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Business Communication
Introduction: To live is to communicate. Every facet of existence needs communication. Business being one of the facets of human existence requires communication. The term “communication” comes from the Latin word communicare , which means ‘to impart’ or ‘participate’. In the course of day-to-day living, we need to participate with other human beings and also with things around us During the course of participation it becomes necessary to receive as well as to give. This process of participation can take different forms, such as talking, writing, interacting, etc. All of this means communication. In business people from all walks of life come together to perform tasks that requires interaction with one another. Such a work situation makes communication necessary and imperative. The business world today has become global, which makes communication even more complex. Communication across borders and cultures requires communication skills that would enable people from different lands to interact with each other so as to achieve some common objective. Hence, it is necessary to develop good communication skills. However, one of the neglected areas of human development is communication. Peter Drucker has made these observations about communication. “Colleges teach the one thing that is perhaps most valuable for the future employee to know. But very few students bother to learn it. This one basic skill is the ability to organize and express ideas in writing and speaking. As soon as you move one step from the bottom, your effectiveness depends on your ability to reach others through the spoken or the written word. And the further away your job is from manual work, the larger the organization of which you are an employee, the more important it will be that you know how to convey your thoughts in writing or speaking. In the very large organization this ability to express oneself is perhaps the most important of all skills a person can possess.” Dimensions of communication: To understand the nature of communication it is important to know its various dimensions. Communication has five dimensions. They are as follows 1. Communication can be Intentional or Unintentional. Words are used to express ideas and are intended to have a particular meaning. Sometimes these words communicate other than what is intended –they have an unintentional meaning. 2. Communication can be Verbal or Nonverbal. Human communication is often more nonverbal, involving the body and other objects and actions, than verbal, involving words alone. Even when we do not speak, the way we walk, stand, and sit communicates a message to others. It is told about Stalin that he worked on his gestures that were so threatening and commanding that just a movement of his finger was enough to pass death sentence on someone. Other forms of nonverbal communication include letters, memos, arrangements of office furniture, and style and condition of clothing. 3. Communication can be Internal or External. Internal or intrapersonal communication is the way we talk to ourselves, i.e. without putting thoughts into words. This involves
talking that takes place within ourselves without speaking out the words aloud. But the words that are actually written or spoken are external communication. Nonverbal objects that are chosen to express are also considered to be external communication. 4. Communication can involve Humans, Machines or Animals. Communication obviously involves humans. It also involves machines – for example, computer. Humans use computers to improve communication between them. We also need to learn how animals communicate, because the nonverbal behavior of humans and animals is quite similar. 5. Communication can take place between two people as well as within a group. A conversation between two people is called interpersonal communication. Communication within groups is classified as either small communication or mass communication. Importance of business communication: Because communication is so important in business, organizations want and need people with good communication skills. Several surveys have indicated that communication is important to business. Typical of such surveys is one conducted by Robert Half International of the 1000 largest employers in the U.S. this study found that 96% of the executives reported that today’s employees must have good communication skills to get ahead. Furthermore, in a survey of deans of 90 management programmes, conducted by the Jones Graduate School of Management of Rice University, indicated that one of the greatest teaching priorities of an MBA programme is the subject on Communication. Unfortunately, the need for employers with good communication skills is often not fulfilled in the business world. A recent study also indicates that there is a correlation between communication and income. Another study conducted, concluded that good writing and speaking skills, along with proper etiquettes and listening skills - determines career and thus, monetary gains in terms of income. The use of technology in communication makes the skills to communicate more obvious. For instance, Email often displays one’s written communication skills or use of language to different people simultaneously, while audio and video will reveal one’s verbal caliber and diplomacy strength as well. Over the years, many authors have recognized the importance of communication in an organization. Chester Barnard, for instance, viewed communication as the means by which people are linked together in an organization to achieve a common purpose. This is still the fundamental function of communication. Group activity is impossible without communication, because coordination and change cannot be effected. Henry Mintzberg’s observation of chief executive officers showed them to spend 78% of their time on communication-related activities involving direct contact with others, scheduled and unscheduled meetings, telephone calls, etc. Mintzberg also found that managers considered activities involving direct communication with others, to be more interesting and valuable than more routine activities
The skills that require attention, according to 100 randomly selected Fortune 500 executives are, oral presentations, memo writing, basic grammar, information report writing, and analytical report writing. Developing communication skills amounts to developing visual skills, spoken skills, and reading skills. Objectives of business communication: The basic objective of all human communication is to obtain an understanding response. Every large and small business house is successful or unsuccessful, depending on how well it can communicate internally and externally. Peter Drucker states: “Objectives are needed in every area where performance and result directly and vitally affect the survival and prosperity of a business.” Hence, we shall consider some of the major objectives of business communication 1. Information: The objective of business is to inform, which means to transfer knowledge to another person or group. Transfer of knowledge is the most fundamental objective of communication. Information can be given in writing, speaking or any other system of signals or signs. Businesses thrive on information relevant to their business activity. They must know what the demand for their goods or services is; how their competitors are doing in business; what are the terms of credit available in the market; how to deal with government rules and regulations; how to affect economies in production, transport and distribution; how to expand their business, etc. Successful businessmen are concerned not with maximum information but rather, pertinent information. In order to expand or secure a place in a highly competitive market the businessman needs information for planning the future. Information for planning can be of five kinds: a) Environmental Information – Information pertaining to the geography, climate, political, and socio-economic conditions. b) Internal Information – Information about the strength and weakness of the company with respect to capital, production, and sales capacity, degree of training of the workers, their efficiency, etc. c) External Information – Information about sources of credits, availability of raw material, power, and the latest rules and regulations made by the government or local authorities. d) Competitive Information – Information relating to the strength and weakness of the competitors and their past and present performance in the market e) New Development Information – Information concerning the latest research, upgradation of the product, and availability of raw materials or substitutes. Before accepting any information the successful business house will ensure that the information is reliable, complete, and recent. Obtaining information has become so vital to the world of business that in developed countries industrial espionage has become quite common, and highly paid spies are sent to find out the secrets of their rivals.
Businessmen have no difficulty in obtaining information from old files, magazines, internet, library research, chamber of commerce, trade fairs and exhibitions, etc. However, as the worldwide web gets complex, it is becoming more and more difficult for business houses to surf through the maze of information. So, the problem is not lack of information, but of immense quantity of information. To help the businessmen out of this problem a number of organizations have taken the role of infomediaries. Infomediaries are like intermediaries or middlemen, only they do not deal with goods but with information. They perform variety of functions like delivering select information, bringing together scattered professionals, maintaining statistical data on economy, industry, commerce, commodities, demographics, stocks, mutual funds, finance and investments. Just as business organization receives information; it also has to provide information both to the outside world and, to workers within the organization. G The progress and profitability of the company has to be made known, which could be done through advertising, organizing seminars, conferences, and exhibitions. Public should be informed about the quality of products, the facilities provided to workers, the research conducted, social services rendered to the community and country. G Business organization also needs to communicate information internally to its workers, such as: i. Information relating to job assignments and procedures governing them. ii. Information concerning exact designations of the officers and their decision-making powers. iii. Information, which gives a clear understanding of authority. iv. Information, which will make possible better reception of instruction. . In India, with the coming of liberalization and increased competition, receiving and giving information has become more important today. In earlier days, the amount of information available was directly proportional to the worker’s power within an organization. In most modern organization power is getting increasingly decentralized and with it there is an increase in the give and take of information at all levels. 2. Motivation: To motivate means, “to cause to act”. It has been defined as “that inner state that energizes, activates, or moves and which directs or channels behavior towards certain goal. In an organization, when workers are motivated they work eagerly, willingly and often without supervision. Another objective of communication is to increase motivation among workers. Organization use communication process to overcome motivation problem. Following aspects of the problem of motivation could be considered.
a) Emotional Climate. The management should use communication in such a manner that the right emotional climate for motivation is created. This can be done by fostering healthy competition among workers and also by recognizing and giving publicity to achievement. b) Setting goals or objectives. Set definite objectives working towards and they can enjoy a sense of satisfaction when objective has been attained. This will mean informing them of the plan that the management has in mind and the detailed working of the plan. c) Organization Information. With the help of house journals, direct talks or training programmes the management should give much information to the employees as possible about the organization for which they are working. Creating a favorable image of the organization in the minds of the workers will give them a sense of pride in working for the organization. d) Participation in Decision-making. When subordinates are encouraged to report directly to their superiors or give suggestions to improve the working of the organization they will experience a powerful sense of belonging to the organization. One management writer states that “the higher the degree of participation the stronger will be the resulting inclination to cooperate with company plans”. e) Establishing Human Relations. When supervisory and junior staff can meet in an atmosphere of informality and exchange views, when supervisory staff uses tact in communicating orders, admonitions and warnings to the junior staff, and when the staff is encouraged to think out and take the initiative in minor matters, there is less friction and resentment and the organization functions smoothly. 3. Raising Morale: In war it is not the number of soldiers that matters, but their morale that makes the big difference between losing and winning. Napolean even went so far as to assert that morale “makes up three-quarters of the game; the relative balance of manpower accounts for the remaining quarter”. In a business organization the morale of the workers can seriously affect the success of the business. One of the objectives of communication is to keep the morale of the workers high so that they work with vigour and confidence as a team. Low morale is often the result of lack of confidence in the management on account of its poor communication skills. The usual characteristics of low morale are lack of discipline, no appreciation or reward for good work well done, bad relations between the supervisors and the workers and sometimes among the workers themselves. When the morale is low, unfound rumors about the state of the company and the caliber of the management usually circulate among the workers. It should be remembered that high or low morale is not a permanent feature of a company. The same organization could have a high morale among its workers one year and find the workers have lost their morale the next year. It is like a disease that requires immediate attention and diagnosis and cure. Management can keep high morale through communication.
4. Order and Instruction: An order is an oral or written communication directing the starting, terminating or modifying of an activity. It is a form of communication by which management directs its subordinates and employees and seeks to achieve its objectives. It is communication that is peculiar to the internal organization of a business house, because superiors can issue orders to their subordinates. Before issuing an order there should be proper planning by the order issuing person. There should be a plan of action prepared in consultation with other managers so that there is no confusion or conflict. Orders may be oral or written. Written orders are given when the nature of the work is very important or when the person being ordered is far away. Care should be taken to keep a copy of the order so that follow-up action can be taken. Oral orders are given when the work is of an urgent nature or when the person being given the oral order is nearby. In both the cases it is necessary to follow up and find out whether the order has been properly executed. This is called the stage of appraisal. Instructions are oral or written on a recommended manner in which the work is to be done. For instance, the office superintendent will instruct a new clerk on the manner in which letters are to be filed and the manner in which the outgoing mail is to be entered in the register. In both the cases the clerk has been shown how the work has to be done. The instruction carries and implied order – i.e. the clerk is expected to follow that particular method of doing the assigned work and no other method. From this we may conclude that while all instruction contains an implied order, all orders are not instructions. 5. Education and Training: Communication in business can be used to widen the ever-widening circle of knowledge. Process of education that takes place in the business world is a part of its activity. Business communication can achieve the objective of Education at three levels of management, of employees and of general public. a) Education for succession: This means training junior persons in the organization to handle important assignments involving responsibility so that they are trained to succeed their seniors in executive and managerial positions. These trainees may not go through a formal course in staff training but may be opportunities to work in different departments under the guidance of senior executive. They may also be asked to attend conferences and meetings in order to watch the decision making process. The purpose behind this is to develop a quality of excellence among the future managers of the organization. b) Education for Promotion: it has been found that the most senior managers are behind the times. They employ management techniques and control systems that are outdated. Seniority is an important factor in promotion. However, if the seniors are not competent than their promotion is in question. To overcome this problem it is necessary for these seniors to undergo special training, refresher and orientation courses, before they can be considered for promotion. c) Education during Induction: When new personnel join an organization are inducted by educating them in the culture of the company, code of discipline, and methods of manufacturing, etc. This is done through training programme or orientation programme.
It not only acquaints the new recruits with organizational functioning but also gives them an idea of the organization they are going to work in.
d) Educating the Public: Educating the outside public usually takes the form of advertising, informative talks, publication in newspaper and journals. This is done to inform the general public as well as the professionals about the product, functioning of the company, and various schemes offered by the company.
Besides these objectives there are other objectives communication such as: e)Counseling f) Advice g) Persuasion h) Altering behaviour i) Effecting change j) Promoting the image of the company k) Increasing productivity l) Establishing better relations m) Influencing potential customer
TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS COMMUNICATION Technology is developing so rapidly that what is new today become common place tomorrow and outdated the day after. The cha nges brought about by new technology are leading to an exciting new information age in which more people will have faster and broader access to data than ever before. Most developments in computer technology make us more productive, so we can perform our jobs more effectively with less effort. Following are some of the major technologies that are being used in the world of business: 1. Telephones and Voice Mail: Telephones are not new, but new technology has extended the value of telephones. Voice mail is a computerized message system, a more sophisticated version of an answering machine. It allows people to communicate by phone even when they cannot connect directly. Given this development, it has become necessary to examine the use of telephones more carefully. Many companies have realized that each employee’s telephone skills contribute to the image of the company, thereby affecting its ability to sell its products and services. The first impression people receives of a company comes from the telephone. Therefore, telephone skills are among the most important technological skills to be developed. 2. Computer Network: Only a few years ago, each desktop computer stood alone, and data were transferred on disks. However, today desktop computers can communicate directly via computer networks, allowing information to be shared effortlessly. There are
two types of networks: the local area network [LAN] that links users in a single office and the wide area network [WAN] that links remote users. Such networks now allow workers to share files easily among offices in nearby buildings and in some instances across the country. The “information superhighways” which are such a popular topic these days, are huge computer networks. At present, the Internet is the only network big enough to be called an information superhighway. Internet users can exchange messages with other internet users, access electronic databases, and subscribe to electronic “newsletters” on thousands of topics. The system was originally developed to serve scientists and then it expanded to researchers, professors, and students. It is now expanding quickly into the business and public arena. Many business enterprises are networked through commercial providers of data. Specialization networks are being developed to provide specific information. 3. Electronic Mail: Electronic mail (e-mail), the electronic transmission of messages from one person to another using computers, has become commonplace in business. E-mail system has a significant influence on business communication. One of the advantages of the e-mail system is that it keeps the expenses of communication low. Many firms program their computers to send external e-mail at night, when the telephones rates are lower and most business telephones are not in use. E-mail seems to have an interesting effect on organization that use it for communication among employees. In such organization employees tend to send more messages to their co-workers and superior than those organizations that do not use e-mail system. The result of encouraging the use of e-mail system is a healthy leveling of organizational hierarchy. In low-tech organizations, people tend to believe that they are permitted to communicate only as per the formal communication chart established by the management. In business organization with electronic-mail facilities and capabilities, employees are more likely to contact those at the top with their ideas and comments and bypass their immediate supervisors. Making those at the top more accessible has given many employees a greater feeling of involvement in their organization. As a result, more ideas and suggestions are coming to the attention of decision makers, resulting in improved operations, services, and products. 4. Electronic Bulletin Board: Electronic bulletin boards are computer systems that allow the posting of information so it may be accessed and read by many other people. They disseminate information within a company to a broader audience. With a modern, someone with a computer can call up the bulletin board and seek information. Others who read the notice and question mat respond directly on the board. One can even post information in the same space on the bulletin by the help of a modem. Companies are using electronic bulletin boards to keep their employees informed about all kinds of things. Employees also use this facility to inform everyone about a vexing technical problem. 5. Teleconferencing and Videoconferencing: Teleconferencing allows groups who are geographically separated to meet via telephone and discuss issues. This is substituting the use of telephone to call a meeting. Since most of the executives spend at least half their
time in meetings and travelling for meetings, teleconferencing enables discussion over the telephone, which is more convenient and less expensive. Videoconferencing is used for more formal meetings, especially in companies that have this facility. This type of conference is done via the video camera. It enables people to have the conference being in different geographical locations and yet seeing each other. After an environmental disaster, one large company was able to get solution to its cleanup problems by videoconferencing with an 84-year-old Swedish expert whose health did not permit him to travel to the site of problem. 6. Telecommuting and Home Offices: As technology makes it easier to communicate with people in other locations, some employees have begun working from their homes. They may visit the home office periodically or send the product of their labor to their employers or clients electronically. Companies that downsize may contract, with individuals who are not employed, to undertake projects that the company’s remaining workers do not have time to do. Telecommuters and home workers are often regarded as essential and dependable members of the corporate world. One advantage is that widely dispersed employees can be called on to react quickly during emergencies or to reach distant clients. Concerns about traffic congestion, parking problem, office space, and personal preferences all contribute to the decision to allow telecommuting and home office. Communication is participating in the process of informing and being informal. This process is becoming more complex with business becoming global. However, one of the inadequacies of the business world is lack of development of communication skills. With the globalization of business there is a felt need to emphasize development of communication skills. Communication is seen in its various dimensions – such as its nature of being verbal or nonverbal, intentional or unintentional, internal or external; having characteristics of involving humans, machines and animals; and occurring between two people or groups of people. Communication is important to business because of its nature and objectives. It is used in business to achieve the objective of an organization such as motivation, disseminating information, raising morale, educating the employees, and training and development. Communication activity in an organization takes three forms – i.e. the internal-operational, external-operational, and personal. These forms of communication have their own functions and usefulness in an organization. In an organization the flow of information takes place through a network. For the purpose of smooth functioning of an organization there is a formal network, which is designed by the management. However, communication cannot be controlled by the formal network, but also flow in an informal manner. This informal network is known as the grapevine, which can be destructive, but efficient management could use it to their benefit. Communication has been influenced by the development of technology, which has made communication in the business organization simple, efficient and faster.
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1.1 INTRODUCTION
To live is to communicate. Every facet of existence needs communication. Business
being one of the facets of human existence requires communication. The term
"communication" comes from the Latin word communicare, which means 'to impart' or
'participate'. In the course of our day-to-day living, we need to participate with other
human beings and also with things around us.
During the course of participation it becomes necessary to receive as well as to give.
This process of participation can take different forms, such as talking, writing,
interacting, etc. All of this means communication. In business people from all walks of
life come together to perform tasks that requires interaction with one another. Such a
work situation makes communication necessary and imperative.
The business world today has become global, which make communication even more
complex. Communicating across borders and cultures requires communication skills that
would enable people from different lands to interact with each other so as to achieve
some common objective. Hence, it is necessary to develop good communication skills.
However, one of the neglected areas of human development is communication. Peter
Drucker has made these observations about communication:
"Colleges teach the one thing that is perhaps most valuable for the future employees to
know. But very few students bother to learn it. This one basic skill is the ability to
organize and express ideas in writing and speaking.
As soon as you move one step from the bottom, your effectiveness depends on your
ability to reach others through the spoken or the written word. And the further away your
job is from manual work, the larger the organization of which you are an employee, the
more important it will be that you know how to convey your thoughts in writing or
speaking. In the very large organization... this ability to express oneself is perhaps the
most important of all the skills a person can possess."
1.2 DIMENSIONS OF COMMUNICATION
To understand the nature of communication it is important to know its various
dimensions. Communication has five dimensions. They are as follows:
1. Communication can be Intentional or Unintentional. Words are used to express
ideas and are intended to have a particular meaning. Sometimes these words
Unit 1
Communication in Business
communicate something other than what is intended - they have an unintentional
meaning.
e) Communication can be Verbal or Nonverbal. Human communication is often
more nonverbal, involving the body and other objects and actions, than verbal,
involving
words alone. Even when we do not speak, the way we walk, stand, and sit
communicates a message to others. It is told about Stalin that he worked on his
gestures that were so threatening and commanding that just a movement of his
finger
was enough to pass death sentence on someone. Other forms of nonverbal
communication include letters, memos, arrangement of office furniture, and style
and
condition of clothing. * ~~
f) Communication can be Internal or External. Internal, or intrapersonal
communication is the way we talk to ourselves, i.e. without putting thoughts into
words. This involves talking that takes place within our selves without speaking
out
the words aloud. But the words that are actually written andspoken are external
communication. Nonverbal objects that are chosen to express something are also
considered to be external communication.
g) Communication can involve Humans, Machines or Animals. Communication
obviously involves humans. It also involves machines - for example, computers.
Humans use computers to improve communication between them. We also need
to
learn how animals communicate, because the nonverbal behaviour of humans and
animals is quite similar.
h) Communication can take place between Two People as well as within Group.
A conversation between two people is called interpersonal communication.
Communication within groups is classified as either small communication or mass
communication
& Activity A:
Identify the different forms of communication that you employ in your daily life and
conversation.
Business Communication
1.3 IMPORTANCE OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Because communication is so important in business, organizations want and need people with
good communication skills. Several surveys have indicated that communication is important to
business. Typical of such surveys is one conducted by Robert Half International of the 1000
largest employers in the US. This study found that 96% of the executives reported that today's
employees must have good communication skills to get ahead. Furthermore, in a survey of deans
of 90 management programmes, conducted by the Jones Graduate School of Management of
Rice University, indicated that one of the greatest teaching priorities of an MBA programme is
the subject on Communication.
Unfortunately, the need for employees with good communication skills is often not fulfilled in
the business world. A recent study also indicates that there is a correlation between
communication and income. Another study conducted, concluded that good writing and speaking
skills, along with proper etiquettes and listening skills - determines career success. In other
words, having good communication skills would result in advancement of career and thus,
monetary gains in terms of income.
The use of technology in communication makes the skills to communicate more obvious. For
instance, Email often displays one's written communication skills or use of language to different
people simultaneously, while audio and video will reveal one's verbal calibre and diplomacy
strength as well.
Over the years, many authors have recognized the importance of communication in an
organization. Chester Barnard, for instance, viewed communication as the means by which
people are linked together in an organization to achieve a common purpose. This is still the
fundamental function of communication. Group activity is impossible without communication,
because coordination and change cannot be effected.
Henry Mintzberg's observation of chief executive officers showed them to spend 78% of their
time on communication-related activities involving direct contact with others, scheduled and
unscheduled meetings, telephone calls, etc.
Mintzberg also found that managers considered activities involving direct communication with
others, to be more interesting and valuable than more routine activities.
The skills that require attention, according to 100 randomly selected Fortune 500 executives are,
oral presentations, memo writing, basic grammar, informational report writing, and analytical
report writing. Developing communication skills amounts to developing visual skills, written
skills, spoken skills, and reading skills.
Table 1.1 presents chronology of management views of communication from early in the 20th
century.
Unit 1 Communication in Business
Table 1.1: Chronology of Management Views of Communication
Management's View of Communication
Year Person Observation
1916 Fayol Managerial work is a set of composite functions that includes communication.
1930s Gulick including directing and reporting (which include communication).
1938 Barnard The first executive function is providing a system of communication.
1957 Simon The administrative process cannot influence the decisions of the individual without communication.
1966 Katz & Kahn
The exchange of information and transmission of meaning are the very essence of an organization.
1973 Mintzberg Managerial jobs have ten working roles; communication and interpersonal relations are found in three of the r
1974 Drucker Communication is one of five basic management functions.
1982 Peters & Waterman
Open, informal communication is one of eight characteristics of the best-run American companies.
1983 Kanter The most common roadblock for managers to overcome is poor communication.
1991 Blanchard Communication is a basic skill for the effective one-minute manager.
1995 Gates Communication is the new revolution; the information superhighway is part of it.
Source: John M. Penrose, R. W. Rasberry & R.J. Myers. 'Advanced Business
Communication'.
Business Communication
Activity B:
Search for and write one sentence (that is not found in this book) on "importance of
business communication" from any book on Business Communication:
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
The basic objective of all human communication is to obtain an understanding response.
Here, we shall consider certain definite objectives that the commercial world is
concerned with. Every large and small business house is successful or unsuccessful,
depending on how well it can communicate internally and externally. Peter Drucker
states: "Objectives are needed in every area where performance and result directly and
vitally affect the survival and prosperity of abusiness." Hence, we shall consider some of
the major objectives of business communication.
1. Information : The objective of business is to inform, which means to transfer
knowledge to another person or group. Transfer of knowledge is the most
fundamental objective of communication. Information can be given in writing,
speaking or any other system of signals or signs.
Businessmen thrive on information relevant to their business activities. They must
know what the demand for their goods or services is; how their competitors are
doing in business; what are the terms of credit available in the market; how to deal
with government rules and regulations; how to affect economies in production,
transport and distribution; how to expand their business, etc. Successful
businessmen are concerned not with maximum information but rather, pertinent
information.
In order to expand or secure a place in a highly competitive market the businessman
needs information for planning the future. Information for planning can be of five
kinds:
a) Environmental Information - information pertaining to the geography, climate,
political, and socio-economic conditions.
