of the fault in Late Cretaceous led to theformation of a depositional basin in which marine Bagh bedswere deposited [35] The NSF remained tectonically activesince then with continuous subsidence of the northern blockdesignated as the Broach block which accommodated 6-7 km thick Cenozoic sediments in Cambay basin [11 35]TheCenozoic sections within the SONATA zone shows offsettingof litho units [34] however the movements along thisfault have not been unidirectional throughout The generaltendency of the basin to subside has been punctuated byphases of structural and tectonic inversion [34] The N-S-directed compressive stresses during the early Quaternaryfolded the Tertiary sediments into a broad syncline theBroach syncline in the rapidly subsiding northern block[34]
3 Geomorphometric Analysis
31 Methodology It is well recognized that the commonlyused geomorphometric indices of active tectonics are pow-erful tools to evaluate the relationship between tectonics andbasin morphology to identify geologically recent deforma-tions [36ndash38] Calculation of the number of geomorpho-metric indices for a large region such as central peninsularIndia was made possible by the analysis of ASTER 15 arcsecond satellite data The ASTER data have been found tobe suitable for regional scale morphometric analysis [3940] The Narmada river originates from Amarkantak ata height of 1068masl (above sea level) and merges ingulf of Khambhat west of Bharuch Longitudinal profileof Narmada river has been generated with the help ofASTER DEM to ascertain the role of majorminor struc-tures in the evolution of valley landforms (Figure 2) Forgeomorphometry four commonly used geomorphic indicesof active tectonics such as stream length gradient index (SL)asymmetry factor (AF) transverse-topographic symmetry(119879) and valley floor height Ratio (Vf) have been usedwhich are calculated for the different segmentsThese indicesare considered powerful tools to evaluate the relationshipbetween tectonics and basin morphology on the regional orbasin scale and to identify geologically recent deformation[36 40]
32 Stream Length Gradient Index (SL) The SL is usedto infer stream power and rock erodibility [41] due to itssensitivity to disequilibrium state of channels due to tectonic
950
700
450
2000 100 200 300 400 500
Narsihapur
Mandla
Shahpuri
Amarkantak
200400
800100012001400
600
20406080
100120
Bhedaghat
Distance (km)
SNSF
SL in
dex
Elev
atio
n (m
)
Inci
sion
(m)
River profileSL indexIncision (m)
Figure 3 Longitudinal profile ofNarmada river showing position ofknick points at two places along the river Changes in river gradientare marked by increasedecrease of SL index values as plotted by redbrocken line Solid blue line indicates bedrock depth incision alongthe longitudinal trace of river Narmada
and climatic perturbation in the channel slope [38] Thegradient index is expressed as
SL = (Δ119867Δ119871
) times 119871 (1)
where Δ119867 is the change in elevation of the reach Δ119871 is thechange in length of the reach and 119871 is the total length of thechannel from the point where the SL index is being calculatedupstream to the highest point on the channel [41] Abruptchanges in slope (Δ119867Δ119871) and the SL index have proved tobe an excellent method to evaluate the ongoing processes ofuplift of the underlying structures [42]The SL index has beencalculated all along the river profile which shows anomalousvalues in the vicinity of Shahpuri Mandla and BhedaghatareasThe SL values range from 100 to 390 (between Shahpuriand Mandla) and from 100 to 1400 (between SNSF andBhedaghat) The highest value (1400) is observed in vicinityof Bhedaghat area where the river passes through SNSF Inthe SNSF zone the river also shows high stream incision(Figure 3) The estimated incision depth in Amarkantak anddownstream ranges between 10 and 120m In Shahpuri andMandla area the incision depth ranges between 5 and 50mwhereas the incision depth of SNSF zone ranges between 5and 40m Sudden increase of SL values implies differentialuplift
33 Basin Asymmetry (AF) The outcome of stream lengthanalysis is supported by evidence gathered from basin asym-metric factor The asymmetry factor was developed to detecttectonic tilt by using the formula
AF = 100 (ArAt) (2)
where AF is the asymmetry factor Ar is the area of the basinto the right and At is total area of basin The asymmetry
Geography Journal 5
Nainpur
Chilpi
Amarkantak
Jabalpur
Narsihapur
MandlaPachmarhi
North Tapi fault
SNSF
SNNF
Central Indian Shear zone
D
ECBA
N
T = 074
T = 065
T = 033
T = 017T = 027
T = 046
T = 004
At = 30909kmAf = 40Al = 23366km
Ar = 15724km
AF = 100(ArAt)
A998400
B998400 C998400 D998400
E998400
78∘ 785∘ 79∘ 795∘ 80∘ 805∘ 81∘ 815∘
22∘
225∘
23∘
235∘
Basin Midline
Figure 4 Drainage map of upper Narmada river basin showing calculated values of basin asymmetry (AF) topographic symmetric factor(119879) solid white lines (A-A1015840 B-B1015840 C-C1015840 D-D1015840 and E-E1015840) indicate cross-profile directions
factor of 40 points to regional tectonic tilt towards the NNWdirection (Figure 4) Tilting of topography may be associatedwith activity of ENE-WSW trending SNF zone
34 Transverse Topographic Symmetry (119879) Transverse topo-graphic symmetry is another quantitative parameter to eval-uate tectonic tilt of basin it is expressed as
119879 =
DaDd (3)
where Da is the distance from midline of the drainage basinto the midline of the active meander belt Dd is the distancefrom the basin midline to basin divide In general the valueof 119879 ranges from 0 to 1 119879 = 0 implies a perfectly symmetricalbasin and 119879 = 1 indicates a perfectly asymmetrical one[43] Tectonic deformation impacts the drainage of that areathrough changes in the channel slope [44] In present studythe observed value of 119879 for Narmada river ranges from 004to 065 for (SNSF) implying ground tilting of river basins(Figure 4)
35 Valley Floor Height and Width Ratio (Vf) Valley floorheight and width ratio (Vf) is defined as an index of the formshape of the valley indicates whether the river is activelydowncutting and incising [36] by
Vf = 2Vfw((Eld minus Esc) + (Erd minus Esc))
(4)
where Vf is the valley floor width-to height ratio Vfw is thewidth of the valley floor Eld and Erd are elevations of the leftand right valley divides respectively and Esc is the elevationof the valley floor The downcutting of valley is commonlyassociated with the higher rate of uplift in tectonically activeareas The small values of Vf (lt1) reflect deep narrow Vshaped valleys which are commonly associated with relative
rapid uplift [40] In contrast high values (gt1) are markersof wide open valleys in the regions of minimal uplift rates[37] The index is used to evaluate tectonic activity alongfront impediment faults along the Son-Narmada south faultWe observed lower value of Vf towards the eastern limit ofJabalpur and comparatively higher value towards west whichreflects that the eastern margin of Jabalpur is tectonicallymore active than the western limit Near Jabalpur Narsingh-pur and Hoshangabad the Vf values are 2431 246 and2565 which are associated with broad open valleys indicatinglateral erosion due to stability of base level and less tectonicactivity NearAmarkantak andMandla the obtainedVf ratiosare 1255 and 1452 which are associated with intense tectonicperturbation in Quaternary time
The elevation difference in N-S profiles shows that thesouthern block of basin is uplifted and the entire topographyis tilted towards NNW direction (Figure 5) The southernblock of basin is much elevated along the SNF and hasrugged topography as compared to the northern block Thesouthern block is devoid of any Quaternary and indicatescontinuous uplift and erosion of the bed rocks The presenceof Quaternary deposits towards the north of basin suggestssubsidence of the northern block relative to differential upliftof the southern block
Neotectonic activity in Jabalpur area includes seismicactivity and development of young geomorphic featuresThese features include development of strath terraces withhuge Pleistocene (9ndash40Ka) alluvial cover all along the rivercourse and formation of gorges (sim100m deep) with steepvertical wall and development of 10m high waterfall [26]Incision and steepening of Narmada river floor with verticalwall probably formed due to vertical tectonic movement ofNarmada faults during 60ndash40 ka [26]
36 Seismicity and GPS Observations Historical and instru-mental records indicate that the compressive stresses still
6 Geography Journal
375500625650675
SNNFSNSF
Narmada R
Pachmarhi
A
N
S
80 90706050403020100A998400
(a)
Narsihapur
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
350400450500550600650SNNF SNSF
Narmada RN
S
B B 998400
(b)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
350400450500550600
SNNF SNSFNarmada R
Lakhnadon
N
S
C C998400
(c)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
350400450500550SNNF SNSF
Narmada RBhedaghat
N S
D998400D
(d)
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
500625750875
SNSF Narmada R Central IndianShear Zone
ChilpiNS
E E 998400
(e)
Figure 5 Cross-valley profiles have been constructed along the lines A-A1015840 B-B1015840 C-C1015840 D-D1015840 and E-E1015840 to show variation of topographytowards north and south directions The elevation difference in N-S profiles shows that the southern block of basin is uplifted
1970 (M 54) 1997 (M 60)
Focal mechanism
1906
1970
Baroda
1863
Indore
18481962Khandwa
Itarsi
19691957
Betul
190318461997 (M 60)
Mandla
JABALPUR
Tan Shear Z
1927(M65)
FFFFFFFF
F F F FF
FF
1938M 63
100 kmJalgaon1869Girna
Surat
Reservoir1997M 60
Kosanghat
10 km
Strike-slip motion
1951
After
shoc
ks
S Narmada F
Tapi R
Bhopal
Narmada R
North Narmada F
South Narmada F
Bharuch Jabalpur
23∘
23∘
80∘
80∘
24∘
20∘
22∘
72∘
74∘
76∘
∐
Figure 6 Tectonic map of SONATA shows epicentral distribution of earthquakes [15 48 49]The index beach ball shows thrust faulting withstrike-slip component
continue to accumulate along the fault zone due to continuednorthward movement of the Indian plate This is evidencedby the fault solution studies of the earthquakes at Broach(23 March 1970) and Jabalpur (22 May 1997) (Figures 1(a)and 6) which suggest a thrusting movement [45ndash47] Results
obtained fromgeomorphometric observationswere validatedand crosschecked with the results obtained from seismic andGPS observations of various workers The ongoing move-ments are manifest in recurrent seismicity in upper Narmadacatchment of central IndiaThe enhanced earthquake activity
Geography Journal 7
in SONATA zone occurred during the period 1876 to 1993which includes 23 March 1970 Bharuch earthquake of Mw54 1927 event of Mw 65 that occurred southwest of Rewa1938 earthquake of Mw 63 near Khandwa 1945 earthquakeof Mw 57 in Navagam and the 1997 Jabalpur earthquakeof Mw 60 (Figure 6) The 22 May 1997 Jabalpur earthquakeoccurred at a depth of 36plusmn4 km along an ENE-WSE trendingfault [48] Fault plane solution indicates reverse faulting witha component of left lateral strike-slip motion [49] This isthe first significant strong earthquake that was recorded bythe broadband stations of the national network and the focaldepth was well estimated using the depth phases [50] It isobserved that the earthquake was associated with the Nar-mada rift and was of deep crustal source The seismic cross-section of the main shock and aftershocks by Kayal [49]indicates that the south dipping Narmada south fault (NSF)the southern margin fault of the Narmada rift basin wasactivated by reverse faulting and the earthquakes occurredat depth of 35 km and up The seismic pattern in upperNarmada catchments is directly correlated with geomorphicindices suggesting that the eastern limit of upper Narmadariver is more active than western limit Occurrence of 18461903 1927 and 1997 tremors in and around the eastern limitof Jabalpur was correlated with lines of evidence gatheredfrom geomorphic datasets The observations by Kayal [49]further suggest that the rift basin boundary faults are mantlereaching these faults are developed in tensional regime in thegeological past and are now under compressive stress due tothe NNE movement of the Indian plate [51]
Occurrence of seismicity in Son-Narmada fault zone wasfurther allied with GPS observation of Banerjee et al [52] andApel et al [51] (Figure 7)The velocitymodel of Apel et al [51]shows northwardmotion in the south and southwardmotionin the north across the SNF zone as indicated by black vectorsin Figure 7 indicateing that the central part of India is undercontraction [52]The Son-Narmada lineament zone separatesthe Indian subcontinent into two blocks [51] for examplenorth Indian and south Indian blocks showing 4mmyrcontraction in the east to 1mmyr in the west which suggestsN-S contraction in central India along SNF (Figure 7) TheNarmada-Son lineament through central India shows highheat flow and strain rate estimated from seismicity whichis larger than that in many stable continental regions andsuggests a concentration of intraplate deformation [53] It ispossible that the seismicity in the region is also enhanced bya thinned and weakened lithosphere due to passive-marginnormal faulting in the Cretaceous [6 25] and by heating fromthe plume head responsible for the late Cretaceous Deccanflood basalts [54 55]
4 Discussion
Increase of river gradient index in two places in and aroundJabalpur indicates vertical uplift due to N-S compressionalong SNF zone Valley floor height and width ratio andbasin asymmetric facture suggest that the entire basin is tiltedtowards NNW direction The geomorphometric database
1 PT India2 PT India
2 mmyr
30∘
60∘
70∘
20∘
10∘
90∘
80∘
Figure 7 Residual velocities shown for the 1-block model (blackvectors) and 2-block India model (white vectors) Separation of theIndian block (grey line) is along the Narmada-Son Lineament inCentral India [51] The relative pole of rotation for the 2-block Indiamodel is shown in thewest with a 20 sigma error ellipseThe rotationrate of 0162 degMy predicts contraction along the Narmada-Sonline from 5mmyr in the east to 0mmyr near the pole in the west(black triangles) Extensional rates in Arabian Sea are shown byWhite triangles [51]
and satellite data interpretation clearly suggest that the Son-Narmada south fault was activated during the Quaternarytime Various tectonically induced landforms were formedall along the Narmada river Shifting of river channel (nearAmarkantak) and waterfall formation of gorge with nearlyvertical wall in and around Bhedaghat and development ofstrath terraces are common landform features which wereformed due to movement along SNF These observationssuggest strain accumulation in the Son-Narmada fault zone
The geomagnetic field variation and GPS observationsalso suggested strain accumulation in the region A highgeomagnetic anomaly field variation inNarmada river regionranging between plusmn006 and plusmn954 nT indicates accumulationof stress within the SNF zone [1 51] On the basis ofaeromagnetic database Anand and Rajaram [56] believe thatthe two ENE-WSW and NW-SE trending tectonic featureswere reactivated in Quaternary time GPS observations ofApel et al [51] suggest that the strain is accumulating beneaththe Son-Narmada south fault The accumulation of strainbeneath this zone probably may cause strong earthquakes infuture
The morphometric indices and geomorphological obser-vations in the Narmada river suggest the role of seismicityin the evolution of fluvial landform Conventionally tiltingof the basin is attributed to tectonic control The Narmadariver is occupied by the rocks belonging to Vindhyan andSatpura towards upper reaches and Deccan basalt towardslower reaches The river system is controlled by two parallelfaults (SNNF and SNSF) The ongoing tectonic uplift alongpreexisting faults is conventionally examined through abruptchanges in river gradient The observed SL values betweenShahpuri and Mandla ((100ndash390) and (100ndash1400)) in and
8 Geography Journal
around Jabalpur suggest vertical tectonic processes alongSNSF The basin is tilting towards NNW due to tectonicmovement along SNSF zone (Figure 3) Towards the upperreaches the river shows southwest migrations where119879 rangesbetween 004 and 065 The lower reaches show migration ofriver towards NNWwhich is supported by observed 119879 (017ndash046) Migration of river can be assigned to low resistancebedrock or tectonic uplift along SNSF (Figure 4) The Vfvalue for upper reaches ranges between 1255 and 1452 andtowards lower reaches the Vf values are 2431 246 and2565 These abnormal changes in Vf towards upper andlower reaches could be associated with intense tectonic upliftFurther morphometric indices and geomorphic anomalies(water fall gorges etc) together indicate that the terrain isactive
5 Conclusion
(i) Morphometric indices and the drainage pattern indi-cate that Shahpuri-Mandla and Jabalpur-Narsihapursegments in the SNF zone are active and showingenhanced uplift in Narmada river basin
(ii) Geodetic observations of Apel et al [51] suggest thatthe SNSF zone is major stress accumulation zone inSONATA zone
(iii) Seismicity pattern and occurrence of moderate earth-quakes in the region implie that the area has potentialfor another moderate earthquake in future
Acknowledgments
The study was supported by Gujarat State Disaster Manage-ment Authority We thank the anonymous referees for theircritical reviews and constructive comments which helped toimprove the quality of the manuscript
References
[1] S YWaghmare and L Carlo ldquoGeomagnetic Investivation in theseismoactive area of Narmada-Son lineament Central IndiardquoJournal of Indian Geophysical Union vol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash10 2008
[2] Geological Survey of India Projet Crumansonata GeoscientificStudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi Lineament Zone 1995
[3] W D West ldquoThe line of Narmada-Valleyrdquo Current Science vol31 pp 143ndash144 1962
[4] J B Auden ldquoGeological discussion of the Satpura hypothesisrdquoProceedings of the National Institute of Sciences of India vol 15pp 315ndash340 1949
[5] M S Krishnan and J Swaminathan ldquoThe great Vindhyan basinof northern Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol1 pp 10ndash30 1959
[6] S Biswas I Coutand D Grujic C Hager D Stockli and BGrasemann ldquoExhumation and uplift of the Shillong plateauand its influence on the eastern Himalayas new constraintsfrom apatite and zircon (uth-[sm])he and apatite fission trackanalysesrdquo Tectonics vol 26 no 6 2007
[7] M N Qureshy ldquoGeophysical and Landsat lineamentmappingmdashan approach illustrated from West-Central and
South Indiardquo Photogrammetria vol 37 no 3ndash5 pp 161ndash1841982
[8] A K Jain N Annup and D C Singhal ldquoCrustal evolutionof the Narmada-Son lineament and associated shear zones ofthe Indian lithosphererdquo Indian Journal of Earth Science (CEISMSeminar) pp 125ndash148 1984
[9] D M Maurya R Rachna and L S Chamyal ldquoSeismicallyinduced deformational structures (seismites) from the mid-lateHolocene terraces lower mahi valley Gujaratrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 51 no 6 pp 755ndash758 1998
[10] D M Maurya R Rachna and L S Chamyal ldquoHistory oftectonic evolution of Gujarat alluvial plains western Indiaduring Quaternary a reviewrdquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 4 pp 343ndash366 2000
[11] L S Chamyal D M Maurya S Bhandari and R Raj ldquoLateQuaternary geomorphic evolution of the lower Narmada valleyWestern India implications for neotectonic activity along theNarmada-Son Faultrdquo Geomorphology vol 46 no 3-4 pp 177ndash202 2002
[12] S K Acharyya and A Roy ldquoTectonothermal history of the cen-tral Indian tectonic zone and reactivation of major faultsshearzonesrdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 55 no 3pp 239ndash256 2000
[13] R Shanker Geothermal Atlas of India Geological Survey ofIndia Kolkata India 1991
[14] D C Mishra and P Kumar ldquoCharacteristic of faults associatedwith Narmada-Son lineament and rock types of Jabalpursectionrdquo Current Science vol 75 pp 308ndash310 1998
[15] K S Valdiya The Making of Indian Geodynamic EvolutionMacmillian Publication House New Delhi India 2010
[16] A SNMurtyDMMall P RKMurty andP R Reddy ldquoTwo-dimensional crustal velocity structure along Hirapur-Mandlaprofile from seismic refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquoPure and Applied Geophysics vol 152 no 2 pp 247ndash266 1998
[17] PKumarHC Tewari andGKhandekar ldquoAn anomalous high-velocity layer at shallow crustal depths in the Narmada zoneIndiardquo Geophysical Journal International vol 142 no 1 pp 95ndash107 2000
[18] DCMishra ldquoMid-continent gravity ldquohighrdquo of central India andthe Gondwana tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 212 no 1-2 pp153ndash161 1992
[19] R K Verma and P Banerjee ldquoNature of continental crust alongthe Narmada-Son lineament inferred from gravity and deepseismic sounding datardquo Tectonophysics vol 202 no 2ndash4 pp375ndash397 1992
[20] A R Sridhar and H C Tewari ldquoExistence of a sedimentarygraben in the western part of Narmada Zone seismic evidencerdquoJournal of Geodynamics vol 31 no 1 pp 19ndash31 2001
[21] D C Mishra K Arora and V M Tiwari ldquoGravity anomaliesand associated tectonic features over the Indian Peninsularshield and adjoining ocean basinsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 379 no1ndash4 pp 61ndash76 2004
[22] H C Tewari A S N Murty P Kumar and A R Sridhar ldquoAtectonicmodel of the Narmada regionrdquoCurrent Science vol 80no 7 pp 873ndash878 2001
[23] V S Krishnaswamy andKR Raghunandan ldquoTheSatpura upliftand the palaeoclimate of the Holocene and auxiliary evidencefrom the Valmiki Ramayanardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 66 no 2 pp 161ndash170 2005
[24] K L Kaila P R K Murty D M Mall M M Dixit and DSarkar ldquoDeep seismic soundings alongHirapur-Mandla profile
Geography Journal 9
central Indiardquo Geophysical Journal of the Royal AstronomicalSociety vol 89 no 1 pp 399ndash404 1987
[25] M M Dixit H C Tewari and C V Rao ldquoTwo-dimensionalvelocity model of the crust beneath the South Cambay BasinIndia from refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquo Geophys-ical Journal International vol 181 no 2 pp 635ndash652 2010
[26] A Gupta V S Kale L A Owen and A K Singhvi ldquoLateQuaternary bedrock incision in the Narmada river at DardiFallsrdquo Current Science vol 93 no 4 pp 564ndash567 2007
[27] R Shanker ldquoThermal and crustal structure of ldquoSONATArdquo Azone of mid continental rifting in Indian shieldrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 37 no 3 pp 211ndash220 1991
[28] V D Choubey ldquoNarmada-Son lineament Indiardquo Nature vol232 pp 38ndash40 1971
[29] B P Radhakrishna and M Ramakrishnan ldquoArchaean-Proterozoic boundary in Indiardquo Journal of the GeologicalSociety of India vol 32 no 4 pp 263ndash278 1988
[30] S C Jain K K K Nair and D B Yedekar ldquoGeology of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zone in Central India Geoscientificstudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zonerdquo in ProjectCrumansonata vol 10 of Special Publication pp 1ndash154 Geolog-ical Survey of India 1995
[31] B N P Agarwal L K Das K Chakraborty and C H SivajildquoAnalysis of the Bouguer anomaly over central India a regionalperspectiverdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 31 pp469ndash493 1995
[32] S Bhattacharji N Chatterjee and J M Wampler ldquoZonesof Narmada-Tapi rift reactivation and Deccan volcanismgeochronological and geochemical evidencerdquo inDeccanBasaltsS S Deshmukh andK K K Nair Eds pp 329ndash340 GondwanaGeological Society Nagpur India 1996
[33] K L Kaila V G Krishna and D Mall ldquoCrustal structure alongMehmadabad-Billimora profile in the Cambay basin Indiafrom deep seismic soundingsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 76 no 1-2pp 99ndash130 1981
[34] T K Roy ldquoStructural styles in southern Cambay basin Indiaand role of Narmada geofracture in the formation of gianthydrocarbon accumulationrdquo Bulletin of the Oil and Natural GasCommission vol 27 pp 15ndash38 1990
[35] S K Biswas ldquoRegional tectonic framework structure and evo-lution of the western marginal basins of Indiardquo Tectonophysicsvol 135 no 4 pp 307ndash327 1987
[36] W Bull and L Mcfadden ldquoTectonic geomorphology north andsouth of the Garlock Fault Californiardquo in Geomorphology inArid Region D O Doehring Ed pp 115ndash138 State Universityof New York Binghamton NY USA 1977
[37] E A Keller and N PinterActive Tectonics Prentice Hall UpperSeddle River NJ USA 1996
[38] D W Burbank and R S Anderson Tectonic GeomorphologyBlackwell Science 2001
[39] D Harbor and Y Gunnell ldquoA long-strike escarpment hetero-geneity of the Western Ghats a synthesis of drainage andtopography using digital morphometric toolsrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 70 no 3 pp 411ndash426 2007
[40] V S Kale and N Shejwalkar ldquoUplift along the western marginof the Deccan Basalt Province is there any geomorphometricevidencerdquo Journal of Earth System Science vol 117 no 6 pp959ndash971 2008
[41] J T Hack ldquoStream profile analysis and stream gradient indexrdquoJournal of Research of the US Geological Survey vol 1 pp 421ndash429 1973
[42] L Seeber and V Gornitz ldquoRiver profiles along the Himalayanarc as indicators of active tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 92 no4 pp 335ndash367 1983
[43] P W Hare and T W Gardner ldquoGeomorphic indicators ofvertical neotectonism along convergent plate margins NicoaPeninsula Costa Ricardquo in Tectonic Geomorphology Proceedingsof the 15th Annual Binghamton Geomorphology SymposiumInternational Series vol 15 pp 75ndash104 1985
[44] V Jain and R Sinha ldquoResponse of active tectonics on theAlluvial Baghmati river Himalayan foreland basin easternIndiardquo Geomorphology vol 70 no 3-4 pp 339ndash356 2005
[45] H K Gupta I Mohan and H Narain ldquoThe Broach earthquakeof March 23 1970rdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society ofAmerica vol 62 pp 47ndash61 1972
[46] H K Gupta R K Chadha M N Rao et al ldquoThe Jabalpurearthquake of May 22 1997rdquo Journal of the Geological Society ofIndia vol 50 no 1 pp 85ndash91 1997
[47] U Chandra ldquoEarthquakes of peninsular India a seismotecton-ics studyrdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America vol65 pp 1387ndash1413 1977
[48] K Rajendran and C P Rajendran ldquoCharacteristics of the1997 Jabalpur earthquake and their bearing on its mechanismrdquoCurrent Science vol 74 no 2 pp 168ndash174 1998
[49] J R Kayal ldquoSeismotectonic study of the two recent SCRearthquakes in central Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 2 pp 123ndash138 2000
[50] S N Bhattacharya A K Ghose G Suresh P R Baidya and RC Saxena ldquoSource parameters of Jabalpur earthquake of May22 1997rdquo Current Science vol 73 no 10 pp 855ndash863 1997
[51] E V Apel R Burgmann and P Banerjee ldquoIndian platemotion deformationand plate boundary interactionsrdquo Geo-physical Journal International In press
[52] P Banerjee R Burgmann B Nagarajan and E Apel ldquoIntraplatedeformation of the Indian subcontinentrdquo Geophysical ResearchLetters vol 35 no 18 2008
[53] B R Rao ldquoHistorical seismicity and deformation rates in theIndian peninsular shieldrdquo Journal of Seismology vol 4 no 3pp 247ndash258 2000
[54] B L N Kennett and S Widiyantoro ldquoA low seismic wavespeedanomaly beneath northwestern India a seismic signature of theDeccan plumerdquo Earth and Planetary Science Letters vol 165no 1 pp 145ndash155 1999
[55] D V Chandrasekhar R Burgmann C D Reddy P S Sunil andD A Schmidt ldquoWeak mantle in NW India probed by geodeticmeasurements following the 2001 Bhuj earthquakerdquo Earth andPlanetary Science Letters vol 280 no 1ndash4 pp 229ndash235 2009
[56] S P Anand and M Rajaram ldquoCrustal structure of Narmada-Son Lineament an aeromagnetic perspectiverdquo Earth Planetsand Space vol 56 no 5 pp 9ndash12 2004
Ancient shear zoneHot springQuaternary sedimentary fillActive fault with downthrow amount Active tear fault
FFFF
F
F
F
F F
F
Mah
i R
Barwani F
Harda
Central In
dian S Z
Son R
Tapi R
Tan Shear Z
74∘
24∘
24∘
22∘
76∘
78∘
80∘
Pachmarhi
Katni
Bhopal
Indore
Rajpipla
100 km
200 m
74∘
76∘
80∘
1000 m
1000 m
(b)
Figure 1 (a) Geological map of Narmada river valley shows major lineaments in the area [2] (b) Map shows active grabens the Narmadagraben in the north and Tapi graben in the south [15 23] Elevations of a few points are given
Geography Journal 3
785 79 795 80 805 81 815
23
22
235
225
3004005006007008009001000
12001100
1300
Narsihapur
Nainpur
Chilpi
Jabalpur
Amarkantak
SNNF
SNNF
SNSF
SNSF
North Tapti Fault Central Indian Shear Zone
78∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘
∘
∘
∘
∘
Figure 2 Digital elevation model (DEM) of upper Narmada valley showing development of major landforms and position of major faultscontrolling the drainage basin SNNF is Son-Narmada north fault and SNSF is Son-Narmada south fault
is of the order of 1500 to 1800m [14] The Narmada grabenis displaced by 20ndash30m along multiplicity of transverse tearfaults Pleistocene sedimentary terraces in SNF zone are tilted20ndash25∘ in the tract Hardi-Jabalpur and are also displaced 10ndash15m near Navagram [15]The seismic structure and existenceof sedimentary basin of SONATA zone is interpreted byMurty et al [16] and Kumar et al [17] using 2D crustalseismic velocity models and 2D gravity modeling by Mishra[18] Verma and Banerjee [19] Sridhar and Tewari [20] andMishra et al [21]The high Bouguer gravity anomaly betweenJabalpur andMandla suggests localized uplift of SNSF and thepresence of a magmatic body at different depths Murty et al[16] have concluded that the upper Vindhyans directly overliethe Archaean basement between Hirapur and NarsinghgarhBetween Narsinghgarh and Katangi the Vindhyan basinconsists of the upper and lower Vindhyans [22] Narmadafault zone is divided into two parts namely Son-Narmadanorth fault (SNNF) and Son-Narmada south fault (SNSF)Using the basin morphology and drainage network anattempt has been made to understand the role of geologicalstructure in the evolution of drainage basin
2 Tectonic Setting andStratigraphy of (SONATA)
The Satpura range is bounded by Narmada graben in thenorth and the Tapi graben in the south Seismic reflection andwide angle reflection data across the Son-Narmada lineamentclearly bring out its graben character underneath the Deccanlavas in the west [24 25] These demonstrate presence ofa horst like feature between the north Narmada fault andthe south Narmada fault in the eastern part [22] (Figures1(a) and 1(b)) The 1300 km long Narmada river in centralIndia flows through three major bedrock gorges separatedby alluvial basins In the downstream direction these are theMarble Canyon near Jabalpur Punasa Gorge near Khandwaand Dhadgaon Gorge west of Barwani [26] These horst likefeatures are associated with a midcrustal and Moho upwarpimplying its formation as a result of deep seated tectonics in
the Precambrian time [27]The grabens exhibit high heat flowof 290plusmn50mWperm2 in the Tattapani-Jhor area inNarmadarift and 97ndash135mWm2 at Salbardi in the Tapi valley [13]Thegraben is continuing to subside along delimiting fault Therecent activity on the faults defining the graben is evidentfrom abrupt eastward swing and reaches up to northerlyflowing tributaries of the Narmada river along the foot ofthe alluvial scarp parallel to the graben fault Various faultblocks and their alluvial cones are consequently sunken andtilted up to 300m [15] in depth as seen in seismic profile [22]which shows that the basement-sediment contact is formedat 200ndash300m depth The Narmada-Tapi domain is thus abelt of tectonic resurgence where streams show deflectionof channels as is evident from their longitudinal profiles(Figure 2) In the lower reaches of the Narmada there wasslow subsidence of the basin during the late Pleistocene timefollowed by inversion of movement in the Holocene [11]
The SONATA zone in central Indian shield divides theIndian plate into two halves and has a long tectonic historydating back to the Archaean times [27] and trends in ENE-WSW direction and is laterally traceable for more than1000 km [11] It demarcates the Peninsular India into twogeologically distinct provinces the Vindhyan-Bundelkhandprovince to the north and the Deccan province to the southThe Narmada and Tapi rivers throughout their course followthese tectonic trends that are also known as central Indiantectonic zone (CITZ) [12 28ndash30] The zone witnessed large-scale tectonothermal events associated with large graniticintrusions around 25ndash22 and 15ndash09Ga [12] It was againreactivated during the Deccan volcanic eruption during LateCretaceous-Palaeocene [11 31] The region is crisscrossed byE-W-trending dykes which were probably formed due tomain centre of eruptive activity [32] and the zone is ther-momechanically and seismically vulnerable in the frameworkof contemporary tectonism [32] Seismic reflection and wideangle reflection data of Dixit et al [25] reveal three Tertiarysedimentary subbasins the Mehmadabad-Jambusar basinthe Jambusar-Kosamba basin and the Kosamba-Bilimorabasin These basins are vertically offset relative to each otheralong high-angle faults and the maximum depth (sim95 km)
4 Geography Journal
to the graniticProterozoic basement (58ndash60 km sminus1) in theregion occurs in the Jambusar-Broach area Near-surfacesedimentary rocks within the subbasins are underlain byDeccan Trap volcanics (475ndash52 km sminus1) which have alsobeen vertically offsetted [25] The westward extension of thiszone into the lower Narmada valley exhibits a less complexstructural setting In the lower Narmada basin it is expressedas a single deep-seated fault (NSF) confirmed by the deepseismic sounding studies [25 33] Seismic reflection studieshave firmly established that the NSF is a normal fault in thesubsurface and becomes markedly reverse near the surface[34] Reactivation of the fault in Late Cretaceous led to theformation of a depositional basin in which marine Bagh bedswere deposited [35] The NSF remained tectonically activesince then with continuous subsidence of the northern blockdesignated as the Broach block which accommodated 6-7 km thick Cenozoic sediments in Cambay basin [11 35]TheCenozoic sections within the SONATA zone shows offsettingof litho units [34] however the movements along thisfault have not been unidirectional throughout The generaltendency of the basin to subside has been punctuated byphases of structural and tectonic inversion [34] The N-S-directed compressive stresses during the early Quaternaryfolded the Tertiary sediments into a broad syncline theBroach syncline in the rapidly subsiding northern block[34]
3 Geomorphometric Analysis
31 Methodology It is well recognized that the commonlyused geomorphometric indices of active tectonics are pow-erful tools to evaluate the relationship between tectonics andbasin morphology to identify geologically recent deforma-tions [36ndash38] Calculation of the number of geomorpho-metric indices for a large region such as central peninsularIndia was made possible by the analysis of ASTER 15 arcsecond satellite data The ASTER data have been found tobe suitable for regional scale morphometric analysis [3940] The Narmada river originates from Amarkantak ata height of 1068masl (above sea level) and merges ingulf of Khambhat west of Bharuch Longitudinal profileof Narmada river has been generated with the help ofASTER DEM to ascertain the role of majorminor struc-tures in the evolution of valley landforms (Figure 2) Forgeomorphometry four commonly used geomorphic indicesof active tectonics such as stream length gradient index (SL)asymmetry factor (AF) transverse-topographic symmetry(119879) and valley floor height Ratio (Vf) have been usedwhich are calculated for the different segmentsThese indicesare considered powerful tools to evaluate the relationshipbetween tectonics and basin morphology on the regional orbasin scale and to identify geologically recent deformation[36 40]
32 Stream Length Gradient Index (SL) The SL is usedto infer stream power and rock erodibility [41] due to itssensitivity to disequilibrium state of channels due to tectonic
950
700
450
2000 100 200 300 400 500
Narsihapur
Mandla
Shahpuri
Amarkantak
200400
800100012001400
600
20406080
100120
Bhedaghat
Distance (km)
SNSF
SL in
dex
Elev
atio
n (m
)
Inci
sion
(m)
River profileSL indexIncision (m)
Figure 3 Longitudinal profile ofNarmada river showing position ofknick points at two places along the river Changes in river gradientare marked by increasedecrease of SL index values as plotted by redbrocken line Solid blue line indicates bedrock depth incision alongthe longitudinal trace of river Narmada
and climatic perturbation in the channel slope [38] Thegradient index is expressed as
SL = (Δ119867Δ119871
) times 119871 (1)
where Δ119867 is the change in elevation of the reach Δ119871 is thechange in length of the reach and 119871 is the total length of thechannel from the point where the SL index is being calculatedupstream to the highest point on the channel [41] Abruptchanges in slope (Δ119867Δ119871) and the SL index have proved tobe an excellent method to evaluate the ongoing processes ofuplift of the underlying structures [42]The SL index has beencalculated all along the river profile which shows anomalousvalues in the vicinity of Shahpuri Mandla and BhedaghatareasThe SL values range from 100 to 390 (between Shahpuriand Mandla) and from 100 to 1400 (between SNSF andBhedaghat) The highest value (1400) is observed in vicinityof Bhedaghat area where the river passes through SNSF Inthe SNSF zone the river also shows high stream incision(Figure 3) The estimated incision depth in Amarkantak anddownstream ranges between 10 and 120m In Shahpuri andMandla area the incision depth ranges between 5 and 50mwhereas the incision depth of SNSF zone ranges between 5and 40m Sudden increase of SL values implies differentialuplift
33 Basin Asymmetry (AF) The outcome of stream lengthanalysis is supported by evidence gathered from basin asym-metric factor The asymmetry factor was developed to detecttectonic tilt by using the formula
AF = 100 (ArAt) (2)
where AF is the asymmetry factor Ar is the area of the basinto the right and At is total area of basin The asymmetry
Geography Journal 5
Nainpur
Chilpi
Amarkantak
Jabalpur
Narsihapur
MandlaPachmarhi
North Tapi fault
SNSF
SNNF
Central Indian Shear zone
D
ECBA
N
T = 074
T = 065
T = 033
T = 017T = 027
T = 046
T = 004
At = 30909kmAf = 40Al = 23366km
Ar = 15724km
AF = 100(ArAt)
A998400
B998400 C998400 D998400
E998400
78∘ 785∘ 79∘ 795∘ 80∘ 805∘ 81∘ 815∘
22∘
225∘
23∘
235∘
Basin Midline
Figure 4 Drainage map of upper Narmada river basin showing calculated values of basin asymmetry (AF) topographic symmetric factor(119879) solid white lines (A-A1015840 B-B1015840 C-C1015840 D-D1015840 and E-E1015840) indicate cross-profile directions
factor of 40 points to regional tectonic tilt towards the NNWdirection (Figure 4) Tilting of topography may be associatedwith activity of ENE-WSW trending SNF zone
34 Transverse Topographic Symmetry (119879) Transverse topo-graphic symmetry is another quantitative parameter to eval-uate tectonic tilt of basin it is expressed as
119879 =
DaDd (3)
where Da is the distance from midline of the drainage basinto the midline of the active meander belt Dd is the distancefrom the basin midline to basin divide In general the valueof 119879 ranges from 0 to 1 119879 = 0 implies a perfectly symmetricalbasin and 119879 = 1 indicates a perfectly asymmetrical one[43] Tectonic deformation impacts the drainage of that areathrough changes in the channel slope [44] In present studythe observed value of 119879 for Narmada river ranges from 004to 065 for (SNSF) implying ground tilting of river basins(Figure 4)
35 Valley Floor Height and Width Ratio (Vf) Valley floorheight and width ratio (Vf) is defined as an index of the formshape of the valley indicates whether the river is activelydowncutting and incising [36] by
Vf = 2Vfw((Eld minus Esc) + (Erd minus Esc))
(4)
where Vf is the valley floor width-to height ratio Vfw is thewidth of the valley floor Eld and Erd are elevations of the leftand right valley divides respectively and Esc is the elevationof the valley floor The downcutting of valley is commonlyassociated with the higher rate of uplift in tectonically activeareas The small values of Vf (lt1) reflect deep narrow Vshaped valleys which are commonly associated with relative
rapid uplift [40] In contrast high values (gt1) are markersof wide open valleys in the regions of minimal uplift rates[37] The index is used to evaluate tectonic activity alongfront impediment faults along the Son-Narmada south faultWe observed lower value of Vf towards the eastern limit ofJabalpur and comparatively higher value towards west whichreflects that the eastern margin of Jabalpur is tectonicallymore active than the western limit Near Jabalpur Narsingh-pur and Hoshangabad the Vf values are 2431 246 and2565 which are associated with broad open valleys indicatinglateral erosion due to stability of base level and less tectonicactivity NearAmarkantak andMandla the obtainedVf ratiosare 1255 and 1452 which are associated with intense tectonicperturbation in Quaternary time
The elevation difference in N-S profiles shows that thesouthern block of basin is uplifted and the entire topographyis tilted towards NNW direction (Figure 5) The southernblock of basin is much elevated along the SNF and hasrugged topography as compared to the northern block Thesouthern block is devoid of any Quaternary and indicatescontinuous uplift and erosion of the bed rocks The presenceof Quaternary deposits towards the north of basin suggestssubsidence of the northern block relative to differential upliftof the southern block
Neotectonic activity in Jabalpur area includes seismicactivity and development of young geomorphic featuresThese features include development of strath terraces withhuge Pleistocene (9ndash40Ka) alluvial cover all along the rivercourse and formation of gorges (sim100m deep) with steepvertical wall and development of 10m high waterfall [26]Incision and steepening of Narmada river floor with verticalwall probably formed due to vertical tectonic movement ofNarmada faults during 60ndash40 ka [26]
36 Seismicity and GPS Observations Historical and instru-mental records indicate that the compressive stresses still
6 Geography Journal
375500625650675
SNNFSNSF
Narmada R
Pachmarhi
A
N
S
80 90706050403020100A998400
(a)
Narsihapur
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
350400450500550600650SNNF SNSF
Narmada RN
S
B B 998400
(b)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
350400450500550600
SNNF SNSFNarmada R
Lakhnadon
N
S
C C998400
(c)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
350400450500550SNNF SNSF
Narmada RBhedaghat
N S
D998400D
(d)
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
500625750875
SNSF Narmada R Central IndianShear Zone
ChilpiNS
E E 998400
(e)
Figure 5 Cross-valley profiles have been constructed along the lines A-A1015840 B-B1015840 C-C1015840 D-D1015840 and E-E1015840 to show variation of topographytowards north and south directions The elevation difference in N-S profiles shows that the southern block of basin is uplifted
1970 (M 54) 1997 (M 60)
Focal mechanism
1906
1970
Baroda
1863
Indore
18481962Khandwa
Itarsi
19691957
Betul
190318461997 (M 60)
Mandla
JABALPUR
Tan Shear Z
1927(M65)
FFFFFFFF
F F F FF
FF
1938M 63
100 kmJalgaon1869Girna
Surat
Reservoir1997M 60
Kosanghat
10 km
Strike-slip motion
1951
After
shoc
ks
S Narmada F
Tapi R
Bhopal
Narmada R
North Narmada F
South Narmada F
Bharuch Jabalpur
23∘
23∘
80∘
80∘
24∘
20∘
22∘
72∘
74∘
76∘
∐
Figure 6 Tectonic map of SONATA shows epicentral distribution of earthquakes [15 48 49]The index beach ball shows thrust faulting withstrike-slip component
continue to accumulate along the fault zone due to continuednorthward movement of the Indian plate This is evidencedby the fault solution studies of the earthquakes at Broach(23 March 1970) and Jabalpur (22 May 1997) (Figures 1(a)and 6) which suggest a thrusting movement [45ndash47] Results
obtained fromgeomorphometric observationswere validatedand crosschecked with the results obtained from seismic andGPS observations of various workers The ongoing move-ments are manifest in recurrent seismicity in upper Narmadacatchment of central IndiaThe enhanced earthquake activity
Geography Journal 7
in SONATA zone occurred during the period 1876 to 1993which includes 23 March 1970 Bharuch earthquake of Mw54 1927 event of Mw 65 that occurred southwest of Rewa1938 earthquake of Mw 63 near Khandwa 1945 earthquakeof Mw 57 in Navagam and the 1997 Jabalpur earthquakeof Mw 60 (Figure 6) The 22 May 1997 Jabalpur earthquakeoccurred at a depth of 36plusmn4 km along an ENE-WSE trendingfault [48] Fault plane solution indicates reverse faulting witha component of left lateral strike-slip motion [49] This isthe first significant strong earthquake that was recorded bythe broadband stations of the national network and the focaldepth was well estimated using the depth phases [50] It isobserved that the earthquake was associated with the Nar-mada rift and was of deep crustal source The seismic cross-section of the main shock and aftershocks by Kayal [49]indicates that the south dipping Narmada south fault (NSF)the southern margin fault of the Narmada rift basin wasactivated by reverse faulting and the earthquakes occurredat depth of 35 km and up The seismic pattern in upperNarmada catchments is directly correlated with geomorphicindices suggesting that the eastern limit of upper Narmadariver is more active than western limit Occurrence of 18461903 1927 and 1997 tremors in and around the eastern limitof Jabalpur was correlated with lines of evidence gatheredfrom geomorphic datasets The observations by Kayal [49]further suggest that the rift basin boundary faults are mantlereaching these faults are developed in tensional regime in thegeological past and are now under compressive stress due tothe NNE movement of the Indian plate [51]
Occurrence of seismicity in Son-Narmada fault zone wasfurther allied with GPS observation of Banerjee et al [52] andApel et al [51] (Figure 7)The velocitymodel of Apel et al [51]shows northwardmotion in the south and southwardmotionin the north across the SNF zone as indicated by black vectorsin Figure 7 indicateing that the central part of India is undercontraction [52]The Son-Narmada lineament zone separatesthe Indian subcontinent into two blocks [51] for examplenorth Indian and south Indian blocks showing 4mmyrcontraction in the east to 1mmyr in the west which suggestsN-S contraction in central India along SNF (Figure 7) TheNarmada-Son lineament through central India shows highheat flow and strain rate estimated from seismicity whichis larger than that in many stable continental regions andsuggests a concentration of intraplate deformation [53] It ispossible that the seismicity in the region is also enhanced bya thinned and weakened lithosphere due to passive-marginnormal faulting in the Cretaceous [6 25] and by heating fromthe plume head responsible for the late Cretaceous Deccanflood basalts [54 55]
4 Discussion
Increase of river gradient index in two places in and aroundJabalpur indicates vertical uplift due to N-S compressionalong SNF zone Valley floor height and width ratio andbasin asymmetric facture suggest that the entire basin is tiltedtowards NNW direction The geomorphometric database
1 PT India2 PT India
2 mmyr
30∘
60∘
70∘
20∘
10∘
90∘
80∘
Figure 7 Residual velocities shown for the 1-block model (blackvectors) and 2-block India model (white vectors) Separation of theIndian block (grey line) is along the Narmada-Son Lineament inCentral India [51] The relative pole of rotation for the 2-block Indiamodel is shown in thewest with a 20 sigma error ellipseThe rotationrate of 0162 degMy predicts contraction along the Narmada-Sonline from 5mmyr in the east to 0mmyr near the pole in the west(black triangles) Extensional rates in Arabian Sea are shown byWhite triangles [51]
and satellite data interpretation clearly suggest that the Son-Narmada south fault was activated during the Quaternarytime Various tectonically induced landforms were formedall along the Narmada river Shifting of river channel (nearAmarkantak) and waterfall formation of gorge with nearlyvertical wall in and around Bhedaghat and development ofstrath terraces are common landform features which wereformed due to movement along SNF These observationssuggest strain accumulation in the Son-Narmada fault zone
The geomagnetic field variation and GPS observationsalso suggested strain accumulation in the region A highgeomagnetic anomaly field variation inNarmada river regionranging between plusmn006 and plusmn954 nT indicates accumulationof stress within the SNF zone [1 51] On the basis ofaeromagnetic database Anand and Rajaram [56] believe thatthe two ENE-WSW and NW-SE trending tectonic featureswere reactivated in Quaternary time GPS observations ofApel et al [51] suggest that the strain is accumulating beneaththe Son-Narmada south fault The accumulation of strainbeneath this zone probably may cause strong earthquakes infuture
The morphometric indices and geomorphological obser-vations in the Narmada river suggest the role of seismicityin the evolution of fluvial landform Conventionally tiltingof the basin is attributed to tectonic control The Narmadariver is occupied by the rocks belonging to Vindhyan andSatpura towards upper reaches and Deccan basalt towardslower reaches The river system is controlled by two parallelfaults (SNNF and SNSF) The ongoing tectonic uplift alongpreexisting faults is conventionally examined through abruptchanges in river gradient The observed SL values betweenShahpuri and Mandla ((100ndash390) and (100ndash1400)) in and
8 Geography Journal
around Jabalpur suggest vertical tectonic processes alongSNSF The basin is tilting towards NNW due to tectonicmovement along SNSF zone (Figure 3) Towards the upperreaches the river shows southwest migrations where119879 rangesbetween 004 and 065 The lower reaches show migration ofriver towards NNWwhich is supported by observed 119879 (017ndash046) Migration of river can be assigned to low resistancebedrock or tectonic uplift along SNSF (Figure 4) The Vfvalue for upper reaches ranges between 1255 and 1452 andtowards lower reaches the Vf values are 2431 246 and2565 These abnormal changes in Vf towards upper andlower reaches could be associated with intense tectonic upliftFurther morphometric indices and geomorphic anomalies(water fall gorges etc) together indicate that the terrain isactive