Unitl
Communication in Business
n) Internal Information - information about the strength and weakness^ofthe
company with respect to capital, production, and sales capacity, degree of training
7>tth^workers, their efficiency, etc.
o) External Information - information about sources of credit, availability of
jgwjnaterial^Dower, andjhe latest rules and regulations made by the government
or local authorities.
1. Competitive Information - information relating to the strength and weakness
of the competitors and their past and present performance in the market. '
2. New Development Information - information concerning the fetest research,
upgradation of the product, and availability of raw materials or substitutes.
«~ •' ~ ~~ -
Before accepting any information the successful business house will ensure that the information
is reliable, complete, and recent. Obtaining information has become so vital to the world of
business that in developed countries industrial espionage has become quite common, and highly
paid spies are sent to find out the secrets of their rivals. Businessmen have no difficulty in
obtaining information from old files, magazines, internet, library research, chamber of
commerce, trade fairs and exhibitions, etc.
However, as the worldwide web gets complex, it is becoming more and more difficult for
business houses to surf through the maze of information. So the problem is not of lack of
information, but of immense quantity of information. To help the businessmen out of this
problem a number of organizations have taken the role of infomediaries.
Infomediaries are like intermediaries or middlemen, only they do not deal with goods but with
information.
They perform variety of functions like delivering select information, bringing together scattered
professionals, maintaining statistical data on economy, industry, commerce, commodities,
demographics, stocks, mutual funds, finance and investments.
Just as business organization receives information, it also has to provide information both to the
outside world and, to workers within the organization.
• The progress and profitability of the company has to be made known, which could be done
through advertising, organizing seminars, conferences, and exhibitions. Public should be
informed about the quality of products, the facilities provided to workers, the research
conducted, social services rendered to the community and country.
Business Communication
• Business organization also needs to communicate information internally to its workers, such as:
i Information relating to job assignments and procedures governing them.
ii Information concerning exact designations of the officers and their decision-making
powers.
iii Information, which gives a clear understanding of authority
iv. Information, which will make possible better reception of instruction.
In India, with the coming of liberalization and increased competition, receiving and giving
information has become more important today.
In earlier days, the amount of information available was directly proportionate to the worker's
power within an organization. In most modern organizations power is getting increasingly
decentralised and with it there is an increase in the give and take of information at all levels.
2. Motivation : To motivate means, "to cause to act". It has been defined as "that inner state that
energizes, activates, or moves and which directs or channels behaviour towards certain
goals."
In an organization, when workers are motivated they work eagerly, willingly and often
without supervision. Another objective of communication is to increase motivation among
workers.
Organizations use communication process to overcome motivation problem. Following
aspects of the problem of motivation could be considered:
9. Emotional Climate. The management should use communication in such a
manner that the right emotional climate for motivation is created. This can be
done by fostering healthy competition among workers and also by recognizing
and giving publicity to achievement.
10. Setting Goals or Objectives. Set definite objectives before the workers so that they know what they are working towards and they can enjoy a sense of satisfaction when objective has been attained. This will mean informing them of the plan that the management has in mind and the detailed working of the plan.
Unit 1 Communication in Business
3.
7. Organizational Information. With the help of house journals, direct talks or
training programmes the management should give much information to the
employees as possible about the organization for which they are working.
Creating a favourable image of the organization in the minds of the workers will
give them a sense of pride in working for the organization.
8. Participation in Decision-making. When subordinates are encouraged to
report directly to their superiors or give suggestions to improve the working of
the organization they will experience a powerful sense of belonging to the
organization. One management writer states that "the higher the degree of
participation the stronger will be the resulting inclination to cooperate with
company
plans".
9. Establishing Human Relations. When supervisory and junior staff can meet
in an atmosphere of informality and exchange views, when supervisory staff
uses tact in communicating orders, admonitions and warnings to the junior staff,
and when the staff is encouraged to think out and take the initiative in minor
matters, there is less friction and resentment and the organization functions
smoothly.
Raising Morale : In war it is not the number of soldiers that matters, but their morale
that makes the big difference between losing and winning. Napoleon even went so far as
to assert that morale "makes up three-quarters of the game; the relative balance of
manpower accounts for the remaining quarter". In a business organization the morale of
the workers can seriously affect the success of the business. One of the objectives of
communication [internal] is to keep the morale of the workers high so that they work
with vigour and confidence as a team.
Low morale is often theresult of lack of confidence in the management on account of
its poor communication skills. The usual characteristics of low morale are lack of
discipfineTno appreciation or reward for good work well done, bad relations between
the supervisors and the workers and sometimes among the workers themselves.
When the morale is low, unfound rumours about the state of the company and the
calibre of the management usually circulate among the workers.
It should be remembered that high or low morale is not a permanent feature of a
company. The same organization could have a high morale among its workers one
year and find that the workers have lost their morale the next year.
10
Business Communication
It is like a disease that requires immediate attention and diagnosis and cure.
Management can keep high morale through communication by:
11. Maintaining a steady stream of communication between workers, their
supervisors and top executives.
12. Permitting open discussion of problems affecting the workers and their families.
13. Employing communication devices such as employees' conferences, audio-visual
aid, employee-get-togethers, etc.
14. Keeping a watch on the grapevine and not allowing harmful rumours to circulate.
15. Stopping false rumours about favouritism, strikes, retrenchment or lock outs.]
16. Giving fair hearing to employee grievances and accepting their suggestions,
thereby giving them a sense of participation in management.
17. Expressing appreciation for good work done and rewarding it.
h) Introducing changes gradually so that the workers are not mentally upset by
sudden and abrupt changes in staff or working conditions.
Since morale is like a barometer, which indicates the well being of an organization, some
business houses study morale periodically. This is done by:
11. Informal meetings at which the workers are encouraged to speak freely.
12. Collecting information through the different channels and
13. Circulating specially prepared questionnaires.
4. Order and Instruction: An order is an oral or written communication directing the
starting, terminating or modifying of aiT^tiyity. It is a form of cCTmnumcatioiTby
which management directs its subordinates and employees and seeks to achieve its
objectives. It is communication that is peculiar to the internal organization of a
business house, because superiors can issue orders to their subordinates. Before
issuing an order there should be proper planning by the order issuing person. There
should be a plan of action prepared in consultation with other managers so that there
is no confusion or conflict.
Unit 1
Communication in Business
Orders may be oral or written. Written orders are given when the nature of the
work is very important or when the person being ordered is far away. Care
should be taken to keep a copy of the order so that follow-up action can be
taken.
Oral orders are given when the work is of an urgent nature or when the person
being given the oral order is nearby. In both the cases it is necessary to follow up
and find out whether the order has been properly executed. This is called the
stage of appraisal.
Instructions
or written orders on a recommended manner in which the
work is to be done. For instance, the office superintendent will instruct a new clerk
on the manner in which letters are to be filed and the manner in which the outgoing
mail is to be entered in the register. In both the cases the clerk has been shown how
the work has to be done. The instruction carries and implied order - i.e. the clerk is
expected to follow that particular method of doing the assigned work and no other
method. From this we may conclude that while all instructions contain an implied
order, all orders are not instructions.
(Note: It should be remembered that order also refers to the request to supply goods.
Here the term order is with reference to operations / performing work).
5. Education and Training : Communication in business can be used to widen the ever-
widening circle of knowledge. Process of education that takes place in the business
world is apart of its activity.
Business communication can achieve the objective of Education at three levels of
management, of employees and of general public.
14. Educationfor Succession : This means training junior persons in the organization
to handle important assignments involving responsibility so that they are trained
to succeed their seniors in executive and managerial positions. These trainees
may not go through a formal course in staff training but may be opportunities to
work in different departments under the guidance of senior executive. They may
also be asked to attend conferences and meetings in order to watch the decision
making process. The purpose behind this is to develop a quality of excellence
among the future managers of the organization.
15. Educationfor Promotion : It has been found that most senior managers are
behind the times. They employ management techniques and control systems
that are outdated. Seniority is an important factor in promotion. However, if the
seniors are not competent then their promotion is in question. To overcome this
11
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Business Communication
problem it is necessary for these seniors to undergo special training, refresher and
orientation courses, before they can be considered for promotion.
21. Education during Induction: When new personnel join an organization they
are inducted by educating them in the culture of the company, code of discipline,
and methods of manufacturing, etc. This is done through training programme or
orientation programme. It not only acquaints the new recruits with organizational
functioning but also gives them an idea of the organization they are going to
work in.
22. Educating the Public: Educating the outside public usually takes the form of
advertising, informative talks, publication in newspaper and journals. This is
done to inform the general public as well as the professionals about the product,
functioning of the company, and various schemes offered by the company.
Besides these objectives there are other objectives of business communication such as:
24. Counselling
25. Advice
26. Persuasion
h) Altering Behaviour
i) Effecting Change
j) Promoting the Image of the Company
k) Increasing Productivity
1) Establishing Better Relations
m) Influencing Potential Customer
JSf Activity C:
a) State the type of objectives of communication for the following instances:
i. Insubordination
ii Animosity
b) Give an example of an organization which you feel communicates well with the external
public:
Unitl
Communication in Business
1.5 FORMS AND FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
The importance of communication in business becomes more obvious when we consider the
communication activities that go on in an organization. Communication in an organization takes
three main forms. They are:
26. Internal-Operational Communication
27. External-Operational Communication
28. Personal Communication
1. Internal-Operational Communication.
All the communication that takes place within an organization, during the process of work, is
known as internal-operational communication. This is the form of communication among the
employees that is done during the implementation of the business-operating plan.
The term operating plan means the procedure that an organization has developed to perform a
particular task - i.e. manufacturing a specific product, providing a particular service, etc.
Internal-operational communication takes many forms. It includes the orders and instructions
that supervisors give workers, as well as oral exchange among workers about work matters.
It includes report that workers prepare concerning sales, production, inventories, finance,
maintenance, and so on. It also includes e-mail messages that workers write in order to carry out
their assignments. Much of this internal-operational communication is performed on computer
network.
Communication is essential for the internal functioning of enterprises, because it integrates the
managerial functions. Internal-operational communication is especially needed to:
28. Establish and disseminate goals of an organization
29. Develop plans for their achievement
30. Organize human and other resources in the most effective and efficient way
31. Select, develop, and appraise members of the organization
32. Lead, direct, motivate, and create a climate in which people want to contribute
33. Control performance.
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Business Communication
2. External-Operational Communication.
The work-related communicating that a business does with people and groups outside the
organization is external-operational communication.
This is the communication activity of a business with its public - i.e. suppliers, customers, service
companies, stockholders, Government, and the general public.
External-operational communication includes all the efforts of business in direct selling, such as
descriptive brochures, telephone calls, follow-up service calls, and so on. It also includes the
advertising that the business does, which is one of the ways of communication.
Radio, television messages, newspaper and magazine advertising, website advertising, and point-
of-purchase display material play a role in business's plan to achieve its work objective.
Also in this category is all that a business does to improve its public relations, including its
planned publicity, the community service of its employees, and the environmental friendliness of
its products and facilities.
An important aspect of external-operational communication is that it displays a company's image
and its etiquette with respect to the external environment and public. Business messages do more
than communicate information.
They take the place of human contact, and thus, they have the effect of human contact. The
clarity, warmth, and understanding they display also send a message.
The positiveness of this message is what is called as good business etiquette. And good
business etiquette contributes to the image of the company.
External-operational communication facilitates managerial functions. It is through information
exchange that the managers:
1. Become aware of the needs of customers
2. The availability of suppliers
3. The claims of stockholders
4. The regulations of government
5. The concerns of the community.
Unit 1
Communication in Business
It is through communication that any organization becomes an open system interacting
with its environment.
3. Personal Communication.
Not all communication that occurs in a business organization is operational - dealing
with operation of the business objectives. In fact, much of the personal communication
within an organization has no connection with the operating plan of business. Such
communication is called as personal communication.
Personal communication is the exchange of information and feelings in which human
beings engage whenever they come together. Since human beings are social animals,
there is a need to communicate, even when there is nothing to say.
We spend much time with friends in communication. Even total strangers are likely to
communicate when they are placed together, as on an airplane flight, in a waiting room,
or at a party. Such personal communication also occurs in workplace, and it is a part of
the communication activity of any business. Although not a part of operational plan of
business, personal communication can have a significant effect on the fulfilment and
success of any business operation. This effect is a result of the influence that personal
communication can have on the attitudes of the employees.
The employees' attitudes toward the business, each other, and their assignments directly
affect their productivity. The nature of personal communication or conversation in a
work place affects the attitude of a worker, which then affects his/her performance. In a
work situation there are often heated words and tempers, the employees will not come
out with their best efforts. However, a situation where there is constant joking and
laughing will also have equally bad effect on productivity. Somewhere between these
extreme situations lies the ideal productive attitude.
Furthermore, the extent to which personal communication is permitted within an
organization can also affect the attitude of the employees. Absolute denial of personal
communication could upset the emotions of the employees, because the very need of
human beings to communicate is denied. On the other hand, excessive personal
communication could cause interference with work. Again, the middle path is probably
the best.
Personal communication does have its value in an organization. It has an emotive
function. In other words, personal communication permits the expression of feelings and
satisfaction of social needs. It may also help vent frustrations.
tf;
16
Business Communication
1.6 COMMUNICATION NETWORK OF THE ORGANIZATION
All the forms of communication [internal, external, and personal] indicate an extremely complex
network of information flow. It shows an organization feeding on a continuous supply of
information. In today's world of business, information must flow faster than before.
Another important element is the amount of information, which has greatly increased over the
years, frequently causing an information overload. What is needed is not more information but
relevant information.
It is necessary to determine what kind of information the manager needs to have for effective
decision-making. To be effective, the manager needs information necessary to carry out
managerial functions and activities. Obtaining such information frequently requires getting
information from superiors and subordinates and also from departments and people elsewhere
within shortest period of time.
Communication channels, for the flow of information, may be linked in a variety of way to form
a communication networks. These networks are used to structure the information flows among
the network members. Business organizations have well-established channels of information
flow. These are the formal channels - i.e. the main lines of operational communication. There is
another type of network of communication that is more personal in nature than operational. This
is the informal network of communication.
Thus, there are basically two types of communication network in an organization:
31. The Formal Network
32. The Informal Network.
1. The Formal Network: As stated above the formal communication network has to do with
operational communication (communication that is required to perform a specific
organizational task).
In an effective organization, communication flows in the following directions: Downward,
Upward and Crosswise Communication.
a) Downward Communication: This is the flow of communication form people
at higher level to those at the lowerlevel in the organizational hierarchy. This
"Rind of communicaflon implies the auuiOTitarian structure of an organization. It is
used for such purposes as giving instructions, providing information about policies
Unit 1 Communication in Business
and procedures, giving feedback about performance, and indoctrinating or motivating.
The kinds of media used for downward ^^communication include instructions, speeches,
meetings, the telephone, and even the grapevine. Downwardwritten communication
takes the form of merhos, letters, handbooks,pamphlets, policy statements, manuals,
ancTsb on.
Unfortunately, information is often lost or distorted as it comes down the chain of
command. Although some companies make a point of letting management decision be
known, many employees are dissatisfied with both quality and quantity of information.
In fact, many directives are not understood or even read.
The real problem may lie in the differing communication priorities of top management
and lower level workers. Employees are particularly interested in things that pertain to
them directly. For instance, they want to know how secure their jobs are, how their
salary is determined, and when they will get a raise. Often, this is the type of information
that management prefers to keep confidential.
Furthermore, downward flow of information through the different levels of organization
is time-consuming. Delays may be so frustrating that some top managers insist that
information be sent directly to the concerned person or group.
Upward Communication: This type of communication travels from subordinates to
superiors and continues up the organizational hierarchy. Unfortunately, managers in the
communication chain, who filter the information -especially unfavourable messages - to
their superiors, often hinder this flow. Companies try to guard against this by creating
reporting system that requires employees to furnish vital information on a routine basis.
To solve problems and make intelligent decisions, management must learn what is going
on in the organization. Because they cannot be everywhere at the same time, executives
depend on lower-level employees to furnish them with accurate and timely report.
Upward flow of communication is also useful in providing ideas for improvement of
activities, and information about feelings on work.
Upward communication is primarily nondirective and is usually found in participative
and democratic organizational environment. Techniques for upward communication -
besides the chain of command - are suggestion system, appeal and grievance procedures,
complaint system, counselling sessions, joint setting
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18
Business Communication
of objectives, the grapevine, group meetings, the practice of open-door policy, morale
questionnaire, exit interviews, and attitude survey.
In recent years, many companies have also set up systems that give employees a
confidential way to get a message to top management outside the normal chain of
command. If an employee has a problem or an idea that might be difficult to discuss
with the person's immediate superior, he or she can talk to a neutral third party
[sometimes called an ombudsman] who will consider the issue and see that appropriate
action is takln without putting the employee in an awkward position.
Effective upward communication requires an environment in which subordinates feel
free to communicate. Since the organizational climate is greatly influenced by upper
management, the responsibility for creating a free flow of upward communication
rests, to a large extent, with the superiors.
c) Crosswise Communication: This form of communication includes the .^ horizontal flow of
information [arnongpeople onjhesame or similar^ ^^ organizational levels] and the diagonal flow
of information [among persons at aGHercnTotganizational levels who have no direct reporting
relationships].
This type of communication is used to speed information flow, to improve
understanding, and to coordinate activities for the achievement of organizational
objectives.
A great deal of communication does not follow the organizational hierarchy but.cuts across the
chain of command. As organizations become more diversified and individual tasks become more
specialized, the need for crosswise communication increases.
The organizational environment provides many occasions for crosswise oral communication.
They range from informal meetings of lunch hours that employees spend together to more formal
conferences and committee and board meetings. This kind of communication occurs when
individual members of different departments are grouped into task teams or project organization.
This also occurs when staffs with functional or advisory authority interacts with line managers in
different departments.
In addition, crosswise written communication keeps people informed about the organization.
These written forms include the company newspaper, magazine, or bulletin boards. Modern
enterprises use many kinds of oral and written crosswise communication patterns to supplement
the vertical flow of information.
Unit 1
Communication in Business
Because information may not follow the normal chain of command, proper safeguard need to be
taken to prevent potential problems. Specifically, crosswise communication should rest on the
nnderstandin g that a) crosswise relationships will be encouraged wherever they are appropriate,
b) subordinates will refrain from making commitments beyond their authority, and c)
subordinates will keep superiors informed of important interdepartmental activities.
2. The Informal Network: Formal organizational chart illustrates how information is supposed
to flow. However, in actual practice, chart cannot prevent people from talking with one
another. This is the informal communication network that is found within any organization.
In the management language it is called as "grapevine". Just as the grapevine has no
definite or orderly path of growth, so"also the informal communication has no definite path
in its flow as the formal communication.
The informal network is not a single network but a complex relationship of smaller networks
consisting of groups of people. The relationship is made even more complex by the fact that
these people mat belong to more that one group and that group memberships and the links
between and among groups are continually changing.
As people go about their work, they have casual conversations with their friends in the office.
They joke around and talk of many things besides their work. Although many of the
conversations deal with personal matters, business matters are also discussed. In fact, 80% of
the information that travels along the grapevine pertains to business. Furthermore, many
employees rely on the grapevine as their main source of information about the organization.
Grapevine usually carries far more information than the formal communication system. In
every organization, certain people seem to know everything, regardless of the position they
officially hold. As a result, their role in the company's informal communication network is an
active one.
Despite the fact that the grapevine usually carries information and sometimes rumours that
could be harmful, the management to its advantage uses it. Wise managers recognize the
presence of grapevine and give the talk-leader the information that will do most good to the
organization.
In a situation where two individuals from different departments have to work together to
accomplish a task, it is often efficient for them to talk directly to each other rather than
passing the message through the formal network. In an era when mergers, acquisitions, and
reorganization are the norm, the informal communication network often plays a particularly
vital role. Keith Davis states: "People cannot resist the grapevine. It offers the latest news,
and usually that news is reasonably accurate.
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20
Business Communication
Much of the news is about people, such as their friendship, conflicts, and experiences. Since
formal communication carries very little of this type of information, we must listen to the
grapevine in order to be fully informed. In addition, much of the grapevine occurs by
person-to-person contact, which helps us become a part of social groups and receive social
satisfaction."
Activity D ;
a) Give an example of crosswise communication in your department.
b) Give an example of horizontal communication in your organization.
1.7 TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Technology is developing so rapidly that what is new today become commonplace tomorrow and
outdated the day after. The changes brought about by new technology are leading to an exciting
new information age in which more people will have faster and broader access to data than ever
before. Most developments in computer technology make us more productive, so we can perform
our jobs more effectively with less effort.
Following are some of the major technologies that are being used in the world of business:
1. Telephones and Voice Mail: Telephones are not new, but new technology has extended the
value of telephones. Voice mail is a computerized message system, a more sophisticated
version of an answering machine. It allows people to communicate by phone even when
they cannot connect directly.
Given this development, it has become necessary to examine the use of telephones more
carefully. Many companies have realized that each employee's telephone skills contribute to
the image of the company, thereby affecting its ability to sell its products and services. The
first impression people receive of a company comes form the
Communication in Business
telephone. Therefore, telephone skills are among the most important technological skills to be
developed. 3.
Computer Network: Only a few years ago, each desktop computer stood alone, and data were
transferred on disks. However, today desktop computers can communicate directly via computer
networks, allowing information to be shared effortlessly. There are two types of networks: the
local area network [LAN] that links users in a single office; and the wide area network [WAN]
that links remote users. Such networks now allow workers to share files easily among offices in
nearby buildings and in some instances across the country.
The "information superhighways" which are such a popular topic these days, are huge computer
networks. At present, the Internet is the only network big enough to be called an information
superhighway. Internet users can exchange messages with other Internet users, access electronic
databases, and subscribe to electronic "newsletters" on thousands of topics. The system was
originally developed to serve scientists and then it expanded to researchers, professors, and
students. It is now expanding quickly into the business and public arena. Many business
enterprises are networked through commercial providers of data. Specialized networks are being
developed to provide specific information.
Electronic Mail : Electronic mail (e-mail), the electronic transmission of messages from one
person to another using computers, has become commonplace in business. E-mail system has a
significant influence on business communication. One of the advantages of the e-mail system is
that it keeps the expenses of communication low. Many firms program their computers to send
external e-mail at night, when the telephones rates are lower and most business telephones are
not in use.
E-mail seems to have an interesting effect on organizations that use it for communication among
employees. In such organizations employees tend to send more messages to their co-workers and
superiors than those organization that do not use e-mail system. The result of encouraging the use
of e-mail system is a healthy levelling of organizational hierarchy. In low-tech organizations,
people tend to believe that they are permitted to communicate only as per the formal
communication chart established by the management.
In business organizations with electronic-mail facilities and capabilities, employees are more
likely to contact those at the top with their ideas and comments and bypass their immediate
supervisors. Making those at the top more accessible has given many
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22
Business Communication
employees a greater feeling of involvement in their organization. As a result, more new
ideas and suggestions are coming to the attention of decision makers, resulting in improved
operations, services, and products.
4. Electronic Bulletin Board: Electronic bulletin boards are computer systems that
allow the posting of information so it may be accessed and read by many other
people. They disseminate information within a company to a broader audience. With
a modem, someone with a computer can call up the bulletin board and seek information.
Others who read the notice and question mat respond directly if a telephone number
is displayed on the board. One can even post information in the same space on the
bulletin by the help of a modem.
Companies are using electronic bulletin boards to keep their employees informed about all
kinds of things. Employees also use this facility to inform everyone about a vexing
technical problem.
5. Teleconferencing and Videoconferencing: Teleconferencing allows groups who
are geographically separated to meet via telephone and discuss issues. This is
substituting the use of telephone to call a meeting. Since most of the executives spend
at least half their time in meetings and travelling for meetings, teleconferencing enables
discussion over the telephone, which is more convenient and less expensive.
Videoconferencing is used for more formal meetings, especially in companies that have this
facility. This type of conferencing is done via the video camera. It enables people to have
the conference being in different geographical locations and yet seeing each other. After an
environmental disaster, one large company was able to get solution to its cleanup problems
by videoconferencing with an 84-year-old Swedish expert whose health did not permit him
to travel to the site of problem.
6. Telecommuting and Home Offices: As technology makes it easier to communicate
with people in other locations, some employees have begun working from their homes.
They may visit the home office periodically or send the product of their labour to their
employers or clients electronically.
Many companies are providing workers with computers and other equipment that enables them
to work more efficiently at home.
Companies that downsize may contract, with individuals who are not employed, to undertake
projects that the company's remaining workers do not have time to do. Telecommuters and home
workers are often regarded as essential and dependable members of the corporate world.
Unit 1 Communication in Business
One advantage is that widely dispersed employees can be called on to react quickly during
emergencies or to reach distant clients.