5 Conclusion
(i) Morphometric indices and the drainage pattern indi-cate that Shahpuri-Mandla and Jabalpur-Narsihapursegments in the SNF zone are active and showingenhanced uplift in Narmada river basin
(ii) Geodetic observations of Apel et al [51] suggest thatthe SNSF zone is major stress accumulation zone inSONATA zone
(iii) Seismicity pattern and occurrence of moderate earth-quakes in the region implie that the area has potentialfor another moderate earthquake in future
Acknowledgments
The study was supported by Gujarat State Disaster Manage-ment Authority We thank the anonymous referees for theircritical reviews and constructive comments which helped toimprove the quality of the manuscript
References
[1] S YWaghmare and L Carlo ldquoGeomagnetic Investivation in theseismoactive area of Narmada-Son lineament Central IndiardquoJournal of Indian Geophysical Union vol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash10 2008
[2] Geological Survey of India Projet Crumansonata GeoscientificStudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi Lineament Zone 1995
[3] W D West ldquoThe line of Narmada-Valleyrdquo Current Science vol31 pp 143ndash144 1962
[4] J B Auden ldquoGeological discussion of the Satpura hypothesisrdquoProceedings of the National Institute of Sciences of India vol 15pp 315ndash340 1949
[5] M S Krishnan and J Swaminathan ldquoThe great Vindhyan basinof northern Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol1 pp 10ndash30 1959
[6] S Biswas I Coutand D Grujic C Hager D Stockli and BGrasemann ldquoExhumation and uplift of the Shillong plateauand its influence on the eastern Himalayas new constraintsfrom apatite and zircon (uth-[sm])he and apatite fission trackanalysesrdquo Tectonics vol 26 no 6 2007
[7] M N Qureshy ldquoGeophysical and Landsat lineamentmappingmdashan approach illustrated from West-Central and
South Indiardquo Photogrammetria vol 37 no 3ndash5 pp 161ndash1841982
[8] A K Jain N Annup and D C Singhal ldquoCrustal evolutionof the Narmada-Son lineament and associated shear zones ofthe Indian lithosphererdquo Indian Journal of Earth Science (CEISMSeminar) pp 125ndash148 1984
[9] D M Maurya R Rachna and L S Chamyal ldquoSeismicallyinduced deformational structures (seismites) from the mid-lateHolocene terraces lower mahi valley Gujaratrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 51 no 6 pp 755ndash758 1998
[10] D M Maurya R Rachna and L S Chamyal ldquoHistory oftectonic evolution of Gujarat alluvial plains western Indiaduring Quaternary a reviewrdquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 4 pp 343ndash366 2000
[11] L S Chamyal D M Maurya S Bhandari and R Raj ldquoLateQuaternary geomorphic evolution of the lower Narmada valleyWestern India implications for neotectonic activity along theNarmada-Son Faultrdquo Geomorphology vol 46 no 3-4 pp 177ndash202 2002
[12] S K Acharyya and A Roy ldquoTectonothermal history of the cen-tral Indian tectonic zone and reactivation of major faultsshearzonesrdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 55 no 3pp 239ndash256 2000
[13] R Shanker Geothermal Atlas of India Geological Survey ofIndia Kolkata India 1991
[14] D C Mishra and P Kumar ldquoCharacteristic of faults associatedwith Narmada-Son lineament and rock types of Jabalpursectionrdquo Current Science vol 75 pp 308ndash310 1998
[15] K S Valdiya The Making of Indian Geodynamic EvolutionMacmillian Publication House New Delhi India 2010
[16] A SNMurtyDMMall P RKMurty andP R Reddy ldquoTwo-dimensional crustal velocity structure along Hirapur-Mandlaprofile from seismic refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquoPure and Applied Geophysics vol 152 no 2 pp 247ndash266 1998
[17] PKumarHC Tewari andGKhandekar ldquoAn anomalous high-velocity layer at shallow crustal depths in the Narmada zoneIndiardquo Geophysical Journal International vol 142 no 1 pp 95ndash107 2000
[18] DCMishra ldquoMid-continent gravity ldquohighrdquo of central India andthe Gondwana tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 212 no 1-2 pp153ndash161 1992
[19] R K Verma and P Banerjee ldquoNature of continental crust alongthe Narmada-Son lineament inferred from gravity and deepseismic sounding datardquo Tectonophysics vol 202 no 2ndash4 pp375ndash397 1992
[20] A R Sridhar and H C Tewari ldquoExistence of a sedimentarygraben in the western part of Narmada Zone seismic evidencerdquoJournal of Geodynamics vol 31 no 1 pp 19ndash31 2001
[21] D C Mishra K Arora and V M Tiwari ldquoGravity anomaliesand associated tectonic features over the Indian Peninsularshield and adjoining ocean basinsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 379 no1ndash4 pp 61ndash76 2004
[22] H C Tewari A S N Murty P Kumar and A R Sridhar ldquoAtectonicmodel of the Narmada regionrdquoCurrent Science vol 80no 7 pp 873ndash878 2001
[23] V S Krishnaswamy andKR Raghunandan ldquoTheSatpura upliftand the palaeoclimate of the Holocene and auxiliary evidencefrom the Valmiki Ramayanardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 66 no 2 pp 161ndash170 2005
[24] K L Kaila P R K Murty D M Mall M M Dixit and DSarkar ldquoDeep seismic soundings alongHirapur-Mandla profile
Geography Journal 9
central Indiardquo Geophysical Journal of the Royal AstronomicalSociety vol 89 no 1 pp 399ndash404 1987
[25] M M Dixit H C Tewari and C V Rao ldquoTwo-dimensionalvelocity model of the crust beneath the South Cambay BasinIndia from refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquo Geophys-ical Journal International vol 181 no 2 pp 635ndash652 2010
[26] A Gupta V S Kale L A Owen and A K Singhvi ldquoLateQuaternary bedrock incision in the Narmada river at DardiFallsrdquo Current Science vol 93 no 4 pp 564ndash567 2007
[27] R Shanker ldquoThermal and crustal structure of ldquoSONATArdquo Azone of mid continental rifting in Indian shieldrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 37 no 3 pp 211ndash220 1991
[28] V D Choubey ldquoNarmada-Son lineament Indiardquo Nature vol232 pp 38ndash40 1971
[29] B P Radhakrishna and M Ramakrishnan ldquoArchaean-Proterozoic boundary in Indiardquo Journal of the GeologicalSociety of India vol 32 no 4 pp 263ndash278 1988
[30] S C Jain K K K Nair and D B Yedekar ldquoGeology of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zone in Central India Geoscientificstudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zonerdquo in ProjectCrumansonata vol 10 of Special Publication pp 1ndash154 Geolog-ical Survey of India 1995
[31] B N P Agarwal L K Das K Chakraborty and C H SivajildquoAnalysis of the Bouguer anomaly over central India a regionalperspectiverdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 31 pp469ndash493 1995
[32] S Bhattacharji N Chatterjee and J M Wampler ldquoZonesof Narmada-Tapi rift reactivation and Deccan volcanismgeochronological and geochemical evidencerdquo inDeccanBasaltsS S Deshmukh andK K K Nair Eds pp 329ndash340 GondwanaGeological Society Nagpur India 1996
[33] K L Kaila V G Krishna and D Mall ldquoCrustal structure alongMehmadabad-Billimora profile in the Cambay basin Indiafrom deep seismic soundingsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 76 no 1-2pp 99ndash130 1981
[34] T K Roy ldquoStructural styles in southern Cambay basin Indiaand role of Narmada geofracture in the formation of gianthydrocarbon accumulationrdquo Bulletin of the Oil and Natural GasCommission vol 27 pp 15ndash38 1990
[35] S K Biswas ldquoRegional tectonic framework structure and evo-lution of the western marginal basins of Indiardquo Tectonophysicsvol 135 no 4 pp 307ndash327 1987
[36] W Bull and L Mcfadden ldquoTectonic geomorphology north andsouth of the Garlock Fault Californiardquo in Geomorphology inArid Region D O Doehring Ed pp 115ndash138 State Universityof New York Binghamton NY USA 1977
[37] E A Keller and N PinterActive Tectonics Prentice Hall UpperSeddle River NJ USA 1996
[38] D W Burbank and R S Anderson Tectonic GeomorphologyBlackwell Science 2001
[39] D Harbor and Y Gunnell ldquoA long-strike escarpment hetero-geneity of the Western Ghats a synthesis of drainage andtopography using digital morphometric toolsrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 70 no 3 pp 411ndash426 2007
[40] V S Kale and N Shejwalkar ldquoUplift along the western marginof the Deccan Basalt Province is there any geomorphometricevidencerdquo Journal of Earth System Science vol 117 no 6 pp959ndash971 2008
[41] J T Hack ldquoStream profile analysis and stream gradient indexrdquoJournal of Research of the US Geological Survey vol 1 pp 421ndash429 1973
[42] L Seeber and V Gornitz ldquoRiver profiles along the Himalayanarc as indicators of active tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 92 no4 pp 335ndash367 1983
[43] P W Hare and T W Gardner ldquoGeomorphic indicators ofvertical neotectonism along convergent plate margins NicoaPeninsula Costa Ricardquo in Tectonic Geomorphology Proceedingsof the 15th Annual Binghamton Geomorphology SymposiumInternational Series vol 15 pp 75ndash104 1985
[44] V Jain and R Sinha ldquoResponse of active tectonics on theAlluvial Baghmati river Himalayan foreland basin easternIndiardquo Geomorphology vol 70 no 3-4 pp 339ndash356 2005
[45] H K Gupta I Mohan and H Narain ldquoThe Broach earthquakeof March 23 1970rdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society ofAmerica vol 62 pp 47ndash61 1972
[46] H K Gupta R K Chadha M N Rao et al ldquoThe Jabalpurearthquake of May 22 1997rdquo Journal of the Geological Society ofIndia vol 50 no 1 pp 85ndash91 1997
[47] U Chandra ldquoEarthquakes of peninsular India a seismotecton-ics studyrdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America vol65 pp 1387ndash1413 1977
[48] K Rajendran and C P Rajendran ldquoCharacteristics of the1997 Jabalpur earthquake and their bearing on its mechanismrdquoCurrent Science vol 74 no 2 pp 168ndash174 1998
[49] J R Kayal ldquoSeismotectonic study of the two recent SCRearthquakes in central Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 2 pp 123ndash138 2000
[50] S N Bhattacharya A K Ghose G Suresh P R Baidya and RC Saxena ldquoSource parameters of Jabalpur earthquake of May22 1997rdquo Current Science vol 73 no 10 pp 855ndash863 1997
[51] E V Apel R Burgmann and P Banerjee ldquoIndian platemotion deformationand plate boundary interactionsrdquo Geo-physical Journal International In press
[52] P Banerjee R Burgmann B Nagarajan and E Apel ldquoIntraplatedeformation of the Indian subcontinentrdquo Geophysical ResearchLetters vol 35 no 18 2008
[53] B R Rao ldquoHistorical seismicity and deformation rates in theIndian peninsular shieldrdquo Journal of Seismology vol 4 no 3pp 247ndash258 2000
[54] B L N Kennett and S Widiyantoro ldquoA low seismic wavespeedanomaly beneath northwestern India a seismic signature of theDeccan plumerdquo Earth and Planetary Science Letters vol 165no 1 pp 145ndash155 1999
[55] D V Chandrasekhar R Burgmann C D Reddy P S Sunil andD A Schmidt ldquoWeak mantle in NW India probed by geodeticmeasurements following the 2001 Bhuj earthquakerdquo Earth andPlanetary Science Letters vol 280 no 1ndash4 pp 229ndash235 2009
[56] S P Anand and M Rajaram ldquoCrustal structure of Narmada-Son Lineament an aeromagnetic perspectiverdquo Earth Planetsand Space vol 56 no 5 pp 9ndash12 2004
Figure 2 Digital elevation model (DEM) of upper Narmada valley showing development of major landforms and position of major faultscontrolling the drainage basin SNNF is Son-Narmada north fault and SNSF is Son-Narmada south fault
is of the order of 1500 to 1800m [14] The Narmada grabenis displaced by 20ndash30m along multiplicity of transverse tearfaults Pleistocene sedimentary terraces in SNF zone are tilted20ndash25∘ in the tract Hardi-Jabalpur and are also displaced 10ndash15m near Navagram [15]The seismic structure and existenceof sedimentary basin of SONATA zone is interpreted byMurty et al [16] and Kumar et al [17] using 2D crustalseismic velocity models and 2D gravity modeling by Mishra[18] Verma and Banerjee [19] Sridhar and Tewari [20] andMishra et al [21]The high Bouguer gravity anomaly betweenJabalpur andMandla suggests localized uplift of SNSF and thepresence of a magmatic body at different depths Murty et al[16] have concluded that the upper Vindhyans directly overliethe Archaean basement between Hirapur and NarsinghgarhBetween Narsinghgarh and Katangi the Vindhyan basinconsists of the upper and lower Vindhyans [22] Narmadafault zone is divided into two parts namely Son-Narmadanorth fault (SNNF) and Son-Narmada south fault (SNSF)Using the basin morphology and drainage network anattempt has been made to understand the role of geologicalstructure in the evolution of drainage basin
2 Tectonic Setting andStratigraphy of (SONATA)
The Satpura range is bounded by Narmada graben in thenorth and the Tapi graben in the south Seismic reflection andwide angle reflection data across the Son-Narmada lineamentclearly bring out its graben character underneath the Deccanlavas in the west [24 25] These demonstrate presence ofa horst like feature between the north Narmada fault andthe south Narmada fault in the eastern part [22] (Figures1(a) and 1(b)) The 1300 km long Narmada river in centralIndia flows through three major bedrock gorges separatedby alluvial basins In the downstream direction these are theMarble Canyon near Jabalpur Punasa Gorge near Khandwaand Dhadgaon Gorge west of Barwani [26] These horst likefeatures are associated with a midcrustal and Moho upwarpimplying its formation as a result of deep seated tectonics in
the Precambrian time [27]The grabens exhibit high heat flowof 290plusmn50mWperm2 in the Tattapani-Jhor area inNarmadarift and 97ndash135mWm2 at Salbardi in the Tapi valley [13]Thegraben is continuing to subside along delimiting fault Therecent activity on the faults defining the graben is evidentfrom abrupt eastward swing and reaches up to northerlyflowing tributaries of the Narmada river along the foot ofthe alluvial scarp parallel to the graben fault Various faultblocks and their alluvial cones are consequently sunken andtilted up to 300m [15] in depth as seen in seismic profile [22]which shows that the basement-sediment contact is formedat 200ndash300m depth The Narmada-Tapi domain is thus abelt of tectonic resurgence where streams show deflectionof channels as is evident from their longitudinal profiles(Figure 2) In the lower reaches of the Narmada there wasslow subsidence of the basin during the late Pleistocene timefollowed by inversion of movement in the Holocene [11]
The SONATA zone in central Indian shield divides theIndian plate into two halves and has a long tectonic historydating back to the Archaean times [27] and trends in ENE-WSW direction and is laterally traceable for more than1000 km [11] It demarcates the Peninsular India into twogeologically distinct provinces the Vindhyan-Bundelkhandprovince to the north and the Deccan province to the southThe Narmada and Tapi rivers throughout their course followthese tectonic trends that are also known as central Indiantectonic zone (CITZ) [12 28ndash30] The zone witnessed large-scale tectonothermal events associated with large graniticintrusions around 25ndash22 and 15ndash09Ga [12] It was againreactivated during the Deccan volcanic eruption during LateCretaceous-Palaeocene [11 31] The region is crisscrossed byE-W-trending dykes which were probably formed due tomain centre of eruptive activity [32] and the zone is ther-momechanically and seismically vulnerable in the frameworkof contemporary tectonism [32] Seismic reflection and wideangle reflection data of Dixit et al [25] reveal three Tertiarysedimentary subbasins the Mehmadabad-Jambusar basinthe Jambusar-Kosamba basin and the Kosamba-Bilimorabasin These basins are vertically offset relative to each otheralong high-angle faults and the maximum depth (sim95 km)
4 Geography Journal
to the graniticProterozoic basement (58ndash60 km sminus1) in theregion occurs in the Jambusar-Broach area Near-surfacesedimentary rocks within the subbasins are underlain byDeccan Trap volcanics (475ndash52 km sminus1) which have alsobeen vertically offsetted [25] The westward extension of thiszone into the lower Narmada valley exhibits a less complexstructural setting In the lower Narmada basin it is expressedas a single deep-seated fault (NSF) confirmed by the deepseismic sounding studies [25 33] Seismic reflection studieshave firmly established that the NSF is a normal fault in thesubsurface and becomes markedly reverse near the surface[34] Reactivation of the fault in Late Cretaceous led to theformation of a depositional basin in which marine Bagh bedswere deposited [35] The NSF remained tectonically activesince then with continuous subsidence of the northern blockdesignated as the Broach block which accommodated 6-7 km thick Cenozoic sediments in Cambay basin [11 35]TheCenozoic sections within the SONATA zone shows offsettingof litho units [34] however the movements along thisfault have not been unidirectional throughout The generaltendency of the basin to subside has been punctuated byphases of structural and tectonic inversion [34] The N-S-directed compressive stresses during the early Quaternaryfolded the Tertiary sediments into a broad syncline theBroach syncline in the rapidly subsiding northern block[34]
3 Geomorphometric Analysis
31 Methodology It is well recognized that the commonlyused geomorphometric indices of active tectonics are pow-erful tools to evaluate the relationship between tectonics andbasin morphology to identify geologically recent deforma-tions [36ndash38] Calculation of the number of geomorpho-metric indices for a large region such as central peninsularIndia was made possible by the analysis of ASTER 15 arcsecond satellite data The ASTER data have been found tobe suitable for regional scale morphometric analysis [3940] The Narmada river originates from Amarkantak ata height of 1068masl (above sea level) and merges ingulf of Khambhat west of Bharuch Longitudinal profileof Narmada river has been generated with the help ofASTER DEM to ascertain the role of majorminor struc-tures in the evolution of valley landforms (Figure 2) Forgeomorphometry four commonly used geomorphic indicesof active tectonics such as stream length gradient index (SL)asymmetry factor (AF) transverse-topographic symmetry(119879) and valley floor height Ratio (Vf) have been usedwhich are calculated for the different segmentsThese indicesare considered powerful tools to evaluate the relationshipbetween tectonics and basin morphology on the regional orbasin scale and to identify geologically recent deformation[36 40]
32 Stream Length Gradient Index (SL) The SL is usedto infer stream power and rock erodibility [41] due to itssensitivity to disequilibrium state of channels due to tectonic
950
700
450
2000 100 200 300 400 500
Narsihapur
Mandla
Shahpuri
Amarkantak
200400
800100012001400
600
20406080
100120
Bhedaghat
Distance (km)
SNSF
SL in
dex
Elev
atio
n (m
)
Inci
sion
(m)
River profileSL indexIncision (m)
Figure 3 Longitudinal profile ofNarmada river showing position ofknick points at two places along the river Changes in river gradientare marked by increasedecrease of SL index values as plotted by redbrocken line Solid blue line indicates bedrock depth incision alongthe longitudinal trace of river Narmada
and climatic perturbation in the channel slope [38] Thegradient index is expressed as
SL = (Δ119867Δ119871
) times 119871 (1)
where Δ119867 is the change in elevation of the reach Δ119871 is thechange in length of the reach and 119871 is the total length of thechannel from the point where the SL index is being calculatedupstream to the highest point on the channel [41] Abruptchanges in slope (Δ119867Δ119871) and the SL index have proved tobe an excellent method to evaluate the ongoing processes ofuplift of the underlying structures [42]The SL index has beencalculated all along the river profile which shows anomalousvalues in the vicinity of Shahpuri Mandla and BhedaghatareasThe SL values range from 100 to 390 (between Shahpuriand Mandla) and from 100 to 1400 (between SNSF andBhedaghat) The highest value (1400) is observed in vicinityof Bhedaghat area where the river passes through SNSF Inthe SNSF zone the river also shows high stream incision(Figure 3) The estimated incision depth in Amarkantak anddownstream ranges between 10 and 120m In Shahpuri andMandla area the incision depth ranges between 5 and 50mwhereas the incision depth of SNSF zone ranges between 5and 40m Sudden increase of SL values implies differentialuplift
33 Basin Asymmetry (AF) The outcome of stream lengthanalysis is supported by evidence gathered from basin asym-metric factor The asymmetry factor was developed to detecttectonic tilt by using the formula
AF = 100 (ArAt) (2)
where AF is the asymmetry factor Ar is the area of the basinto the right and At is total area of basin The asymmetry
Geography Journal 5
Nainpur
Chilpi
Amarkantak
Jabalpur
Narsihapur
MandlaPachmarhi
North Tapi fault
SNSF
SNNF
Central Indian Shear zone
D
ECBA
N
T = 074
T = 065
T = 033
T = 017T = 027
T = 046
T = 004
At = 30909kmAf = 40Al = 23366km
Ar = 15724km
AF = 100(ArAt)
A998400
B998400 C998400 D998400
E998400
78∘ 785∘ 79∘ 795∘ 80∘ 805∘ 81∘ 815∘
22∘
225∘
23∘
235∘
Basin Midline
Figure 4 Drainage map of upper Narmada river basin showing calculated values of basin asymmetry (AF) topographic symmetric factor(119879) solid white lines (A-A1015840 B-B1015840 C-C1015840 D-D1015840 and E-E1015840) indicate cross-profile directions
factor of 40 points to regional tectonic tilt towards the NNWdirection (Figure 4) Tilting of topography may be associatedwith activity of ENE-WSW trending SNF zone
34 Transverse Topographic Symmetry (119879) Transverse topo-graphic symmetry is another quantitative parameter to eval-uate tectonic tilt of basin it is expressed as
119879 =
DaDd (3)
where Da is the distance from midline of the drainage basinto the midline of the active meander belt Dd is the distancefrom the basin midline to basin divide In general the valueof 119879 ranges from 0 to 1 119879 = 0 implies a perfectly symmetricalbasin and 119879 = 1 indicates a perfectly asymmetrical one[43] Tectonic deformation impacts the drainage of that areathrough changes in the channel slope [44] In present studythe observed value of 119879 for Narmada river ranges from 004to 065 for (SNSF) implying ground tilting of river basins(Figure 4)
35 Valley Floor Height and Width Ratio (Vf) Valley floorheight and width ratio (Vf) is defined as an index of the formshape of the valley indicates whether the river is activelydowncutting and incising [36] by
Vf = 2Vfw((Eld minus Esc) + (Erd minus Esc))
(4)
where Vf is the valley floor width-to height ratio Vfw is thewidth of the valley floor Eld and Erd are elevations of the leftand right valley divides respectively and Esc is the elevationof the valley floor The downcutting of valley is commonlyassociated with the higher rate of uplift in tectonically activeareas The small values of Vf (lt1) reflect deep narrow Vshaped valleys which are commonly associated with relative
rapid uplift [40] In contrast high values (gt1) are markersof wide open valleys in the regions of minimal uplift rates[37] The index is used to evaluate tectonic activity alongfront impediment faults along the Son-Narmada south faultWe observed lower value of Vf towards the eastern limit ofJabalpur and comparatively higher value towards west whichreflects that the eastern margin of Jabalpur is tectonicallymore active than the western limit Near Jabalpur Narsingh-pur and Hoshangabad the Vf values are 2431 246 and2565 which are associated with broad open valleys indicatinglateral erosion due to stability of base level and less tectonicactivity NearAmarkantak andMandla the obtainedVf ratiosare 1255 and 1452 which are associated with intense tectonicperturbation in Quaternary time
The elevation difference in N-S profiles shows that thesouthern block of basin is uplifted and the entire topographyis tilted towards NNW direction (Figure 5) The southernblock of basin is much elevated along the SNF and hasrugged topography as compared to the northern block Thesouthern block is devoid of any Quaternary and indicatescontinuous uplift and erosion of the bed rocks The presenceof Quaternary deposits towards the north of basin suggestssubsidence of the northern block relative to differential upliftof the southern block
Neotectonic activity in Jabalpur area includes seismicactivity and development of young geomorphic featuresThese features include development of strath terraces withhuge Pleistocene (9ndash40Ka) alluvial cover all along the rivercourse and formation of gorges (sim100m deep) with steepvertical wall and development of 10m high waterfall [26]Incision and steepening of Narmada river floor with verticalwall probably formed due to vertical tectonic movement ofNarmada faults during 60ndash40 ka [26]
36 Seismicity and GPS Observations Historical and instru-mental records indicate that the compressive stresses still
6 Geography Journal
375500625650675
SNNFSNSF
Narmada R
Pachmarhi
A
N
S
80 90706050403020100A998400
(a)
Narsihapur
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
350400450500550600650SNNF SNSF
Narmada RN
S
B B 998400
(b)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
350400450500550600
SNNF SNSFNarmada R
Lakhnadon
N
S
C C998400
(c)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
350400450500550SNNF SNSF
Narmada RBhedaghat
N S
D998400D
(d)
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
500625750875
SNSF Narmada R Central IndianShear Zone
ChilpiNS
E E 998400
(e)
Figure 5 Cross-valley profiles have been constructed along the lines A-A1015840 B-B1015840 C-C1015840 D-D1015840 and E-E1015840 to show variation of topographytowards north and south directions The elevation difference in N-S profiles shows that the southern block of basin is uplifted
1970 (M 54) 1997 (M 60)
Focal mechanism
1906
1970
Baroda
1863
Indore
18481962Khandwa
Itarsi
19691957
Betul
190318461997 (M 60)
Mandla
JABALPUR
Tan Shear Z
1927(M65)
FFFFFFFF
F F F FF
FF
1938M 63
100 kmJalgaon1869Girna
Surat
Reservoir1997M 60
Kosanghat
10 km
Strike-slip motion
1951
After
shoc
ks
S Narmada F
Tapi R
Bhopal
Narmada R
North Narmada F
South Narmada F
Bharuch Jabalpur
23∘
23∘
80∘
80∘
24∘
20∘
22∘
72∘
74∘
76∘
∐
Figure 6 Tectonic map of SONATA shows epicentral distribution of earthquakes [15 48 49]The index beach ball shows thrust faulting withstrike-slip component
continue to accumulate along the fault zone due to continuednorthward movement of the Indian plate This is evidencedby the fault solution studies of the earthquakes at Broach(23 March 1970) and Jabalpur (22 May 1997) (Figures 1(a)and 6) which suggest a thrusting movement [45ndash47] Results
obtained fromgeomorphometric observationswere validatedand crosschecked with the results obtained from seismic andGPS observations of various workers The ongoing move-ments are manifest in recurrent seismicity in upper Narmadacatchment of central IndiaThe enhanced earthquake activity
Geography Journal 7
in SONATA zone occurred during the period 1876 to 1993which includes 23 March 1970 Bharuch earthquake of Mw54 1927 event of Mw 65 that occurred southwest of Rewa1938 earthquake of Mw 63 near Khandwa 1945 earthquakeof Mw 57 in Navagam and the 1997 Jabalpur earthquakeof Mw 60 (Figure 6) The 22 May 1997 Jabalpur earthquakeoccurred at a depth of 36plusmn4 km along an ENE-WSE trendingfault [48] Fault plane solution indicates reverse faulting witha component of left lateral strike-slip motion [49] This isthe first significant strong earthquake that was recorded bythe broadband stations of the national network and the focaldepth was well estimated using the depth phases [50] It isobserved that the earthquake was associated with the Nar-mada rift and was of deep crustal source The seismic cross-section of the main shock and aftershocks by Kayal [49]indicates that the south dipping Narmada south fault (NSF)the southern margin fault of the Narmada rift basin wasactivated by reverse faulting and the earthquakes occurredat depth of 35 km and up The seismic pattern in upperNarmada catchments is directly correlated with geomorphicindices suggesting that the eastern limit of upper Narmadariver is more active than western limit Occurrence of 18461903 1927 and 1997 tremors in and around the eastern limitof Jabalpur was correlated with lines of evidence gatheredfrom geomorphic datasets The observations by Kayal [49]further suggest that the rift basin boundary faults are mantlereaching these faults are developed in tensional regime in thegeological past and are now under compressive stress due tothe NNE movement of the Indian plate [51]
Occurrence of seismicity in Son-Narmada fault zone wasfurther allied with GPS observation of Banerjee et al [52] andApel et al [51] (Figure 7)The velocitymodel of Apel et al [51]shows northwardmotion in the south and southwardmotionin the north across the SNF zone as indicated by black vectorsin Figure 7 indicateing that the central part of India is undercontraction [52]The Son-Narmada lineament zone separatesthe Indian subcontinent into two blocks [51] for examplenorth Indian and south Indian blocks showing 4mmyrcontraction in the east to 1mmyr in the west which suggestsN-S contraction in central India along SNF (Figure 7) TheNarmada-Son lineament through central India shows highheat flow and strain rate estimated from seismicity whichis larger than that in many stable continental regions andsuggests a concentration of intraplate deformation [53] It ispossible that the seismicity in the region is also enhanced bya thinned and weakened lithosphere due to passive-marginnormal faulting in the Cretaceous [6 25] and by heating fromthe plume head responsible for the late Cretaceous Deccanflood basalts [54 55]
4 Discussion
Increase of river gradient index in two places in and aroundJabalpur indicates vertical uplift due to N-S compressionalong SNF zone Valley floor height and width ratio andbasin asymmetric facture suggest that the entire basin is tiltedtowards NNW direction The geomorphometric database
1 PT India2 PT India
2 mmyr
30∘
60∘
70∘
20∘
10∘
90∘
80∘
Figure 7 Residual velocities shown for the 1-block model (blackvectors) and 2-block India model (white vectors) Separation of theIndian block (grey line) is along the Narmada-Son Lineament inCentral India [51] The relative pole of rotation for the 2-block Indiamodel is shown in thewest with a 20 sigma error ellipseThe rotationrate of 0162 degMy predicts contraction along the Narmada-Sonline from 5mmyr in the east to 0mmyr near the pole in the west(black triangles) Extensional rates in Arabian Sea are shown byWhite triangles [51]
and satellite data interpretation clearly suggest that the Son-Narmada south fault was activated during the Quaternarytime Various tectonically induced landforms were formedall along the Narmada river Shifting of river channel (nearAmarkantak) and waterfall formation of gorge with nearlyvertical wall in and around Bhedaghat and development ofstrath terraces are common landform features which wereformed due to movement along SNF These observationssuggest strain accumulation in the Son-Narmada fault zone
The geomagnetic field variation and GPS observationsalso suggested strain accumulation in the region A highgeomagnetic anomaly field variation inNarmada river regionranging between plusmn006 and plusmn954 nT indicates accumulationof stress within the SNF zone [1 51] On the basis ofaeromagnetic database Anand and Rajaram [56] believe thatthe two ENE-WSW and NW-SE trending tectonic featureswere reactivated in Quaternary time GPS observations ofApel et al [51] suggest that the strain is accumulating beneaththe Son-Narmada south fault The accumulation of strainbeneath this zone probably may cause strong earthquakes infuture
The morphometric indices and geomorphological obser-vations in the Narmada river suggest the role of seismicityin the evolution of fluvial landform Conventionally tiltingof the basin is attributed to tectonic control The Narmadariver is occupied by the rocks belonging to Vindhyan andSatpura towards upper reaches and Deccan basalt towardslower reaches The river system is controlled by two parallelfaults (SNNF and SNSF) The ongoing tectonic uplift alongpreexisting faults is conventionally examined through abruptchanges in river gradient The observed SL values betweenShahpuri and Mandla ((100ndash390) and (100ndash1400)) in and
8 Geography Journal
around Jabalpur suggest vertical tectonic processes alongSNSF The basin is tilting towards NNW due to tectonicmovement along SNSF zone (Figure 3) Towards the upperreaches the river shows southwest migrations where119879 rangesbetween 004 and 065 The lower reaches show migration ofriver towards NNWwhich is supported by observed 119879 (017ndash046) Migration of river can be assigned to low resistancebedrock or tectonic uplift along SNSF (Figure 4) The Vfvalue for upper reaches ranges between 1255 and 1452 andtowards lower reaches the Vf values are 2431 246 and2565 These abnormal changes in Vf towards upper andlower reaches could be associated with intense tectonic upliftFurther morphometric indices and geomorphic anomalies(water fall gorges etc) together indicate that the terrain isactive
5 Conclusion
(i) Morphometric indices and the drainage pattern indi-cate that Shahpuri-Mandla and Jabalpur-Narsihapursegments in the SNF zone are active and showingenhanced uplift in Narmada river basin
(ii) Geodetic observations of Apel et al [51] suggest thatthe SNSF zone is major stress accumulation zone inSONATA zone
(iii) Seismicity pattern and occurrence of moderate earth-quakes in the region implie that the area has potentialfor another moderate earthquake in future
Acknowledgments
The study was supported by Gujarat State Disaster Manage-ment Authority We thank the anonymous referees for theircritical reviews and constructive comments which helped toimprove the quality of the manuscript
References
[1] S YWaghmare and L Carlo ldquoGeomagnetic Investivation in theseismoactive area of Narmada-Son lineament Central IndiardquoJournal of Indian Geophysical Union vol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash10 2008
[2] Geological Survey of India Projet Crumansonata GeoscientificStudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi Lineament Zone 1995
[3] W D West ldquoThe line of Narmada-Valleyrdquo Current Science vol31 pp 143ndash144 1962
[4] J B Auden ldquoGeological discussion of the Satpura hypothesisrdquoProceedings of the National Institute of Sciences of India vol 15pp 315ndash340 1949
[5] M S Krishnan and J Swaminathan ldquoThe great Vindhyan basinof northern Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol1 pp 10ndash30 1959
[6] S Biswas I Coutand D Grujic C Hager D Stockli and BGrasemann ldquoExhumation and uplift of the Shillong plateauand its influence on the eastern Himalayas new constraintsfrom apatite and zircon (uth-[sm])he and apatite fission trackanalysesrdquo Tectonics vol 26 no 6 2007
[7] M N Qureshy ldquoGeophysical and Landsat lineamentmappingmdashan approach illustrated from West-Central and
South Indiardquo Photogrammetria vol 37 no 3ndash5 pp 161ndash1841982
[8] A K Jain N Annup and D C Singhal ldquoCrustal evolutionof the Narmada-Son lineament and associated shear zones ofthe Indian lithosphererdquo Indian Journal of Earth Science (CEISMSeminar) pp 125ndash148 1984
[9] D M Maurya R Rachna and L S Chamyal ldquoSeismicallyinduced deformational structures (seismites) from the mid-lateHolocene terraces lower mahi valley Gujaratrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 51 no 6 pp 755ndash758 1998
[10] D M Maurya R Rachna and L S Chamyal ldquoHistory oftectonic evolution of Gujarat alluvial plains western Indiaduring Quaternary a reviewrdquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 4 pp 343ndash366 2000
[11] L S Chamyal D M Maurya S Bhandari and R Raj ldquoLateQuaternary geomorphic evolution of the lower Narmada valleyWestern India implications for neotectonic activity along theNarmada-Son Faultrdquo Geomorphology vol 46 no 3-4 pp 177ndash202 2002
[12] S K Acharyya and A Roy ldquoTectonothermal history of the cen-tral Indian tectonic zone and reactivation of major faultsshearzonesrdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 55 no 3pp 239ndash256 2000
[13] R Shanker Geothermal Atlas of India Geological Survey ofIndia Kolkata India 1991
[14] D C Mishra and P Kumar ldquoCharacteristic of faults associatedwith Narmada-Son lineament and rock types of Jabalpursectionrdquo Current Science vol 75 pp 308ndash310 1998
[15] K S Valdiya The Making of Indian Geodynamic EvolutionMacmillian Publication House New Delhi India 2010
[16] A SNMurtyDMMall P RKMurty andP R Reddy ldquoTwo-dimensional crustal velocity structure along Hirapur-Mandlaprofile from seismic refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquoPure and Applied Geophysics vol 152 no 2 pp 247ndash266 1998
[17] PKumarHC Tewari andGKhandekar ldquoAn anomalous high-velocity layer at shallow crustal depths in the Narmada zoneIndiardquo Geophysical Journal International vol 142 no 1 pp 95ndash107 2000
[18] DCMishra ldquoMid-continent gravity ldquohighrdquo of central India andthe Gondwana tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 212 no 1-2 pp153ndash161 1992
[19] R K Verma and P Banerjee ldquoNature of continental crust alongthe Narmada-Son lineament inferred from gravity and deepseismic sounding datardquo Tectonophysics vol 202 no 2ndash4 pp375ndash397 1992
[20] A R Sridhar and H C Tewari ldquoExistence of a sedimentarygraben in the western part of Narmada Zone seismic evidencerdquoJournal of Geodynamics vol 31 no 1 pp 19ndash31 2001
[21] D C Mishra K Arora and V M Tiwari ldquoGravity anomaliesand associated tectonic features over the Indian Peninsularshield and adjoining ocean basinsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 379 no1ndash4 pp 61ndash76 2004
[22] H C Tewari A S N Murty P Kumar and A R Sridhar ldquoAtectonicmodel of the Narmada regionrdquoCurrent Science vol 80no 7 pp 873ndash878 2001
[23] V S Krishnaswamy andKR Raghunandan ldquoTheSatpura upliftand the palaeoclimate of the Holocene and auxiliary evidencefrom the Valmiki Ramayanardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 66 no 2 pp 161ndash170 2005
[24] K L Kaila P R K Murty D M Mall M M Dixit and DSarkar ldquoDeep seismic soundings alongHirapur-Mandla profile
Geography Journal 9
central Indiardquo Geophysical Journal of the Royal AstronomicalSociety vol 89 no 1 pp 399ndash404 1987
[25] M M Dixit H C Tewari and C V Rao ldquoTwo-dimensionalvelocity model of the crust beneath the South Cambay BasinIndia from refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquo Geophys-ical Journal International vol 181 no 2 pp 635ndash652 2010
[26] A Gupta V S Kale L A Owen and A K Singhvi ldquoLateQuaternary bedrock incision in the Narmada river at DardiFallsrdquo Current Science vol 93 no 4 pp 564ndash567 2007
[27] R Shanker ldquoThermal and crustal structure of ldquoSONATArdquo Azone of mid continental rifting in Indian shieldrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 37 no 3 pp 211ndash220 1991
[28] V D Choubey ldquoNarmada-Son lineament Indiardquo Nature vol232 pp 38ndash40 1971
[29] B P Radhakrishna and M Ramakrishnan ldquoArchaean-Proterozoic boundary in Indiardquo Journal of the GeologicalSociety of India vol 32 no 4 pp 263ndash278 1988
[30] S C Jain K K K Nair and D B Yedekar ldquoGeology of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zone in Central India Geoscientificstudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zonerdquo in ProjectCrumansonata vol 10 of Special Publication pp 1ndash154 Geolog-ical Survey of India 1995
[31] B N P Agarwal L K Das K Chakraborty and C H SivajildquoAnalysis of the Bouguer anomaly over central India a regionalperspectiverdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 31 pp469ndash493 1995
[32] S Bhattacharji N Chatterjee and J M Wampler ldquoZonesof Narmada-Tapi rift reactivation and Deccan volcanismgeochronological and geochemical evidencerdquo inDeccanBasaltsS S Deshmukh andK K K Nair Eds pp 329ndash340 GondwanaGeological Society Nagpur India 1996
[33] K L Kaila V G Krishna and D Mall ldquoCrustal structure alongMehmadabad-Billimora profile in the Cambay basin Indiafrom deep seismic soundingsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 76 no 1-2pp 99ndash130 1981
[34] T K Roy ldquoStructural styles in southern Cambay basin Indiaand role of Narmada geofracture in the formation of gianthydrocarbon accumulationrdquo Bulletin of the Oil and Natural GasCommission vol 27 pp 15ndash38 1990
[35] S K Biswas ldquoRegional tectonic framework structure and evo-lution of the western marginal basins of Indiardquo Tectonophysicsvol 135 no 4 pp 307ndash327 1987
[36] W Bull and L Mcfadden ldquoTectonic geomorphology north andsouth of the Garlock Fault Californiardquo in Geomorphology inArid Region D O Doehring Ed pp 115ndash138 State Universityof New York Binghamton NY USA 1977
[37] E A Keller and N PinterActive Tectonics Prentice Hall UpperSeddle River NJ USA 1996
[38] D W Burbank and R S Anderson Tectonic GeomorphologyBlackwell Science 2001
[39] D Harbor and Y Gunnell ldquoA long-strike escarpment hetero-geneity of the Western Ghats a synthesis of drainage andtopography using digital morphometric toolsrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 70 no 3 pp 411ndash426 2007
[40] V S Kale and N Shejwalkar ldquoUplift along the western marginof the Deccan Basalt Province is there any geomorphometricevidencerdquo Journal of Earth System Science vol 117 no 6 pp959ndash971 2008
[41] J T Hack ldquoStream profile analysis and stream gradient indexrdquoJournal of Research of the US Geological Survey vol 1 pp 421ndash429 1973
[42] L Seeber and V Gornitz ldquoRiver profiles along the Himalayanarc as indicators of active tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 92 no4 pp 335ndash367 1983
[43] P W Hare and T W Gardner ldquoGeomorphic indicators ofvertical neotectonism along convergent plate margins NicoaPeninsula Costa Ricardquo in Tectonic Geomorphology Proceedingsof the 15th Annual Binghamton Geomorphology SymposiumInternational Series vol 15 pp 75ndash104 1985
[44] V Jain and R Sinha ldquoResponse of active tectonics on theAlluvial Baghmati river Himalayan foreland basin easternIndiardquo Geomorphology vol 70 no 3-4 pp 339ndash356 2005
[45] H K Gupta I Mohan and H Narain ldquoThe Broach earthquakeof March 23 1970rdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society ofAmerica vol 62 pp 47ndash61 1972
[46] H K Gupta R K Chadha M N Rao et al ldquoThe Jabalpurearthquake of May 22 1997rdquo Journal of the Geological Society ofIndia vol 50 no 1 pp 85ndash91 1997
[47] U Chandra ldquoEarthquakes of peninsular India a seismotecton-ics studyrdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America vol65 pp 1387ndash1413 1977
[48] K Rajendran and C P Rajendran ldquoCharacteristics of the1997 Jabalpur earthquake and their bearing on its mechanismrdquoCurrent Science vol 74 no 2 pp 168ndash174 1998
[49] J R Kayal ldquoSeismotectonic study of the two recent SCRearthquakes in central Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 2 pp 123ndash138 2000
[50] S N Bhattacharya A K Ghose G Suresh P R Baidya and RC Saxena ldquoSource parameters of Jabalpur earthquake of May22 1997rdquo Current Science vol 73 no 10 pp 855ndash863 1997
[51] E V Apel R Burgmann and P Banerjee ldquoIndian platemotion deformationand plate boundary interactionsrdquo Geo-physical Journal International In press
[52] P Banerjee R Burgmann B Nagarajan and E Apel ldquoIntraplatedeformation of the Indian subcontinentrdquo Geophysical ResearchLetters vol 35 no 18 2008
[53] B R Rao ldquoHistorical seismicity and deformation rates in theIndian peninsular shieldrdquo Journal of Seismology vol 4 no 3pp 247ndash258 2000
[54] B L N Kennett and S Widiyantoro ldquoA low seismic wavespeedanomaly beneath northwestern India a seismic signature of theDeccan plumerdquo Earth and Planetary Science Letters vol 165no 1 pp 145ndash155 1999
[55] D V Chandrasekhar R Burgmann C D Reddy P S Sunil andD A Schmidt ldquoWeak mantle in NW India probed by geodeticmeasurements following the 2001 Bhuj earthquakerdquo Earth andPlanetary Science Letters vol 280 no 1ndash4 pp 229ndash235 2009
[56] S P Anand and M Rajaram ldquoCrustal structure of Narmada-Son Lineament an aeromagnetic perspectiverdquo Earth Planetsand Space vol 56 no 5 pp 9ndash12 2004
to the graniticProterozoic basement (58ndash60 km sminus1) in theregion occurs in the Jambusar-Broach area Near-surfacesedimentary rocks within the subbasins are underlain byDeccan Trap volcanics (475ndash52 km sminus1) which have alsobeen vertically offsetted [25] The westward extension of thiszone into the lower Narmada valley exhibits a less complexstructural setting In the lower Narmada basin it is expressedas a single deep-seated fault (NSF) confirmed by the deepseismic sounding studies [25 33] Seismic reflection studieshave firmly established that the NSF is a normal fault in thesubsurface and becomes markedly reverse near the surface[34] Reactivation of the fault in Late Cretaceous led to theformation of a depositional basin in which marine Bagh bedswere deposited [35] The NSF remained tectonically activesince then with continuous subsidence of the northern blockdesignated as the Broach block which accommodated 6-7 km thick Cenozoic sediments in Cambay basin [11 35]TheCenozoic sections within the SONATA zone shows offsettingof litho units [34] however the movements along thisfault have not been unidirectional throughout The generaltendency of the basin to subside has been punctuated byphases of structural and tectonic inversion [34] The N-S-directed compressive stresses during the early Quaternaryfolded the Tertiary sediments into a broad syncline theBroach syncline in the rapidly subsiding northern block[34]
3 Geomorphometric Analysis
31 Methodology It is well recognized that the commonlyused geomorphometric indices of active tectonics are pow-erful tools to evaluate the relationship between tectonics andbasin morphology to identify geologically recent deforma-tions [36ndash38] Calculation of the number of geomorpho-metric indices for a large region such as central peninsularIndia was made possible by the analysis of ASTER 15 arcsecond satellite data The ASTER data have been found tobe suitable for regional scale morphometric analysis [3940] The Narmada river originates from Amarkantak ata height of 1068masl (above sea level) and merges ingulf of Khambhat west of Bharuch Longitudinal profileof Narmada river has been generated with the help ofASTER DEM to ascertain the role of majorminor struc-tures in the evolution of valley landforms (Figure 2) Forgeomorphometry four commonly used geomorphic indicesof active tectonics such as stream length gradient index (SL)asymmetry factor (AF) transverse-topographic symmetry(119879) and valley floor height Ratio (Vf) have been usedwhich are calculated for the different segmentsThese indicesare considered powerful tools to evaluate the relationshipbetween tectonics and basin morphology on the regional orbasin scale and to identify geologically recent deformation[36 40]
32 Stream Length Gradient Index (SL) The SL is usedto infer stream power and rock erodibility [41] due to itssensitivity to disequilibrium state of channels due to tectonic
950
700
450
2000 100 200 300 400 500
Narsihapur
Mandla
Shahpuri
Amarkantak
200400
800100012001400
600
20406080
100120
Bhedaghat
Distance (km)
SNSF
SL in
dex
Elev
atio
n (m
)
Inci
sion
(m)
River profileSL indexIncision (m)
Figure 3 Longitudinal profile ofNarmada river showing position ofknick points at two places along the river Changes in river gradientare marked by increasedecrease of SL index values as plotted by redbrocken line Solid blue line indicates bedrock depth incision alongthe longitudinal trace of river Narmada
and climatic perturbation in the channel slope [38] Thegradient index is expressed as
SL = (Δ119867Δ119871
) times 119871 (1)
where Δ119867 is the change in elevation of the reach Δ119871 is thechange in length of the reach and 119871 is the total length of thechannel from the point where the SL index is being calculatedupstream to the highest point on the channel [41] Abruptchanges in slope (Δ119867Δ119871) and the SL index have proved tobe an excellent method to evaluate the ongoing processes ofuplift of the underlying structures [42]The SL index has beencalculated all along the river profile which shows anomalousvalues in the vicinity of Shahpuri Mandla and BhedaghatareasThe SL values range from 100 to 390 (between Shahpuriand Mandla) and from 100 to 1400 (between SNSF andBhedaghat) The highest value (1400) is observed in vicinityof Bhedaghat area where the river passes through SNSF Inthe SNSF zone the river also shows high stream incision(Figure 3) The estimated incision depth in Amarkantak anddownstream ranges between 10 and 120m In Shahpuri andMandla area the incision depth ranges between 5 and 50mwhereas the incision depth of SNSF zone ranges between 5and 40m Sudden increase of SL values implies differentialuplift
33 Basin Asymmetry (AF) The outcome of stream lengthanalysis is supported by evidence gathered from basin asym-metric factor The asymmetry factor was developed to detecttectonic tilt by using the formula
AF = 100 (ArAt) (2)
where AF is the asymmetry factor Ar is the area of the basinto the right and At is total area of basin The asymmetry
Geography Journal 5
Nainpur
Chilpi
Amarkantak
Jabalpur
Narsihapur
MandlaPachmarhi
North Tapi fault
SNSF
SNNF
Central Indian Shear zone
D
ECBA
N
T = 074
T = 065
T = 033
T = 017T = 027
T = 046
T = 004
At = 30909kmAf = 40Al = 23366km
Ar = 15724km
AF = 100(ArAt)
A998400
B998400 C998400 D998400
E998400
78∘ 785∘ 79∘ 795∘ 80∘ 805∘ 81∘ 815∘
22∘
225∘
23∘
235∘
Basin Midline
Figure 4 Drainage map of upper Narmada river basin showing calculated values of basin asymmetry (AF) topographic symmetric factor(119879) solid white lines (A-A1015840 B-B1015840 C-C1015840 D-D1015840 and E-E1015840) indicate cross-profile directions
factor of 40 points to regional tectonic tilt towards the NNWdirection (Figure 4) Tilting of topography may be associatedwith activity of ENE-WSW trending SNF zone
34 Transverse Topographic Symmetry (119879) Transverse topo-graphic symmetry is another quantitative parameter to eval-uate tectonic tilt of basin it is expressed as