Concerns about traffic congestion, parking problem, office space, and personal preferences all
contribute to the decision to allow telecommuting and home office.
xgT Activity E:
What kind of technology would you use for the following types of communication situations? a)
Reporting to your boss that you are unable to attend work.
b) General information to be given to all employees of your organization.
c) Interviewing a candidate for your department who is living in another city.
1.8 SUMMARY
Communication is participating in the process of informing and being informed. This process is
becoming more complex with business becoming global. However, one of the inadequacies of
the business world is lack of development of communication skills. With the globalization of
business there is a felt need to emphasize development of communication
skills.
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Business Communication
Communication is seen in its various dimensions- such as its nature of being verbal or_
nonverbal, intentional or unintentional, internal or external; having characteristics of involving humans, machines and animals; and occurring between two people or groups of people.
Communication is important to business because of its nature and objectives. It is used in
business to achieve the objectives of an organization such as motivation, disseminating
information, raising morale, educating the employees, and training and development. x
Communication activity in an organization takes three forms - i.e. the internal-operational,
external-operational, and personal. These forms of communication have their own functions and
usefulness in an organization.
In an organization the flow of information takes place through a network. For the purpose of
smooth functioning of an organization there is a formal network, which is designed by the
management. However, communication cannot be controlled by the formal network, but also
flow in an informal manner. This informal network is known as the grapevine, which can be
destructive, but efficient management could use it to their benefit.
Communication has been influenced by the development of technology, which has made
communication in the business organization simple, efficient and faster.
1.9 SELF- ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Q 1 . Discuss the importance of communication in the context of business organization.
Q2. Explain the various forms of communication and how they facilitate managerial functions.
Q3. Explain the Communication Network in an organization.
Q4. Fill in the blanks:
a) When we speak without putting thoughts into words, then the communication is
b) When words communicate something other than what is meant, then the communication
is said to be
c) Middlemen who. deal^ with information are known as 1 N> "rtvyy •vxe-tfU fl 20 1 4
Unit 1 Communication in Business
d) The neutral third party that helps to communication on behalf of the subordinate
with the superiors is known as
e) The procedure that an organization has developed to perform a particular task is known as &"%><TocHVj jg>l ^>w,
Q5. State whether the following statements are True or False:
a) V Human communication is more nonverbal than verbal.
b) c)
O (5VvJh
r~ Communication between two individuals is intrapersonal. v
. In determining one's communication skills audio and video is better
T . thane-mail.
d) p- Information relating to strength and weakness of the competitor is
known as external information.
e) f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
T
. All orders are not instructions, but all instructions are orders.
f~ Horizontal communication is among people at different organizational levels who have no direct reporting relationships.
C' ^ *
T • Grapevine usually carries more information than the formal
T communication network.
Grapevine helps people to receive social satisfaction. Encouraging
the use of e-mail is not a healthy practice because it
distorts the organizational hierarchy.
F
Telecommuters are not considered as essential part of the
corporate world. Q6. List
down the following:
a) Five types of information for planning:
l i iii
Business Communication
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Communication is an act, which consists of various events, and hence, it really is a
process. In the process of communication there is interplay of the communicator, the
message and the audience. Effective communicators are aware of the process and spend
considerable
time and effort in preparing and rehearsing me act or delivering fnelr1 HlQfiB[l§0.1
ilSty Will take into consideration the various elements of the communication process
during the course of preparation.
It takes a conscious effort on the part of an individual to develop the ability to deliver
message effectively. In the world of business, which has become very sophisticated, it is
imperative that people in the management cadre develop effective style of
communication. Specially, while dealing with business counterparts in a cross-cultural
milieu one has to weigh the whole process of communication carefully so as to avoid
any misunderstandings and loss of time and money.
Services industry in particular has brought communication to the fore and it has become
the most essential aspect of business in present times. Corporate as well as small
enterprises, in India, are spending sufficient time and money in training their personnel
in developing effective communication skills.
2.2 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: EXISTING VIEWS
We can view communication process from different points of emphases. From each
point of emphasis communication process takes on a different form. Business
Communication, by Helen R. Ewald & Rebecca E. Burnett, describes communication
process from different points of emphases. They are as follows: imparting information,
sharing information, or assumptions underlying while communicating information.
Communication process can be described either from the perspective of imparting, or
sharing, or assumptions. Each of these perspectives can be explained by use of models. The communication process can take any of the following forms:
s *
37.
Transmission Model
38. Reciprocal Model ^
13. Model Highlighting Assumptions.
Unit 2 Process of Communication 1. Transmission Model: When the emphasis is on imparting information, then the transmission model could understand the process of communication. This model (Fig 2.1) enables us to understand communication process in terms of information being transmitted from a sender to a receiver.
Message
Reception
Audience
Information and ideas coded into words and visuals
Channel conveys communicator's ideas
Reader/Listener decodes
communicator's message
Adapted from Helen R. Ewald & Rebecca E. Burnett, 'Business Communication', 1997, pg 36
Fig 2.1: Transmission Model of Communication Process
Through this model communication process is seen as a linear process - i.e.
message moves in one direction along a line or channel, with information
travelling from the source to the audience. This model assumes that, in the
absence of disturbance [noise], the audience will interpret the message as the
sender intends.
2. Reciprocal Model: When the emphasis is on sharing information, then we use the
reciprocal model of communication process. In this process of communication
the information or the meaning evolves through the participation of each member
of the audience. The flow of communication is simultaneous in all direction, and
in this flow of communication the composing of message takes place. Reciprocal
model shows the interactive nature of communication process. It could be
graphically expressed as in Fig 2.2.
Information
Communicator Audience
Meaning comes through interaction among the communicator, the information [subject], and the audience within a
specific occasion for communication
Adapted from Helen R. Ewald & Rebecca E. Burnett, 'Business Communication', 1997, pg 37
Fig 2.2 : Reciprocal Model of Communication Process
31
Business Communication
3. Model Highlighting Assumptions: In this model of communicating information, we
focus on the assumptions, which are commonly shared by the communicator and the
audience. Assumptions refer to that which is taken for granted by the communicator
and the audience, and that which can become the common ground in understanding
the message.
For example, when you go to a shop to make a purchase, the assumption that you
and the shopkeeper share is that once the goods are purchased by you or sold by the
shopkeeper the money given shall not be refunded. Say you purchase a non-stick
frying pan, and after going home you discover that you already have one. You then
decide to return the frying pan and get a refund. However, you realise that the
shopkeeper refuses to refund the money, which you cannot contest. He, being a
reasonable man, agrees to allow you to choose another item in place of the frying
pan.
In the above example you accept the common assumption, but refuse to accept it at
that moment. Realising that you cannot get the refund you agree to co-operate with
the shopkeeper and accept his offer for an exchange. This is known as the
Cooperative
Princinle— "~
.!._ '
^Activity A:
Which of the models would you apply to the following?
i) Board meeting
ii) Weekly Departmental meeting
iii) Workers'meeting with their Manager,
2.3 COMMUNICATION PROCESS
As mentioned earlier, communication is a process, which consists of events or phases
that are linked together. Whether you are writing, speaking, listening, or reading, all
these phases are present in the communication process. The process of communication
can be divided into five phases. They are:
1. The sender has an idea.
2. The idea becomes a message.
Unit 2 Process of Communication
42.
The message is transmitted.
43. The receiver gets the message.
44. The receiver responds and sends a feedback to the sender.
These five phases of the communication process link the sender to the receiver. Let us examine
each of these five phases.
1. The Sender has an Idea: We experience reality and that experience is filtered by
our mind. Our mind abstracts some important aspects of the experience and turns them into
an idea. In other words, mind constructs the important aspects of the experience into a
meaningful thought, which is idea. However, mind deals with the invisible, because our
thoughts are invisible. So the idea, which is invisible, has to be expressed in some form or the
other in order to communicate it to others.
Since you do not think in the same manner as others, and yet you want to express your ideas
to them, your mind filters out the details to highlight only those aspects that are relevant. This
process is known as abstraction. Thus, in the process of abstraction you leave out many
aspects, which you assume the others know. So in the filtering process you make assumptions
and judgements or conclusion.
What we are saying here is that our mind simplifies the real world that we observe and
experience by breaking it down into parts and then reconstructing these parts into an idea,
which we then turn it into a message that we express. What we express, however, is not the
whole of reality, but rather only a distorted image that our mind
pictures.
2. The Idea Becomes a Message: When we wish to express our ideas to others,
then the idea has to take a form and become an expression. Expression is an idea put
"in-form" to become information. This is also called '.encoding' thejnessage. Idea can be
expressed in different ways, depending upon the following:
44. Subject - what is that you want to speak about?
45. Purpose - what is it that you want to achieve?
46. Audience - who is the recipient of your ideas?
47. Personal Style or Mood - what is your speaking style or what mood are you in
when you making a speech?
48. Cultural Background - the choice of your words depend on your cultural
upbringing.
33
Business Communication
During the process of encoding the idea into words all these factors come into play.
The choice of words indicates one's style, mood, culture, audience, and purpose. For
instance, when a supervisor speaks to his subordinate concerning a job, not done
well, he will use words that will indicate displeasure, and even anger. But, if he
has to report the same instance to his boss - his choice of wttMs and appall WOUW
be different.
One of the major factors that influence encoding ideas into message is (he vocabula
available at one's disposal. In other words, at any given time we do not vocabulary at
our command to convert our ideas into words. This results in using words that are
not apt or desirable, which could lead to misunderstanding. Similarly, language
differs from discipline to discipline - language of a lawyer differs from the language
of a doctor or an IT professional. This could become a hindrance in recognizing or
expressing ideas. For example, when we go to a doctor we only are able to tell him
what we suffer from. We cannot express our ailment in medical terms.
Therefore, it is imperative that we develop the ability to express our ideas in the
code that is fitting for a given profession.
3. The Message is transmitted : In this step of communication process there is a
physical transmission of the message from the sender to the receiver. The message
transmitted from the sender to the receiver should have a medium, because
transmission
cannot take place in a vacuum.
The essential element for this transmission is a medium/channel. Channel is a
medium that enables the message to be transmitted from the sender to the receiver.
The choice of medium/channel depends on the message, audience, urgency and
situation.
46. Reception of the Message: 'Thefirststep in reception of message is "decoding"
-i.e. converting the message into thought [words are converted into meanings].
The
second step is "understanding" - i.e. communication is not complete unless it is
understood. This involves interpretation of the message by the receiver. Third step
in
the reception of message is "response" to the message - i.e. action. ~*~*
47. Feedback: Receiver sends his/her response back to the sender. This enables the sender to determine whether the message has been received and produced the intended response.
48. Noise: This term refers to those factors that cause hindrance to the intended message.
36
Business Communication
1. Problems in developing the message:
a) Indecision about the message content
This is due to the fact that the sender has too much information on the subject, which
gives rise to the difficulty in choosing what to include and what to exclude. When the
message has too much of information then the receiver can get confused
b) Lack of familiarity wit the situation or the receiver
The sender should get all the necessary information and find out to whom the message
is to be sent. This would enable the sender to state the message in a language that is
appropriate to the situation and clearly understood by the receiver.
c) Emotional conflicts
There are times when the message has to be delivered that would cause emotional
disturbance to the receiver. In such case, without being defensive, the sender should
state the message in a manner that would avoid emotional conflict.
d) Difficulty in expressing ideas
This is due to the lack of experience in writing or speaking that the sender may have
and cause difficulty in expressing his/her ideas. One must possess sufficient knowledge
of language to express using appropriate words.
2. Problems in transmitting the message:
49. When speaking, the sender may find/that the acoustics in the place is poor, or
there may be no proper facilities for the audience to hear the speaker.
50. In case of written transmission of message there could be instances when the
message is not legible - unable to read due to poor quality of printing.
51. When more than one message is sent on the same subject there is a good
possibility of contradictions. In such a case the receiver is uncertain and
interpretation may be confused.
52. When there are too many links in the communication line there could be distortion
of message. For instance, when the message has to pass through many people
there is a possibility of each person interpreting the message in his/her way. By
the time the message gets to the actual receiver the message would have
undergone change that would be far from the intended meaning.
Unit 2
Process of Communication
3. Problems in receiving the message:
54. Physical distraction: The receiver may have physical impairment (hard of hearing,
poor eye sight) that could cause hindrance in understanding the message.
55. Lack of concentration: The receiver may not have enough capacity to concentrate
and may let his/her mind wander off the message - i.e. sometimes we are thinking
of some other issue when a person is telling us something else. This is a big
hindrance in communication process.
4. Problems in understanding the message:
57. Different cultural background, such as education, social status, economic position,
etc. could become a hindrance in the process of understanding the message.
58. Different interpretation of words: This happens when the receiver is not familiar
with a particular language. For example, the receiver may not be computer
literate and hence, may not understand the computer language that the sender is
using.
59. Different emotional reaction: The message consists of both the content meaning
and relationship meaning. The message may be clear, but the manner in which it
is expressed or worded may not be acceptable to the receiver. When the message
is not acceptable, then it may give rise to negative feelings and the communication
can breakdown and not receive proper response.
g> Activity C:
Identify the problems that you encountered while developing the message for your sales
personnel regarding the increase in their sales target.
38
Business Communication
2.5 SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
All communication is prone to misunderstanding, but business in particular is more
prone to misunderstanding because of its complex nature. Besides being complex,
business communication has limited opportunities for feedbacks and hence, difficult to
correct misunderstandings^
1. Complexity of the message :
66. In the process of business communication, one must communicate both as an
individual as well as a representative of the organization. These two roles could
conflict with each other. For instance, there could be a situation where as an
individual you may not agree with the content of the message, but as a
representative of the organization you may have no choice but to send the
message.
67. At times you may be called upon to develop and deliver message that may be
difficult to express due to the difficult nature of the subject matter. This could
become a problem as well as a challenge to develop the message in clear terms.
68. Business situations are not always easy and smooth sailing. There are moments
when you may be asked to prepare a message under difficult conditions, or
within the constraints of time and money, or even in collaboration with people
with little or no knowledge of the subject. All these situations could become
problematic in communication process.
69. Another problem of business communication is to develop message, in the
capacity of a responsible representative of the organization, in a manner that
would please everybody in the chain of command.
2. Difficult conditions for transmission and reception:
63. One of the major problems of business communication is to get across your
message to your audience. This is due to the fact that there are many layers of
message processors or filters between the sender and the receiver - such as
secretaries, assistants, receptionists, and answering machines. Getting through
these filters can become a problem in business communication.
64. If filters pose a problem in business communication, distillers also become
equally
problematic. Distillers are those through whom the message gets translated,
interpreted, distorted, and even added upon before it is received.
Unit 2
Process of Communication
lly sd,
c) Once the message is received, the receiver may be distracted by much other
interference from work or other sources, which may not allow him/her to
understand the message in peace. In other words, the message does not get the
receiver's undivided attention due to the nature of business situation.
3. Differences between the sender and the receiver:
70. In business the communication process is often between people who are
separated by differences in function, status, allegiance, etc. The sender deals
with the unknown or less known receiver/audience. This makes communication
more difficult. In order to overcome this problem, it is necessary for the sender
to establish credibility through the message - i.e. getting the unknown or less
known audience to trust the sender of the message.
71. If the business communication involves the sender and the unknown or less
known audience, then it is equally important for the sender to anticipate the
needs and reactions of the receiver. Each time the receiver of the message is
different, the approach of communicating the message must also change.
g> Activity D :
a) As the Manager of a Sales Division, what steps would you take to overcome the
various filters that would distort your message to your sales personnel about the
increase in their sales target?
b) Give an example of communication where one can see that the differences between
the sender and receiver has caused a problem.
39
Business Communication
2.6 APPROACHES TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Many approaches have been developed to make business communication effective. Here
are some of the approaches.
Correct Clear
1 . Important C 's in Communication:
Correct facts, right time of delivering message, and suitable style.
Clarity of thought and expression.
Communication should be without bias; objective assessment of
facts.
Complete Concise
Full details should be given, without leaving room for doubts.
Communication should contain just necessary but sufficient j
information.
Consiste
Communication should be consistent with organizational
objectives.
J^yfc"^ f Gonerent V- &3*
Credible
Chronological
Considerate
Communication should be well organized and logically arranged.
Communication should be delivered in polite language. Whatever
is said or written should be believable. There should be a
sequence of time and priority in the message.
Consideration should be given to the receiver rather than the j
sender.
^Compassing v^fc,^. 2. "PRIDE" Model :
Communication should encompass all organizational needs. «i^
George T. Vardaman & Patricia B. Vardaman have developed this model. The word
] PRIDE stands as an acronym for Purpose, Receiver, Impact, Design, and
Execution. All these factors are necessary for effective communication.
rpose
Receiver
It refers to the purpose that the sender is trying to achieve - i.e. j target of communication.
This means to identify the exact purpose j of communication.
The sender should know the psychology and competence of the ] receiver in order to
communicate the message.
Unit 2 Process of Communication
Impact Ty : Communication should be such that it has the necessary affect upon the
receiver so as to achieve the purpose of the communication.
Design ^ft- : This refers to the planning of the communication. It should be organized
and developed so that it can achieve the desired impact upon the
receiver.
Execution : The final stage of communication is implementation of the planned
message. Communication will fail if it is not properly carried out.
3. Ten Commandments of Effective Communication:
(Prepared by American Management Association).
70. Seek to clarify your ideas before communicating.
71. Examine the true purpose of each communication.
72. Consider the total physical and human setting whenever you communicate.
73. Consult with others, where appropriate, in planning communication.
74. Be mindful of the overtones as well as of basic content of your message.
75. Take opportunity, when it arises, to convey something of help or value to the
receiver.
76. Follow up your communication.
h) Communicate for tomorrow as well as for today.
i) Be sure your actions support your communication.
j) Seek not only to be understood, but also to understand.
2.7 GUIDELINES TO IMPROVE COMMUNICATION 1. Create
the Message Carefully :
Communication is a creative act; an act in which you help your audience to
understand and accept your message. As a creative act one must follow the given
steps.
a) Purpose - to bring the audience closer to your views.
i) Define your goal in communication [Why are you sending the message? What
do you want youraudieltee to know or do?]
41
Business Communication
ii) Know the position of your audience [What do they know at the presen! What do
they need to know? What is their general background?]
iii) Use words in a manner that will bridge the audience from their present position to
your point of view.
b) Frame of Reference - give your audience a framework for understanding the j
message.
i) At the outset tell the audience what they can expect to gain [if there is j nothing to
gain your audience will have nothing to look forward to].
i) Give a broad outline - general map of your message [this will help the j
listeners/readers to follow the path of your thoughts].
iii) Guide the audience along the path of your thought and message.
iv) Emphasize on the major landmarks [ideas, concepts] of your message [this j will
help the audience to easily link your thoughts in a cohesive manner].
c) Memorable - help your audience to understand and remember the message.
i) Since business communication involves subject that is technical, abstract,] and
difficult use concrete language - i.e. balance general concepts witl specific
illustrations.
ii) Give specific details, which will be remembered by your audience.
d) Select information that directly contributes to the present message.
i) Focus on few selected ideas that need to be conveyed [too many ideas orj concepts
will result in deviation from the point of the message].
ii) Develop each idea/concept adequately and explain them sufficiently.
iii) Arrange the selected ideas/concepts in a logical sequence [this will helf your
audience to grasp your message and evaluate it rationally].
e) Connect your message to the receiver's frame of reference.
Mind plays an important role in the process of communication. During the j of
communication the mind is actively involved in selecting and judging the id presented
with its existing ideas [frame of reference].
Unit 2 Process of Communication
If new ideas are not connected to the existing ideas of the mind there is a
possibility of the new ideas being lost - i.e. the receiver cannot understand the
new ideas and hence his mind rejects them. Hence, the sender must be able to
link the new ideas to the existing ideas of his audience. This means the sender
should be in a position to assess the frame of mind of his audience.
f) Highlight and summarize the key ideas or points.
This is important because just as the sender helps to open the mind of his/her
audience so also he/she should be able to close the mind of the audience when
the message is ended. A message has a beginning and an end. Just as how to
begin the message is important so also how to close the message is important.
The best way to close the message is to briefly re-view the ideas presented -
emphasizing the key ideas, concepts, or thoughts and summarizing the whole
message in a brief but cohesive manner.
2. Minimize Noise / Interference:
Even the most carefully constructed message will fail to achieve results if it does not
reach the receiver. In other words, there are many possibilities for the message to get
distorted on its way from the sender to the receiver. Ultimate goal of any
communication is that the receiver gets the meaning of the message as close to as
intended by the sender. To achieve this goal there factors that have to be
remembered.
If the message is in print or written form it should be physically appealing as well as
easy to comprehend. Here the choice of material used along with the choice of format
is important. Attention must also be given to the quality of type used for writing the
massage.
In the case of oral delivery, attempt should be made to eliminate environmental
disturbances, which can cause interference in hearing and understanding the
message. Location of the delivery of the message must be conducive with adequate
lighting, good acoustics, and few visual distractions.
As the sender of the message you should be as inconspicuous as possible - i.e. your
dressing should not be very loud, which will catch the attention of the audience. Be
modestly and appropriately dressed so as not to become too obvious. Otherwise, you
outfit would become a major distraction to the audience.
43
Business Communication
Another way to minimize noise or interference is to deliver your message directly to
the intended audience - i.e. without any intermediaries.
3. Facilitate Feedback:
This means to provide opportunity to the audience for feedback. However, in
business communication there is very little chance for feedback, because of the
nature of message delivery that does not provide feedback loop. In case of face-to-
face conversation, feedback is immediate and clear.
The main objective of the feedback is to know whether your message has been
clearly understood and accepted. To achieve this the sender should plan his/her
message in a way that would encourage feedback. Although feedback is useful, it
can become hindrance for the sender who may not have control over the
communication situation.
To maintain control over the communication the sender should choose an
appropriate way of obtaining feedback. For instance, if you want immediate
feedback then face-to-face communication is useful, but if the feedback is not
required then written document is good enough.
Feedback is not always easy to get. When there is a need for feedback then you may
have to draw the feedback by asking specific questions pertaining to the message.
One important factor to remember in getting feedback is to be a good listener.
Concentration is required when feedback is being received.
In business situation feedback plays an important role, because it from the
feedbacks that openness and improvement comes. It helps build congeniality in the
business environment.
>eT Activity E:
Consider that as a Manager of a Sales Division you are conducting a meeting with your
sales personnel regarding the ways to improve the sales of the company.
a) How would you encourage feedback from you sales personnel?
Process of Communication
b) What precautions would you take to minimize interferences?
**"^s
"t
2.8 SUMMARY
Communication process can be described form different perspective, such as imparting, sharing,
or assumption. When the emphasisis on imparting information then the Transmission model is
used; when sharing of information is the emphasis then the ReciprpcaTrnodeUs used; and when
the emphasis is on the shared assumption then the HighEghtingAssumption model is used.
Process of communication has five chains of events -the sender has anjdea; idea becomes a
message; message is jransmitted; receiver gets the message; and receiver responds and sends
feedback to the sender. In each of these chains of events there is a possibility of noise^i.e.
disturbancesof interferences, which could hinder the message being received as intended. These
interferences or barriers in communication could be due to factors such as developing the
message, transmitting message, understanding message, or even receiving the message. Business
communication has its own special problems due to the complexity of the business environment.
To build effectiveness of communication care should be taken in developing the message, using
appropriate medium, giving consideration to the receiver, and the environment in which the
delivery of the message takes place. There are various approaches to effective communication
such as the Important Cs, PRIDE Model, and the ten Commandments of Communication.
Guidelines to improve communication have been listed for effective communication.
45
Business Communication
3.1 INTRODUCTION
It has often been said that the business of business is to make profits. However, behind making
profits, there lies a more fundamental function of business that is vital for the business of
business. That fundamental function of business is communication. Imagine if there was no
communication in a business organization; would there be any function at all? Therefore, it
would not be out of place to state that to accomplish the business of business communication is
essential. Communication is the very essence of business.
Communication is very closely associated with human behaviour. Understanding of human
behaviour enables us to apply its principles to communication psychology. Psychologists study
individual behaviour; sociologists study group behaviour; and anthropologists study cultural
behaviour. These studies have provided us with theories that are useful in understanding human
behaviour.
Despite the fact that so much studies have been done in the field of human behaviour - i.e. how
and why most people behave the way they do - there are always exceptions. We can never have a
complete knowledge of human behaviour, and this lack of understanding gives rise to mishaps in
communication. Consequently, much time is lost in rectifying these mishaps in communication.
Hence, it is imperative that we understand what communication is made-up of and develop skill
for them.
Behaviour - what we do and say - tells us much about ourselves. Remember, all behaviour is
communicative; and communication is the index of our behaviour. Therefore, developing the
communication skills imply transforming our behavioural pattern. This transformation is not an
easy task, but a conscious and a deliberate act.
3.2 PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION PSYCHOLOGY
By communication psychology we mean the study of human behaviour that affects the
communication process, as well as communication that affects human behaviour. According to
Abraham Maslow, a famous psychologist, most people will respond positively to messages that
will meet their particular needs at particular times. In other words, our needs determine our
reaction to the message. To be a successful communicator, you should be able determine the
needs of the people to whom you are communicating. Furthermore, you should also be able to
discern the affects of your communication, through your body and language, on the audience.
The principles of communication psychology are as follows: • Needs
determine behaviour in the communication process.
Unit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimensions of Business Communication
• Body language determines behavioural
pattern. » Verbal language determine
behavioural pattern.
1. Needs Determine Behaviour :
Here m Ml mate use ofMaslow'sHiorarcliyofNoeuS to uiutoand to? infiuence of
needs on the communication process. According to Maslow there are five sets of needs:
72. Physiological needs
73. Security
74. Social/Affiliation
75. Esteem j^b
76. Self-actualisatiott
Basic physical needs
Need to be sate
Need to belong,.
Need to be somebody
Need to help others and to be creative
All these needs influence human behaviour in the process of communication.
86. Basic Physical Needs: Consider that you are attending a business seminar, which
begins at 8 am. You are thereafter having had a good breakfast, and you are
comfortable and attentively listening to the speaker. Come 12 noon and your
behaviour
begins to change. You are beginning to feel hungry and are restless, and
beginning to
loose concentration. Your physical need has impacted your behaviour and the
message
is meaningless.
87. The Need to be Safe: While attending the seminar you receive a message from
one
of your relatives that your father, who is living in another city, has suddenly taken
ill.
Such news shatters your sense of safety and security, and you are disturbed. You
can
no longer pay attention to what the speaker is saying. There could be many other
reasons that could affect your sense of security and alter your behaviour. This
altered
behaviour could influence reception of communication adversely.
88. The Need to Belong: We communicate freely with family and friends, who
provide
us with a sense of belongingness. Even at workplace we need to belong to a group
to
communicate without being inhibited. Opposed to the idea of belonging is
alienation.
This is one of the most dreadful experiences that anyone could have. To be
alienated
means to be ex-communicated. During the medieval age Christianity used
excommunication as an instrument of punishment. Any person who was
excommunicated was cut-off the entire society, to the extent that he would not
even
be given water when thirsty. To be a member of a society means to be an integral
part
1
Business Communication
The Need to be "Somebody": Another important need of human beings is to be
recognized or respected. We can be somebodv orovided others recognize us as somebody.
Often it is the attitude of others u ua i. idicale whether they respect us or not. Have you ever
had your boss call you into his office that makes you feel that you were called in for what
you think would be an important meeting? You think that your boss recognizes you as
someone with whom he could discuss serious matters. Yet while you were with the boss he
pays little attention to what you are saying by allowing interruptions. Soon you begin to get
the feeling that the boss does not recognize you and that makes you feel insignificant, and
perhaps even want to leave. When the need to be "somebody" is not fulfilled the
communication process is interrupted.
e) The Need to help others and to be Creative: At all the above levels we need to help or be
helped to overcome anxieties and fears. As communicator we need to develop sensitivity to
the needs of our audience. This would make two things to happen:
i) Willingness to help people who are still struggling on the lower rung of the ladder, those
still striving to meet the physical, safety and security needs, and
ii) Become more creative, because creative people make a better quality of life for everyone
around.
2. Body-Language Determines Behaviour:
This could also be captioned as non-verbal communication, which has been defined by Bartol &
Martin as "communication by means elements and behaviours that are not coded into words".
This definition suggests that non-verbal mode of communication indicates the behavioural
pattern of the communicators. Cultural and environmental differences contribute to conscious or
unconscious body movements that communicate our true feelings. Most people believe that the
manner in which you say something is more important than what you say with words.
Non-verbal communication often accompanies verbal (oral) communication. However, another
vital feature of non-verbal communication is that most of the time we are communicating
(generally to the people around us) without using words, by the way we walk, sit, dress, etc. In
the process of developing communication skills, it is essential that we also make a conscious
effort to improve our non-verbal communication pattern.
a) Facial Expressions: Aspi Doctor & Rhoda Doctor in their book Principle and Practices of
Business Communication suggest that Charles Darwin believed that
Psychological and Cultural Dimensions of Business Communication facial expressions show emotions, which originated in our evolutionary past. Hence, people from all over the world, even if they speak different languages and belong to
different cultures, use a common pattern of facial expressions to show emotions. Facial expressions, which result from the use of eyes, eyebrows, and lips, are universal in their nature and application. Universal facial expressions are used to show the following emotions: happiness, surprise, fear, sorrow, etc.
In Asian countries like India the eyes have a special role to play in conveying message.
For instance, eyes convey definite meanings in the dance form of Bharatnatyam and Kathakali. When used with verbal communication, facial expressions can enlarge and sometimes even change the verbal message. They can also either encourage or discourage feedback. Non-verbal communication using eye movements is called
^€ "^ ^
b) Gestures; They_are movements of the hands, the head, or the body tojndicate an
idea or afeelmg, Gestures are culturally based. In other words, certain gesture may beacceptable in one culture, while it may be deplored in another culture. For example, laying hand on someone's head in India would indicate giving blessings, while in the Buddhist culture one is not suppose to touch another's head, since it considered sacred. Crossing one's ankles over the knees while sitting is considered rude in Indonesia, Thailand, and Syria. Pointing your index finger toward yourself insults the other person in Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland.
Gestures are indicative of the behavioural patterns that are unique to specific culture. Hence, they should be seen or perceived in the proper manner and context. This calls for developing an awareness of how to interpret gestures.
c) Body Movements and Posture: While gestures pertain to the movements of parts of the body, posture has to do with the manner in which we carry ourselves. Posture is an important element in body language as it often gives a key to the personality of a person as well as tells us about the person. We are very familiar with the references made by cricket commentators to the body language of the players - confidence or diffidence of the team members is obvious in their body language. Body movements and posture appropriate for one person may not be suitable to another. For instance, how do we perceive a man who has the body movements like that of a lady? Posture and movements also convey definite message about one's age or state of health.
"Kinesic" behaviour, which includes all body movements and gestures, mean
different things in different cultures. Sometimes behaviours that are meaningless in
one culture have distinct meanings in another culture.
53
Business Communication
d) Silence: Paradoxical as it may sound, we do communicate with the help of silence.
Sometimes we are so overwhelmed by emotions that we are speechless - our silence
speaks of our strong feelings. There are certainly many occasions when "silence is
more eloquent than words". Come to think of it our speech is always punctuated by
silence. Good communicators are aware of the value of silence.
Silence communicates messages in silence. Along silence could mean one thing, while a
short silence may mean another. Silence conveys meanings that indicate the behaviour of a
person - such as lack of interest, apathy, indifference, etc.
Writer Joseph DeVito mentions the following functions of silence:
i) To allow the speaker time to think
i) To isolate one's self
iii) To hurt someone
iv) To prevent further communication
v) To communicate emotional responses
vi) To say nothing
In business communication too, silence is often made use of.
e) Space and Proximity: Each one of us a sense of personal space around us that is
guarded against intruders. We also try not to intrude on the personal space of others.
Space and proximity play an important part in the communication process. The
influence that space and proximity have on communication is known as "proxemics".
For instance, whenweenter the office of a senior exgcutivewe keepa certain distance.
The more senior the executive, the more the distance or proximityweTnamlaiiL
Table 3.1: Proxemic Categories
Space Category Typical US Proxemics
Public Space > 12 feet
Social Space 4 to 12 feet
Personal Space 1.5 to 4 feet
Intimate Space < 1.5 feet
Unit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimensions of Business Communication
i) Intimate Space or Zone is what we could identify as that space where all our body
movements occur. This is the zone that belongs to each one of us and in
which we move throughout the day. Business associates do not enter this space
frequently, but only to shake hands or to pat someone on the back.
ii) Personal Space or Zone extends from 18 inches to about 4 feet, in which conversation
with close friends takes place. This is the space where normal
talking is frequent. Some business interactions take place in this zone, such as business
lunches.
iii) Social Space or Zone extends from 4 feet to about 12 feet. This is an important
zone for business, because rrtost business exchanges 6CCU11 in thi§ z6ne, §Ucn a§
informal business conferences and staff meetings
iv) Public Space or Zone extends from 12 feet and beyond. This is the most formal zone, and
the least significant interactions occur here. Because of the great
distance, communication in the public zone is often one way - from the speaker to the
audience.
We can also draw some generalizations about intercultural Proxemics. hi general, most
people from Latin America, Middle Eastern, and southern European countries are
comfortable with less distance between the individuals than most people from the
United States. Similarly, people from many Asian cultures prefer more distance
between them than do most people from the United States. This explains why you may
take a step away from or toward a person you are working with from another culture.
f) Dress & Grooming: The manner and style of dressing alsoplaysjin importantrole^ in non-
verbal communication. Every morning when we as£ourselves "What should I wear today?"
we mean, "What do I want the people around me to know about me?" Dress and grooming
informs the people about us. We wish to make a good impression upon the people, because
people judge you by the way you dress - the colour of your dress, how well it is unwrinkled,
the looks of your shoes, etc. Your appearance is also judged by the tidiness of your hair,
body odour, etc.
In many developing countries, workers, whether in offices or industries, are provided with
facilities whereby they will always look fresh and clean. In these countries you may not get
a job if you don't dress well or appear clean, or smell good. Dress code and grooming has
become an important element of corporate culture.
Business Communication
g) Colour: Colour plays such an important role in our lives that, as far as English is concerned;
colour symbolism has become a part of the language. Thus, in English we use phrases such
as "green with envy", "pink of health", feeling "blue", etc. Business world also makes use of
the colour-language - "in the red" refers to a company going in a loss, or "in the black"
when it does well.
Colours are used to convey messages, not only at the individual level, but also at the level of
community and nation. For example, Hindu clergy wear saffron, Christian mourners wear black;
and each country has its own flag with distinct colours, so do many army regiments, schools, and
colleges.
Besides all these use of colours, they also have significant psychological effect. Fro instance,
likllt WlOWD bflY9 SWilling SffWt fln psopl^ whits wlm miffi w$ ftvfc wtows depress,
When a classroom in US was painted red it was found that misbehaviour among students had
increased.
Colours not only inform us about people but also affect the behaviour of human beings. Henry
Dreyfuss, after considerable research, offers the following table to show the positive and
negative messages of certain colours.
Table 3.2
Colour Positive Message Negative Message
Warmth Death
Passion War
Red ^--~-~ Life Revolution
Liberty Patriotism
Devil Danger
Blue Religious Feeling Devotion
Doubt Discouragement
Truth
Justice
Intuition Cowardice
Yellow Wisdom Malevolence
Divinity Impure Love
Unit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimensions of Business Communication Green
Nature Hope Freshness Prosperity^ ,
Envy Jealousy Opposition Disgrace
Purple 5& Power
Royalty Love of Truth Nostalgia
Mourning
Regret Penitence Resignation
Source: Aspi Doctor & Rhoda Doctor, 'Principles and Practices of Business
Communication'. Mumbai: Sheth Publishers Pvt.Ltd., pg 41
3. Language Affects Behaviour:
The words we use can make us behave in different ways. To communicate successfully,
we must remember that words are only symbols, to which people add meaning. Two
people may interpret the same word differently. Here is an anecdote that illustrates the
affect of language on our behaviour.
Once when the Master [enlightened person] spoke of the hypnotic power of words, someone
from the back of the room shouted: "You are talking nonsense! If I say God, God, God will that
make me divine? And if I say Sin, Sin, Sin will it make me evil?
"Sit down, you stupid idiot!" shouted the Master.
The man became so livid with rage that it took some time to recover his speech. Then he
screamed a torrent of abuse at the Master.
The Master, looking contrite, said, "Pardon me, sir, I was carried away. I truly apologize for
my unpardonable lapse."
The man calmed down immediately.
"Well, there you have your answer: all it took was a word to give you a fit and another to
sedate you," said the Master.
Source: Anthony De Mello, One-Minute Nonsense
Business Communication
Activity A :
What proxemics would you allow yourself in the following situations? i)
Talking to your boss _
ii) Talking to your colleague.
in) Making a speech
iv) Speaking to your spouse_
b) Identify the types of needs the following situations depict:
i) Your boss is unhappy with your performance
ii) Isolated from grapevine group
iii) Your boss invites you to share your inputs_
iv) You are called upon to assist your fellow-worker.
3.3 COMMUNICTING ACROSS CULTURES
Compared to the last two decades a very large number of young Indian executives and
professionals now routinely communicate with people from other cultures, especially
American and European. Here we shall take a look at some aspects in which cultural
values that shape our lives are fundamentally different from the Western ones.
Understanding the differences between our cultural values and those of the West will
help us communicate better with the Westerners.
1. What is "Culture"?
Culture is our understanding of acceptable actions and beliefs. Each of us grows up in a
culture that provides pattern of acceptable beKaviour and belief Tit is the background
over against which all our actions and beliefs become meaningful. We are not aware of
this background most of the times - like the glasses that we wear through which we see,
but are not aware that we are seeing through the glasses. However, not until we come in
contact with someone different from our culture that we become aware of our cultural
background.
Culture can_bej>een asthe way_weJjy^Jlie_clQthgswe wear, and the thoughts we think.
It is the collection of values that sustain and direct or lives. The influence of culture on
communication is so strong that anthropologist Edward Hall says," culture is
communication
Unit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimensions of Business Communication
and communication is culture". Differences in cultural values and perceptions can be an invisible
source of great misunderstanding between people of different regions.
Until a few years ago, before the globalisation of the Indian economy, and before information
technology exploded on the Indian scene, it was just a small minority of middle and senior
managers and senior bureaucrats who needed to communicate across cultures. Their age,
experience) and exposure to the world in general perhaps protested them from serious
communication problems stemming from inter-cultural differences. But today even young
executives, fresh from colleges, have to interact with people from different cultures.
Not all of them may go abroad, but most of them would have to communicate with foreigners
through e-mail or phone. Attempting to communicate across cultures without adequate
preparation may lead them into serious problems.
2. The East versus the West:
Anyone who wants to deal with people from a particular country should prepare themselves by
studying its culture and history, so that they can avoid at least the more serious problems of
communication that result from cultural differences.
We shall consider some fundamental Indian values and compare them with the Western ones,
primarily because we have to communicate with them whether we like it or not. They control the
world trade; they control money matters; they control science and technology. They set the rules
for the world and we have to play by their rules.
There is another reason why we should take Western culture seriously. Western values and
practices are being adopted all over the world. The rest of the world is exposed to them through
electronic media that is totally dominated by the West, and through their multinational
companies.
We should, however, remember that the West is not one whole culture with uniform values.
There are many countries, cultures, languages, and peoples that makeup what we call as the West.
There are differences, yet there are similarities that bind them into together. For instance,
America and Europe are Westerners yet they are different in many ways.
Hence, it is important that we make proper distinction and avoid over generalisations and
simplifications.
Business Communication
a) Heart versus Mind
We Indians are driven more by our heart than our mind. Like everyone else, we
have rules and regulations, but we tend to succumb to the demands of the present.
Take the instance of traffic lights at a crossing. We will break the traffic rules if we
have to in order to meet our appointment, or for that matter, we do not need a reason
for violating any rules, if we can.
We have long-term plans, but those plans could easily change if we encounter any
hurdle. The here and now is important for us, for which we are more than willing to
change our plans or break the rules.
M.M. Monippally, in his book Business Communication Strategies, puts it aptly:
"We sacrifice the future at the altar of the present". We are capable of taking
decisions without much planning. This might sound ridiculous, but a cursory glance
around us will indicate that we take so many decisions without planning.
For example, the manner in which our cities are built - no proper plans for housing,
roads, utilities, etc. Our actions are without plans; they are based on ad-hoc
decisions.
Westerners are fundamentally different in their approach to planning. They sacrifice
the present for the sake of the future, which they create with thorough planning.
The future drives them says Monippally. They are less flexible towards the demands
of the present situation. They invest heavily in planning the future and are confident
that they will pull through the present situation, if any.
b) Particularists versus Universalists
Fons Trompenaars, in his book, Riding the Waves of Culture, calls the Westerners as
"Universalists". Universalism believes that what is good and right can be defined
and can be applied always everywhere. For example, rules and regulations must be
obeyed. Westerners like to change rules rather than bend them to accommodate
individual cases. We Indians are quite capable of bending rules to accommodate
individuals who happen to be influential. The Westerners believe that what is good
for all is applicable to everyone; if something is not good for one then change it and
make it applicable for all. Indians believe that what is good for one need not be
applicable for all.
However, Westerners, driven by universalism, go to the extent that what is good for
them is also good for the rest of the world. They try to impose their logic, their
values
Unit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimensions of Business Communication
and their system on the rest of the world. They write down in detail the standard
operating procedure for manufacturing a product or rendering a service. Then they
in^ tot to pratafi be followod in all mums. 5o whosoever manufacture the
product or renders the service in whatever country or under whatever conditions, the
quality is the same. Our approach is more informal. We do not follow the procedures
as long as the work is accomplished, T^js h^ gy^g gfljjfl Qn [^ pjjty jjf
workmanship.
Westerners are also known for their meticulous nature in gathering data and using
statiEtiCB eitensively to tow mmml j^W anJ L, enables Lm to U Ae
rest of the world. They do not depend upon the intuition of the people, but rely on
the sciences and the power of statistics to draw their inferences and conclusions.
Monippally has put it very aptly: "Their predictions are based on analysis of the well
documented past and the well-studied present".
These fundamental differences in perspectives can cause serious problems when we
communicate with the Westerners. Here are some tips Fons Trompenaars gives
particularists on how to deal with the universalists.
i) Be prepared for 'rational', professional arguments.
ii) Do not take 'get down to business' attitude as rude.
iii) Carefully prepare legal ground with a lawyer if in doubt.
iv) Strive for consistency and uniform procedures.
v) Institute formal and public ways of changing the way business is conducted.
vi) Seek fairness by treating all like cases in the same way.
c) Specific versus Diffused Relationship
Another noticeable feature of the Western culture is the compartmentalisation of
relationships between people. A colleague is a colleague, nothing more and nothing
less. Someone does not become the member of one's circle of friends just because
they work together. Similarly, a neighbour is only a neighbour, even if two people
live side by side for a long time. Such relations are kept separate. Work and personal
lives are distinctly separated. Privacy is tightly guarded and highly prized.
In contrast, our relationship with people tends to be diffused. For instance, in a work
situation a colleague can make demands on us that are not work-related. We may be
expected to do things for our boss that is not related to the work in the office.
Refusing
Business Communication
to do such favours could have bad repercussions. We do not separate our relations tightly.
Moreover, when requests are turned down we tend to take it seriously, which affects our
relations.
Making requests for us is not easy, because the person we request might say 'yes' when he
really means 'no'. We are not straightforward in our approach to requests. Westerners will
not hesitate to say 'no', if they do not want to comply with your request. Here is an anecdote
that Monippally narrates from Trainload of Jokes and Anecdotes, edited by K. R.
Vaidyanathan.
In a train, a personable young man asked the prosperous middle-aged man sitting
opposite him: "Excuse me, sir, can you tell me the time please?"
"No! " barked the other man. "B-
but..."
"No buts! I've got my reasons. You 're a nice young fellow. If I tell you the time, we
'II start up a conversation. Then we 'II get off at the same station; you 'II offer me a
drink. I'll invite you to my place for dinner and you 'II meet my daughter."
She's a charming girl," continued the middle-aged man, "and you 'II be pleasant to
her. Next thing you know, you 'II be asking my permission to marry her. You don't
expect me to consent to my daughter marrying a man who doesn 't even have a
watch, do you?"
d) Nepotism versus Meritocracy
In the West nepotism is remarkably low compared to India. Here even the private sector,
leave alone the government and public sector, is not entirely free from employing the
relations of top managers. The merit for employment is kinship, not competence. And
kinship can encompass not only blood relations, but also people from the same village. The
Western way of separating work from life helps companies hire people who, in their
judgement, will perform the tasks best. Without such compartmentalise relationships
between and life, meritocracy would not have taken such strong roots in the US.
e) Hire-and-Fire Policy
In the West hire-and-fire policy is widely practiced. This practice is also derived from their
ability to compartmentalise relationships. A person is hired on the basis of how much he/she
can allow the system to extract the work out of them. Just as an
Unit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimensions of Business Communication
object is selected to perform a function in a machine, so also a person is selected, not only on
the basis of ability, but also on the basis of the willingness to be used by the system so that
the system can function. When the person cannot be functional within a system, then the
person is discarded from the system.
In contrast the Indian approach to employment is different. Many employees are kept in their
job not because the employer needs them but because they need the job for their livelihood.
The best example is the government and public sector, where the objectives are not economic
in nature but social. In India everyone perceives as harsh and heartless firing a person when
his services are no longer needed or when the person is unable to perform. In fact, the public
sector undertaking goes so far as to offer a job to a dependent in case of the demise of the
earning member.
This is done on the grounds of compassion and not the basis of merit. An Indian employer
does not hire just certain technical or professional skills relevant to the firm's requirement,
but the whole person. This makes it difficult for the employer to assess the performance of
the employee without considering the person as a whole. For instance, if a person is not
efficient in his/her work but has a good nature that appeals to his/her boss then the person is
retained at work.
f) Individualism
This is another characteristic of the Western society, particularly the American, in which
everyone is for one's self. Everyone in the US is expected to take care of himself/herself.
Aperson's self-interest is dominant as long as one takes care of one's
self.
Here is an interesting way in which Jacob Braude answers the question "What is
Americanism?" in his book Braude's Treasury of Wit and Humour.
"If you want your father to take care of you, that is paternalism. If you want your mother to
take care of you, that is maternalism. If you want Uncle Sam to take care of you, that is
Socialism. But if you want to take care of yourself, that is Americanism".
[Quoted by M. M. Monippally in Business Communication Strategies]
An average Westerner is more serf-reliant and capable of taking independent decision then
most Indian counterpart. Independence is a very strong value that is inculcated in Westerners
from their childhood. Most young men and women leave their homes when they turn
eighteen and earn their own livelihood. They make their own decisions for every facet of
their life.
64
Business Communication
In contrast, we are brought up in a group/family that comprises, not only of father, mother,
brothers, and sisters, but also of aunts and uncles, cousins, and elders, in the family or
outside the family. We are not encouraged to be independent, but rely most of the times
upon the elders to make decisions for us. To compensate this limitation on independence the
family, or the extended family offers the individual a wide safety zone. An individual can
always return to this zone of safety for support in case of misfortune.
This has its bearing on work-situation. The importance given in the West to individualism
and assumption of responsibility for one's actions, there is generally less consultation and
quicker decision-making. Consensus on a decision is not very important. If there is no
consensus then the majority decision is accepted by all.
In India, when there is a difference of opinion, then serious and sustained efforts are made to
arrive at a consensus. When there is no consensus there is a possibility to defer decision
taken. People in authority try to get the support of others concerned for decision-making. At
times meetings are convened merely to make it appear that decision-making is collective.
g) Notion of Time
Time is yet another fundamental aspect of life, in which different cultures have different
perceptions. Punctuality is a fundamental value for most Westerners. The importance of
time in industrial society has its roots in the affects of Industrial Revolution of the 19th
century.
Alvin Toffler points out in his book The Third Wave, that with the advent of industrialisation
many social institutions came into existence. One such institution that came into prominence
was educational institution. In it there were two types of curricula - one that was overt and
other the covert.
The overt curriculum had subject such as history, geography, mathematics, etc. While the
covert curriculum, which was geared to preparing people from rural areas for factory jobs,
consisted of obedience and punctuality.
In the West time is treated as being linear- i.e. it flows only in forward direction. For the
Westerners time is money, and hence one must make the most of the time available. They
allocate time for each activity and stick to their schedule. Their diaries run their lives. They
do not like to alter their plans once they are made.
Unit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimensions of Business Communication
In the US you just cannot decide to go and visit you friend or son or daughter without
phoning them and finding if it is convenient to visit them.
For us, in India, time is not a linear, but cyclic in nature. Hence, it is not a limited resource.
Monippally opines: "Perhaps the idea of the cycle of rebirth, lodged deeply in our collective
psyche, takes urgency out of our concept of time".
Westerners have just this life to achieve whatever they want to, therefore, they must work
hard and fast.
The Indians have many lives; hence, they have no need to be in hurry.
We do not take schedule or appointments too seriously. People with more important issues
are also accommodated in a schedule without appointment. Or we may readily cancel earlier
appointments if more important issues or people come up.
Perhaps nothing illustrates our casual attitude to time and to planning than committee
meetings. Often meetings are called without notice, without giving the attendees the agenda.
Even when the attendees get the agenda with the staring time clearly mentioned, meetings
rarely start on time.