119879 =
DaDd (3)
where Da is the distance from midline of the drainage basinto the midline of the active meander belt Dd is the distancefrom the basin midline to basin divide In general the valueof 119879 ranges from 0 to 1 119879 = 0 implies a perfectly symmetricalbasin and 119879 = 1 indicates a perfectly asymmetrical one[43] Tectonic deformation impacts the drainage of that areathrough changes in the channel slope [44] In present studythe observed value of 119879 for Narmada river ranges from 004to 065 for (SNSF) implying ground tilting of river basins(Figure 4)
35 Valley Floor Height and Width Ratio (Vf) Valley floorheight and width ratio (Vf) is defined as an index of the formshape of the valley indicates whether the river is activelydowncutting and incising [36] by
Vf = 2Vfw((Eld minus Esc) + (Erd minus Esc))
(4)
where Vf is the valley floor width-to height ratio Vfw is thewidth of the valley floor Eld and Erd are elevations of the leftand right valley divides respectively and Esc is the elevationof the valley floor The downcutting of valley is commonlyassociated with the higher rate of uplift in tectonically activeareas The small values of Vf (lt1) reflect deep narrow Vshaped valleys which are commonly associated with relative
rapid uplift [40] In contrast high values (gt1) are markersof wide open valleys in the regions of minimal uplift rates[37] The index is used to evaluate tectonic activity alongfront impediment faults along the Son-Narmada south faultWe observed lower value of Vf towards the eastern limit ofJabalpur and comparatively higher value towards west whichreflects that the eastern margin of Jabalpur is tectonicallymore active than the western limit Near Jabalpur Narsingh-pur and Hoshangabad the Vf values are 2431 246 and2565 which are associated with broad open valleys indicatinglateral erosion due to stability of base level and less tectonicactivity NearAmarkantak andMandla the obtainedVf ratiosare 1255 and 1452 which are associated with intense tectonicperturbation in Quaternary time
The elevation difference in N-S profiles shows that thesouthern block of basin is uplifted and the entire topographyis tilted towards NNW direction (Figure 5) The southernblock of basin is much elevated along the SNF and hasrugged topography as compared to the northern block Thesouthern block is devoid of any Quaternary and indicatescontinuous uplift and erosion of the bed rocks The presenceof Quaternary deposits towards the north of basin suggestssubsidence of the northern block relative to differential upliftof the southern block
Neotectonic activity in Jabalpur area includes seismicactivity and development of young geomorphic featuresThese features include development of strath terraces withhuge Pleistocene (9ndash40Ka) alluvial cover all along the rivercourse and formation of gorges (sim100m deep) with steepvertical wall and development of 10m high waterfall [26]Incision and steepening of Narmada river floor with verticalwall probably formed due to vertical tectonic movement ofNarmada faults during 60ndash40 ka [26]
36 Seismicity and GPS Observations Historical and instru-mental records indicate that the compressive stresses still
6 Geography Journal
375500625650675
SNNFSNSF
Narmada R
Pachmarhi
A
N
S
80 90706050403020100A998400
(a)
Narsihapur
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
350400450500550600650SNNF SNSF
Narmada RN
S
B B 998400
(b)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
350400450500550600
SNNF SNSFNarmada R
Lakhnadon
N
S
C C998400
(c)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
350400450500550SNNF SNSF
Narmada RBhedaghat
N S
D998400D
(d)
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
500625750875
SNSF Narmada R Central IndianShear Zone
ChilpiNS
E E 998400
(e)
Figure 5 Cross-valley profiles have been constructed along the lines A-A1015840 B-B1015840 C-C1015840 D-D1015840 and E-E1015840 to show variation of topographytowards north and south directions The elevation difference in N-S profiles shows that the southern block of basin is uplifted
1970 (M 54) 1997 (M 60)
Focal mechanism
1906
1970
Baroda
1863
Indore
18481962Khandwa
Itarsi
19691957
Betul
190318461997 (M 60)
Mandla
JABALPUR
Tan Shear Z
1927(M65)
FFFFFFFF
F F F FF
FF
1938M 63
100 kmJalgaon1869Girna
Surat
Reservoir1997M 60
Kosanghat
10 km
Strike-slip motion
1951
After
shoc
ks
S Narmada F
Tapi R
Bhopal
Narmada R
North Narmada F
South Narmada F
Bharuch Jabalpur
23∘
23∘
80∘
80∘
24∘
20∘
22∘
72∘
74∘
76∘
∐
Figure 6 Tectonic map of SONATA shows epicentral distribution of earthquakes [15 48 49]The index beach ball shows thrust faulting withstrike-slip component
continue to accumulate along the fault zone due to continuednorthward movement of the Indian plate This is evidencedby the fault solution studies of the earthquakes at Broach(23 March 1970) and Jabalpur (22 May 1997) (Figures 1(a)and 6) which suggest a thrusting movement [45ndash47] Results
obtained fromgeomorphometric observationswere validatedand crosschecked with the results obtained from seismic andGPS observations of various workers The ongoing move-ments are manifest in recurrent seismicity in upper Narmadacatchment of central IndiaThe enhanced earthquake activity
Geography Journal 7
in SONATA zone occurred during the period 1876 to 1993which includes 23 March 1970 Bharuch earthquake of Mw54 1927 event of Mw 65 that occurred southwest of Rewa1938 earthquake of Mw 63 near Khandwa 1945 earthquakeof Mw 57 in Navagam and the 1997 Jabalpur earthquakeof Mw 60 (Figure 6) The 22 May 1997 Jabalpur earthquakeoccurred at a depth of 36plusmn4 km along an ENE-WSE trendingfault [48] Fault plane solution indicates reverse faulting witha component of left lateral strike-slip motion [49] This isthe first significant strong earthquake that was recorded bythe broadband stations of the national network and the focaldepth was well estimated using the depth phases [50] It isobserved that the earthquake was associated with the Nar-mada rift and was of deep crustal source The seismic cross-section of the main shock and aftershocks by Kayal [49]indicates that the south dipping Narmada south fault (NSF)the southern margin fault of the Narmada rift basin wasactivated by reverse faulting and the earthquakes occurredat depth of 35 km and up The seismic pattern in upperNarmada catchments is directly correlated with geomorphicindices suggesting that the eastern limit of upper Narmadariver is more active than western limit Occurrence of 18461903 1927 and 1997 tremors in and around the eastern limitof Jabalpur was correlated with lines of evidence gatheredfrom geomorphic datasets The observations by Kayal [49]further suggest that the rift basin boundary faults are mantlereaching these faults are developed in tensional regime in thegeological past and are now under compressive stress due tothe NNE movement of the Indian plate [51]
Occurrence of seismicity in Son-Narmada fault zone wasfurther allied with GPS observation of Banerjee et al [52] andApel et al [51] (Figure 7)The velocitymodel of Apel et al [51]shows northwardmotion in the south and southwardmotionin the north across the SNF zone as indicated by black vectorsin Figure 7 indicateing that the central part of India is undercontraction [52]The Son-Narmada lineament zone separatesthe Indian subcontinent into two blocks [51] for examplenorth Indian and south Indian blocks showing 4mmyrcontraction in the east to 1mmyr in the west which suggestsN-S contraction in central India along SNF (Figure 7) TheNarmada-Son lineament through central India shows highheat flow and strain rate estimated from seismicity whichis larger than that in many stable continental regions andsuggests a concentration of intraplate deformation [53] It ispossible that the seismicity in the region is also enhanced bya thinned and weakened lithosphere due to passive-marginnormal faulting in the Cretaceous [6 25] and by heating fromthe plume head responsible for the late Cretaceous Deccanflood basalts [54 55]
4 Discussion
Increase of river gradient index in two places in and aroundJabalpur indicates vertical uplift due to N-S compressionalong SNF zone Valley floor height and width ratio andbasin asymmetric facture suggest that the entire basin is tiltedtowards NNW direction The geomorphometric database
1 PT India2 PT India
2 mmyr
30∘
60∘
70∘
20∘
10∘
90∘
80∘
Figure 7 Residual velocities shown for the 1-block model (blackvectors) and 2-block India model (white vectors) Separation of theIndian block (grey line) is along the Narmada-Son Lineament inCentral India [51] The relative pole of rotation for the 2-block Indiamodel is shown in thewest with a 20 sigma error ellipseThe rotationrate of 0162 degMy predicts contraction along the Narmada-Sonline from 5mmyr in the east to 0mmyr near the pole in the west(black triangles) Extensional rates in Arabian Sea are shown byWhite triangles [51]
and satellite data interpretation clearly suggest that the Son-Narmada south fault was activated during the Quaternarytime Various tectonically induced landforms were formedall along the Narmada river Shifting of river channel (nearAmarkantak) and waterfall formation of gorge with nearlyvertical wall in and around Bhedaghat and development ofstrath terraces are common landform features which wereformed due to movement along SNF These observationssuggest strain accumulation in the Son-Narmada fault zone
The geomagnetic field variation and GPS observationsalso suggested strain accumulation in the region A highgeomagnetic anomaly field variation inNarmada river regionranging between plusmn006 and plusmn954 nT indicates accumulationof stress within the SNF zone [1 51] On the basis ofaeromagnetic database Anand and Rajaram [56] believe thatthe two ENE-WSW and NW-SE trending tectonic featureswere reactivated in Quaternary time GPS observations ofApel et al [51] suggest that the strain is accumulating beneaththe Son-Narmada south fault The accumulation of strainbeneath this zone probably may cause strong earthquakes infuture
The morphometric indices and geomorphological obser-vations in the Narmada river suggest the role of seismicityin the evolution of fluvial landform Conventionally tiltingof the basin is attributed to tectonic control The Narmadariver is occupied by the rocks belonging to Vindhyan andSatpura towards upper reaches and Deccan basalt towardslower reaches The river system is controlled by two parallelfaults (SNNF and SNSF) The ongoing tectonic uplift alongpreexisting faults is conventionally examined through abruptchanges in river gradient The observed SL values betweenShahpuri and Mandla ((100ndash390) and (100ndash1400)) in and
8 Geography Journal
around Jabalpur suggest vertical tectonic processes alongSNSF The basin is tilting towards NNW due to tectonicmovement along SNSF zone (Figure 3) Towards the upperreaches the river shows southwest migrations where119879 rangesbetween 004 and 065 The lower reaches show migration ofriver towards NNWwhich is supported by observed 119879 (017ndash046) Migration of river can be assigned to low resistancebedrock or tectonic uplift along SNSF (Figure 4) The Vfvalue for upper reaches ranges between 1255 and 1452 andtowards lower reaches the Vf values are 2431 246 and2565 These abnormal changes in Vf towards upper andlower reaches could be associated with intense tectonic upliftFurther morphometric indices and geomorphic anomalies(water fall gorges etc) together indicate that the terrain isactive
5 Conclusion
(i) Morphometric indices and the drainage pattern indi-cate that Shahpuri-Mandla and Jabalpur-Narsihapursegments in the SNF zone are active and showingenhanced uplift in Narmada river basin
(ii) Geodetic observations of Apel et al [51] suggest thatthe SNSF zone is major stress accumulation zone inSONATA zone
(iii) Seismicity pattern and occurrence of moderate earth-quakes in the region implie that the area has potentialfor another moderate earthquake in future
Acknowledgments
The study was supported by Gujarat State Disaster Manage-ment Authority We thank the anonymous referees for theircritical reviews and constructive comments which helped toimprove the quality of the manuscript
References
[1] S YWaghmare and L Carlo ldquoGeomagnetic Investivation in theseismoactive area of Narmada-Son lineament Central IndiardquoJournal of Indian Geophysical Union vol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash10 2008
[2] Geological Survey of India Projet Crumansonata GeoscientificStudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi Lineament Zone 1995
[3] W D West ldquoThe line of Narmada-Valleyrdquo Current Science vol31 pp 143ndash144 1962
[4] J B Auden ldquoGeological discussion of the Satpura hypothesisrdquoProceedings of the National Institute of Sciences of India vol 15pp 315ndash340 1949
[5] M S Krishnan and J Swaminathan ldquoThe great Vindhyan basinof northern Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol1 pp 10ndash30 1959
[6] S Biswas I Coutand D Grujic C Hager D Stockli and BGrasemann ldquoExhumation and uplift of the Shillong plateauand its influence on the eastern Himalayas new constraintsfrom apatite and zircon (uth-[sm])he and apatite fission trackanalysesrdquo Tectonics vol 26 no 6 2007
[7] M N Qureshy ldquoGeophysical and Landsat lineamentmappingmdashan approach illustrated from West-Central and
South Indiardquo Photogrammetria vol 37 no 3ndash5 pp 161ndash1841982
[8] A K Jain N Annup and D C Singhal ldquoCrustal evolutionof the Narmada-Son lineament and associated shear zones ofthe Indian lithosphererdquo Indian Journal of Earth Science (CEISMSeminar) pp 125ndash148 1984
[9] D M Maurya R Rachna and L S Chamyal ldquoSeismicallyinduced deformational structures (seismites) from the mid-lateHolocene terraces lower mahi valley Gujaratrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 51 no 6 pp 755ndash758 1998
[10] D M Maurya R Rachna and L S Chamyal ldquoHistory oftectonic evolution of Gujarat alluvial plains western Indiaduring Quaternary a reviewrdquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 4 pp 343ndash366 2000
[11] L S Chamyal D M Maurya S Bhandari and R Raj ldquoLateQuaternary geomorphic evolution of the lower Narmada valleyWestern India implications for neotectonic activity along theNarmada-Son Faultrdquo Geomorphology vol 46 no 3-4 pp 177ndash202 2002
[12] S K Acharyya and A Roy ldquoTectonothermal history of the cen-tral Indian tectonic zone and reactivation of major faultsshearzonesrdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 55 no 3pp 239ndash256 2000
[13] R Shanker Geothermal Atlas of India Geological Survey ofIndia Kolkata India 1991
[14] D C Mishra and P Kumar ldquoCharacteristic of faults associatedwith Narmada-Son lineament and rock types of Jabalpursectionrdquo Current Science vol 75 pp 308ndash310 1998
[15] K S Valdiya The Making of Indian Geodynamic EvolutionMacmillian Publication House New Delhi India 2010
[16] A SNMurtyDMMall P RKMurty andP R Reddy ldquoTwo-dimensional crustal velocity structure along Hirapur-Mandlaprofile from seismic refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquoPure and Applied Geophysics vol 152 no 2 pp 247ndash266 1998
[17] PKumarHC Tewari andGKhandekar ldquoAn anomalous high-velocity layer at shallow crustal depths in the Narmada zoneIndiardquo Geophysical Journal International vol 142 no 1 pp 95ndash107 2000
[18] DCMishra ldquoMid-continent gravity ldquohighrdquo of central India andthe Gondwana tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 212 no 1-2 pp153ndash161 1992
[19] R K Verma and P Banerjee ldquoNature of continental crust alongthe Narmada-Son lineament inferred from gravity and deepseismic sounding datardquo Tectonophysics vol 202 no 2ndash4 pp375ndash397 1992
[20] A R Sridhar and H C Tewari ldquoExistence of a sedimentarygraben in the western part of Narmada Zone seismic evidencerdquoJournal of Geodynamics vol 31 no 1 pp 19ndash31 2001
[21] D C Mishra K Arora and V M Tiwari ldquoGravity anomaliesand associated tectonic features over the Indian Peninsularshield and adjoining ocean basinsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 379 no1ndash4 pp 61ndash76 2004
[22] H C Tewari A S N Murty P Kumar and A R Sridhar ldquoAtectonicmodel of the Narmada regionrdquoCurrent Science vol 80no 7 pp 873ndash878 2001
[23] V S Krishnaswamy andKR Raghunandan ldquoTheSatpura upliftand the palaeoclimate of the Holocene and auxiliary evidencefrom the Valmiki Ramayanardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 66 no 2 pp 161ndash170 2005
[24] K L Kaila P R K Murty D M Mall M M Dixit and DSarkar ldquoDeep seismic soundings alongHirapur-Mandla profile
Geography Journal 9
central Indiardquo Geophysical Journal of the Royal AstronomicalSociety vol 89 no 1 pp 399ndash404 1987
[25] M M Dixit H C Tewari and C V Rao ldquoTwo-dimensionalvelocity model of the crust beneath the South Cambay BasinIndia from refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquo Geophys-ical Journal International vol 181 no 2 pp 635ndash652 2010
[26] A Gupta V S Kale L A Owen and A K Singhvi ldquoLateQuaternary bedrock incision in the Narmada river at DardiFallsrdquo Current Science vol 93 no 4 pp 564ndash567 2007
[27] R Shanker ldquoThermal and crustal structure of ldquoSONATArdquo Azone of mid continental rifting in Indian shieldrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 37 no 3 pp 211ndash220 1991
[28] V D Choubey ldquoNarmada-Son lineament Indiardquo Nature vol232 pp 38ndash40 1971
[29] B P Radhakrishna and M Ramakrishnan ldquoArchaean-Proterozoic boundary in Indiardquo Journal of the GeologicalSociety of India vol 32 no 4 pp 263ndash278 1988
[30] S C Jain K K K Nair and D B Yedekar ldquoGeology of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zone in Central India Geoscientificstudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zonerdquo in ProjectCrumansonata vol 10 of Special Publication pp 1ndash154 Geolog-ical Survey of India 1995
[31] B N P Agarwal L K Das K Chakraborty and C H SivajildquoAnalysis of the Bouguer anomaly over central India a regionalperspectiverdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 31 pp469ndash493 1995
[32] S Bhattacharji N Chatterjee and J M Wampler ldquoZonesof Narmada-Tapi rift reactivation and Deccan volcanismgeochronological and geochemical evidencerdquo inDeccanBasaltsS S Deshmukh andK K K Nair Eds pp 329ndash340 GondwanaGeological Society Nagpur India 1996
[33] K L Kaila V G Krishna and D Mall ldquoCrustal structure alongMehmadabad-Billimora profile in the Cambay basin Indiafrom deep seismic soundingsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 76 no 1-2pp 99ndash130 1981
[34] T K Roy ldquoStructural styles in southern Cambay basin Indiaand role of Narmada geofracture in the formation of gianthydrocarbon accumulationrdquo Bulletin of the Oil and Natural GasCommission vol 27 pp 15ndash38 1990
[35] S K Biswas ldquoRegional tectonic framework structure and evo-lution of the western marginal basins of Indiardquo Tectonophysicsvol 135 no 4 pp 307ndash327 1987
[36] W Bull and L Mcfadden ldquoTectonic geomorphology north andsouth of the Garlock Fault Californiardquo in Geomorphology inArid Region D O Doehring Ed pp 115ndash138 State Universityof New York Binghamton NY USA 1977
[37] E A Keller and N PinterActive Tectonics Prentice Hall UpperSeddle River NJ USA 1996
[38] D W Burbank and R S Anderson Tectonic GeomorphologyBlackwell Science 2001
[39] D Harbor and Y Gunnell ldquoA long-strike escarpment hetero-geneity of the Western Ghats a synthesis of drainage andtopography using digital morphometric toolsrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 70 no 3 pp 411ndash426 2007
[40] V S Kale and N Shejwalkar ldquoUplift along the western marginof the Deccan Basalt Province is there any geomorphometricevidencerdquo Journal of Earth System Science vol 117 no 6 pp959ndash971 2008
[41] J T Hack ldquoStream profile analysis and stream gradient indexrdquoJournal of Research of the US Geological Survey vol 1 pp 421ndash429 1973
[42] L Seeber and V Gornitz ldquoRiver profiles along the Himalayanarc as indicators of active tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 92 no4 pp 335ndash367 1983
[43] P W Hare and T W Gardner ldquoGeomorphic indicators ofvertical neotectonism along convergent plate margins NicoaPeninsula Costa Ricardquo in Tectonic Geomorphology Proceedingsof the 15th Annual Binghamton Geomorphology SymposiumInternational Series vol 15 pp 75ndash104 1985
[44] V Jain and R Sinha ldquoResponse of active tectonics on theAlluvial Baghmati river Himalayan foreland basin easternIndiardquo Geomorphology vol 70 no 3-4 pp 339ndash356 2005
[45] H K Gupta I Mohan and H Narain ldquoThe Broach earthquakeof March 23 1970rdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society ofAmerica vol 62 pp 47ndash61 1972
[46] H K Gupta R K Chadha M N Rao et al ldquoThe Jabalpurearthquake of May 22 1997rdquo Journal of the Geological Society ofIndia vol 50 no 1 pp 85ndash91 1997
[47] U Chandra ldquoEarthquakes of peninsular India a seismotecton-ics studyrdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America vol65 pp 1387ndash1413 1977
[48] K Rajendran and C P Rajendran ldquoCharacteristics of the1997 Jabalpur earthquake and their bearing on its mechanismrdquoCurrent Science vol 74 no 2 pp 168ndash174 1998
[49] J R Kayal ldquoSeismotectonic study of the two recent SCRearthquakes in central Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 2 pp 123ndash138 2000
[50] S N Bhattacharya A K Ghose G Suresh P R Baidya and RC Saxena ldquoSource parameters of Jabalpur earthquake of May22 1997rdquo Current Science vol 73 no 10 pp 855ndash863 1997
[51] E V Apel R Burgmann and P Banerjee ldquoIndian platemotion deformationand plate boundary interactionsrdquo Geo-physical Journal International In press
[52] P Banerjee R Burgmann B Nagarajan and E Apel ldquoIntraplatedeformation of the Indian subcontinentrdquo Geophysical ResearchLetters vol 35 no 18 2008
[53] B R Rao ldquoHistorical seismicity and deformation rates in theIndian peninsular shieldrdquo Journal of Seismology vol 4 no 3pp 247ndash258 2000
[54] B L N Kennett and S Widiyantoro ldquoA low seismic wavespeedanomaly beneath northwestern India a seismic signature of theDeccan plumerdquo Earth and Planetary Science Letters vol 165no 1 pp 145ndash155 1999
[55] D V Chandrasekhar R Burgmann C D Reddy P S Sunil andD A Schmidt ldquoWeak mantle in NW India probed by geodeticmeasurements following the 2001 Bhuj earthquakerdquo Earth andPlanetary Science Letters vol 280 no 1ndash4 pp 229ndash235 2009
[56] S P Anand and M Rajaram ldquoCrustal structure of Narmada-Son Lineament an aeromagnetic perspectiverdquo Earth Planetsand Space vol 56 no 5 pp 9ndash12 2004
Figure 4 Drainage map of upper Narmada river basin showing calculated values of basin asymmetry (AF) topographic symmetric factor(119879) solid white lines (A-A1015840 B-B1015840 C-C1015840 D-D1015840 and E-E1015840) indicate cross-profile directions
factor of 40 points to regional tectonic tilt towards the NNWdirection (Figure 4) Tilting of topography may be associatedwith activity of ENE-WSW trending SNF zone
34 Transverse Topographic Symmetry (119879) Transverse topo-graphic symmetry is another quantitative parameter to eval-uate tectonic tilt of basin it is expressed as
119879 =
DaDd (3)
where Da is the distance from midline of the drainage basinto the midline of the active meander belt Dd is the distancefrom the basin midline to basin divide In general the valueof 119879 ranges from 0 to 1 119879 = 0 implies a perfectly symmetricalbasin and 119879 = 1 indicates a perfectly asymmetrical one[43] Tectonic deformation impacts the drainage of that areathrough changes in the channel slope [44] In present studythe observed value of 119879 for Narmada river ranges from 004to 065 for (SNSF) implying ground tilting of river basins(Figure 4)
35 Valley Floor Height and Width Ratio (Vf) Valley floorheight and width ratio (Vf) is defined as an index of the formshape of the valley indicates whether the river is activelydowncutting and incising [36] by
Vf = 2Vfw((Eld minus Esc) + (Erd minus Esc))
(4)
where Vf is the valley floor width-to height ratio Vfw is thewidth of the valley floor Eld and Erd are elevations of the leftand right valley divides respectively and Esc is the elevationof the valley floor The downcutting of valley is commonlyassociated with the higher rate of uplift in tectonically activeareas The small values of Vf (lt1) reflect deep narrow Vshaped valleys which are commonly associated with relative
rapid uplift [40] In contrast high values (gt1) are markersof wide open valleys in the regions of minimal uplift rates[37] The index is used to evaluate tectonic activity alongfront impediment faults along the Son-Narmada south faultWe observed lower value of Vf towards the eastern limit ofJabalpur and comparatively higher value towards west whichreflects that the eastern margin of Jabalpur is tectonicallymore active than the western limit Near Jabalpur Narsingh-pur and Hoshangabad the Vf values are 2431 246 and2565 which are associated with broad open valleys indicatinglateral erosion due to stability of base level and less tectonicactivity NearAmarkantak andMandla the obtainedVf ratiosare 1255 and 1452 which are associated with intense tectonicperturbation in Quaternary time
The elevation difference in N-S profiles shows that thesouthern block of basin is uplifted and the entire topographyis tilted towards NNW direction (Figure 5) The southernblock of basin is much elevated along the SNF and hasrugged topography as compared to the northern block Thesouthern block is devoid of any Quaternary and indicatescontinuous uplift and erosion of the bed rocks The presenceof Quaternary deposits towards the north of basin suggestssubsidence of the northern block relative to differential upliftof the southern block
Neotectonic activity in Jabalpur area includes seismicactivity and development of young geomorphic featuresThese features include development of strath terraces withhuge Pleistocene (9ndash40Ka) alluvial cover all along the rivercourse and formation of gorges (sim100m deep) with steepvertical wall and development of 10m high waterfall [26]Incision and steepening of Narmada river floor with verticalwall probably formed due to vertical tectonic movement ofNarmada faults during 60ndash40 ka [26]
36 Seismicity and GPS Observations Historical and instru-mental records indicate that the compressive stresses still
6 Geography Journal
375500625650675
SNNFSNSF
Narmada R
Pachmarhi
A
N
S
80 90706050403020100A998400
(a)
Narsihapur
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
350400450500550600650SNNF SNSF
Narmada RN
S
B B 998400
(b)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
350400450500550600
SNNF SNSFNarmada R
Lakhnadon
N
S
C C998400
(c)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
350400450500550SNNF SNSF
Narmada RBhedaghat
N S
D998400D
(d)
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
500625750875
SNSF Narmada R Central IndianShear Zone
ChilpiNS
E E 998400
(e)
Figure 5 Cross-valley profiles have been constructed along the lines A-A1015840 B-B1015840 C-C1015840 D-D1015840 and E-E1015840 to show variation of topographytowards north and south directions The elevation difference in N-S profiles shows that the southern block of basin is uplifted
1970 (M 54) 1997 (M 60)
Focal mechanism
1906
1970
Baroda
1863
Indore
18481962Khandwa
Itarsi
19691957
Betul
190318461997 (M 60)
Mandla
JABALPUR
Tan Shear Z
1927(M65)
FFFFFFFF
F F F FF
FF
1938M 63
100 kmJalgaon1869Girna
Surat
Reservoir1997M 60
Kosanghat
10 km
Strike-slip motion
1951
After
shoc
ks
S Narmada F
Tapi R
Bhopal
Narmada R
North Narmada F
South Narmada F
Bharuch Jabalpur
23∘
23∘
80∘
80∘
24∘
20∘
22∘
72∘
74∘
76∘
∐
Figure 6 Tectonic map of SONATA shows epicentral distribution of earthquakes [15 48 49]The index beach ball shows thrust faulting withstrike-slip component
continue to accumulate along the fault zone due to continuednorthward movement of the Indian plate This is evidencedby the fault solution studies of the earthquakes at Broach(23 March 1970) and Jabalpur (22 May 1997) (Figures 1(a)and 6) which suggest a thrusting movement [45ndash47] Results
obtained fromgeomorphometric observationswere validatedand crosschecked with the results obtained from seismic andGPS observations of various workers The ongoing move-ments are manifest in recurrent seismicity in upper Narmadacatchment of central IndiaThe enhanced earthquake activity
Geography Journal 7
in SONATA zone occurred during the period 1876 to 1993which includes 23 March 1970 Bharuch earthquake of Mw54 1927 event of Mw 65 that occurred southwest of Rewa1938 earthquake of Mw 63 near Khandwa 1945 earthquakeof Mw 57 in Navagam and the 1997 Jabalpur earthquakeof Mw 60 (Figure 6) The 22 May 1997 Jabalpur earthquakeoccurred at a depth of 36plusmn4 km along an ENE-WSE trendingfault [48] Fault plane solution indicates reverse faulting witha component of left lateral strike-slip motion [49] This isthe first significant strong earthquake that was recorded bythe broadband stations of the national network and the focaldepth was well estimated using the depth phases [50] It isobserved that the earthquake was associated with the Nar-mada rift and was of deep crustal source The seismic cross-section of the main shock and aftershocks by Kayal [49]indicates that the south dipping Narmada south fault (NSF)the southern margin fault of the Narmada rift basin wasactivated by reverse faulting and the earthquakes occurredat depth of 35 km and up The seismic pattern in upperNarmada catchments is directly correlated with geomorphicindices suggesting that the eastern limit of upper Narmadariver is more active than western limit Occurrence of 18461903 1927 and 1997 tremors in and around the eastern limitof Jabalpur was correlated with lines of evidence gatheredfrom geomorphic datasets The observations by Kayal [49]further suggest that the rift basin boundary faults are mantlereaching these faults are developed in tensional regime in thegeological past and are now under compressive stress due tothe NNE movement of the Indian plate [51]
Occurrence of seismicity in Son-Narmada fault zone wasfurther allied with GPS observation of Banerjee et al [52] andApel et al [51] (Figure 7)The velocitymodel of Apel et al [51]shows northwardmotion in the south and southwardmotionin the north across the SNF zone as indicated by black vectorsin Figure 7 indicateing that the central part of India is undercontraction [52]The Son-Narmada lineament zone separatesthe Indian subcontinent into two blocks [51] for examplenorth Indian and south Indian blocks showing 4mmyrcontraction in the east to 1mmyr in the west which suggestsN-S contraction in central India along SNF (Figure 7) TheNarmada-Son lineament through central India shows highheat flow and strain rate estimated from seismicity whichis larger than that in many stable continental regions andsuggests a concentration of intraplate deformation [53] It ispossible that the seismicity in the region is also enhanced bya thinned and weakened lithosphere due to passive-marginnormal faulting in the Cretaceous [6 25] and by heating fromthe plume head responsible for the late Cretaceous Deccanflood basalts [54 55]
4 Discussion
Increase of river gradient index in two places in and aroundJabalpur indicates vertical uplift due to N-S compressionalong SNF zone Valley floor height and width ratio andbasin asymmetric facture suggest that the entire basin is tiltedtowards NNW direction The geomorphometric database
1 PT India2 PT India
2 mmyr
30∘
60∘
70∘
20∘
10∘
90∘
80∘
Figure 7 Residual velocities shown for the 1-block model (blackvectors) and 2-block India model (white vectors) Separation of theIndian block (grey line) is along the Narmada-Son Lineament inCentral India [51] The relative pole of rotation for the 2-block Indiamodel is shown in thewest with a 20 sigma error ellipseThe rotationrate of 0162 degMy predicts contraction along the Narmada-Sonline from 5mmyr in the east to 0mmyr near the pole in the west(black triangles) Extensional rates in Arabian Sea are shown byWhite triangles [51]
and satellite data interpretation clearly suggest that the Son-Narmada south fault was activated during the Quaternarytime Various tectonically induced landforms were formedall along the Narmada river Shifting of river channel (nearAmarkantak) and waterfall formation of gorge with nearlyvertical wall in and around Bhedaghat and development ofstrath terraces are common landform features which wereformed due to movement along SNF These observationssuggest strain accumulation in the Son-Narmada fault zone
The geomagnetic field variation and GPS observationsalso suggested strain accumulation in the region A highgeomagnetic anomaly field variation inNarmada river regionranging between plusmn006 and plusmn954 nT indicates accumulationof stress within the SNF zone [1 51] On the basis ofaeromagnetic database Anand and Rajaram [56] believe thatthe two ENE-WSW and NW-SE trending tectonic featureswere reactivated in Quaternary time GPS observations ofApel et al [51] suggest that the strain is accumulating beneaththe Son-Narmada south fault The accumulation of strainbeneath this zone probably may cause strong earthquakes infuture
The morphometric indices and geomorphological obser-vations in the Narmada river suggest the role of seismicityin the evolution of fluvial landform Conventionally tiltingof the basin is attributed to tectonic control The Narmadariver is occupied by the rocks belonging to Vindhyan andSatpura towards upper reaches and Deccan basalt towardslower reaches The river system is controlled by two parallelfaults (SNNF and SNSF) The ongoing tectonic uplift alongpreexisting faults is conventionally examined through abruptchanges in river gradient The observed SL values betweenShahpuri and Mandla ((100ndash390) and (100ndash1400)) in and
8 Geography Journal
around Jabalpur suggest vertical tectonic processes alongSNSF The basin is tilting towards NNW due to tectonicmovement along SNSF zone (Figure 3) Towards the upperreaches the river shows southwest migrations where119879 rangesbetween 004 and 065 The lower reaches show migration ofriver towards NNWwhich is supported by observed 119879 (017ndash046) Migration of river can be assigned to low resistancebedrock or tectonic uplift along SNSF (Figure 4) The Vfvalue for upper reaches ranges between 1255 and 1452 andtowards lower reaches the Vf values are 2431 246 and2565 These abnormal changes in Vf towards upper andlower reaches could be associated with intense tectonic upliftFurther morphometric indices and geomorphic anomalies(water fall gorges etc) together indicate that the terrain isactive
5 Conclusion
(i) Morphometric indices and the drainage pattern indi-cate that Shahpuri-Mandla and Jabalpur-Narsihapursegments in the SNF zone are active and showingenhanced uplift in Narmada river basin
(ii) Geodetic observations of Apel et al [51] suggest thatthe SNSF zone is major stress accumulation zone inSONATA zone
(iii) Seismicity pattern and occurrence of moderate earth-quakes in the region implie that the area has potentialfor another moderate earthquake in future
Acknowledgments
The study was supported by Gujarat State Disaster Manage-ment Authority We thank the anonymous referees for theircritical reviews and constructive comments which helped toimprove the quality of the manuscript
References
[1] S YWaghmare and L Carlo ldquoGeomagnetic Investivation in theseismoactive area of Narmada-Son lineament Central IndiardquoJournal of Indian Geophysical Union vol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash10 2008
[2] Geological Survey of India Projet Crumansonata GeoscientificStudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi Lineament Zone 1995
[3] W D West ldquoThe line of Narmada-Valleyrdquo Current Science vol31 pp 143ndash144 1962
[4] J B Auden ldquoGeological discussion of the Satpura hypothesisrdquoProceedings of the National Institute of Sciences of India vol 15pp 315ndash340 1949
[5] M S Krishnan and J Swaminathan ldquoThe great Vindhyan basinof northern Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol1 pp 10ndash30 1959
[6] S Biswas I Coutand D Grujic C Hager D Stockli and BGrasemann ldquoExhumation and uplift of the Shillong plateauand its influence on the eastern Himalayas new constraintsfrom apatite and zircon (uth-[sm])he and apatite fission trackanalysesrdquo Tectonics vol 26 no 6 2007
[7] M N Qureshy ldquoGeophysical and Landsat lineamentmappingmdashan approach illustrated from West-Central and
South Indiardquo Photogrammetria vol 37 no 3ndash5 pp 161ndash1841982
[8] A K Jain N Annup and D C Singhal ldquoCrustal evolutionof the Narmada-Son lineament and associated shear zones ofthe Indian lithosphererdquo Indian Journal of Earth Science (CEISMSeminar) pp 125ndash148 1984
[9] D M Maurya R Rachna and L S Chamyal ldquoSeismicallyinduced deformational structures (seismites) from the mid-lateHolocene terraces lower mahi valley Gujaratrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 51 no 6 pp 755ndash758 1998
[10] D M Maurya R Rachna and L S Chamyal ldquoHistory oftectonic evolution of Gujarat alluvial plains western Indiaduring Quaternary a reviewrdquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 4 pp 343ndash366 2000
[11] L S Chamyal D M Maurya S Bhandari and R Raj ldquoLateQuaternary geomorphic evolution of the lower Narmada valleyWestern India implications for neotectonic activity along theNarmada-Son Faultrdquo Geomorphology vol 46 no 3-4 pp 177ndash202 2002
[12] S K Acharyya and A Roy ldquoTectonothermal history of the cen-tral Indian tectonic zone and reactivation of major faultsshearzonesrdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 55 no 3pp 239ndash256 2000
[13] R Shanker Geothermal Atlas of India Geological Survey ofIndia Kolkata India 1991
[14] D C Mishra and P Kumar ldquoCharacteristic of faults associatedwith Narmada-Son lineament and rock types of Jabalpursectionrdquo Current Science vol 75 pp 308ndash310 1998
[15] K S Valdiya The Making of Indian Geodynamic EvolutionMacmillian Publication House New Delhi India 2010
[16] A SNMurtyDMMall P RKMurty andP R Reddy ldquoTwo-dimensional crustal velocity structure along Hirapur-Mandlaprofile from seismic refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquoPure and Applied Geophysics vol 152 no 2 pp 247ndash266 1998
[17] PKumarHC Tewari andGKhandekar ldquoAn anomalous high-velocity layer at shallow crustal depths in the Narmada zoneIndiardquo Geophysical Journal International vol 142 no 1 pp 95ndash107 2000
[18] DCMishra ldquoMid-continent gravity ldquohighrdquo of central India andthe Gondwana tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 212 no 1-2 pp153ndash161 1992
[19] R K Verma and P Banerjee ldquoNature of continental crust alongthe Narmada-Son lineament inferred from gravity and deepseismic sounding datardquo Tectonophysics vol 202 no 2ndash4 pp375ndash397 1992
[20] A R Sridhar and H C Tewari ldquoExistence of a sedimentarygraben in the western part of Narmada Zone seismic evidencerdquoJournal of Geodynamics vol 31 no 1 pp 19ndash31 2001
[21] D C Mishra K Arora and V M Tiwari ldquoGravity anomaliesand associated tectonic features over the Indian Peninsularshield and adjoining ocean basinsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 379 no1ndash4 pp 61ndash76 2004
[22] H C Tewari A S N Murty P Kumar and A R Sridhar ldquoAtectonicmodel of the Narmada regionrdquoCurrent Science vol 80no 7 pp 873ndash878 2001
[23] V S Krishnaswamy andKR Raghunandan ldquoTheSatpura upliftand the palaeoclimate of the Holocene and auxiliary evidencefrom the Valmiki Ramayanardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 66 no 2 pp 161ndash170 2005
[24] K L Kaila P R K Murty D M Mall M M Dixit and DSarkar ldquoDeep seismic soundings alongHirapur-Mandla profile
Geography Journal 9
central Indiardquo Geophysical Journal of the Royal AstronomicalSociety vol 89 no 1 pp 399ndash404 1987
[25] M M Dixit H C Tewari and C V Rao ldquoTwo-dimensionalvelocity model of the crust beneath the South Cambay BasinIndia from refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquo Geophys-ical Journal International vol 181 no 2 pp 635ndash652 2010
[26] A Gupta V S Kale L A Owen and A K Singhvi ldquoLateQuaternary bedrock incision in the Narmada river at DardiFallsrdquo Current Science vol 93 no 4 pp 564ndash567 2007
[27] R Shanker ldquoThermal and crustal structure of ldquoSONATArdquo Azone of mid continental rifting in Indian shieldrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 37 no 3 pp 211ndash220 1991
[28] V D Choubey ldquoNarmada-Son lineament Indiardquo Nature vol232 pp 38ndash40 1971
[29] B P Radhakrishna and M Ramakrishnan ldquoArchaean-Proterozoic boundary in Indiardquo Journal of the GeologicalSociety of India vol 32 no 4 pp 263ndash278 1988
[30] S C Jain K K K Nair and D B Yedekar ldquoGeology of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zone in Central India Geoscientificstudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zonerdquo in ProjectCrumansonata vol 10 of Special Publication pp 1ndash154 Geolog-ical Survey of India 1995
[31] B N P Agarwal L K Das K Chakraborty and C H SivajildquoAnalysis of the Bouguer anomaly over central India a regionalperspectiverdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 31 pp469ndash493 1995
[32] S Bhattacharji N Chatterjee and J M Wampler ldquoZonesof Narmada-Tapi rift reactivation and Deccan volcanismgeochronological and geochemical evidencerdquo inDeccanBasaltsS S Deshmukh andK K K Nair Eds pp 329ndash340 GondwanaGeological Society Nagpur India 1996
[33] K L Kaila V G Krishna and D Mall ldquoCrustal structure alongMehmadabad-Billimora profile in the Cambay basin Indiafrom deep seismic soundingsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 76 no 1-2pp 99ndash130 1981
[34] T K Roy ldquoStructural styles in southern Cambay basin Indiaand role of Narmada geofracture in the formation of gianthydrocarbon accumulationrdquo Bulletin of the Oil and Natural GasCommission vol 27 pp 15ndash38 1990
[35] S K Biswas ldquoRegional tectonic framework structure and evo-lution of the western marginal basins of Indiardquo Tectonophysicsvol 135 no 4 pp 307ndash327 1987
[36] W Bull and L Mcfadden ldquoTectonic geomorphology north andsouth of the Garlock Fault Californiardquo in Geomorphology inArid Region D O Doehring Ed pp 115ndash138 State Universityof New York Binghamton NY USA 1977
[37] E A Keller and N PinterActive Tectonics Prentice Hall UpperSeddle River NJ USA 1996
[38] D W Burbank and R S Anderson Tectonic GeomorphologyBlackwell Science 2001
[39] D Harbor and Y Gunnell ldquoA long-strike escarpment hetero-geneity of the Western Ghats a synthesis of drainage andtopography using digital morphometric toolsrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 70 no 3 pp 411ndash426 2007
[40] V S Kale and N Shejwalkar ldquoUplift along the western marginof the Deccan Basalt Province is there any geomorphometricevidencerdquo Journal of Earth System Science vol 117 no 6 pp959ndash971 2008
[41] J T Hack ldquoStream profile analysis and stream gradient indexrdquoJournal of Research of the US Geological Survey vol 1 pp 421ndash429 1973
[42] L Seeber and V Gornitz ldquoRiver profiles along the Himalayanarc as indicators of active tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 92 no4 pp 335ndash367 1983
[43] P W Hare and T W Gardner ldquoGeomorphic indicators ofvertical neotectonism along convergent plate margins NicoaPeninsula Costa Ricardquo in Tectonic Geomorphology Proceedingsof the 15th Annual Binghamton Geomorphology SymposiumInternational Series vol 15 pp 75ndash104 1985
[44] V Jain and R Sinha ldquoResponse of active tectonics on theAlluvial Baghmati river Himalayan foreland basin easternIndiardquo Geomorphology vol 70 no 3-4 pp 339ndash356 2005
[45] H K Gupta I Mohan and H Narain ldquoThe Broach earthquakeof March 23 1970rdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society ofAmerica vol 62 pp 47ndash61 1972
[46] H K Gupta R K Chadha M N Rao et al ldquoThe Jabalpurearthquake of May 22 1997rdquo Journal of the Geological Society ofIndia vol 50 no 1 pp 85ndash91 1997
[47] U Chandra ldquoEarthquakes of peninsular India a seismotecton-ics studyrdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America vol65 pp 1387ndash1413 1977
[48] K Rajendran and C P Rajendran ldquoCharacteristics of the1997 Jabalpur earthquake and their bearing on its mechanismrdquoCurrent Science vol 74 no 2 pp 168ndash174 1998
[49] J R Kayal ldquoSeismotectonic study of the two recent SCRearthquakes in central Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 2 pp 123ndash138 2000
[50] S N Bhattacharya A K Ghose G Suresh P R Baidya and RC Saxena ldquoSource parameters of Jabalpur earthquake of May22 1997rdquo Current Science vol 73 no 10 pp 855ndash863 1997
[51] E V Apel R Burgmann and P Banerjee ldquoIndian platemotion deformationand plate boundary interactionsrdquo Geo-physical Journal International In press
[52] P Banerjee R Burgmann B Nagarajan and E Apel ldquoIntraplatedeformation of the Indian subcontinentrdquo Geophysical ResearchLetters vol 35 no 18 2008
[53] B R Rao ldquoHistorical seismicity and deformation rates in theIndian peninsular shieldrdquo Journal of Seismology vol 4 no 3pp 247ndash258 2000
[54] B L N Kennett and S Widiyantoro ldquoA low seismic wavespeedanomaly beneath northwestern India a seismic signature of theDeccan plumerdquo Earth and Planetary Science Letters vol 165no 1 pp 145ndash155 1999
[55] D V Chandrasekhar R Burgmann C D Reddy P S Sunil andD A Schmidt ldquoWeak mantle in NW India probed by geodeticmeasurements following the 2001 Bhuj earthquakerdquo Earth andPlanetary Science Letters vol 280 no 1ndash4 pp 229ndash235 2009
[56] S P Anand and M Rajaram ldquoCrustal structure of Narmada-Son Lineament an aeromagnetic perspectiverdquo Earth Planetsand Space vol 56 no 5 pp 9ndash12 2004
Figure 5 Cross-valley profiles have been constructed along the lines A-A1015840 B-B1015840 C-C1015840 D-D1015840 and E-E1015840 to show variation of topographytowards north and south directions The elevation difference in N-S profiles shows that the southern block of basin is uplifted
1970 (M 54) 1997 (M 60)
Focal mechanism
1906
1970
Baroda
1863
Indore
18481962Khandwa
Itarsi
19691957
Betul
190318461997 (M 60)
Mandla
JABALPUR
Tan Shear Z
1927(M65)
FFFFFFFF
F F F FF
FF
1938M 63
100 kmJalgaon1869Girna
Surat
Reservoir1997M 60
Kosanghat
10 km
Strike-slip motion
1951
After
shoc
ks
S Narmada F
Tapi R
Bhopal
Narmada R
North Narmada F
South Narmada F
Bharuch Jabalpur
23∘
23∘
80∘
80∘
24∘
20∘
22∘
72∘
74∘
76∘
∐
Figure 6 Tectonic map of SONATA shows epicentral distribution of earthquakes [15 48 49]The index beach ball shows thrust faulting withstrike-slip component
continue to accumulate along the fault zone due to continuednorthward movement of the Indian plate This is evidencedby the fault solution studies of the earthquakes at Broach(23 March 1970) and Jabalpur (22 May 1997) (Figures 1(a)and 6) which suggest a thrusting movement [45ndash47] Results
obtained fromgeomorphometric observationswere validatedand crosschecked with the results obtained from seismic andGPS observations of various workers The ongoing move-ments are manifest in recurrent seismicity in upper Narmadacatchment of central IndiaThe enhanced earthquake activity
Geography Journal 7
in SONATA zone occurred during the period 1876 to 1993which includes 23 March 1970 Bharuch earthquake of Mw54 1927 event of Mw 65 that occurred southwest of Rewa1938 earthquake of Mw 63 near Khandwa 1945 earthquakeof Mw 57 in Navagam and the 1997 Jabalpur earthquakeof Mw 60 (Figure 6) The 22 May 1997 Jabalpur earthquakeoccurred at a depth of 36plusmn4 km along an ENE-WSE trendingfault [48] Fault plane solution indicates reverse faulting witha component of left lateral strike-slip motion [49] This isthe first significant strong earthquake that was recorded bythe broadband stations of the national network and the focaldepth was well estimated using the depth phases [50] It isobserved that the earthquake was associated with the Nar-mada rift and was of deep crustal source The seismic cross-section of the main shock and aftershocks by Kayal [49]indicates that the south dipping Narmada south fault (NSF)the southern margin fault of the Narmada rift basin wasactivated by reverse faulting and the earthquakes occurredat depth of 35 km and up The seismic pattern in upperNarmada catchments is directly correlated with geomorphicindices suggesting that the eastern limit of upper Narmadariver is more active than western limit Occurrence of 18461903 1927 and 1997 tremors in and around the eastern limitof Jabalpur was correlated with lines of evidence gatheredfrom geomorphic datasets The observations by Kayal [49]further suggest that the rift basin boundary faults are mantlereaching these faults are developed in tensional regime in thegeological past and are now under compressive stress due tothe NNE movement of the Indian plate [51]
Occurrence of seismicity in Son-Narmada fault zone wasfurther allied with GPS observation of Banerjee et al [52] andApel et al [51] (Figure 7)The velocitymodel of Apel et al [51]shows northwardmotion in the south and southwardmotionin the north across the SNF zone as indicated by black vectorsin Figure 7 indicateing that the central part of India is undercontraction [52]The Son-Narmada lineament zone separatesthe Indian subcontinent into two blocks [51] for examplenorth Indian and south Indian blocks showing 4mmyrcontraction in the east to 1mmyr in the west which suggestsN-S contraction in central India along SNF (Figure 7) TheNarmada-Son lineament through central India shows highheat flow and strain rate estimated from seismicity whichis larger than that in many stable continental regions andsuggests a concentration of intraplate deformation [53] It ispossible that the seismicity in the region is also enhanced bya thinned and weakened lithosphere due to passive-marginnormal faulting in the Cretaceous [6 25] and by heating fromthe plume head responsible for the late Cretaceous Deccanflood basalts [54 55]
4 Discussion
Increase of river gradient index in two places in and aroundJabalpur indicates vertical uplift due to N-S compressionalong SNF zone Valley floor height and width ratio andbasin asymmetric facture suggest that the entire basin is tiltedtowards NNW direction The geomorphometric database
1 PT India2 PT India
2 mmyr
30∘
60∘
70∘
20∘
10∘
90∘
80∘