When dealing with Westerners we have to take schedules and appointments seriously. They
generally mean what they say. Arriving late causes resentment; arriving early causes
embarrassment.
It is unwise to assume that the Westerners take time the way we do.
a ju£
h) Social Ladder ^\ "^^
Our values differ from those of the West in the way we put people on the social ladder. In
India one's status depends, to a large extent, on the caste and the family one has been born
into, the position one holds currently or has held, the educational qualification one has
acquired, the connection one has, and of course age.
Hierarchy is very important in our families and organisations. Money power is recognized,
accepted, and feared but not admired.
Unless a family has been traditionally wealthy, there is a general belief that the present
prosperity might be ill gotten. Society may envy the new rich but show little respect to
them.
Business Communication
The West also has hierarchies. There is a special respect to people belonging to illustrious
families. It recognizes educational achievements, the position one holds, and of course, the
connection one has. It, however, gives greater importance to what an individual has achieved in
the recent past, which is this true of the American society.
However, the French society values class more than cash.
Within organisations the hierarchy is somewhat flat in most of the Western countries.
American companies tend to have the flattest hierarchies, while Indian companies the hierarchies
are very steep. Employees, in India, at the lower end may not have access to the top management,
which is especially true of government and semi-government organisations.
The cultural differences between the West and the East are many, and it is very easy for people
who interact cross-culturally to fall into traps that would result in misunderstandings. Deliberate
effort should be made to acquaint us with cultures of different countries that would enables
communicating across cultures effectively.
>eT Activity B;
Locate someone, preferably a businessperson, who has spent some time in another country, and
interview him or her about the experience.
a) What preparation did the person have before going to the country?
b) In what ways was the preparation adequate or inadequate?
Unit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimensions of Business Communication
c) In retrospect how would he or she have prepared differently?
d) Ask for an anecdote about particular communication problems or mistakes.
3.4 CATEGORISING CULTURES
All people acquire meaning from both verbal and nonverbal messages, but some people
in some cultures rely more on verbal communication than nonverbal communication. In
contrast, people in other cultures rely more on nonverbal communication than on verbal
communication.
dward Hall believed that cultures vary in the reliance people place on nonverbal signals
or on verbal signals. He defined these extremes a "low-context culture" and "high-
context culture". These categories, of course, describe broadculturarcha^teristics,
noTnecessarily nl^flual behaviours.
• Low-context Cu/targ^-refers to the dependency of the people on direct verbal
messages to communicate. These people prefer explicitly stated information.
Directness is considered desirable.
• High-context Culture refers to the dependency of the people on indirect nonverbal
^messages to communicate. Directness is often considered rudeT —
In low-context cultures, most transmitted information is contained in the message itself.
On the other hand, in high-context cultures, the interpretation is primarily determined by
the communicator's nonverbal signals, which implies shared social and cultural
knowledge of the context.
Business Communication
This distinction has important implication for communication in organisations. Communication
in low-context cultures is more cumbersome, while communication in high-context cultures is
rich in meaning.
Table 3.3
Views of Communication in High-Context and Low-Context Cultures
High-Context Culture (Examples: Japan, United
Arab Emirates)
Low-Context Culture (Examples: Germany, Canada, United States)
Preferred communication strategy
Indirectness, politeness, ambiguity
Directness, confrontation, clarity
Reliance on words to communicate
Low High
Reliance on nonverbal signs to communicate
High Low
Importance of words Low High
Agreement made in writing Not binding Binding
Agreement made orally Binding Not binding
Attention to detail Low High
Source: David A. Victor, ' International Business Communication'.
Table 3.4 indicates the various motivational factors and how they are perceived in different
cultures.
These motivational factors fall under the nonverbal communication. On the other hand, oral
communication requires cultural understanding.
As Table 3.5 shows, the purpose of and the information exchanged in business introductions
differs across cultures.
Unit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimensions of Business Communication
Table 3.4 Cultural Contrasts in
Motivation
United States Japan Arab Countries
Emotional Appeal
Opportunity Group Participation; Company success
Religion; Nationalism; Admiration
Recognition based on
Individual Achievement
Group Achievement
Individual Status; Status of class/society
Material Rewards
Salary, Bonus, Profit sharing
Annual Bonus; Social Service, Fringe Benefits
Gifts for self/family; Salary
Threats Loss of job Loss of Group Membership
Demotion; Loss of Reputation
Values Competition, Risk taking, Freedom
Group harmony; Belonging
Reputation; Family security; Religion
Source: Farid Elashmawi & Philip R. Harris, Multicultural Management 2000:
Essential Cultural Insights for Global Business Success.
Table 3.5 Cultural Contrasts in Business
Introductions
United States Japan Arab Countries
Purpose of Introduction
Establish status and job identity; Network
Establish position in group, build harmony
Establish personal rapport
Image of individual
Independent Member of group Part of rich culture
Information Related to business
Related to company
Personal
Use of language Informal, friendly; use first name
Little talking Formal; Expression of admiration
Values Openness, directness, action
Harmony; respect, listening
Religious harmony, hospitality, emotional support
Source: Farid Elashmawi & Philip R. Harris, Insights for Global Business Success.
Multicultural Management 2000: Essential Cultural
fid
Business Communication
Table 3.6 Cultural Contrasts in Written
Persuasive Documents
United States Japan Arab Countries
Opening Request action or get reader's attention
Offer thanks; apologize
Offer personal greetings
Way to persuade Immediate gain or loss of opportunity
Waiting Personal connection; future opportunity
Style Short sentences Modesty; minimize own standing
Elaborate expressions; many signatures
Closing Specific request Desire to maintain harmony
Future relationship; personal greetings
Values Efficiency; directness; action
Politeness, indirectness, relationship
Status; continuation
Source: Farid Elashmawi & Philip R. Harris, Multicultural Management 2000:
Essential Cultural Insights for Global Business Success.
In the process of communicating through writing to international audiences, use titles, not first
names as the Americans do. For most cultures, buffer negative messages and make requests
more indirect. Table 3.6 suggests that you need to modify style, structure, and strategy when you
write to international audiences. Make a special effort to avoid phrases that could be seen as
arrogant or uncaring. Cultural mistakes made orally float away on the air; those made in writing
are permanently recorded.
J&X Activity C:
Considering Table 3.4 how would you describe Indians with respect to the:
i) Emotional appeal
ii) Recognition based on
iii) Material rewards
iv) Threats
v) Values
Unit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimensions of Business Communication
3.5 TIPS FOR COMMUNICATION WITH PEOPLE FROM OTHER
CULTURES
You may never completely overcome linguistic and cultural barriers or totally erase ethnocentric
tendencies, but you can communicate effectively with people from other cultures if you work at
it. Here are some tips for handling intercultural business communication more effectively. These
tips have been taken from J. V. Thill & C.L. Bovee, Excellence in Business Communication.
1. Learning about a Culture:
The best way to prepare yourself to do business with people from another culture is to study their
culture in advance. If you plan to do business there repeatedly, learn the language. Even if you
transact business in English, you show respect by making effort to learn the local language.
Concentrate on learning something about their history, religion, politics, and customs, but don't
ignore the practical side of life. Seasoned business travellers suggest the following:
81. In Spain, let a handshake last for five or seven strokes; pulling away too soon may be
interpreted as a sign of rejection. In France, however, the handshake is a single
stroke.
82. Never give a gift of liquor in Arab countries.
83. In England, never stick pens or other objects in your front suit pocket; doing so is
considered awkward or clumsy.
84. Allow plenty of time to get to know the people you're dealing with in Africa. They are
suspicious of people who are in a hurry. If you concentrate solely on the task at hand,
African will distrust you and avoid doing business with you.
85. In Arab countries, never turn down food or drink; it is an insult to refuse hospitality of
any kind. But don't be too quick to accept, either. Aritual refusal ["I don't want to put
you to any trouble" or "I don't want to be a bother"] is expected before you finally
accept.
86. Stress the longevity [age, span of life] of your company when dealing with the Germans,
Dutch, and Swiss. If your company has been around for a while, the founding date
should be printed on your business cards.
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2. Handling Written Communication:
Intercultural business writing falls into the same general categories as other forms of business
writing.
Unless you are personally fluent in the language of the intended readers, you should write your
letters in English or have them translated by a professional translator.
If you and your reader speak different languages, be especially concerned with achieving clarity:
Some tips for handling written communication:
89. Use short, precise words that say what they mean.
90. Rely on specific terms to explain your points. Avoid abstractions altogether, or illustrate
them with concrete examples.
91. Stay away from slang, jargon, and buzz words. Such words rarely translate well. So
also avoid idioms and figurative expressions, abbreviations and acronyms. These
may lead to confusion.
92. Construct sentences that are shorter and simpler that those you use when writing to
someone fluent in English.
93. Use short paragraphs. Each paragraph should stick to one point or topic and no
more than eight to ten lines.
94. Help readers follow your train of thought by using transitional devices. Precede related
points with expressions like in addition and first, second, third.
95. Use numbers, visual aids, and pre-printed forms to clarify your message. These devices
are generally understood in most cultures.
3. Handling Oral Communication:
Oral communication with people from other cultures is more difficult to handle than written
communication. Some transactions cannot be handled without face-to-face communication.
When engaging in oral communication, be alert to the possibilities for misunderstanding. Be
conscious of the non-verbal messages that you may be sending or receiving.
Unit 3 Psychological and Cultural Dimensions of Business Communication
To overcome the language and cultural barriers, follow these
suggestions: a)
Keep an open mind. Don't stereotype the other person or react with preconceived ideas. Regard the person as an individual first, not as a representative of another culture.
b)
Be conscious of the other person's customs. Expect him or her to have different values, beliefs, expectations, and mannerisms.
89. Try to be aware of unintentional meanings that may be read into your message. Clarify your true intent by repetition and examples.
90. Listen carefully and patiently. If you do not understand a comment, ask the person to repeat it.
91. Be aware that the other person's body language may mislead you. Gestures and expressions mean different things in different cultures. Rely more on words than on nonverbal communication to interpret the message.
92. Adapt your style to the other person's. If the other person appears to be direct and straightforward, follow suit. If not, adjust your behaviour to match.
93. At the end of the conversation, be sure that you and the other person both agree on what has been said and decided. Clarify what will happen next.
Y
h) If appropriate, follow up by writing a letter or memo summarising the conversation and thanking the person for meeting with you.
3.6 SUMMARY
The two dimensions of communication that this unit presented were the psychological and the cultural. <r~~
The principle^ofcommunication psychology are as follows:
• Needs deterrninebehaviour in the communication process.
-<w • " "
95. Body language determines behavioural pattern.
96. Verbal language determine behavioural pattern.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs that determine human behaviour in the process of communication are. The next principle of communication psychology is the body language,
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which influences the communication process. Body is always used in the process of
communication - such as facial expressions, gestures and posture, personal space, dress
and grooming, and colours. Equally affecting the human psychology is the use of words.
In the cultural aspect of communication we studied the differences in perspectives
between the West and the East. The differences between cultures were observed in the
manner in which business introductions are performed, ways in which documents are
written. Finally tips were given for communicating with people from different cultural
backgrounds.
3.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Q1. "Needs determine the behaviour in communication process". Discuss.
Q2. Explain the various aspects of nonverbal communication.
Q3. Describe at least five areas in which the Westerns differ from the Indians.
Q4. Write explanatory notes on the following:
107. High- and Low-Context Cultures
108. Culture
109. Proxemics
Q5. State whether the following statements are True or False.
i. We can be somebody provided others recognize us as somebody
ii. Non-verbal communication using eye movements is called kinesics..
iii. Creative people make a better quality of life for everyone around.
iv. Facial expressions cannot enlarge the verbal message.
v. Black colour refers to a company that is going in a loss.
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4.1 INTRODUCTION
A Chinese sage said: "Speech is difficult; Silence is impossible". It is only in silence that
listening can take place. So the Chinese sage knew the importance of listening in the process of
communication. Communication can take place when both the communicators will listen to each
other. As one author put it: "Listening is the mother of all speaking". &
There is something special about face-to-face oral communication. It is the most fundamental and
natural mode of human communication. Yet human beings have not mastered the art of
communication enough to become effective communicators.
Just the ability to produce words effortlessly does not make one a good oral communicator.
There is something else that is involved in communication that human beings find it hard to
master-i.e. listening.
Listening actively and attentively is vital to oral communication. Several writers on oral
communication point out that good listeners are perceived as good conversationalists even when
they speak very little. In a conversation both the speaker and the listener have to listen
simultaneously to each other for their communication to be effective. The speaker has to listen
not only to any verbal responses but also to the nonverbal symbols or signs that the listener
displays. Based on them the speaker has to determine from moment to moment what to say and
what nonverbal signs to display with the words. Speakers who don't care to listen to their
listeners might as well talk to the walls. They cannot be good communicators no matter how well
they articulate of how knowledgeable they may be.
On the other hand, the listener's job is just as active as the speaker's. The listener has to process
the speaker's verbal and nonverbal signs and symbols and respond by his/her own verbal and
nonverbal signs and symbols to let the speaker know how his/her message has been
reconstructed. The two - speaker and listener - influence each other and alternate their role
constantly. In other words, the speaker is also a listener; a listener is also a speaker.
Listening and listening intently is a mode of awareness. In The Dance of Change, Peter Singe
says that we have to learn to listen between the words in order to get to the deeper level of
meaning. He goes on to ask: "Have you ever been in the presence of someone who listens closely
to you? It feels discomfiting, like being stared at. People in society are not used to living at the
level of awareness..." [Quoted by M.M. Monippally] Listening intently raises the level of
communication; both the partners take the communication seriously.
Unit 4 Listening
Despite the fact that listening is essential to communication, human beings are not good listeners.
Carl R. Rogers & F.J. Roethlisberger state: "The biggest block to personal communication is
man's inability to listen intelligently, understandingly and skilfully to another person. This
deficiency in the modern world is widespread and appalling". [Quoted by M.M. Monippally] The
world has shrunk; our knowledge has expanded tremendously; but our awareness about listening,
which is of utmost importance for communication, has not developed.
4.2 THE ANATOMY OF POOR LISTENING
1. Why is it that our listening is not as good as it ought to be?
M.M. Monippally gives the following explanation:
"Our brain is capable of processing 500 to 750 words a minute while people only speak 120 to
150 words a minute. The listeners use only a part of their brain to listen; they use their brain's
spare capacity to think of other things that interest them. The result is dissipation of attention,
which leads eventually to poor listening."
We have often experienced that when someone is speaking to us our mind tends to wander away
from the speaker's message. We are listening, and yet we are not listening. We are merely
hearing, but not listening.
2. How does Listening differ from Hearing?
Too often people think that listening and hearing is the same thing, but there is a big difference.
Hearing depends upon the ears, while listening uses the mind and eyes as wejL^ The ear permits
you to hear sounds; the mind enables you to interpret these sounds, to recognise some of them as
words, and to fashion the words into thoughts or ideas. With your mind you are able to determine
that an oral message is important, interpret the message, and react to it.
Stark reality is that as human beings we are poor listeners. Most of us do not really listen; we
just wait to talk! Many a times, we are so preoccupied with our own thoughts, priorities, and
agendas that we do not actually listen to what the other is saying. No one can be forced to listen.
It is a skill over which every individual has complete control and it is influenced totally by
internal motivation.
Listening as a skill tends to be untaught and untrained. Schools teach us reading, writing,
speaking, and other subjects, yet no curriculum focuses on listening. Nor is listening generally
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a part of the training offered in today's organisations. People are expected to listen
effectively, yet they are not being prepared with the necessary skills.
Lee lacocca states :
"I only wish I could find an institution that teaches people how to listen. After all, a good
manager needs to listen at least as much as he needs to talk... real communication goes in
both directions."
Among many reasons for poor listening is the fact that speaking is more valued than
listening. There are professional speakers who speak for a living. We do far more listening
than talking, yet we rarely put much effort to focus on reception of other's messages. When
communication problem occurs, we usually blame everyone else and do not consider that
our listening quality may be poor. We rarely see ourselves as the problem. Everyone else
has communication and listening problems, but not us!
George Eliot says :
"The people of the world are islands shouting at each other across a sea of misunderstanding."
Another problem of poor listening is that it become retaliatory - "we don't listen to them
because they don't listen to us". We punish others by not listening to them. One of the rudest
things we can do to another human being is to tune him or her out.
Listening to other people is a valuable gift that we can extend to them and it conveys
respect, esteem, and a strong sense of their dignity. Failure to listen sends a negative
message of placing low value on other person. Listening is not only a skill of
communication, but it is also a skill of building relationship.
The only choice we have as listeners is to listen or not to listen. Often we choose not to
listen; we merely pretend to listen. So we fail to notice many verbal and nonverbal signs and
symbols displayed by the speaker. We may jump to conclusions.
Thus, our reconstruction of meaning remains incomplete or far from the intended message.
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Unit 4 Listening
^Activity A;
Observe two of your friends in conversation/discussion and list down some of their poor
or inadequate listening qualities:
4.3 CONTRIBUTORS TO POOR LISTENING
There are several factors - linguistic, physical, and psychological - that contribute to poor
listening.
1. Inadequate Language:
Poor listening may result from the listener's weak command over the language and
narrow range of vocabulary.
Certain words that the speaker uses may not make sense to the listener. These words
could either be technical or rare. They could even be words that are common, but used
by a particular community or a group of people in particular sense, and may be used by
speaker without realising that the particular listener may not be able to make of them.
Faced with words that are beyond the range of the listener, he/she may not ask for
clarification because of fear or shyness or because there may not be an opportunity for
clarification.
It may also be that the listener does not ask for clarification because he/she may be
expected to know the words and their meanings. Whatever the reason, it ultimately
results in poor
listening.
It is also possible that the words a speaker uses may give the listener a valid meaning
that is different from what is intended by the speaker.
For instance, an employer may have a gross salary in mind when quoting salary to a job
seeker. The job seeker, on the other hand, may take that figure as net salary, and not be
aware about the various cuts. In such instance the communicators have interpreted the
word "salary" differently, which may later cause misunderstanding.
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While we normally associate listening with spoken words and phrases, we ought to
include nonverbal symbols - listening between words - in the process of listening.
Inadequate familiarity with regional conventions and cultural values also may become a
hindrance for full and active listening.
2. Difficult Physical Conditions:
Poor listening may also be result from the difficult conditions in which one has to listen.
Public places and shop floors of manufacturing units can be so noisy that listening could
become aproblem. Not wanting to embarrass the speakerT3yTepeateBTy^skingTo~be
louder, slower, or clearer, the listener may settle for a meaning that makes sense to him/
her.
This is true especially when the speaker is of a higher status. A listener may not have the
choice of the context in which he has to listen. If one does have a choice to improve the
physical condition and is too lazy to opt for it, then he/she is guilty of being a poor
listener.
3. Non-Serious Listening:
Some listeners allow themselves to be distracted. They do not take listening seriously
enough to devote full attention to it. They may try to combine several activities such as
flipping through a file of letters, signing documents, arranging papers on the desk, and so
on while listening to someone.
The temptation to combine listening with other activities is particularly strong when the
people speak on the phone. They feel that the energy they save by not having to look at
the speaker could be invested in doing other things. This could cause problem in listening
because words on the phone line come with fewer nonverbal symbols that face-to-face
conversation.
It is also not good to indulge in partial listening while one is face-to-face conversation. It
can demoralise the other party, who may feel that he/she is being snubbed.
Children are so sensitive to this kind of listening that they force their parents to turn their
face toward them and look at them when they speak.
Unit 4 Listening
4. Antipathy towards Speaker :
One of the biggest causes of poor listening has little to do with language or physical oondifi<~>"°
It consists of the psychological barriers of the listener. These barriers are treacherous because the
Listener neither see them nor recognizes them as barriers even when seen.
For example, if we dislike a speaker or disapprove of him/her, the message that we reconstruct is
always distorted. This dislike might be for any reason - such as we may not like the appearance of
the speaker, or the speaker's mannerism, or some deep-rooted prejudice that we harbour within us
- and the speaker becomes the victim. Consequently, we close our mind and this becomes a
hindrance to our listening. Or it is possible that we may misinterpret the speaker's nonverbal
signs.
5. Impatience^:
Impatience is born out of overconfidence. Before they hear out the speaker some listeners
Assume that they know what is coming. Sometimes such listeners find the speaker too
sfowTSuch listeners do not wait for the speaker to finish, tend to jump to conclusion, which
annoys the speaker.
Another form of impatience is to plan one's response while pretending to be listening to what the
speaker is saying.
This happens when the listener, guesses too soon what the speaker is going to say, and on that
assumption, concentrates on formulating his/her response.
There is yet another form of impatience that many of us suffer from. Everyone tends to value
their own thoughts and issues more highly than those of others. What we have to say is always
more important than what others have to say.
As a result we are always anxious to talk. We want to demonstrate our knowledge base, correct
the errors and misperceptions of other, and at times, be the centre of conversation or discussion.
Because you may be in command of knowledge and have passion for your expertise, it is
common to want to actively participate in or dominate the discussion.
The desire to contribute often occurs at the expense of others; instead of Listening to them, you
are planning what you are going to say.
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6. Strong Convictions:
Our mind is like a sieve - that utensil that is used to separate husk from the flour. The
grid, which forms the net to separate the husk from the flour, corresponds to our
presuppositions [convictions] that we have received during the process of our growth.
These presuppositions enable us to comprehend whatever we experience or that which
our senses receive. Now if the grid is woven very closely, then very little will pass
through it. If our mind is like that then we are narrow minded.
On the other hand, if the grid is so woven so as to have big openings then more will pass
through it. When our mind is like that then we are gullible - accept everything that
everyone says.
But if there are no openings in the sieve then nothing passes through it. When this is the
state of our mind, we say that there is a mental block.
The trouble is our minds are often closed. We are so sure of certain things that we don't
see the need to reconsider them. Our beliefs and our convictions can act as a shield that
stops new ideas and new proofs from reaching our minds.
This is the very reason why there are so many disharmonies between religions. People
from one religion cannot see the viewpoint of the people of another religion because of
their strong convictions; each party is convinced that their point of view is the right one.
Strong convictions make you deaf and you cannot listen to the other.
Strong convictions will always lead to a monologue during a conversation or discussion.
In the words of Stephen Covey we are reading our "autobiography into other people's
lives". On the other hand, active listening will result in a dialogue.
Careful listening will help us to become aware of the speaker's framework, which will
enable us to understand the message better.
7. Information Overload:
We are deluged with so much information that it is humanly impossible to process it all.
From this volume of information that is available to us it is difficult to determine what is
relevant and what is not.
When we are faced with such immense amount of information our listening becomes
selective and thus, miss out pertinent information. When we are overloaded with
information we tend to be distracted and this hampers our listening ability.
Unit 4 Listening
Jg$ Activity B;
Identify the main contributor for poor listening that is likely in the following situations:
i) Argument between two persons
ii) Someone stating an allegation against you
I) Giving a 5-minute speech on the use of computers in your organisation
iv) Your boss, who does not like you, speaks to you about a new assignment
v) You are listening to a report that you already are aware of
4.4 LISTENING STYLES
1. 'Ineffective' Listening Styles
There are at least four ineffective styles of listening. The ineffective styles of listening are
counterproductive or can be dysfunctional.
The four ineffective listening styles are as follows:
110. The "missing-in-action" listener
111. The "distracted" listener
112. The "selective" listener
113. The "contentious" listener
a) The Missing-in-Action Listener
This is typically a passive or detached listening style. These li steners,
altfaoughphysically present, are clearly mentally or intellectually absent. They may
be preoccupied with personal issues and at times even appear to be in a trance [they
have a blank look]. It is obvious that they are disengaged from what is being said. It
is state in which there is total lack of reception of message, and not lack of
comprehension.
You could become a "missing-in-action" listener if you have little interest in what is
being said to you. It is as though the communication does not exist. It is not the
question of misunderstanding the communication; you just don't hear it. A person
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might go missing in action if they feel unable to understand a complex message. Putting it
differently, if the message is complex it could intimidate the listener and as a way to escape
the listener will shut himself from the communication process.
b) The "Distracted" Listen
This is an active dysfunctional style of listening. It is active dysfunctional because the
listener is actively engaged in his/her more immediate concerns, which makes the
listening ability dysfunctional. You will find them doing two or more things at the same
time. ' " ~ '
They try to appear to be listening while reading, writing, or pursuing some other activity.
Common behaviour of distracted listener is to repeatedly glance at the watch. This indicates
impatience, or boredom, or even sending a nonverbal message to the speaker to stop
speaking. Such listeners usually have very little eye contact with the speaker.
Some people can camouflage their distraction so well that the speaker gets the impression
that he/she is being carefully listened to. They appear to be engaged in the process of
listening by constantly nodding in agreement or using appropriate verbal cues. This is
dishonest inasmuch as it is intentional distortion. Their only goal is to try to bring the
communication to a quick conclusion.