Figure 7 Residual velocities shown for the 1-block model (blackvectors) and 2-block India model (white vectors) Separation of theIndian block (grey line) is along the Narmada-Son Lineament inCentral India [51] The relative pole of rotation for the 2-block Indiamodel is shown in thewest with a 20 sigma error ellipseThe rotationrate of 0162 degMy predicts contraction along the Narmada-Sonline from 5mmyr in the east to 0mmyr near the pole in the west(black triangles) Extensional rates in Arabian Sea are shown byWhite triangles [51]
and satellite data interpretation clearly suggest that the Son-Narmada south fault was activated during the Quaternarytime Various tectonically induced landforms were formedall along the Narmada river Shifting of river channel (nearAmarkantak) and waterfall formation of gorge with nearlyvertical wall in and around Bhedaghat and development ofstrath terraces are common landform features which wereformed due to movement along SNF These observationssuggest strain accumulation in the Son-Narmada fault zone
The geomagnetic field variation and GPS observationsalso suggested strain accumulation in the region A highgeomagnetic anomaly field variation inNarmada river regionranging between plusmn006 and plusmn954 nT indicates accumulationof stress within the SNF zone [1 51] On the basis ofaeromagnetic database Anand and Rajaram [56] believe thatthe two ENE-WSW and NW-SE trending tectonic featureswere reactivated in Quaternary time GPS observations ofApel et al [51] suggest that the strain is accumulating beneaththe Son-Narmada south fault The accumulation of strainbeneath this zone probably may cause strong earthquakes infuture
The morphometric indices and geomorphological obser-vations in the Narmada river suggest the role of seismicityin the evolution of fluvial landform Conventionally tiltingof the basin is attributed to tectonic control The Narmadariver is occupied by the rocks belonging to Vindhyan andSatpura towards upper reaches and Deccan basalt towardslower reaches The river system is controlled by two parallelfaults (SNNF and SNSF) The ongoing tectonic uplift alongpreexisting faults is conventionally examined through abruptchanges in river gradient The observed SL values betweenShahpuri and Mandla ((100ndash390) and (100ndash1400)) in and
8 Geography Journal
around Jabalpur suggest vertical tectonic processes alongSNSF The basin is tilting towards NNW due to tectonicmovement along SNSF zone (Figure 3) Towards the upperreaches the river shows southwest migrations where119879 rangesbetween 004 and 065 The lower reaches show migration ofriver towards NNWwhich is supported by observed 119879 (017ndash046) Migration of river can be assigned to low resistancebedrock or tectonic uplift along SNSF (Figure 4) The Vfvalue for upper reaches ranges between 1255 and 1452 andtowards lower reaches the Vf values are 2431 246 and2565 These abnormal changes in Vf towards upper andlower reaches could be associated with intense tectonic upliftFurther morphometric indices and geomorphic anomalies(water fall gorges etc) together indicate that the terrain isactive
5 Conclusion
(i) Morphometric indices and the drainage pattern indi-cate that Shahpuri-Mandla and Jabalpur-Narsihapursegments in the SNF zone are active and showingenhanced uplift in Narmada river basin
(ii) Geodetic observations of Apel et al [51] suggest thatthe SNSF zone is major stress accumulation zone inSONATA zone
(iii) Seismicity pattern and occurrence of moderate earth-quakes in the region implie that the area has potentialfor another moderate earthquake in future
Acknowledgments
The study was supported by Gujarat State Disaster Manage-ment Authority We thank the anonymous referees for theircritical reviews and constructive comments which helped toimprove the quality of the manuscript
References
[1] S YWaghmare and L Carlo ldquoGeomagnetic Investivation in theseismoactive area of Narmada-Son lineament Central IndiardquoJournal of Indian Geophysical Union vol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash10 2008
[2] Geological Survey of India Projet Crumansonata GeoscientificStudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi Lineament Zone 1995
[3] W D West ldquoThe line of Narmada-Valleyrdquo Current Science vol31 pp 143ndash144 1962
[4] J B Auden ldquoGeological discussion of the Satpura hypothesisrdquoProceedings of the National Institute of Sciences of India vol 15pp 315ndash340 1949
[5] M S Krishnan and J Swaminathan ldquoThe great Vindhyan basinof northern Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol1 pp 10ndash30 1959
[6] S Biswas I Coutand D Grujic C Hager D Stockli and BGrasemann ldquoExhumation and uplift of the Shillong plateauand its influence on the eastern Himalayas new constraintsfrom apatite and zircon (uth-[sm])he and apatite fission trackanalysesrdquo Tectonics vol 26 no 6 2007
[7] M N Qureshy ldquoGeophysical and Landsat lineamentmappingmdashan approach illustrated from West-Central and
South Indiardquo Photogrammetria vol 37 no 3ndash5 pp 161ndash1841982
[8] A K Jain N Annup and D C Singhal ldquoCrustal evolutionof the Narmada-Son lineament and associated shear zones ofthe Indian lithosphererdquo Indian Journal of Earth Science (CEISMSeminar) pp 125ndash148 1984
[9] D M Maurya R Rachna and L S Chamyal ldquoSeismicallyinduced deformational structures (seismites) from the mid-lateHolocene terraces lower mahi valley Gujaratrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 51 no 6 pp 755ndash758 1998
[10] D M Maurya R Rachna and L S Chamyal ldquoHistory oftectonic evolution of Gujarat alluvial plains western Indiaduring Quaternary a reviewrdquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 4 pp 343ndash366 2000
[11] L S Chamyal D M Maurya S Bhandari and R Raj ldquoLateQuaternary geomorphic evolution of the lower Narmada valleyWestern India implications for neotectonic activity along theNarmada-Son Faultrdquo Geomorphology vol 46 no 3-4 pp 177ndash202 2002
[12] S K Acharyya and A Roy ldquoTectonothermal history of the cen-tral Indian tectonic zone and reactivation of major faultsshearzonesrdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 55 no 3pp 239ndash256 2000
[13] R Shanker Geothermal Atlas of India Geological Survey ofIndia Kolkata India 1991
[14] D C Mishra and P Kumar ldquoCharacteristic of faults associatedwith Narmada-Son lineament and rock types of Jabalpursectionrdquo Current Science vol 75 pp 308ndash310 1998
[15] K S Valdiya The Making of Indian Geodynamic EvolutionMacmillian Publication House New Delhi India 2010
[16] A SNMurtyDMMall P RKMurty andP R Reddy ldquoTwo-dimensional crustal velocity structure along Hirapur-Mandlaprofile from seismic refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquoPure and Applied Geophysics vol 152 no 2 pp 247ndash266 1998
[17] PKumarHC Tewari andGKhandekar ldquoAn anomalous high-velocity layer at shallow crustal depths in the Narmada zoneIndiardquo Geophysical Journal International vol 142 no 1 pp 95ndash107 2000
[18] DCMishra ldquoMid-continent gravity ldquohighrdquo of central India andthe Gondwana tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 212 no 1-2 pp153ndash161 1992
[19] R K Verma and P Banerjee ldquoNature of continental crust alongthe Narmada-Son lineament inferred from gravity and deepseismic sounding datardquo Tectonophysics vol 202 no 2ndash4 pp375ndash397 1992
[20] A R Sridhar and H C Tewari ldquoExistence of a sedimentarygraben in the western part of Narmada Zone seismic evidencerdquoJournal of Geodynamics vol 31 no 1 pp 19ndash31 2001
[21] D C Mishra K Arora and V M Tiwari ldquoGravity anomaliesand associated tectonic features over the Indian Peninsularshield and adjoining ocean basinsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 379 no1ndash4 pp 61ndash76 2004
[22] H C Tewari A S N Murty P Kumar and A R Sridhar ldquoAtectonicmodel of the Narmada regionrdquoCurrent Science vol 80no 7 pp 873ndash878 2001
[23] V S Krishnaswamy andKR Raghunandan ldquoTheSatpura upliftand the palaeoclimate of the Holocene and auxiliary evidencefrom the Valmiki Ramayanardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 66 no 2 pp 161ndash170 2005
[24] K L Kaila P R K Murty D M Mall M M Dixit and DSarkar ldquoDeep seismic soundings alongHirapur-Mandla profile
Geography Journal 9
central Indiardquo Geophysical Journal of the Royal AstronomicalSociety vol 89 no 1 pp 399ndash404 1987
[25] M M Dixit H C Tewari and C V Rao ldquoTwo-dimensionalvelocity model of the crust beneath the South Cambay BasinIndia from refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquo Geophys-ical Journal International vol 181 no 2 pp 635ndash652 2010
[26] A Gupta V S Kale L A Owen and A K Singhvi ldquoLateQuaternary bedrock incision in the Narmada river at DardiFallsrdquo Current Science vol 93 no 4 pp 564ndash567 2007
[27] R Shanker ldquoThermal and crustal structure of ldquoSONATArdquo Azone of mid continental rifting in Indian shieldrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 37 no 3 pp 211ndash220 1991
[28] V D Choubey ldquoNarmada-Son lineament Indiardquo Nature vol232 pp 38ndash40 1971
[29] B P Radhakrishna and M Ramakrishnan ldquoArchaean-Proterozoic boundary in Indiardquo Journal of the GeologicalSociety of India vol 32 no 4 pp 263ndash278 1988
[30] S C Jain K K K Nair and D B Yedekar ldquoGeology of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zone in Central India Geoscientificstudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zonerdquo in ProjectCrumansonata vol 10 of Special Publication pp 1ndash154 Geolog-ical Survey of India 1995
[31] B N P Agarwal L K Das K Chakraborty and C H SivajildquoAnalysis of the Bouguer anomaly over central India a regionalperspectiverdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 31 pp469ndash493 1995
[32] S Bhattacharji N Chatterjee and J M Wampler ldquoZonesof Narmada-Tapi rift reactivation and Deccan volcanismgeochronological and geochemical evidencerdquo inDeccanBasaltsS S Deshmukh andK K K Nair Eds pp 329ndash340 GondwanaGeological Society Nagpur India 1996
[33] K L Kaila V G Krishna and D Mall ldquoCrustal structure alongMehmadabad-Billimora profile in the Cambay basin Indiafrom deep seismic soundingsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 76 no 1-2pp 99ndash130 1981
[34] T K Roy ldquoStructural styles in southern Cambay basin Indiaand role of Narmada geofracture in the formation of gianthydrocarbon accumulationrdquo Bulletin of the Oil and Natural GasCommission vol 27 pp 15ndash38 1990
[35] S K Biswas ldquoRegional tectonic framework structure and evo-lution of the western marginal basins of Indiardquo Tectonophysicsvol 135 no 4 pp 307ndash327 1987
[36] W Bull and L Mcfadden ldquoTectonic geomorphology north andsouth of the Garlock Fault Californiardquo in Geomorphology inArid Region D O Doehring Ed pp 115ndash138 State Universityof New York Binghamton NY USA 1977
[37] E A Keller and N PinterActive Tectonics Prentice Hall UpperSeddle River NJ USA 1996
[38] D W Burbank and R S Anderson Tectonic GeomorphologyBlackwell Science 2001
[39] D Harbor and Y Gunnell ldquoA long-strike escarpment hetero-geneity of the Western Ghats a synthesis of drainage andtopography using digital morphometric toolsrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 70 no 3 pp 411ndash426 2007
[40] V S Kale and N Shejwalkar ldquoUplift along the western marginof the Deccan Basalt Province is there any geomorphometricevidencerdquo Journal of Earth System Science vol 117 no 6 pp959ndash971 2008
[41] J T Hack ldquoStream profile analysis and stream gradient indexrdquoJournal of Research of the US Geological Survey vol 1 pp 421ndash429 1973
[42] L Seeber and V Gornitz ldquoRiver profiles along the Himalayanarc as indicators of active tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 92 no4 pp 335ndash367 1983
[43] P W Hare and T W Gardner ldquoGeomorphic indicators ofvertical neotectonism along convergent plate margins NicoaPeninsula Costa Ricardquo in Tectonic Geomorphology Proceedingsof the 15th Annual Binghamton Geomorphology SymposiumInternational Series vol 15 pp 75ndash104 1985
[44] V Jain and R Sinha ldquoResponse of active tectonics on theAlluvial Baghmati river Himalayan foreland basin easternIndiardquo Geomorphology vol 70 no 3-4 pp 339ndash356 2005
[45] H K Gupta I Mohan and H Narain ldquoThe Broach earthquakeof March 23 1970rdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society ofAmerica vol 62 pp 47ndash61 1972
[46] H K Gupta R K Chadha M N Rao et al ldquoThe Jabalpurearthquake of May 22 1997rdquo Journal of the Geological Society ofIndia vol 50 no 1 pp 85ndash91 1997
[47] U Chandra ldquoEarthquakes of peninsular India a seismotecton-ics studyrdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America vol65 pp 1387ndash1413 1977
[48] K Rajendran and C P Rajendran ldquoCharacteristics of the1997 Jabalpur earthquake and their bearing on its mechanismrdquoCurrent Science vol 74 no 2 pp 168ndash174 1998
[49] J R Kayal ldquoSeismotectonic study of the two recent SCRearthquakes in central Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 2 pp 123ndash138 2000
[50] S N Bhattacharya A K Ghose G Suresh P R Baidya and RC Saxena ldquoSource parameters of Jabalpur earthquake of May22 1997rdquo Current Science vol 73 no 10 pp 855ndash863 1997
[51] E V Apel R Burgmann and P Banerjee ldquoIndian platemotion deformationand plate boundary interactionsrdquo Geo-physical Journal International In press
[52] P Banerjee R Burgmann B Nagarajan and E Apel ldquoIntraplatedeformation of the Indian subcontinentrdquo Geophysical ResearchLetters vol 35 no 18 2008
[53] B R Rao ldquoHistorical seismicity and deformation rates in theIndian peninsular shieldrdquo Journal of Seismology vol 4 no 3pp 247ndash258 2000
[54] B L N Kennett and S Widiyantoro ldquoA low seismic wavespeedanomaly beneath northwestern India a seismic signature of theDeccan plumerdquo Earth and Planetary Science Letters vol 165no 1 pp 145ndash155 1999
[55] D V Chandrasekhar R Burgmann C D Reddy P S Sunil andD A Schmidt ldquoWeak mantle in NW India probed by geodeticmeasurements following the 2001 Bhuj earthquakerdquo Earth andPlanetary Science Letters vol 280 no 1ndash4 pp 229ndash235 2009
[56] S P Anand and M Rajaram ldquoCrustal structure of Narmada-Son Lineament an aeromagnetic perspectiverdquo Earth Planetsand Space vol 56 no 5 pp 9ndash12 2004
in SONATA zone occurred during the period 1876 to 1993which includes 23 March 1970 Bharuch earthquake of Mw54 1927 event of Mw 65 that occurred southwest of Rewa1938 earthquake of Mw 63 near Khandwa 1945 earthquakeof Mw 57 in Navagam and the 1997 Jabalpur earthquakeof Mw 60 (Figure 6) The 22 May 1997 Jabalpur earthquakeoccurred at a depth of 36plusmn4 km along an ENE-WSE trendingfault [48] Fault plane solution indicates reverse faulting witha component of left lateral strike-slip motion [49] This isthe first significant strong earthquake that was recorded bythe broadband stations of the national network and the focaldepth was well estimated using the depth phases [50] It isobserved that the earthquake was associated with the Nar-mada rift and was of deep crustal source The seismic cross-section of the main shock and aftershocks by Kayal [49]indicates that the south dipping Narmada south fault (NSF)the southern margin fault of the Narmada rift basin wasactivated by reverse faulting and the earthquakes occurredat depth of 35 km and up The seismic pattern in upperNarmada catchments is directly correlated with geomorphicindices suggesting that the eastern limit of upper Narmadariver is more active than western limit Occurrence of 18461903 1927 and 1997 tremors in and around the eastern limitof Jabalpur was correlated with lines of evidence gatheredfrom geomorphic datasets The observations by Kayal [49]further suggest that the rift basin boundary faults are mantlereaching these faults are developed in tensional regime in thegeological past and are now under compressive stress due tothe NNE movement of the Indian plate [51]
Occurrence of seismicity in Son-Narmada fault zone wasfurther allied with GPS observation of Banerjee et al [52] andApel et al [51] (Figure 7)The velocitymodel of Apel et al [51]shows northwardmotion in the south and southwardmotionin the north across the SNF zone as indicated by black vectorsin Figure 7 indicateing that the central part of India is undercontraction [52]The Son-Narmada lineament zone separatesthe Indian subcontinent into two blocks [51] for examplenorth Indian and south Indian blocks showing 4mmyrcontraction in the east to 1mmyr in the west which suggestsN-S contraction in central India along SNF (Figure 7) TheNarmada-Son lineament through central India shows highheat flow and strain rate estimated from seismicity whichis larger than that in many stable continental regions andsuggests a concentration of intraplate deformation [53] It ispossible that the seismicity in the region is also enhanced bya thinned and weakened lithosphere due to passive-marginnormal faulting in the Cretaceous [6 25] and by heating fromthe plume head responsible for the late Cretaceous Deccanflood basalts [54 55]
4 Discussion
Increase of river gradient index in two places in and aroundJabalpur indicates vertical uplift due to N-S compressionalong SNF zone Valley floor height and width ratio andbasin asymmetric facture suggest that the entire basin is tiltedtowards NNW direction The geomorphometric database
1 PT India2 PT India
2 mmyr
30∘
60∘
70∘
20∘
10∘
90∘
80∘
Figure 7 Residual velocities shown for the 1-block model (blackvectors) and 2-block India model (white vectors) Separation of theIndian block (grey line) is along the Narmada-Son Lineament inCentral India [51] The relative pole of rotation for the 2-block Indiamodel is shown in thewest with a 20 sigma error ellipseThe rotationrate of 0162 degMy predicts contraction along the Narmada-Sonline from 5mmyr in the east to 0mmyr near the pole in the west(black triangles) Extensional rates in Arabian Sea are shown byWhite triangles [51]
and satellite data interpretation clearly suggest that the Son-Narmada south fault was activated during the Quaternarytime Various tectonically induced landforms were formedall along the Narmada river Shifting of river channel (nearAmarkantak) and waterfall formation of gorge with nearlyvertical wall in and around Bhedaghat and development ofstrath terraces are common landform features which wereformed due to movement along SNF These observationssuggest strain accumulation in the Son-Narmada fault zone
The geomagnetic field variation and GPS observationsalso suggested strain accumulation in the region A highgeomagnetic anomaly field variation inNarmada river regionranging between plusmn006 and plusmn954 nT indicates accumulationof stress within the SNF zone [1 51] On the basis ofaeromagnetic database Anand and Rajaram [56] believe thatthe two ENE-WSW and NW-SE trending tectonic featureswere reactivated in Quaternary time GPS observations ofApel et al [51] suggest that the strain is accumulating beneaththe Son-Narmada south fault The accumulation of strainbeneath this zone probably may cause strong earthquakes infuture
The morphometric indices and geomorphological obser-vations in the Narmada river suggest the role of seismicityin the evolution of fluvial landform Conventionally tiltingof the basin is attributed to tectonic control The Narmadariver is occupied by the rocks belonging to Vindhyan andSatpura towards upper reaches and Deccan basalt towardslower reaches The river system is controlled by two parallelfaults (SNNF and SNSF) The ongoing tectonic uplift alongpreexisting faults is conventionally examined through abruptchanges in river gradient The observed SL values betweenShahpuri and Mandla ((100ndash390) and (100ndash1400)) in and
8 Geography Journal
around Jabalpur suggest vertical tectonic processes alongSNSF The basin is tilting towards NNW due to tectonicmovement along SNSF zone (Figure 3) Towards the upperreaches the river shows southwest migrations where119879 rangesbetween 004 and 065 The lower reaches show migration ofriver towards NNWwhich is supported by observed 119879 (017ndash046) Migration of river can be assigned to low resistancebedrock or tectonic uplift along SNSF (Figure 4) The Vfvalue for upper reaches ranges between 1255 and 1452 andtowards lower reaches the Vf values are 2431 246 and2565 These abnormal changes in Vf towards upper andlower reaches could be associated with intense tectonic upliftFurther morphometric indices and geomorphic anomalies(water fall gorges etc) together indicate that the terrain isactive
5 Conclusion
(i) Morphometric indices and the drainage pattern indi-cate that Shahpuri-Mandla and Jabalpur-Narsihapursegments in the SNF zone are active and showingenhanced uplift in Narmada river basin
(ii) Geodetic observations of Apel et al [51] suggest thatthe SNSF zone is major stress accumulation zone inSONATA zone
(iii) Seismicity pattern and occurrence of moderate earth-quakes in the region implie that the area has potentialfor another moderate earthquake in future
Acknowledgments
The study was supported by Gujarat State Disaster Manage-ment Authority We thank the anonymous referees for theircritical reviews and constructive comments which helped toimprove the quality of the manuscript
References
[1] S YWaghmare and L Carlo ldquoGeomagnetic Investivation in theseismoactive area of Narmada-Son lineament Central IndiardquoJournal of Indian Geophysical Union vol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash10 2008
[2] Geological Survey of India Projet Crumansonata GeoscientificStudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi Lineament Zone 1995
[3] W D West ldquoThe line of Narmada-Valleyrdquo Current Science vol31 pp 143ndash144 1962
[4] J B Auden ldquoGeological discussion of the Satpura hypothesisrdquoProceedings of the National Institute of Sciences of India vol 15pp 315ndash340 1949
[5] M S Krishnan and J Swaminathan ldquoThe great Vindhyan basinof northern Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol1 pp 10ndash30 1959
[6] S Biswas I Coutand D Grujic C Hager D Stockli and BGrasemann ldquoExhumation and uplift of the Shillong plateauand its influence on the eastern Himalayas new constraintsfrom apatite and zircon (uth-[sm])he and apatite fission trackanalysesrdquo Tectonics vol 26 no 6 2007
[7] M N Qureshy ldquoGeophysical and Landsat lineamentmappingmdashan approach illustrated from West-Central and
South Indiardquo Photogrammetria vol 37 no 3ndash5 pp 161ndash1841982
[8] A K Jain N Annup and D C Singhal ldquoCrustal evolutionof the Narmada-Son lineament and associated shear zones ofthe Indian lithosphererdquo Indian Journal of Earth Science (CEISMSeminar) pp 125ndash148 1984
[9] D M Maurya R Rachna and L S Chamyal ldquoSeismicallyinduced deformational structures (seismites) from the mid-lateHolocene terraces lower mahi valley Gujaratrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 51 no 6 pp 755ndash758 1998
[10] D M Maurya R Rachna and L S Chamyal ldquoHistory oftectonic evolution of Gujarat alluvial plains western Indiaduring Quaternary a reviewrdquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 4 pp 343ndash366 2000
[11] L S Chamyal D M Maurya S Bhandari and R Raj ldquoLateQuaternary geomorphic evolution of the lower Narmada valleyWestern India implications for neotectonic activity along theNarmada-Son Faultrdquo Geomorphology vol 46 no 3-4 pp 177ndash202 2002
[12] S K Acharyya and A Roy ldquoTectonothermal history of the cen-tral Indian tectonic zone and reactivation of major faultsshearzonesrdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 55 no 3pp 239ndash256 2000
[13] R Shanker Geothermal Atlas of India Geological Survey ofIndia Kolkata India 1991
[14] D C Mishra and P Kumar ldquoCharacteristic of faults associatedwith Narmada-Son lineament and rock types of Jabalpursectionrdquo Current Science vol 75 pp 308ndash310 1998
[15] K S Valdiya The Making of Indian Geodynamic EvolutionMacmillian Publication House New Delhi India 2010
[16] A SNMurtyDMMall P RKMurty andP R Reddy ldquoTwo-dimensional crustal velocity structure along Hirapur-Mandlaprofile from seismic refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquoPure and Applied Geophysics vol 152 no 2 pp 247ndash266 1998
[17] PKumarHC Tewari andGKhandekar ldquoAn anomalous high-velocity layer at shallow crustal depths in the Narmada zoneIndiardquo Geophysical Journal International vol 142 no 1 pp 95ndash107 2000
[18] DCMishra ldquoMid-continent gravity ldquohighrdquo of central India andthe Gondwana tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 212 no 1-2 pp153ndash161 1992
[19] R K Verma and P Banerjee ldquoNature of continental crust alongthe Narmada-Son lineament inferred from gravity and deepseismic sounding datardquo Tectonophysics vol 202 no 2ndash4 pp375ndash397 1992
[20] A R Sridhar and H C Tewari ldquoExistence of a sedimentarygraben in the western part of Narmada Zone seismic evidencerdquoJournal of Geodynamics vol 31 no 1 pp 19ndash31 2001
[21] D C Mishra K Arora and V M Tiwari ldquoGravity anomaliesand associated tectonic features over the Indian Peninsularshield and adjoining ocean basinsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 379 no1ndash4 pp 61ndash76 2004
[22] H C Tewari A S N Murty P Kumar and A R Sridhar ldquoAtectonicmodel of the Narmada regionrdquoCurrent Science vol 80no 7 pp 873ndash878 2001