You can become a distracted listener when you are under pressures to meet deadlines or
wrapped up in your own thoughts or emotions.
When you are unwilling or unable to slow down your thought process enough to allow the
introduction of additional information, you are the distracted listener!
c) The "Selective" Listener
In this style of listening the listener listens only that which conforms to previously
determined opinions and positions. These listeners sift through the message to glean
information to support what they already think, hearing only what they want to hear. They
are notlistening to the totalmessage, but selecting only that part of the message that would
validate their own beliefs. They screen out orignbre infonriatiljnlhatdoes not fit their
preconceptions.
Selective listener can be either positively or negatively inclined. For example, if you were
to pay a series of compliments while offering one small criticism, all that would
Unit 4 Listening
be heard would be the criticism. In organisations this type of listening is very common.
Many superiors tend to be selective listeners, who choose to hear only the negative
comments. It is also possible that someone whom you have complimented is so wrapped up
in your compliment that he/she fails to listen further to your subsequent message.
You become a "selective" listener if you do not discipline yourself to listen to someone's
total message. It is an arrogant listening style and should be avoided because a selective
listener dismisses the message of others and confirms only to his/her own self-righteous
position.
d) The "Contentious" Listener
A contentious listener is one who uses a combative or negatively aggressive listening style.
It has been described as "listening with a chip on your shoulder". These listeners are always
on a warpath, and listen only to find points of disagreement. They listen only to reject, not to
actually process the entire message. They are determined to disagree. You may offer five
points out of which four points would be of mutual agreement, but one point of disagreement
is what the "contentious" listener would focus on - that would be the point of contention.
Disregarding any area of agreement, they only wish to focus on areas of disagreement.
You can become the contentious listener when listening with your emotions. Emotions such
as fear, anger, jealousy, resentment, etc., often result in combative listening patterns. This is
subjective, reactionary listening. If you feel threatened in any way by someone's message,
contentious listening is a common response.
2. 'Effective' Listening Styles
Various situations call for different listening skills.
The four types of listening differ not only in purpose but also in the amount of feedback or
interaction they entail.
They are:
114. Content Listening
115. Critical Listening
116. Empathic Listening
117. Active Listening
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All four types of listening can be useful in work-related situations.
Regardless of whether the situation calls for content, critical, empathic, or active
listening skill, it is essential to develop them to be effective listener.
a) Content Listening
The goal is to understand and retain information by the speaker. You may ask
question, but basically, information flows form the speaker to you. Your job is
to identify the key points of the message, so you concentrate and listen for clues
to its structure: preview, transitions, summaries, and enumerated points. In your
mind, you create an outline of the speaker's remarks; afterward, you silently
review what you have learnt. You may take notes, but you do this sparingly so
that you can concentrate on the key points. It does not matter whether you agree
or disagree, approve or disapprove -only that you understand.
b) Critical Listening
The goal is to evaluate the message at several levels: the logic of the argument,
strength of the evidence, and validity of the conclusion; the implication of the
message for you or your organisation; the speaker's intention and motives; and
the omission of any important or relevant points. But absorbing information and
evaluating it at the same time is difficult, therefore, reserve judgement until the
speaker has finished. Critical listening generally involves interaction as you try
to uncover the speaker's point of
view.
c)
Empathic Listening
The goal is to understand the speaker's feelings, needs, and wants in order to help solve a
problem. The function of the message is only to act as the vehicle for gaining insight into
the person's psyche. However, your purpose is not really to "solve" the problem. By
listening, youhelp the individualventthe emotions that are preventing him/her from
dealing dispassionately with the problem. You may be tempted to give
*«^ —• ~ "* ' •»-. n _^__ _-..._ j
advice, but do notdb itTTfynot to judge the rightness or the wrongness of the individual's
feelings. Just let the person talk.
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d) Active Listening fbr
The goal is to appreciate the other person's point of view, whether or not you agree.
This is done in the manner psychiatrist, Carl Rogers, developed the technique to help
people resolve their differences.
Unit 4 Listening
Here is how it works: Before you can reply to another person's comment with your point of view,
you must restate the ideas and feelings behind the comment to the other person's satisfaction. You
go back and forth this way, until each of you understands the other's position.
To put it differently, active listening involves listening to what is said as well as that which is not
said. That which is not said should be made clear to the other person by spelling it out. This
would enable both the communicators to become acquainted with each other's background and
thus message would be clearer. This is so because the words that we use in our communication
are mere indicators of our ideas and feelings. When these indicators are explained the
communication is less prone to misunderstandings.
^ActivitvC;
Picture yourself in five situations - a prayer meeting, an official meeting with a boss on your
appraisal, college principal's talk on Independence Day, a friend narrating an accident he had on
his way to your house, and an interview with your favourite actor.
What would be your listening style per situation?
4.5 DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE LISTENING SKILLS
Your listening efforts are completely under your control. If you are willing to be an effective
listener you can become one. In becoming effective listener one has to make deliberate and
conscious efforts. There has to be a commitment to accomplishing the task of improving
listening skills.
Learning is a process that cannot be accomplished in privacy, but must be carried out in the
presence of people.
Since there is no formal education process for developing listening skills, it must be done with
the help of people around us and with who we are in constant communication.
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Six Communication Realities
a) Effective listening skills can be learned:
Good listeners are made, not born. Some people may have inherently better listening
skills than others, yet everyone can learn to become a more effective listeners.
Because the skills are acquired, the field for developing is open to all. No one has a
listening advantage.
b) To become an effective listener you must be committed to your personal skill
development: * ~ "~~
There has to be willingness to learn. These skills, however, are not easy to learn; if
they were, everyone would have them. You will experience success in direct
proportion to the effort you are willing to invest in the learning process. Increasing
your listening skills must become a personal goal. Do not expect to become a more
effective listener in one giant leap. Listening is a journey of constant improvement.
c) Active listening skills must be practiced:
Increases in your skill level will diminish if they are not constantly practiced.
Repetition is the key. Practice will enable effective listening to become a second
nature to you. The first time you try you will experience only limited success. The
fact is, some of us would easily give up if we do not find success. A limited number
will keep at it until increased level of effectiveness is achieved. Just as professionals
spend endless hours practicing their skills so also it is essential that we invest time
and effort to improve our listening skills.
d) Time is an important tool:
s\
If your emotions are high and you are on the verge of giving up, buy sometime and
allow your emotions to ebb away. Remind time and again that you have to become
an effective listener. Find time and opportunity to develop the skills. Many of your
learning opportunities are within your control. Make time work in your favour.
e) How well you listen to others depends on your internal communication:
Your listening skills evolve around your ability to manage your own internal
communication - what you say to your self when the listening process is on. The
internal dialogue - i.e. listening to instructions you give yourself- has tremendous
influence over your abilities to accurately absorb the messages of others. To be a
good listener, you must have the self-discipline to identify and overcome the
listening
Unit 4 Listening
impediments. The internal conditions you set for yourself
when you encounter a listening opportunity determines
whether you will listen objectively or prejudicially.
f) Some effective listening techniques are more difficult to
implement than others:
The unique nature of individual listening strengths and
weaknesses places, varying degrees of importance and
challenge on active listening skills for different people. You
have to assess your listening abilities and find where your
greatest problem lies and work on that area for improving
your listening skills.
4.6 STEPS TO EFFECTIVE LISTENING SKILLS
>n u.
as til rs
ve
For effective listening skill one has to develop a listening ritual. Rituals are important
part of many of our repetitive behaviours. For instance, we travel routine for going to bed
(changing into sleep attire, brushing our teeth, etc.) or rituals for eating, and so on. It is
important to develop a ritual for listening. Ritualised behaviour is ingrained, habitual
behaviour.
You can develop a ritual for listening by following these five steps:
114. State your intention to listen.
118. Manage the physical environment.
3 . Make an internal commitment to listen.
118. Assume a listening posture.
119. Participate actively in the listening process.
Step 1: State your intention to listen
Making an audible announcement of your willingness and commitment to listen accomplishes
two things.
a) It creates an environment of respect and dignity, and helps your communication
partner realise their message is welcomed. The risk of approaching you is
immediately diminished and the partner is encouraged to be very open in his/her
communication. Simple statement on your part would help ease the tension between
you and your partner, such as:
"Speak for I am all ears !"
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"I am anxious to hear what you have to say."
Your statement of intention to listen also prepares you internally to shift from your
current thoughts and activities into active listening role. You are giving yourself an
internal command, literally instructing your ears, mind, and body to focus on the
incoming message. It helps you in transition form whatever you are doing to the process
of receiving the message. This is the very first step in becoming a committed listener.
Step 2: Manage the physical environment
Managing the physical means cleaning all that is lying on your desk or table that may
cause any kind of distractions. We cannot remove our listening distraction, but we can
surely eliminate the physical distraction around us. This would help in increasing your
awareness, which the physical distraction have the potential to interfere with your
listening effectiveness. The main objective of managing the physical environment is to
help increase your awareness.
Eliminate as many distractions as possible, such as:
119. Hold telephone calls.
120. Reduce as much background noise as possible.
Put down whatever you are doing and focus on the speaker. Clear your desk or
put papers, letters, etc., into closed file folder. Position yourself so that you may
not have the view of distracting activity.
Turn off the computer or reposition the screen away from your immediate line of
vision.
g) Changing your position to one that is more conducive to listening sends a very
powerful signal to your communication partner. It tells him/her that you are
interested in what he/she has to say and are willing to give a quality listening.
It may also be well if you suggest to your communication partner to change the venue
and go to the conference room or some place where both of you would be comfortable
and away from distractions.
Step 3: Make an internal commitment to listen
This is far the most important step in being an effective listener. Unless you make a
commitment to yourself you cannot achieve effectiveness in listening. Here are some
Unit 4 Listening
120. Remove Internal Barriers: This technique primarily addresses the
problem of
preconceived notions, assumptions, and prejudices that may become a hindrance
in
the listening process. Self suggestion to overcome labelling, judgement of people
who may be different from you in background, function, or discipline, etc., will
help
you to separate the message from the messenger.
121. Avoid the assumptions of negative motives: This is very common in a
work
situation where you may not have a very good opinion about a person. This could
become an assumption and question of the very motive, if the person wishes to
communicate with you. This also occurs when you have reasons to believe that
the
other person may disagree with your thought processes and activities. To avoid
assumptions of negative intent, say to yourself: "Even if we disagree, he is doing
what
he thinks is right"; "Their intentions areas valid as mine, even though we
disagree".
There are times when communication becomes contentious or it develops into an
argument. In such situation there is a possibility of emotions taking the better of you
and you are not communicating internally.
At such times stop for a while and get back to yourself and have a moment of
internal communication. This will help you to gather yourself and proceed more
cautiously. No matter how much you and your partner disagree, learn to give enough
latitude to your partner. As a good book says: "A good word turns away anger".
Only in an environment of trust and goodwill can the communication process be
fruitful.
1. Challenge yourself to remember what has been said: Challenging yourself
sharpens your wits. Challenge yourself to listen so intently that you could
accurately
write a detailed summary of the conversation, even at the end of the day. As a
ritual,
put down in writing your perceptions and recollections while they are still fresh in
your mind. This could be of help for the future conversations or taking subsequent
actions and decision-making.
2. Prioritise and process the communication from the messenger's viewpoint:
Any communication process has two viewpoints - one of the speaker's and the other
of the listener's. Each person's viewpoint is important for him/her. As an effective
listener it is essential, not only to understand the other person's viewpoint, but also to
understand its priority.
The Golden Rule suggested here is: "Listen to others as you would want them to
listen to you", hi other words, avoid listening your partner from your viewpoint.
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Business Communication
In the process of communication, try to identify the values that your partner emphasises.
Begin to understand your partner from his/her point of view. This would help in prioritising
other's viewpoint and your ability to listen to other's message would be enhanced. Such
listening is empathetic or partnered listening.
e) Manage your emotions: To be an effective listener you should learn to distance yourself from
impulsive, negative emotional responses. Do not allow yourself to be provoked by other
person's intentional or unintentional messages. If you allow yourself to be provoked and
respond with a negative emotional reaction, you allow them to be victorious. When this
happen you have lost the control over the communication process. Good and effective
communication is when both the partners are equally in control of the communication
process. If your partner is using aggressive method by using _yow-based massages (which
increases negative reaction and reduces listening efforts) do not allow yourself to be swayed
by them, but exercise your internal communication to overcome any negative emotional
reactions.
However, should your communication bring out some negative reactions and emotions, it is
worthwhile to take stock of things after the communication has ended. Often it is the negative
that brings out the positive in us. Let the negative responses be a learning experience for you.
Step 4 : Assume a listening posture
In addition to managing the physical environment, you must also manage your physical readiness
to listen. The visual demonstration of your physical readiness to listen - or the lack of it - has
significant impact on your communication partner. The nonverbal messages that you send via
your body could encourage, inhibit, or perhaps intimidate them.
Body language is just as important a factor in receiving messages as it is in delivering them. You
can alter a person's message and create incomplete, abandoned, or distorted communication by
means of your nonverbal reception.
Body language that conveys readiness to listen includes the following:
126. Establish and maintain appropriate eye contact.
122. Avoid staring at fixed obj ects or off into space.
127. Limit your field of vision.
128. Keep your eyes alert and interested.
129. Lean slightly towards your communication partner.
Unit 4 Listening
124. Maintain an open posture. Avoid crossing arms and legs, slumping your shoulders.
125. Do not present the speaker with anything that would cause distractions.
Furthermore, show your communication partner that you are listening to him/her by
giving verbal affirmations. For instance, you could give your affirmation by words such
as "I see", "Good", "That's interesting", and many others.
Your verbal and nonverbal listening responses can either increase or decrease the self-
esteem and confidence of your communication partner. Any tangible signs of
intimidation, disinterest, or negative judgement on your part would inhibit your
communication partner and it would bring an end to the communication without
completion. You may never know the importance of what they did not say.
I recall an incidence that one of my university professors shared with me.
It so happened that one of the students, from some other department, wanted to talk to
this professor. He, however, being too busy, said that he would talk some other time.
Next that the professor heard was that the same student had committed suicide.
Listening is not a science, but it is art of making one's rife meaningful.
Step 5: Participate actively in listening
The six actions listed below are powerful strategies for participating actively in the
listening
process.
133. Take notes
134. Ask appropriate questions
135. Prevent yourserf from talking
136. Summarise internally
137. Seek and acknowledge areas of agreement
138. Summarise and restate.
a) Taking notes: Be prepared to take down notes of points that you feel are important.
However, always ask the permission and tell them why you want to write down the
main points of their message. Prior to note taking process, ask: "This is important
and I want to be sure that I am listening effectively. Do you mind if I take some
notes?"
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Warning:
If the speaker objects to you taking down notes, then honour his/her wishes.
Do not assume the role of a stenographer and start writing word for word everything that is
said.
Avoid the temptation of playing with the pencil or pen that is used for writing.
b) Ask appropriate questions: Questioning can be a very effective technique for good listening.
It helps you to keep your communication partners focused on their topic, especially if they
should begin to stray away. It also helps in clarifying your perceptions of their message.
Warning:
Exercise extreme caution to make sure that your questions are perceived as positive inquiry
and are not misunderstood or challenge to the speaker's competence or authority.
Increase your listening and decrease miscommunication by prefacing your questions with a
phrase or statement that communicates your desire for clarification, not argument.
There are four types of good-listening questions:
i) Closed-ended questions - intended to evoke one- or two-word response. Usually it is
"Yes" or "No" or a specific point of information.
Examples:
"Did you say you agree or disagree with the conclusion?"
"Were the results seven or twenty-seven parts per million?"
ii) Open-ended questions - are asked to elicit a less structured and discursive response.
Open-ended questions are very effective in helping people to expand their
communication.
Examples:
"How did you handle the situation?"
'Tell me more about..."
"If you could, what would you do differently?"
Unit 4 Listening
C)
iii) Duplicate question - asks for the same information two or more times in different ways. It
helps in verifying and bringing out inconsistencies; and is usually asked at the end of
delivery of information.
Examples:
'Tell me the sequence of events."
"Earlier you outlined the actions you took. What steps did you go through to make that
choice?"
iv) Hypothetical question - asks what would happen in some hypothetical situation. They usually
begin with "What if.. .TThey are used to weigh different possibilities.
Examples:
"What if everything goes exactly as scheduled? What will the positive outcome be?"
"Just suppose we cannot get the support from management that we need. What would we do
in that circumstance?"
Prevent yourself from talking: The temptation to talk is great when others are talking. There
are people who do not give others a chance to talk. They love to hear their own voice that they
are oblivious to other voices. This usually happens in a communication process involving the
senior and the subordinates. The juniors are not often listened to.
I remember having a friend who was far advanced in age and wisdom. He loved to talk, and was
very good conversationalist. However, he had one habit; he would put his index finger on his lips
when someone was speaking. He would thus stop any temptation to speak when others were
talking.
It would be worthwhile if you could use simple techniques to hold yourself from talking when
others are. You may feel that putting fingers on your lips looks silly. (Remember the times when
we were small children and could not control the temptation of talking in the class. The
punishment the teacher would give us was to put our finger on our lips).
As grown ups, we should practice this in communication process, which would indicate to our
partner that we are seriously listening to them.
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d) Summarise internally: This is a quality of a good listener, who is able to construct
an overview of the message that he/she is receiving. It is a difficult task, yet not
impossible. You should be able to grasp the flow of thought of the speaker and
identify the transition from one thought to another.
If the speaker is able to present his message in a logical and cohesive manner then it is easy
to follow the train of thought. As a listener you should be able to identify the main issues of
the delivery and find a logical sequence that will tie them together. Helping yourself to
summarise would keep your listening antenna always focused.
131. Seek and acknowledge areas of agreement: It is important to identify and
acknowledge all areas of commonality, consistency, and agreement between you and
your communication partner. This does not mean that you overlook the points of
disagreement. Take in the total message. Once the delivery is complete, and time for
interaction is allotted, then you could give your response. The response should highlight
the areas of agreement and then seek clarification on the points of disagreement. This
is the mark of a good listener, as well as a mature conversationalist.
132. Summarise and restate: Just as it is vitally important for you to seek a summary
of
your message from people with whom you are communicating, it is equally important
for you to summarise when you are on the receiving end of someone else's message.
When you summarise and restate your perception of the message it does the following:
139. You offer concrete proof of your listening efforts.
140. You prove your willingness to understand the message.
141. You verify the accuracy of your comprehension of the message.
Unit 4 Listening
Table 4.1 Listening
Guideline
Don't
Do
Avoid listening if the subject is complex or difficult.
Devote time and effort to trying to understand what the speaker is saying.
Remain close-minded, denying the relevance or benefit of the speaker's ideas.
Maintain an open-minded attitude, willing to entertain the speaker's point of view.
Be opinionated when arguing (outwardly or inwardly) with the speaker.
Present your differences with the speaker calmly, and look for shared elements in your beliefs.
Avoid eye contact while listening (in some cultures; in other cultures, this would be sign of
respect).
Maintain eye contact with the speaker if appropriate, and assume that the speaker has good
intentions.
Demonstrate a lack of interest in the speaker's subject or become preoccupied with something
else when listening.
Take notes and nod in agreement where appropriate.
Concentrate on the speaker's mannerisms or deli very or even outside noise rather than on the
message.
Be prepared to ask relevant questions at the conclusion of the speaker's talk.
Source: H.R. Ewald & R.E. Burnett, 'Business Communication', NJ: Prentice-Hall International,
Inc., pg 49
£> Activity D;
a) What kind of questions (open ended, closed ended, duplicate, or hypothetical) are most likely
to be asked in the following situations:
L Someone conducting an opinion poll
ii. A travel agent helping a vacationer plan his/her itinerary
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Business Communication
iii. A teacher preparing an essay type exam.
iv. A personal counsellor probing former ; , nat it i si a sensitive area.
b) Imagine you are trying to listen to what an opponent is telling you as he explains why you lost
a match. What guidelines will you follow for listening?
c) How can you participate "actively" in listening to your boss giving you a summary of the
overall plan for the next six months? Write down 5 or 6 points.
4.7 SUMMARY
In this unit the subject of effective listening was explained.
Listening is essential and vital in the process of communication, which is never formally taught
in any institution or organisation.
As a result we have enumerable problems in communications. Most of the misunderstandings
arise out of poor listening skills. The reasons for poor listening skills was explained and the
challenges that it posed to the listeners.
Factors that contribute to poor listening skill was expounded and the ways in which to overcome
these impediments.
Listening is a skill that has to be developed with conscious and deliberate efforts for which some
techniques were mentioned.
Unit 4 Listening
4.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Q 1 . Explain briefly the various contributors to poor listening.
Q2. Discuss the different Ineffective and Effective listening styles.
Q3. Describe the various steps involved in developing effective listening skills.
Q4. Answer the following:
139. Four styles of effective listening
140. Four styles of ineffective listening
141. Five realities of listening
142. Five "Don'ts" and "Dos" of effective listening
Q5 . State whether the following statements are True or False:
a) Listening intently is a mode of awareness.
T --
1. Our preconceptions can aid or listening skill.
2. Distracted listening is active dysfunctional listening.
i ,
141. Don't listen to other the way you would want them to
listen to you.
142. While writing down notes during a communication process
assume the role of a stenographer.
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5.1 INTRODUCTION
Business communication is of two types:
145. one that involves the members within an organisation, and
146. another that involves the organisation and the external agencies.
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We could term me former as intra-organisational communication and the latter as inter-
organisational communication. *
The inter-organisational communication is far more complex than the intra-organisational
communication. Inter-organisational communication involves interaction between the
organisation and its myriad external agencies, upon whom the organisation depends for its
business activities,
Dealing with external agencies such as suppliers, consumers, shareholders, etc., the organisation
has to be extremely careful. The external audience that the organisation does business with
comprises of people, who are not in close proximity. Hence, any business message that is
directed towards this audience has to be carefully planned. Failing to do so would have adverse
affect upon the organisational functions. Fro instance, if the organisation has to create goodwill
with its customers, it must make a favourable impression. To do so, the message that the
organisation wishes to impart to its customers should be well thought-out and planned.
Some of the business communication assignment will be routine; others will require reflection
and research. But regardless of the complexity of the task, same basic process, for preparing both
written and oral messages, will be employed.
The basic process consists of :
147. Planning: Determining what the purpose of the message is, who the reader will
be,
what information you need to give the reader to achieve your purpose, and in what
order to present the information.
148. Composing: Composing the first draft of the message.
149. Revising: Revising for content, style, and correctness.
150. Formatting: Arranging the document in an appropriate format.
151. Proofreading: Reviewing the document to check for content, typographical, and
format errors.
Unit 5 The Writing Process - Planning
In this unit you shall learn about planning the message.
5.2 DEFINING YOUR PURPOSE
The first step in planning a business message is to think about your purpose. This has to
be carefully thought out, or else the message would loose its relevance. The purpose
should be specific enough to serve as a yardstick for judging the success of the message.
1. Why you need a clear purpose :
When an assignment is given to communicate to an audience concerning a particular
topic, the communicator has to decide what to say about it. Unless the communicator is
clear about what he/she has to say, the message will not have the desired affect.
The purpose of the message determines content, organisation, style, tone, and format.
1. To decide whether to proceed. Unnecessary message can backfire, even if the
material is excellent. You can also loose credibility by writing messages that will
have
no impact. So when you are tempted to send a message, pause and ask your self,
"Is
itreally necessary?" "Will it make an impact or difference?" If you suspect that
your
ideas will have little impact, then hold it. Wait until the time is ripe to send your
message, when it will have an effect.
2. To respond to the audience. You need to consider the motive of the audience.
Why will they pay attention to your message? What do they hope to gain? Are
their
expectations compatible with your own? If not, both you and your audience will
fail
to get what you want.
3. To focus the content. Establishing a clear purpose will also help you focus the
message. You should include only the information that is necessary to accomplish
your objective. Eliminate all material that is irrelevant and unnecessary, even
though it
may be interesting. Irrelevant material will divert the attention of the audience
form
the main objective of the message.
4. To establish the channel and medium. Depending on your purpose, you will
choose
a channel [either oral or written] for your message. Corresponding to the channel
you
will also select the medium. Inviting people for your wedding will require of you
to
send them a wedding card, but an oral message will be sufficient to invite your
friends
home for dinner.
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Business Communication
2. Common purposes of business messages.
There are three general purposes common to business communication: information, persuading,
and collaboration with the audience. In addition, every presentation must accomplish a specific
objective. To formulate this objective, ask yourself, "What should my audience do or think after
reviewing this message?" Be as precise as possible in stating your purpose, and identify the
individuals in the audience who should respond. Here are some examples:
Table 5.1 : Purpose of Business Messages
General Purpose Specific Purpose.
To inform "y
_—-
To present last month's sales figures to the Vice President of Marketing.