[23] V S Krishnaswamy andKR Raghunandan ldquoTheSatpura upliftand the palaeoclimate of the Holocene and auxiliary evidencefrom the Valmiki Ramayanardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 66 no 2 pp 161ndash170 2005
[24] K L Kaila P R K Murty D M Mall M M Dixit and DSarkar ldquoDeep seismic soundings alongHirapur-Mandla profile
Geography Journal 9
central Indiardquo Geophysical Journal of the Royal AstronomicalSociety vol 89 no 1 pp 399ndash404 1987
[25] M M Dixit H C Tewari and C V Rao ldquoTwo-dimensionalvelocity model of the crust beneath the South Cambay BasinIndia from refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquo Geophys-ical Journal International vol 181 no 2 pp 635ndash652 2010
[26] A Gupta V S Kale L A Owen and A K Singhvi ldquoLateQuaternary bedrock incision in the Narmada river at DardiFallsrdquo Current Science vol 93 no 4 pp 564ndash567 2007
[27] R Shanker ldquoThermal and crustal structure of ldquoSONATArdquo Azone of mid continental rifting in Indian shieldrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 37 no 3 pp 211ndash220 1991
[28] V D Choubey ldquoNarmada-Son lineament Indiardquo Nature vol232 pp 38ndash40 1971
[29] B P Radhakrishna and M Ramakrishnan ldquoArchaean-Proterozoic boundary in Indiardquo Journal of the GeologicalSociety of India vol 32 no 4 pp 263ndash278 1988
[30] S C Jain K K K Nair and D B Yedekar ldquoGeology of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zone in Central India Geoscientificstudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zonerdquo in ProjectCrumansonata vol 10 of Special Publication pp 1ndash154 Geolog-ical Survey of India 1995
[31] B N P Agarwal L K Das K Chakraborty and C H SivajildquoAnalysis of the Bouguer anomaly over central India a regionalperspectiverdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 31 pp469ndash493 1995
[32] S Bhattacharji N Chatterjee and J M Wampler ldquoZonesof Narmada-Tapi rift reactivation and Deccan volcanismgeochronological and geochemical evidencerdquo inDeccanBasaltsS S Deshmukh andK K K Nair Eds pp 329ndash340 GondwanaGeological Society Nagpur India 1996
[33] K L Kaila V G Krishna and D Mall ldquoCrustal structure alongMehmadabad-Billimora profile in the Cambay basin Indiafrom deep seismic soundingsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 76 no 1-2pp 99ndash130 1981
[34] T K Roy ldquoStructural styles in southern Cambay basin Indiaand role of Narmada geofracture in the formation of gianthydrocarbon accumulationrdquo Bulletin of the Oil and Natural GasCommission vol 27 pp 15ndash38 1990
[35] S K Biswas ldquoRegional tectonic framework structure and evo-lution of the western marginal basins of Indiardquo Tectonophysicsvol 135 no 4 pp 307ndash327 1987
[36] W Bull and L Mcfadden ldquoTectonic geomorphology north andsouth of the Garlock Fault Californiardquo in Geomorphology inArid Region D O Doehring Ed pp 115ndash138 State Universityof New York Binghamton NY USA 1977
[37] E A Keller and N PinterActive Tectonics Prentice Hall UpperSeddle River NJ USA 1996
[38] D W Burbank and R S Anderson Tectonic GeomorphologyBlackwell Science 2001
[39] D Harbor and Y Gunnell ldquoA long-strike escarpment hetero-geneity of the Western Ghats a synthesis of drainage andtopography using digital morphometric toolsrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 70 no 3 pp 411ndash426 2007
[40] V S Kale and N Shejwalkar ldquoUplift along the western marginof the Deccan Basalt Province is there any geomorphometricevidencerdquo Journal of Earth System Science vol 117 no 6 pp959ndash971 2008
[41] J T Hack ldquoStream profile analysis and stream gradient indexrdquoJournal of Research of the US Geological Survey vol 1 pp 421ndash429 1973
[42] L Seeber and V Gornitz ldquoRiver profiles along the Himalayanarc as indicators of active tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 92 no4 pp 335ndash367 1983
[43] P W Hare and T W Gardner ldquoGeomorphic indicators ofvertical neotectonism along convergent plate margins NicoaPeninsula Costa Ricardquo in Tectonic Geomorphology Proceedingsof the 15th Annual Binghamton Geomorphology SymposiumInternational Series vol 15 pp 75ndash104 1985
[44] V Jain and R Sinha ldquoResponse of active tectonics on theAlluvial Baghmati river Himalayan foreland basin easternIndiardquo Geomorphology vol 70 no 3-4 pp 339ndash356 2005
[45] H K Gupta I Mohan and H Narain ldquoThe Broach earthquakeof March 23 1970rdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society ofAmerica vol 62 pp 47ndash61 1972
[46] H K Gupta R K Chadha M N Rao et al ldquoThe Jabalpurearthquake of May 22 1997rdquo Journal of the Geological Society ofIndia vol 50 no 1 pp 85ndash91 1997
[47] U Chandra ldquoEarthquakes of peninsular India a seismotecton-ics studyrdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America vol65 pp 1387ndash1413 1977
[48] K Rajendran and C P Rajendran ldquoCharacteristics of the1997 Jabalpur earthquake and their bearing on its mechanismrdquoCurrent Science vol 74 no 2 pp 168ndash174 1998
[49] J R Kayal ldquoSeismotectonic study of the two recent SCRearthquakes in central Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 2 pp 123ndash138 2000
[50] S N Bhattacharya A K Ghose G Suresh P R Baidya and RC Saxena ldquoSource parameters of Jabalpur earthquake of May22 1997rdquo Current Science vol 73 no 10 pp 855ndash863 1997
[51] E V Apel R Burgmann and P Banerjee ldquoIndian platemotion deformationand plate boundary interactionsrdquo Geo-physical Journal International In press
[52] P Banerjee R Burgmann B Nagarajan and E Apel ldquoIntraplatedeformation of the Indian subcontinentrdquo Geophysical ResearchLetters vol 35 no 18 2008
[53] B R Rao ldquoHistorical seismicity and deformation rates in theIndian peninsular shieldrdquo Journal of Seismology vol 4 no 3pp 247ndash258 2000
[54] B L N Kennett and S Widiyantoro ldquoA low seismic wavespeedanomaly beneath northwestern India a seismic signature of theDeccan plumerdquo Earth and Planetary Science Letters vol 165no 1 pp 145ndash155 1999
[55] D V Chandrasekhar R Burgmann C D Reddy P S Sunil andD A Schmidt ldquoWeak mantle in NW India probed by geodeticmeasurements following the 2001 Bhuj earthquakerdquo Earth andPlanetary Science Letters vol 280 no 1ndash4 pp 229ndash235 2009
[56] S P Anand and M Rajaram ldquoCrustal structure of Narmada-Son Lineament an aeromagnetic perspectiverdquo Earth Planetsand Space vol 56 no 5 pp 9ndash12 2004
around Jabalpur suggest vertical tectonic processes alongSNSF The basin is tilting towards NNW due to tectonicmovement along SNSF zone (Figure 3) Towards the upperreaches the river shows southwest migrations where119879 rangesbetween 004 and 065 The lower reaches show migration ofriver towards NNWwhich is supported by observed 119879 (017ndash046) Migration of river can be assigned to low resistancebedrock or tectonic uplift along SNSF (Figure 4) The Vfvalue for upper reaches ranges between 1255 and 1452 andtowards lower reaches the Vf values are 2431 246 and2565 These abnormal changes in Vf towards upper andlower reaches could be associated with intense tectonic upliftFurther morphometric indices and geomorphic anomalies(water fall gorges etc) together indicate that the terrain isactive
5 Conclusion
(i) Morphometric indices and the drainage pattern indi-cate that Shahpuri-Mandla and Jabalpur-Narsihapursegments in the SNF zone are active and showingenhanced uplift in Narmada river basin
(ii) Geodetic observations of Apel et al [51] suggest thatthe SNSF zone is major stress accumulation zone inSONATA zone
(iii) Seismicity pattern and occurrence of moderate earth-quakes in the region implie that the area has potentialfor another moderate earthquake in future
Acknowledgments
The study was supported by Gujarat State Disaster Manage-ment Authority We thank the anonymous referees for theircritical reviews and constructive comments which helped toimprove the quality of the manuscript
References
[1] S YWaghmare and L Carlo ldquoGeomagnetic Investivation in theseismoactive area of Narmada-Son lineament Central IndiardquoJournal of Indian Geophysical Union vol 12 no 1 pp 1ndash10 2008
[2] Geological Survey of India Projet Crumansonata GeoscientificStudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi Lineament Zone 1995
[3] W D West ldquoThe line of Narmada-Valleyrdquo Current Science vol31 pp 143ndash144 1962
[4] J B Auden ldquoGeological discussion of the Satpura hypothesisrdquoProceedings of the National Institute of Sciences of India vol 15pp 315ndash340 1949
[5] M S Krishnan and J Swaminathan ldquoThe great Vindhyan basinof northern Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol1 pp 10ndash30 1959
[6] S Biswas I Coutand D Grujic C Hager D Stockli and BGrasemann ldquoExhumation and uplift of the Shillong plateauand its influence on the eastern Himalayas new constraintsfrom apatite and zircon (uth-[sm])he and apatite fission trackanalysesrdquo Tectonics vol 26 no 6 2007
[7] M N Qureshy ldquoGeophysical and Landsat lineamentmappingmdashan approach illustrated from West-Central and
South Indiardquo Photogrammetria vol 37 no 3ndash5 pp 161ndash1841982
[8] A K Jain N Annup and D C Singhal ldquoCrustal evolutionof the Narmada-Son lineament and associated shear zones ofthe Indian lithosphererdquo Indian Journal of Earth Science (CEISMSeminar) pp 125ndash148 1984
[9] D M Maurya R Rachna and L S Chamyal ldquoSeismicallyinduced deformational structures (seismites) from the mid-lateHolocene terraces lower mahi valley Gujaratrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 51 no 6 pp 755ndash758 1998
[10] D M Maurya R Rachna and L S Chamyal ldquoHistory oftectonic evolution of Gujarat alluvial plains western Indiaduring Quaternary a reviewrdquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 4 pp 343ndash366 2000
[11] L S Chamyal D M Maurya S Bhandari and R Raj ldquoLateQuaternary geomorphic evolution of the lower Narmada valleyWestern India implications for neotectonic activity along theNarmada-Son Faultrdquo Geomorphology vol 46 no 3-4 pp 177ndash202 2002
[12] S K Acharyya and A Roy ldquoTectonothermal history of the cen-tral Indian tectonic zone and reactivation of major faultsshearzonesrdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 55 no 3pp 239ndash256 2000
[13] R Shanker Geothermal Atlas of India Geological Survey ofIndia Kolkata India 1991
[14] D C Mishra and P Kumar ldquoCharacteristic of faults associatedwith Narmada-Son lineament and rock types of Jabalpursectionrdquo Current Science vol 75 pp 308ndash310 1998
[15] K S Valdiya The Making of Indian Geodynamic EvolutionMacmillian Publication House New Delhi India 2010
[16] A SNMurtyDMMall P RKMurty andP R Reddy ldquoTwo-dimensional crustal velocity structure along Hirapur-Mandlaprofile from seismic refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquoPure and Applied Geophysics vol 152 no 2 pp 247ndash266 1998
[17] PKumarHC Tewari andGKhandekar ldquoAn anomalous high-velocity layer at shallow crustal depths in the Narmada zoneIndiardquo Geophysical Journal International vol 142 no 1 pp 95ndash107 2000
[18] DCMishra ldquoMid-continent gravity ldquohighrdquo of central India andthe Gondwana tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 212 no 1-2 pp153ndash161 1992
[19] R K Verma and P Banerjee ldquoNature of continental crust alongthe Narmada-Son lineament inferred from gravity and deepseismic sounding datardquo Tectonophysics vol 202 no 2ndash4 pp375ndash397 1992
[20] A R Sridhar and H C Tewari ldquoExistence of a sedimentarygraben in the western part of Narmada Zone seismic evidencerdquoJournal of Geodynamics vol 31 no 1 pp 19ndash31 2001
[21] D C Mishra K Arora and V M Tiwari ldquoGravity anomaliesand associated tectonic features over the Indian Peninsularshield and adjoining ocean basinsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 379 no1ndash4 pp 61ndash76 2004
[22] H C Tewari A S N Murty P Kumar and A R Sridhar ldquoAtectonicmodel of the Narmada regionrdquoCurrent Science vol 80no 7 pp 873ndash878 2001
[23] V S Krishnaswamy andKR Raghunandan ldquoTheSatpura upliftand the palaeoclimate of the Holocene and auxiliary evidencefrom the Valmiki Ramayanardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 66 no 2 pp 161ndash170 2005
[24] K L Kaila P R K Murty D M Mall M M Dixit and DSarkar ldquoDeep seismic soundings alongHirapur-Mandla profile
Geography Journal 9
central Indiardquo Geophysical Journal of the Royal AstronomicalSociety vol 89 no 1 pp 399ndash404 1987
[25] M M Dixit H C Tewari and C V Rao ldquoTwo-dimensionalvelocity model of the crust beneath the South Cambay BasinIndia from refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquo Geophys-ical Journal International vol 181 no 2 pp 635ndash652 2010
[26] A Gupta V S Kale L A Owen and A K Singhvi ldquoLateQuaternary bedrock incision in the Narmada river at DardiFallsrdquo Current Science vol 93 no 4 pp 564ndash567 2007
[27] R Shanker ldquoThermal and crustal structure of ldquoSONATArdquo Azone of mid continental rifting in Indian shieldrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 37 no 3 pp 211ndash220 1991
[28] V D Choubey ldquoNarmada-Son lineament Indiardquo Nature vol232 pp 38ndash40 1971
[29] B P Radhakrishna and M Ramakrishnan ldquoArchaean-Proterozoic boundary in Indiardquo Journal of the GeologicalSociety of India vol 32 no 4 pp 263ndash278 1988
[30] S C Jain K K K Nair and D B Yedekar ldquoGeology of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zone in Central India Geoscientificstudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zonerdquo in ProjectCrumansonata vol 10 of Special Publication pp 1ndash154 Geolog-ical Survey of India 1995
[31] B N P Agarwal L K Das K Chakraborty and C H SivajildquoAnalysis of the Bouguer anomaly over central India a regionalperspectiverdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 31 pp469ndash493 1995
[32] S Bhattacharji N Chatterjee and J M Wampler ldquoZonesof Narmada-Tapi rift reactivation and Deccan volcanismgeochronological and geochemical evidencerdquo inDeccanBasaltsS S Deshmukh andK K K Nair Eds pp 329ndash340 GondwanaGeological Society Nagpur India 1996
[33] K L Kaila V G Krishna and D Mall ldquoCrustal structure alongMehmadabad-Billimora profile in the Cambay basin Indiafrom deep seismic soundingsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 76 no 1-2pp 99ndash130 1981
[34] T K Roy ldquoStructural styles in southern Cambay basin Indiaand role of Narmada geofracture in the formation of gianthydrocarbon accumulationrdquo Bulletin of the Oil and Natural GasCommission vol 27 pp 15ndash38 1990
[35] S K Biswas ldquoRegional tectonic framework structure and evo-lution of the western marginal basins of Indiardquo Tectonophysicsvol 135 no 4 pp 307ndash327 1987
[36] W Bull and L Mcfadden ldquoTectonic geomorphology north andsouth of the Garlock Fault Californiardquo in Geomorphology inArid Region D O Doehring Ed pp 115ndash138 State Universityof New York Binghamton NY USA 1977
[37] E A Keller and N PinterActive Tectonics Prentice Hall UpperSeddle River NJ USA 1996
[38] D W Burbank and R S Anderson Tectonic GeomorphologyBlackwell Science 2001
[39] D Harbor and Y Gunnell ldquoA long-strike escarpment hetero-geneity of the Western Ghats a synthesis of drainage andtopography using digital morphometric toolsrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 70 no 3 pp 411ndash426 2007
[40] V S Kale and N Shejwalkar ldquoUplift along the western marginof the Deccan Basalt Province is there any geomorphometricevidencerdquo Journal of Earth System Science vol 117 no 6 pp959ndash971 2008
[41] J T Hack ldquoStream profile analysis and stream gradient indexrdquoJournal of Research of the US Geological Survey vol 1 pp 421ndash429 1973
[42] L Seeber and V Gornitz ldquoRiver profiles along the Himalayanarc as indicators of active tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 92 no4 pp 335ndash367 1983
[43] P W Hare and T W Gardner ldquoGeomorphic indicators ofvertical neotectonism along convergent plate margins NicoaPeninsula Costa Ricardquo in Tectonic Geomorphology Proceedingsof the 15th Annual Binghamton Geomorphology SymposiumInternational Series vol 15 pp 75ndash104 1985
[44] V Jain and R Sinha ldquoResponse of active tectonics on theAlluvial Baghmati river Himalayan foreland basin easternIndiardquo Geomorphology vol 70 no 3-4 pp 339ndash356 2005
[45] H K Gupta I Mohan and H Narain ldquoThe Broach earthquakeof March 23 1970rdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society ofAmerica vol 62 pp 47ndash61 1972
[46] H K Gupta R K Chadha M N Rao et al ldquoThe Jabalpurearthquake of May 22 1997rdquo Journal of the Geological Society ofIndia vol 50 no 1 pp 85ndash91 1997
[47] U Chandra ldquoEarthquakes of peninsular India a seismotecton-ics studyrdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America vol65 pp 1387ndash1413 1977
[48] K Rajendran and C P Rajendran ldquoCharacteristics of the1997 Jabalpur earthquake and their bearing on its mechanismrdquoCurrent Science vol 74 no 2 pp 168ndash174 1998
[49] J R Kayal ldquoSeismotectonic study of the two recent SCRearthquakes in central Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 2 pp 123ndash138 2000
[50] S N Bhattacharya A K Ghose G Suresh P R Baidya and RC Saxena ldquoSource parameters of Jabalpur earthquake of May22 1997rdquo Current Science vol 73 no 10 pp 855ndash863 1997
[51] E V Apel R Burgmann and P Banerjee ldquoIndian platemotion deformationand plate boundary interactionsrdquo Geo-physical Journal International In press
[52] P Banerjee R Burgmann B Nagarajan and E Apel ldquoIntraplatedeformation of the Indian subcontinentrdquo Geophysical ResearchLetters vol 35 no 18 2008
[53] B R Rao ldquoHistorical seismicity and deformation rates in theIndian peninsular shieldrdquo Journal of Seismology vol 4 no 3pp 247ndash258 2000
[54] B L N Kennett and S Widiyantoro ldquoA low seismic wavespeedanomaly beneath northwestern India a seismic signature of theDeccan plumerdquo Earth and Planetary Science Letters vol 165no 1 pp 145ndash155 1999
[55] D V Chandrasekhar R Burgmann C D Reddy P S Sunil andD A Schmidt ldquoWeak mantle in NW India probed by geodeticmeasurements following the 2001 Bhuj earthquakerdquo Earth andPlanetary Science Letters vol 280 no 1ndash4 pp 229ndash235 2009
[56] S P Anand and M Rajaram ldquoCrustal structure of Narmada-Son Lineament an aeromagnetic perspectiverdquo Earth Planetsand Space vol 56 no 5 pp 9ndash12 2004
central Indiardquo Geophysical Journal of the Royal AstronomicalSociety vol 89 no 1 pp 399ndash404 1987
[25] M M Dixit H C Tewari and C V Rao ldquoTwo-dimensionalvelocity model of the crust beneath the South Cambay BasinIndia from refraction and wide-angle reflection datardquo Geophys-ical Journal International vol 181 no 2 pp 635ndash652 2010
[26] A Gupta V S Kale L A Owen and A K Singhvi ldquoLateQuaternary bedrock incision in the Narmada river at DardiFallsrdquo Current Science vol 93 no 4 pp 564ndash567 2007
[27] R Shanker ldquoThermal and crustal structure of ldquoSONATArdquo Azone of mid continental rifting in Indian shieldrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 37 no 3 pp 211ndash220 1991
[28] V D Choubey ldquoNarmada-Son lineament Indiardquo Nature vol232 pp 38ndash40 1971
[29] B P Radhakrishna and M Ramakrishnan ldquoArchaean-Proterozoic boundary in Indiardquo Journal of the GeologicalSociety of India vol 32 no 4 pp 263ndash278 1988
[30] S C Jain K K K Nair and D B Yedekar ldquoGeology of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zone in Central India Geoscientificstudies of the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament zonerdquo in ProjectCrumansonata vol 10 of Special Publication pp 1ndash154 Geolog-ical Survey of India 1995
[31] B N P Agarwal L K Das K Chakraborty and C H SivajildquoAnalysis of the Bouguer anomaly over central India a regionalperspectiverdquo Journal of the Geological Society of India vol 31 pp469ndash493 1995
[32] S Bhattacharji N Chatterjee and J M Wampler ldquoZonesof Narmada-Tapi rift reactivation and Deccan volcanismgeochronological and geochemical evidencerdquo inDeccanBasaltsS S Deshmukh andK K K Nair Eds pp 329ndash340 GondwanaGeological Society Nagpur India 1996
[33] K L Kaila V G Krishna and D Mall ldquoCrustal structure alongMehmadabad-Billimora profile in the Cambay basin Indiafrom deep seismic soundingsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 76 no 1-2pp 99ndash130 1981
[34] T K Roy ldquoStructural styles in southern Cambay basin Indiaand role of Narmada geofracture in the formation of gianthydrocarbon accumulationrdquo Bulletin of the Oil and Natural GasCommission vol 27 pp 15ndash38 1990
[35] S K Biswas ldquoRegional tectonic framework structure and evo-lution of the western marginal basins of Indiardquo Tectonophysicsvol 135 no 4 pp 307ndash327 1987
[36] W Bull and L Mcfadden ldquoTectonic geomorphology north andsouth of the Garlock Fault Californiardquo in Geomorphology inArid Region D O Doehring Ed pp 115ndash138 State Universityof New York Binghamton NY USA 1977
[37] E A Keller and N PinterActive Tectonics Prentice Hall UpperSeddle River NJ USA 1996
[38] D W Burbank and R S Anderson Tectonic GeomorphologyBlackwell Science 2001
[39] D Harbor and Y Gunnell ldquoA long-strike escarpment hetero-geneity of the Western Ghats a synthesis of drainage andtopography using digital morphometric toolsrdquo Journal of theGeological Society of India vol 70 no 3 pp 411ndash426 2007
[40] V S Kale and N Shejwalkar ldquoUplift along the western marginof the Deccan Basalt Province is there any geomorphometricevidencerdquo Journal of Earth System Science vol 117 no 6 pp959ndash971 2008
[41] J T Hack ldquoStream profile analysis and stream gradient indexrdquoJournal of Research of the US Geological Survey vol 1 pp 421ndash429 1973
[42] L Seeber and V Gornitz ldquoRiver profiles along the Himalayanarc as indicators of active tectonicsrdquo Tectonophysics vol 92 no4 pp 335ndash367 1983
[43] P W Hare and T W Gardner ldquoGeomorphic indicators ofvertical neotectonism along convergent plate margins NicoaPeninsula Costa Ricardquo in Tectonic Geomorphology Proceedingsof the 15th Annual Binghamton Geomorphology SymposiumInternational Series vol 15 pp 75ndash104 1985
[44] V Jain and R Sinha ldquoResponse of active tectonics on theAlluvial Baghmati river Himalayan foreland basin easternIndiardquo Geomorphology vol 70 no 3-4 pp 339ndash356 2005
[45] H K Gupta I Mohan and H Narain ldquoThe Broach earthquakeof March 23 1970rdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society ofAmerica vol 62 pp 47ndash61 1972
[46] H K Gupta R K Chadha M N Rao et al ldquoThe Jabalpurearthquake of May 22 1997rdquo Journal of the Geological Society ofIndia vol 50 no 1 pp 85ndash91 1997
[47] U Chandra ldquoEarthquakes of peninsular India a seismotecton-ics studyrdquo Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America vol65 pp 1387ndash1413 1977
[48] K Rajendran and C P Rajendran ldquoCharacteristics of the1997 Jabalpur earthquake and their bearing on its mechanismrdquoCurrent Science vol 74 no 2 pp 168ndash174 1998
[49] J R Kayal ldquoSeismotectonic study of the two recent SCRearthquakes in central Indiardquo Journal of the Geological Societyof India vol 55 no 2 pp 123ndash138 2000
[50] S N Bhattacharya A K Ghose G Suresh P R Baidya and RC Saxena ldquoSource parameters of Jabalpur earthquake of May22 1997rdquo Current Science vol 73 no 10 pp 855ndash863 1997
[51] E V Apel R Burgmann and P Banerjee ldquoIndian platemotion deformationand plate boundary interactionsrdquo Geo-physical Journal International In press
[52] P Banerjee R Burgmann B Nagarajan and E Apel ldquoIntraplatedeformation of the Indian subcontinentrdquo Geophysical ResearchLetters vol 35 no 18 2008
[53] B R Rao ldquoHistorical seismicity and deformation rates in theIndian peninsular shieldrdquo Journal of Seismology vol 4 no 3pp 247ndash258 2000
[54] B L N Kennett and S Widiyantoro ldquoA low seismic wavespeedanomaly beneath northwestern India a seismic signature of theDeccan plumerdquo Earth and Planetary Science Letters vol 165no 1 pp 145ndash155 1999
[55] D V Chandrasekhar R Burgmann C D Reddy P S Sunil andD A Schmidt ldquoWeak mantle in NW India probed by geodeticmeasurements following the 2001 Bhuj earthquakerdquo Earth andPlanetary Science Letters vol 280 no 1ndash4 pp 229ndash235 2009
[56] S P Anand and M Rajaram ldquoCrustal structure of Narmada-Son Lineament an aeromagnetic perspectiverdquo Earth Planetsand Space vol 56 no 5 pp 9ndash12 2004
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![Page 4: Review Article Tectonic Control on Drainage Network …...F : (a) Geological map of Narmada river valley shows major lineaments in the area [ ]. (b) Map shows active grabens, the Narmada](https://reader035.documents.pub/reader035/viewer/2022071411/610676caef6c1e4e707eb818/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
![Page 5: Review Article Tectonic Control on Drainage Network …...F : (a) Geological map of Narmada river valley shows major lineaments in the area [ ]. (b) Map shows active grabens, the Narmada](https://reader035.documents.pub/reader035/viewer/2022071411/610676caef6c1e4e707eb818/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
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