To persuade To convince the Vice President of Marketing to hire more sales
To collaborate To help the personnel department develop a training
programme for the new members of the sales staff. ^
Source: J.V. Thill & C.L. Bovee, Excellence in ' Business Communication', pg 49
Sometimes you will want to accomplish several related purposes with the same message. In such
a case ask yourself whether they are compatible. Can two or more purposes be accommodated in
the same message? To determine the specific purpose, think of how the ideas or behaviour of the
audience should be affected by the message.
Unit 5 The Writing Process - Planning
A U
D
I
E
N
C
E
P
A
R T
I C I
P A T
I
0
N
HIGH
MEDIUM
LOW
Collaborate
Persuade
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
COMMUNICATOR CONTROL
Fig 5.1 : General Purposes of Business Messages
Source: J.V. Thill & C.L. Bovee, 'Excellence in Business Communication', pg 49 3.
How to test your purpose :
Once you have established your purpose, pause for a moment to consider whether it is
worth pursuing at this time. Ask the following questions:
158. Is the purpose realistic? If your message proposes a radical shift in
action or
attitude, then instead of suggesting the whole idea or programme at once consider
proposing it in stages. View your message at the beginning and assess whether
your
purpose is realistic enough to be informed in one stage or in different stages.
149. Is it the right time? Timing is vital in transmitting the message. An idea
that is
unacceptable when the profits are down may be acceptable when the profits
improve.
If an organisation is undergoing a change, then is would advisable to defer your
message till such a time when things are stabilized and people can concentrate on
your ideas.
150. Is the right person delivering the message? Many a times it happens that
your
boss asks you to gather some information and draft it into a message, but finally it
is
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Business Communication
he who would send the message. This is a better option because he being in position of
authority, the message from him would be well received.
In the final analysis, achieving your objective is more important than who delivers the
message. Or it may be that there is someone who is a better communicator, and so he/she
will be asked to deliver the message.
d) Is the purpose acceptable to the organisation? As the representative of the organisation you
are obligated to work toward the goals of the organisation. For instance, you receive a nasty
letter from one of your customers. When you read it you are tempted to fire back an angry
reply. However, on the second thought you reconsider your feelings. You realise that the
letter is not a personal one, but directed towards the organisation. Your duty would be to
defend the organisation, and at same time retain the customer's goodwill. Your message
should reflect the organisation's priorities.
Js£ Activity A:
a) List two situations, one official and the other personal, where you had to communicate.
b) How would you define the purpose for each occasion?
5.3 ANALYSINGYOURAUDffiNCE
To maximise the effectiveness of your message, you should perform an audience analysis. This
means that you should identify the interests, needs, and personality of your audience.
Unit 5 The Writing Process - Planning
Following are the reasons for carrying out an audience analysis:
154. Writer-reader relationships influence how a message is interpreted.
155. The content of the message needs to be appropriate to the reader being
addressed.
156. Areader's motivation for reading a document can influence how it is
received.
157. The information in a message must meet the reader's needs.
158. Conventions for writing may be adopted or adapted depending upon the
audience.
When analysing your audience, consider the various factors shown in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 : Factors Basic to Audience Analysis
Characteristics of the audience
• Factors that can be discovered by consulting secondary sources or databases (demographic
data, geographic data, purchasing behaviour).
• Factors that are inferred by directly interviewing or surveying the audiences.
The writer-reader relationship
• Status of and distance between writer and reader-Interpersonal aspects.
The message itself • Information needed (excluded, included). Convention used/not used
The occasion for communicating
• Type of reader. • The reader's stance; resistant or cooperative.
Source: H. R. Ewald & R. E. Burnett, 'Business Communication', pg 102
1. Factors associated with characteristics of the audience:
To know your audience, you need to be able to create a profile of your readers'
characteristics. These characteristics fall into two categories:
159. Data-based Factors that can be discovered by consulting databases.
160. Value-based Factors that are inferred or derived from interviewing or
surveying
the audiences.
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Note :
1. Data-based factors include concrete facts about an audience's age, income, and
marital status.
2. Value-based inferred factors involve your perception of the audience's attitude and
beliefs.
Much of audience research in business communication has been connected with marketing a
company's goods and services or promoting corporate image. For instance, purchasing
behaviour often tells marketing experts what kind of products to develop, promote, and
advertise in a particular geographic area.
Data-based audience research can draw from a range of sources - such as census, credit card
records, list of license plate numbers, etc.
Value-based research, which uses personal interviews and surveys to determine values and
lifestyle preferences, has become increasingly important to business communication.
Even if you are not in marketing, knowing data based and value based information of your
audience is important.
2. Factors associated with Writer-Reader Relationship:
You should know three interrelated factors that define the writer-reader relationship when
planning a communication:
Lee)-' Relative status
161. Distance
162. Interpersonal relations
I"he relative status between the writer and the reader depends on job duties, rank, and
personal credibility. The status that the writer holds in an organisation will determine the
nature of communication, when writing to another person. If a manager is writing to his
subordinates the pattern would be different from when he is writing to the managing
director.
The emotional and physical distance between the writer and the reader will also affect the
document planning. You may feel close to the CEO because you have a
Unit 5 The Writing Process - Planning
good working relationship, while you may feel distanced from a colleague with whom you
have trouble collaborating.
Interpersonal relationship also affects the planning of the document. Your likes and dislikes
would be reflected in your communication depending on the relationship that you have with
your reader. For example, a decidedly formal tone or exceedingly polite approach between
colleagues can be good indication of dislike.
3, Factors associated with the Message :
The message itself affects your planning for audience in terms of:
165. The nature of the information needed by the reader.
1. The conventions that can be appropriately drawn upon in the message and
understood by the reader.
The readers need particular information depending on the expertise or company role. When
evaluating your reader's expertise, you need to consider both the reader's knowledge with the
subject as well as the situation or the political climate surrounding the proposal. When
writing to a colleague for information or feedback on certain proposal, and not being sure of
the surrounding political climate, it would be wise to get a second opinion from a reader who
is acquainted with the company politics.
As you plan your message, you should also consider the appropriateness of the conventions
you will be using. Communication convention is an established way of approaching an
occasion for speaking or writing. Conventions are strategies that have been to be successful
over time. For example, when you want to send a message regarding certain technical or
legal matter you have to follow certain specified pattern of writing using certain specified
vocabulary. Or when you want to send formal information do not do it in an informal way.
4. Factors associated with the Occasion:
You have many occasion-based factors to consider when planning your documents for a
particular audience. This would include the type of readers and the reader's attitude -
resistant or cooperative. The types of readers would be:
a) Initial Audience: Those people to whom the document is first directed and who then
pass on to the primary readers.
!l
H
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Business Communication
i) Primary Audience: Those people directly addressed by the communicator.
163. Secondary Audience: People, who are not addressed to yet have an interest
in the communication and sometimes act on its contents.
164. Other Audience : People who^are outside the immediate occasion but still
retain an interest in the communication or in the decisions based on it.
J£$ Activity B;
While attending a talk by some renowned person, if you could observe the audience and its
reactions, how would you analyse the database factors of the audience? Write down some
points.
112
5.4 DEVELOPING AN AUDIENCE PROFILE
Audience analysis is essential because each person perceives a message differently depending
upon his/her unique mental filters. The analysis would require the following questions to be
answered:
Who is the primary audience?
Here you need to identify your primary audience - the person whose cooperation is crucial if your
message is to achieve its objectives.
Your secondary audience are those who would also read and be affected by your message. What
is your relationship with the audience? How will the audience react?
If the reaction is positive your task is relatively easy. If the reaction is likely to be neutral, you
may initially want to get the reader's attention and convince him/her that your message has
important information.
Unit 5 The Writing Process - Planning
If you expect the reaction to be negative (either to you personally or to your topic) then you will
have to use external evidence and expert opinion to bolster your position.
What does the audience already know?
Understanding the audience's present grasp of the topic is crucial to making decisions about
content and writing style.
What is unique about the audience?
Learn about the personal interests or demographic characteristics of your audience that you can
build into your message. Make the reader feel important by personalizing the
content.
1. Satisfying the Audience's Informational Needs:
The key to effective communication is to determine your audience's needs and then respond
to them. Tell your audience what they need to know in a language that is meaningful to them.
Here are some steps:
166. Find out what the audience wants to know.
167. Anticipate un-stated questions - include any additional information that might
be helpful, even through the reader has not specifically asked for.
168. Provide all required information - make sure your document answers all the
important questions.
169. Be sure the information is accurate.
170. Emphasize ideas of greatest interest to the audience.
2. Satisfying the Audience's Practical Needs:
Remember that your audience:
167. May have little time
168. May be distracted
169. May give your message low priority.
Therefore, make your message brief and as convenient as possible to grasp. If your written
message has to be long, make it easy for the reader to follow. Put important information in
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point form and list it down. Less important information can be compiled in a separate enclosure
as appendixes.
^ Activity C;
Try and remember an occasion where you had to address an audience. How would you, on
hindsight, analyse the audience that you addressed?
5.5 DEFINING THE MAIN IDEA
Main idea is different from topic. The topic is the broad subject of the message. Main idea is the
gist of the topic. The main idea is that which sums up why a particular audience should do or
think as you suggest. Defining the main idea is important especially when you want to persuade
someone or have disappointing information to convey. In these situations, you have to look for a
main idea that will establish a good relationship between you and your audience. The main idea
can take the form of some point of agreement or common interest.
In longer documents and presentations, for which vast amount of material needs to be unified,
establishing a main idea becomes still more challenging. A good writer of articles would, at the
very onset, make a statement of thesis that he/she wants to develop.
Brainstorming Techniques:
Identifying main idea requires creativity and experimentation. More often than not, single mind
cannot do this work. You need to have someone who could act as a "sounding box" - one who
would help you hear yourself; or you may need someone to help brainstorm with you. Here are
some techniques:
1. Storyteller's Tour
Turn on the tape recorder and give an overview of your message, focusing on your reasons
for communicating, your majorpoints, your rationale, and the implication of the message for
the reader. Afterwards listen to your presentation critically, till such time that you are able to
give a summary of two minutes that will convey the gist of your message.
Unit 5 The Writing Process - Planning
2. Random list
On a clean sheet of paper, list every essential point that comes to your mind pertaining to
your message. When you have exhausted the list, group them according to their relationships.
Look for common denominator. As you do this sorting process your thoughts will also begin
to narrow down on what is important and what is not.
3. FCR Worksheet
This is helpful when your message involves finding solution to a problem. F=findings; C=
mndiision^andR = recommendation. For example, you might find that you are
TxMngialesloa competitor, who offers lower prices then you do (this is your findings F).
From this, you might conclude that your loss of sales is due to your pricing policy (this is
your conclusion C). This conclusion would lead to recommending a price cut (R). To carry
out this process, divide a sheet of paper into three columns, list the major findings in the first
column; then extrapolate conclusions and write them in second column. These conclusions
form the basis for the recommendations, which are listed in the third column.
4. Journalistic Approach
For informational message, this approach is good. The answers to six questions -who, what,
when, where, why, and how - should clarify the main idea.
5. Question-and-answer chain
Perhaps the best approach is to look at the subject from the perspective of your audience and
ask yourself questions till you have reached the point of identifying the main idea.
5.6 SELECTING THE CHANNEL AND MEDIUM
Business messages have to suit the occasion, or the message is ineffective. You can present your
message in one of the two basic channels: oral or written. Within these channels, you can vary
the length, format, style, and tone in an almost infinite variety of ways to create the ideal vehicle
for your purpose.
1. Oral Communication:
a) Use: This channel is useful when your message is relatively simple, when you do not
need a permanent record, and when you can assemble your audience conveniently and
economically. Oral approach is also useful when you are
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Business Communication
presenting controversial information, because you can observe the reaction of the
audience and read their body language, and thus, adjust your message accordingly.
b) Form: Oral communication takes many forms - such as unplanned conversation,
telephone calls, interviews, group meetings, seminars, workshops, training programs
formal speeches, and major presentations.
Generally, smaller the audience, the more interaction there will be among the members. If
your purpose involves reaching a decision or solving a problem, you should select oral
channel. Such program should be relatively informal and unstructured. As opposed to this is
the formal presentation to large audiences, which are common at events such as sales
conventions, shareholders meetings, ceremonial functions, etc. Often these major
presentations take place in a big facility where the audience can be well seated.
2. Written Communication:
Just as oral communication, written messages also vary in formality. At one extreme are the
scribbled notes that people use to remember; at the other extreme are elaborate, formal
reports.
However, regardless of the degree of formality, written messages have one big advantage:
they give the write an opportunity to plan and control the message.
A written format is called for when the information is complex, when a permanent record is
needed for future reference, when the audience is large and geographically dispersed, and
when immediate interaction with the audience is either unimportant or undesirable.
Common media for written communication are letter, memo, reports etc. With a few
exceptions, most letters and memos are rather brief documents. Memos, the so-called
'workhorses' of business communication, are used for routine, day-to-day exchange of
information within an organization. Letters, which go to people outside the organization,
perform an important public relations function, besides conveying a particular message.
Letters and memos can be classified into four categories, according to their purpose: a)
direct requests
Unit 5 The Writing Process - Planning
169. good news, goodwill messages, and routine messages
170. bad-news messages
171. persuasive messages
Note;
1. Purpose determines the organization of main points
2. Relationship between writer and the reader determines style and tone.
3. Reports and proposals:
These factual, objective documents may be distributed either to insiders or to the
people concerned, who are outside the organization - depending upon their purpose
and objection. For instance, you may write a proposal to a donor, requesting to fund a
certain project for your organization; or writing a report, which has to do with a
certain mishap that has taken place in your department.
Reports and proposals have the following characteristics:
a. In length, they may range from a few pages to several hundred pages
b. They tend to be more formal than letters and memos
c. They also tend to depend upon the purpose of message for organization
d. And relationship between writer and reader determines style and tone.
£f Activity C:
Write down two examples each of oral communication and written communication.
5.7 SUMMARY
The process of business communication consists of planning, composing and revising.
In this unit we have learned the various aspects of planning; defining the purpose of the
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Business Communication
message; analysing your audience, defining the main idea, and selecting the channel and
medium.
Defining the purpose determines the content, organi/ation, style, tone and the format.
Analysing your audience enables you to understand and anticipate the reactions of the
audience, which in turn helps in organizing your message to make it appealing to the
audience.
Defining the main idea is to help catch the attention of the audience to the objective of your
message.
Finally, selecting the channel and medium enables you to give appropriateness to your
message.
5.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Q1. Communication can be of two types. What are they?
a)
b)
Q2. What are the external agencies that an organization has to communicate with? List down any
five.
a)
C o "yydvA nrwrYT^
b)
c)
c
m, .
d)
e)
Q3. The basic process of business communication consists of five stages. What are they?
a) a b) Cs
c) YfcW » -CvsU
d) /""^ ^ fl^T '"V'\CX^Jr4 — t*"^^
e} P \ Q" I ~ ry«&&A- ~ic^p^rA\y^Q
118
Unit 5 The Writing Process - Planning
Q4. Fill in the blanks:
a) The purpose of the message determines _^£T^5£i-, and
b) You can loose
-y i4- by writing a message that has no impact.
c) Depending on your purpose, you will choose a message.
J^ for your
d) The key to effective communication is to determine the audience's
and respond to them
to e) You can present your message to two basic channels Q5. List the three general purposes of business messages. a)_ b)_ c)_
or
Q6. How can you test the purpose of your message. What four questions can you ask?
?
a) U
b) c)
-k
d) U
Q7. For analysing the audience, which three factors of the audience would you identify?
a) CXnyTXC UvV4 C*s - 1v\(L
b)
c)
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\i\xsmess Comnmmcation
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Once the planning process is accomplished, and all the necessary elements of the
message have been identified, then the communicator is ready to launch into the next
plan of the writing process.
This phase of the writing process deals with organizing the message. Human mind has a
tremendous capacity to store information.
However when certain parts of this information has to be retrieved and presented in a
well associated manner, then there is a need to make a deliberate effort to organize the
information in a cohesive and sequential manner. Whether the message is a written one
or an oral presentation, it must be well organized.
Disorganized message not only throws the audience into confusion, but also stands as a
bad commentary on the communicator (especially in a business situation where
communication plays an important role). Disorganized communication can have
devastating affect. One cannot imagine the loss and confusion a disorganized message
can cause, Hence, it is imperative that a business message be well organized.
6.2 THE NEED FOR BEING WELL ORGANIZED
The term "organization", which also refers to an enterprise, implies a sequential
arrangement of things and functions so as to achieve some predetermined goals as
objects. Human beings in an organization are expected to function in an organized way.
From the very onset of our education we are taught to think in a sequential manner. For
instances, we are taught the English alphabets in a sequence -A, B, C .. .Z, or numbers
1,2,3 and so on. We develop a sequential way of thinking. Yet there are moments when
we are unable to put our thoughts in a sequential and logical manner.
This disorganized manner of presenting our thoughts - whether in speaking or in writing
-results from factors that take control of us. Here are some reasons why some messages
seem disorganized:
1. Why are some messages disorganized?
a) Presenting ideas in illogical order. If there are about six points as ideas that a
writer or a speaker wishes to convey the communicator may not be able to
present them in a logical sequence if he/she has not reflected on them.
Unit 6 Writing Process : Organizing, Composing and Revising Business Messages
174. Including irrelevant material. When the communicator is not certain
about
what information is relevant and what is not, then working on conjecture would
result in including material that is irrelevant to the message.
175. Leaving out necessary information. In the process of including
irrelevant
information, relevant and necessary information is left out. The focus being on
irrelevant information, the communicator is not mindful of necessary information.
176. Difficulty in getting to the point. When the message has to deal with
sensitive
issues, getting to the point becomes a problem. If the communicator does not
know how to introduce the topic, then all the above three (a, b and c) things
would happen.
Summarizing the above four faults that are characteristic of a disorganized
communication, we can state the following reasons:
1. Lack of reflection - results in illogical sequence
2. Guess work - results in including irrelevant information
t Not mindful - necessary information is left out
• Not sure of oneself - does not know how to present the topic/issues
2. Why Good Organization is Important:
Is it really important for any message to be well-organized? Isn't it sufficient enough
if the point of the message is eventually made? The answer is: Arranging your ideas
logically in proper style and tone will help satisfy the various needs of the audience -
such as informational, motivational and practical needs. A well-organized message
presents all the required information in a convincing manner, and with maximum
efficiency.
A well-organized message is important for the following reasons: a)
Helps the audience to understand the message:
The main reason for being well-organized is to improve the chances that people
will understand exactly what you mean. When the main idea is clearly stated,
and all supporting information is included in a coherent manner it will satisfy the
informational need of the audience. The audience can easily understand the
message.
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Business Communication
b) Helps the audience to accept the message:
A well-organized message can be a motivating factor for the audience to accept
the message. It helps you to get your ideas across without upsetting the
audience.
c) Saves the time of the audience:
Most people, in a business organization, are pressed for time. Time is a very
rare commodity and people do not like to squander it. A good organized
message will satisfy the need for convenience at all level. In other words, your
well-organized message becomes convenient for the audience - to read and
understand the message without wasting his/her tune. The audience can follow
the thought pattern of the message without struggling.
d) Simplifies the task of the communicator:
Just as others, so also the communicator is pressed for time, therefore, being
well organized will help him/her to get the message down on the paper quickly
and efficiently. By thinking about what you are going to say and how you are
going to say it before you begin to write, you can proceed more confidently.
Ji*> Activity A:
Pick any disorganized message you have come across recently and try to identify the
reason(s) why the communication was faulty.
6.3 GOOD ORGANIZING THROUGH OUTLINING
Achieving good organization of the message is a two-step process:
1. Define and group ideas.
Deciding what to say is the most basic problems that any business communication
has to solve. If the content is weak, no amount of style can overcome the fact.
Once you have decided on your main idea, you must develop it by grouping the
supporting detail in a most logical and effective way.
Unit 6 Writing Process : Organizing, Composing and Revising Business Messages
By grouping we mean visualization the relationship between the different parts of the
message. One effective way of doing this is by constructing an outline. While
preparing a long and complex message an outline is indispensable.
An outline helps you to remain within a defined framework and will help you to remain
organized.
Outline will guide you to communicate in a systematic way, covering all the ideas
necessary for the message.
Step 1 - Start with the main idea.
Main idea summarizes two things:
1. What you want the audience to do or think
2. The basic reason to do it or think it
Step 2 - State the major points
Major points refer to those ideas that clarify the message by expressing the main
idea in smaller units/thoughts. You can break the main idea into smaller units by
identifying some major points or the main ideas that you would want to develop.
These major points act as the props by which the main ideas are upheld.
Step 3 - Support major points by specific evidence
Each major point should be supported with enough specific evidence to be
convincing. These evidences form the body of the message and help the audience to
understand the message. Graphically you could show these three steps thus:
Main Idea
ri i
1 r
Major Point
I
i Majc
r
>r Point
1
Major Point
1
Evidence * Evidence Evidence Evidence Evidence Evidence
•nfa t'tftf* Fie 6 \
w-1 1 II Cf I v i *g V«J-
Source: J.V. Thill & C.L. Bovee, 'Excellence in Business Communication', pg 73
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Business Communication
The more evidence you provide the more conclusive your case would be. If your subject is
complex and unfamiliar, or if your audience is skeptical, you will need a lot of facts and figures,
demonstrative points.
You need to provide enough support to be convincing, but not so much that your message
becomes boring and inefficient.
2. Establish sequence with organizational plans:
Once you have defined and grouped your ideas you are ready to decide on the sequence.
There are two basic options you have:
1. Direct approach - this approach is deductive and nature in which the main
idea comes first followed by the evidence.
2. Indirect approach, which is inductive in nature - the evidence comes first and
the main idea later.
The choice between direct and indirect is largely determined by the likely reaction of your
audience.
ote:
Your audience reaction will fall somewhere on the continuum shown in Fig 6.2. In general the
direct approach would be appropriate when the reaction of the audience is receptive: eager,
interested, pleased, or even neutral. If the reaction of your audience is likely to be resistant:
displeased, uninterested, and unwilling, then use the indirect approach for better results.
Eager Interested Pleased Neutral Displeased Uninterested Unwilling
. t t t t t ft,
DffiECTAPPROACH ENDIRECTAPPROACH
Fig 6.2: Audience Reaction and Organizational Approach
Source: J.V. Thill & C.L. Bovee, 'Excellence in Business Communication', pg 75
Once the probably reaction of the audience has been analysed and appropriate approach selected,
then you can choose the most appropriate organizational plan.
Unit 6 Writing Process : Organizing, Composing and Revising Business Messages
a) Direct Approach:
i) Direct request
This type of business message is used when the audience will interested in
responding to the message. For instance, if you want to place an order for a
certain product, the recipient of your message will be eager to respond to your
request. Thus, direct request use direct approach i.e. you get straight to the point.
ii) Routine, Good News and Goodwill messages
If your message is providing routine information, that is a part of a regular
business function, the audience will usually be neutral in its reaction - i.e. it
would neither be pleased nor displeased. However, if you are announcing a rise
in bonus, or congratulating a worker for a job well done, the audience will be
pleased to hear your message. Thus routine, good news, and good will messages
use direct approach. By starting the message with a positive note, you put the
audience in a*goo3frame of mind, thus making them receptive. This direct
approach places the pleasing aspect of the message right in the beginning that
prepares the reader to read the entire message with interest.
iii) Bad news messages
This is a challenging task for the communicator, because delivering a bad news
is a sensitive issue. For example, you have to issue a message that is not going to
please the audience—like turning down a request, or denying credit facility to
your client.
Such a message needs to be carefully planned and organized. The challenge lies
in being honest and yet somehow soothes the displeasure of your audience.
The bad news has to be cushioned by other ideas that are either neutral or more
positive. The explanation for the bad news has to go along with a positive note.
If the audience has been refused or denied something, then the audience has the
right to know why he/she has been denied the request.
iv) Persuasive messages
, ^ ,
These messages become necessary when your audience is not willing to or
interested in what you have to say. Your audience may be hostile, skeptical and
you may face resistance from them towards your message. For example, your
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Business Communication
clients might want to cancel an air ticket for which he/she may have to bear
considerable cost. You know this is going to upset your client and may even
create a scene in your office. In such a case, using the indirect approach gives you
an opportunity to get across your message without creating much displeasure.
Note;
a)
When your purpose is to inform, the major points are based on the natural order of the subject of
the message.
When your purpose is to persuade or collaborate, the major points will follow topical path of
argument.
If you expect your audience to agree with you, use a structure that focuses attention on
conclusions and recommendations.
If you expect your audience to be skeptical about your conclusions and recommendations ( or
hostile towards them), use a structure that focuses attention on the rationale that supports your
point of view.
Activity B ;
If you are to work on a business communication activity, like a monthly report, what would be
the steps you would follow for making an outline?
130
b) You have to deliver bad news to your friends. How would you go about delivering this news?
Unit 6 Writing Process : Organizing, Composing and Revising Business Messages
6.4 FROM OUTLINE TO FIRST DRAFT
Having finished planning, you are now ready to begin drafting - i.e. composing a
preliminary version of a message.
As someone has said, "Writing is an art. Rewriting is a craft". So do not worry about
getting everything right at the first instance.
Just write and put down everything that comes to your mind without worrying about
style, tone, logical sequence, etc.
Do not combine drafting with revising. They involve two separate skills and two separate
mindsets. So avoid moving from authors to editors too quickly.
Your first draft is just a draft and not a completed message. Do not expect perfection and
do not strive for it.
Concentrate on writing all the points you identified during planning stage.
1. Writer's Block:
Many people spend anxious moments worrying about what to write, and how to write.
Some people spend long time staring at blank paper or screen, not knowing how to
proceed.
Such an experience is known as <4writer's block" - the inability to focus on the writing
process and to draft a message.
The causes ofwriter's block are one or more of the following: ^ 3»M,
1. Procrastination: Putting off what we dislike doing
2. Impatience: Growing tired of the naturally slow pace of writing process
3. Perfection: Believing that the draft must be perfect the first time.
Strategies to overcome writer's block:
a) Choose the right environment
Find out where you can be comfortable and concentrate on the task of writing the
draft. Very often the most comfortable place is some other than where you normally
sit and work.
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Business Communication
b) Schedule a reasonable span of time
Allotting yourself a time span is a way of disciplining yourself. Use the time without
wasting it. Allow enough time to plan, draft and revise. This will overcome procrastination.
c) State your purpose in writing
Having identified your specific purpose during the planning phase, write it somewhere and
put it in front of you. Keep it visible so that it will be uppermost in your consciousness as
you compose.
d) Engage in free writing
Review your purpose and your audience and set off to write i.e. being free writing. Write
without stopping till you feel that you have put all your thoughts in words. Do not stop in
between and start correcting.
e) Avoid the perfectionism syndrome
Remember you are writing the draft as an artist and not as an editor. So do not worry about
style, cohesive, spelling, punctuations etc.
f) Think out loud
Some people can speak better than they can write. If there is a Dictaphone record what you
say and later transcribe it.
g) Write the easiest part first
The most difficult part of writing something is the opening paragraph. So begin with the
easiest part. Your draft need not contain the message in the order in which it will appear in
the final form.
JS$ Activity C;
Did you, at any point of time in your student life, face a "writer's block" situation? a) Can
you recollect how you managed to overcome the problem?
Unit 6 Writing Process : Organizing, Composing and Revising Business Messages
b) Do you feel you took the right steps ?
c) If your answer is "no", then what steps should you have taken?
6.5 COMPOSING PROCESS
Composition is relatively easy if you have already decided what to say and in what order,
although you may need to pause now and then to find the right word.
Feel free to rearrange, delete, or add ideas, as long as you don't loose sight of the purpose.
1. Style:
In composing the message, vary the style to create a tone that suits the occasion. Style is the
way you use words to achieve a certain tone, or overall impression. You can vary your style
- i.e. your sentence structure and vocabulary - to sound forceful or passive, personal or
impersonal etc. The right choice depends on the nature of your message and your
relationship with the reader.
Although style can be refined during the revision phase you will save yourself time and a lot
of rewriting if you compose in an appropriate manner.
2. Tone:
The first step toward getting the right tone is to consider your relationship with the
audience.
To achieve a warm but businesslike tone:
182. Don't be familiar
183. Use humor with great care
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4. Do not flatter the other person
5. Don't preach
6. Don't boast
7. Be yourself
3. Use the "You" attitude:
r ; Establish empathy with your audience. See the subject matter of the message
through the eyes of the audience. Many business messages have an "I" or "We"
attitude, which causes the sender to sound selfish and not interested in the
receiver.
If you want to get your message across, you will have to express yourself
message in terms of the interest and needs of the audience.
In other words, use "You" and "Yours" instead of "I" "Me": "Mine", "We" "us"
and "Ours". This is the "you" attitude, which you must adopt.
Example: "We" Attitude
a. We are please to announce our new flight from Pune to Hong Kong
You need to make sure that the staff
follows instructions • r\
"You" Attitude
Now you can take a plane from Pune to Hong Kong.
The staff may need guidance in following instructions. •
In the example (b) note that "you" attitude sentence sound authoritative.
Constructing "you" attitude without using the word "you" can soften this.
4. Maintain a Positive Note :
Explain what you can do and what you will do, and not what you can't do or
won't do. Positive side of your message will show sensitivity to your audience.
Example: Instead of:
Use:
It is impossible to repair this vacuum cleaner today. We can repair your vacuum cleaner
by Tuesday.
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Unit 6 Writing Process : Organizing, Composing and Revising Business Messages
When you are offering criticism or advice, focus on what a person can do to
improve. Example: Instead of: The problem with this department is failure to
control costs
Use: The performance of this department can be improved by tightening
cost controls.
5. Establish credibility:
People are more likely to react positively to your message when they have confidence in you. This belief in your competence and integrity is important. The first step in building credibility is to promise only what you can do, and then fulfill your promise.
Your credibility is also enhanced by the quality of the information you provide. If you support your points with evidences that can be confirmed, your audience will respect
you.
6. Be polite :
The best tone for business messages is almost always apohjfeone. Although you may be tempted now and then to be brutally frank, try to express the facts in a kind and thought manner.
6.6 PRACTICING REVISION
As mentioned earlier that writing is an art and editing is a craft - i.e. a science that has a definite procedure. Usually in the process of editing the editor has to edit some manuscript that someone else has written. However, when one has to edit a document written by himself then this process becomes a little different and difficult.
Editing or revising is a process of modifying a document to increase its effectiveness. Once the draft has been written, it can be refined into an effective document; but the process of revising one's own draft does not begin immediately. There has to be a gap of some time for the frame of mind (in which the draft was written) to fade away. Otherwise, what you actually wrote will still
be fresh and strong in your mind which will keep you from identifying the weakness in your draft. So allow for a period to lapse before you take up the document draft for revising. If you are pressed for time then give the draft to someone other than your audience for revising.
fn the process of writing, revising is the third step that involves many steps. The process consists of editing for content and organization, style and readability, format, usage of
words etc.
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Business Communication
Whatever the document or the message is intended for, once it is drafted, you owe yourself to
refine and your audience to review. Care should be taken not to revise the document for all its
elements, but rather revise the message at least three times: once for content and organization,
once for style and readability and once for format.
1. Revising the Content and Organization:
Begin by reading the document to evaluate its overall effectiveness. Here you are concerned with
the content, organi/ation, and the flow of thought. Ideally, you should let your draft age a day or
two before you begin the editing process, so that you can approach the material with a fresh
view. The factor you should consider while editing for content and organization are:
184. have all points been covered in a logical order
188. good balance between general points and specific points
189. space allotted for and positions of prominence or important points
190. providing enough evidence
191. need to add or eliminate information
Apart from these factors that determine the effectiveness of the content there is a need to pay
attention to the beginning and ending of the message.
Opening section of the message should be relevant, interesting and tuned to probable reaction of
the audience. Reading of the message should be reviewed for summary of the main points.
2. Revising for Style and Readability :
Once you are satisfied with the content and organization of the message, then turn your attention
to style and readability. You need to create an interest in your audience for the message. This is
done by the use of style - i.e. using lively and emphatic words and phrases.
At the same time, make sure that your message is not difficult to follow. Your audience should
be able to read with ease and comprehend the message without difficulty. Do not use complex
phrases and words or idiomatic expression that will cause hindrances in understanding the
message. Make use of short and simple sentences.
Unit 6 Writing Process: Organizing, Composing and Revising Business Messages
3. Revising for Mechanics and Format:
Final step in revising has to do with language and format. Language here means use of
proper words, correct spellings, and grammar. Very often people, though they can speak
correct English make several grammatical mistakes.
Remember, your audience is not only interpreting the message, but also judging you
from the way you write the message. For instance, if you let mechanical errors slip
through, people will wonder if you are reliable with more important things. Also give
attention to the format of the message.
Follow the accepted conventions and company guidelines for the format of the message.
6.7 SELECTING THE RIGHT WORDS
As a business communicator, you have to pay attention to two things while revising your
draft: correctness and effectiveness of words.
Correctness of the usage of words is generally easier than the effectiveness of words.
Correctness of word-usage comes from hearing a language, while the effectiveness of
words has to be cultivated.
Sometimes even the correct use of words has to be confirmed.
1. Functional Words and Content Words
184. Functional words express relationships and have one unchanging meaning
in
any given context. They include conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns.
Functional words express relationships among content words.
185. Content words are multidimensional and hence subject to various
interpretations
or meanings. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belong to this category.
These are words that carry the meaning of the sentence.
Both functional words and content words are necessary, but your effectiveness as
a communicator depends largely on your ability to choose the right content
words.
2, Connotation and Denotation
Content words have both denotative meaning and connotative meaning. Denotative
meaning is literal or dictionary meaning. Connotative meaning includes all
association and feelings evoked by the word.
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For example, if you say that a person has failed to pass a test, you are allowing the word
'fail' to suggest a whole range of meanings - i.e. the person is incompetent, inferior, not
intelligent etc. But, instead of using the word fail you state that the person secured 65
percent, you are suggesting something else. By avoiding the word 'fail', you have avoided
negative connotation.
In business communication you should generally use words that have low connotative
meaning. In other words, make use of words that would not generate negative meanings in
the mind of the audience.
3. Abstraction and Concretness
Content words also vary in their level of abstraction. That is to say that content words can
also be abstract words.
An abstract word expresses a concept, quality or characteristic - for example, honor,
progress, integrity etc. Content words are also grounded in the material world - for example;
table, chair, rose, kick, red etc. These are concrete words.
In business communication, use concrete, specific terms whenever possible; use abstract
words only when necessary.
Example; Company experienced a 'sizable loss'. Company
had a 'loss of 10 crores'.
4. Word Choice
Poets, novelists or play writers use words that implicit in meaning, but journalists, editors,
letter and report writers are concerned with being clear, concise and accurate in their use of
language.
In business communication the use of language has to be strong, familiar and precise. a)
Strong Words:
Nouns and verbs are the most concrete words in any message, so use them as much as
you can.
Use adjectives and adverbs sparingly, although they are also important. They are
subjective in nature, and business communication should be objective.
Verbs are powerful words because they carry the action. The more dynamic the word
the better it is.
Unit 6 Writing Process : Organizing, Composing and Revising Business Messages
Weak Forms Strong Forms
Wealthy businessperson tycoon
Business prosperity boom
Fall plummet
b) Familiar Words:
Communication is best through familiar words. Use words that are in common and
familiar to most people. However, be careful in using terms that have become so
common that they have virtually lost their meaning. For example; interface, strategic
decision, frame of reference, track record. These words have been so often used that
people hearing or reading them take them for granted and don't pay attention to what
they mean.
c) Short or Precise Words:
Compose your message by using short words or sentences. Example,
Long: During the preceding year, the company was able to accelerate productive
operations.
Short: last year, the company was able to speed up operation.
d) Camouflaged Verbs:
Endings of the words: -ion, -tion, -ing, -ment, -ant, -ent, -ence, -ance and -ency should
be avoided. Such words complicate the construction of sentences, which could be
misleading.
Example:
The manager undertook implementation of the rules
The manager implemented the rules.
6.8 BIAS-FREE WRITING
Avoid biased language that might offend the audience. It is not enough to be bias-free, but it
must also appear in our speech and writing.
a) Sexist language: We are used to using language that suggest bias. When citing a general
example we often use words like 'mankind' 'man-made', 'man-power' etc.
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These words could be replaced by 'humankind' 'artificial', 'human power'etc. Here are
some examples:
Businessman Salesman Foreman Insurance man
Business person Sales representative Supervisor Insurance agent
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i) Some words denote both men and women. In such case avoid using the masculine and the
feminine words. For example avoid making distinctions such as 'authoress' and 'actress'
because 'author' and 'actor' include both the genders.
ii) Another way to avoid bias is to mention women first. Give priority to ladies -women and
men, ladies and gentlemen, she and he etc.
b) Racial and Ethnic bias: It is politically correct, in every way to avoid any comments that
may have a racial or ethnic bias. One reads in the media of prominent personalities in US or
UK often falling into this trap. Even in our own country, India - our politicians or even
celebrities get caught up in this complicated issue. Then getting out of it poses to be a
gigantic problem.
JS*> Activity D :
a) Comment on any sexist bias that you may have observed while reading newspapers or even
listening to the speeches of certain political leaders.
b) There have been remarks made by famous personalities which have a racial bias. Surf the
Internet and find out more.
Unit 6 Writing Process : Organizing, Composing and Revising Business Messages
6.9 SUMMARY
In a well organized message, all the information is clearly related to the subject and purpose.
Organizing a message requires defining and grouping ideas.
The main ;idea is defined in terms of what and why the audience must either do or think the
way you want them to.
Organizing also involves identifying major points that support the main idea. The
major points that support the main idea are further supported by evidence.
Thus, a hierarchy of main idea, major points and evidences form a broad outline for
organizing a message.
While organizing it is also good if the importance of establishing a relationship with the
audience is kept in mind. In the capacity of being a representative of the organization, your
message should reflect its standards.
6.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Ql. Explain the reason for a well organized business message.
Q2. Discuss the causes of "writer's block", and explain the strategies to overcome it.
Q3. Explain the composing process.
Q4. Why are certain messages disorganized? Can you list the faults?
Q5. Some tips to adopt a business-like tone. Write down six such tips.
Q6. A well organized message in important for four reasons. What are they?
Q7. Fill in the blanks:
i) Disorganized communication can have cause '°^>^> and ""^fr
n proper ii) Arranging your ideas
satisfy the various needs of the audience. I) A well-organized message can be a V>vi<\nVj and tone will help
factor for the audience
to accept the message.
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7.1 INTRODUCTION
Almost all business commumcationYias two basic purposes •.
192. to produce a favourable attitude or response in the audience
193. to convey information
Effective communicators recognize that they can assume audience cooperation when
composing certain types of messages. That is, their audience will not automatically resist
the main idea and content in such messages.
Whenever you can assume that your audience will be interested in what you have to say,
or at least willing to cooperate with you, your message should follow the 'direct', or
'deductive' plan. You should present the request or the main idea first, follow up with
message details, and close with a cordial statement of the action you want. There are
various situations in which direct plan is useful.
Routine or neutral messages assume audience cooperation and conduct necessary
business for an individual or a corporation. These could be in the form of
announcements, reminders, inquiries or requests. In each of these, the writer is either
transmitting information or seeking information.
Positive messages convey good news to the reader. They include positive responses,
credit approvals, and order acknowledgements. Positive responses answer inquiries or
direct requests. These responses commonly have a context opening, a body with answers
or requested information, and either an action or a goodwill close. Credit approvals,
which like other positive messages follow a deductive pattern, often contain a review of
the underlying conditions for granting credit and an explanation of credit terms. Order
acknowledgements, like credit approvals, often repeat or clarify the terms of agreement
between writer and the reader.
Goodwill messages are those documents designed for the primary purpose of
establishing or maintaining good writer-reader relationships. They include public
relations messages or greetings, as well as welcome messages, invitations,
congratulations, and thank-you notes.
Three main categories of information that can be delivered with the direct approach or organization are:
193. Positive information, which pleases the reader
194. Neutral information, which may not elicit either positive or negative reaction but which' may have strong information value
Unit 7 Writing Routine, Good News and Goodwill Messages
• Negative information, which the reader will not want to read
7.2 AUDIENCE COOPERATION
Messages that assume reader cooperation anticipate a non-resistant stance from the
audience. This anticipated cooperation enables the writer to assume a business-as-usual
stance toward a situation. When assuming audience cooperation, a business-as-usual
attitude persists, even if, for some reason, the audience cannot cooperate exactly as
expected. For example, the writer may directly request the reader's attendance at a
business function. The reader may wish to attend, but be unable to do so due to a
schedule conflict. Even though the writer's request does not result in the reader's
attendance, the reader is not really resisting the request as finding it impossible to
comply.
1. Strategies to Encourage Audience Cooperation
You can use explicit cues to encourage audience cooperation:
a) A clear and direct statement of the main idea at the outset (deductive organization)
aid audience cooperation by avoiding any misunderstanding about what the
reader
is to know or do.
For example, if you write, "Would you please provide us with information about
your company?" this could cause confusion because the reader may give general
information about the company. Instead, if you write, "Would you please
provide us with information regarding the measures your company has
employed in response to PF policy of the Government." The statement is clear
and direct to the point.
b) Indication of confidence in the reader's positive response can be shown by
using words such as "please" or "thank you", which would make a statement
sound less like a demand and more like a request. This would encourage
cooperation of the audience. Communicating in a positive manner creates the
impression that courtesy will be sufficient to ensure the wanted action.
1. Providing crucial information is another way of ensuring audience cooperation.
All information necessary to explain the action(s) indicated, should be included
in the message. Such information might include invoice number, cost figures,
specific dates, addresses, specifications, etc.
2. Clear and specific action statements at the close to specify the action(s) the
writer wants the reader to take is another way to help audience cooperation.
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For example, closing with a request for information provides clear action the reader
should take:
Please write to me or call me at (phone number) before December 6,2006 to set up an
interview regarding your participation in the forth-coming conference at the City
Commerce Chamber.
e) Information included with the message, in the form of enclosures, etc. that enables the
reader to act or to understand the course of action in detail - such as brochures offering
financial incentives, business cards, discount coupons for early purchase, etc.
Strategies to encourage reader cooperation can be used both in documents that assume
audience cooperation and in those that anticipate audience resistance.
2. Reasons for Audience Resistance
Audience may resist a message for many reasons - the message contains bad news, or
because of the past negative experience with the communicator or the company. Following
are the reasons for which the audience may resist a document:
1. The "Age" of Information: Audience resist messages that contain information
that is either too old or completely new. If the message informs about something
that is already happening and of which the people are already aware, then the
audience will not be interested in reading the message. Similarly, the audience
may also resist completely new information because they have not had time to
consider its ramifications.
2. Traditional Practices versus Change: Audience may resist change itself, because
they may find it confusing or threatening. For instance, students informed about
a change in curriculum might immediately resist, because they feel uneasy about
enrolling in unanticipated courses or fear a delay in their graduation. Because of
this natural resistance to change, communicators often need to reassure their
audience of the reasons for change and the benefits that will likely result.
Communicators associate need for the change with something good and establish
the change itself as something unique and good.
3. Organizational Hierarchy: Audience, within an organization, expects the
information to follow a certain organizational channel. If, for example, a ce
type of information come from the middle management rather than the CEC
Unit 7 Writing Routine, Good News and Goodwill Messages
audience may resist that information, simply, because they do not perceive the
communicator as having the proper standing to speak on the subject. In such
cases, it is best to let the information follow the organizational path to avoid
resistance and allow cooperation.
195. Group Membership and Shared Goals: If you assume that the reader
shares
your views or goals and your assumption is incorrect, then the reader may resist
your message. This very often happens in an organization where the boss feels
that his subordinates share the same concerns or views or goals and later finds
that his message is not received enthusiastically. This is possible when a group
member shares the same goals as the group, but does not agree about the manner
in which the goals are pursued, and hence, the message may be resisted.
196. Expertise: Readers may also resist a message because it does not match
their
level of expertise. Audience may become impatient with a message and resist
what the communicator has to say if the material is either too difficult or too
easy. Similarly, readers may resist the writer's message because they do not
believe the writer has the qualification or expertise to provide the information.
3. Overcoming Audience Resistance :
Following are the recommendations for overcoming audience resistance:
197. Build or preserve a positive history with the audience.
198. Find ways of 'softening' bad news or of finding positive aspects of
negative
situations.
199. Pay attention to the "age" of your information. In general, present old
news
before new news, and be especially alert when handling information that is either
too old or too new.
200. Recognize that change itself is often threatening. Doing so will help you
realise
that, even if what you are proposing is a change for the better, audience will
probably be resistant.
200. Know the established channels of communication in your office and be
aware of
hierarchical relationships within the organization. Use the support of the
authority,
when appropriate.
201. Analyse the interests of members within a group before you assume or
appeal
to shared goals.
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g) Remember that an audience's area and level of expertise helps you predict how the
audience will respond to your communication.
J£$ Activity A;
a) Reader's Digest has a very interesting way of drawing its customers to its other publications.
This is done through "Golden Treasure Prize Draw" messages to its customers. Get hold of
a set of these messages and identify the "Strategies to Encourage Audience Cooperation".
b) Did you ever have to impart "bad" news to a group of people? Did you face any audience
resistance? List out what they were:
c) Do you recall your boss giving you bad news? Did he 'soften' the impact? How did you react?
7.3 ORGANIZING 'DIRECT PLAN' MESSAGES
Whenever you can assume that your audience will be interested in what you have to say, or al
least willing to cooperate with you, your message should follow the 'direct', or 'deductive plan'.
You should: a) present the request or the main idea first, b) follow up with necessary details,
and c) close with a cordial statement of action you want. This approach works well when your
request or message requires no special tact or persuasion.
Unit 7 Writing Routine, Good News and Goodwill Messages
Usually senders of direct messages may be tempted to begin with a personal introduction - "lam
administrative assistant to the head of a large bookstore chain, and I am interested in expanding
our selection of reference books." Remember, this type of beginning is a mistake, because what
you may want your reader to know and do may get buried under the weight of your introduction.
The best way to begin a direct message is to state what you want in the first sentence or two and
let explanation follow this initial request or idea.
Another aspect that needs to be remembered is the 'tone'. Even though you expect a favourable
response, the tone of your initial request is important. Instead of demanding immediate action be
patient and help your audience to understand your message or the request you are making. This is
achieved in the middle part of a direct message. It explains the original idea or request by
supplying necessary details.
Example: "I would like to order a sample of several of your reference works to determine
whether they appeal to our customers." Such amplifying details help your audience fill your
request correctly.
In the last section, 'clearly state' the action you are requesting or expecting. You may want to
inform your audience where to send the sought-after information or product, indicate any time
limit, or any other information that you could not cover in the previous parts. Then 'close' with a
brief, cordial note reminding your audience of the importance of the message.
1. Writing Direct Requests
a) Direct statement of the request:
This refers to the main idea. The general rule for the first part of the direct request is to
write not only to be understood but also to avoid being misunderstood. Be as specific as
possible in the sentence or two that begins
your message.
In the direct approach, the sender's primary goal agrees with the receiver's primary goal:
what is foremost in the mind of the recipient is what the author most wishes to transmit.
You should be as specific as possible in a sentence or two (about the subject matter that
you wish to know) that begins your message.
Be aware of the difference between a polite request in a question form, which requires
no question mark, and a question that is a part of the request.
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Polite request in question form:
Would you please help us determine whether Mr. Ramgopal is a suitable candidate for
the position of landscape designer.
Question that is part of the request:
Did Mr. Ramgopal demonstrate an ability to work as an efficient landscape designer?
Many direct requests include both types of statements so make sure you distinguish
between a polite request, which is your overall reason for writing, and specific
question, which belongs to the middle section of your message.
b) Justification, explanation, and details:
Justification for the purpose of your message can be made by way of
explanation, which should be a logical outgrowth of your opening statements.
You could construct the first sentence of your middle section in the form of
"you-sentence" by stating a benefit to the reader.
For example, you may write to your supplier: "By keeping us informed about
your product, you can help create a new distribution network for your
business."
In the middle section:
Call attention to how the reader will benefit from granting your request
Give details of your request
Another possible approach for the middle section is to ask series of questions,
particularly if your inquiry concerns machinery or complex equipment. You
may want to know about technical specifications, exact dimensions, precise use
of the product, and more importantly the cost. If you are requesting several
items or answers, you should number the items and list them in logical order or
in descending order of importance
Furthermore, so that your request can be handled quickly, remember: i)
Ask only those questions that relate to your main inquiry fi) Do not ask for
information that can be easily obtained by you iii) Make your questions
open-ended and objective iv) Deal with only one topic in each question
Unit 7 Writing Routine, Good News and Goodwill Messages
If the questions need amplification, keep each question in a separate paragraph.
c) Courteously close with request for specific action :
Your letter should 'close' with both a request for some specific response, and an
expression of appreciation or goodwill. Help your reader to respond easily by supplying
information for getting in touch with you. Do not thank the reader "in advance" for
cooperating. If the reader's reply deserves a word of thanks, send it after you have
received the reply.
Close with:
i) A request for some specific response
ii) An expression of appreciation
i) Information about how you can be reached.
2. Writing Requests for Routine Information and Action
When you need to know about something, to get an opinion from someone, or suggest an
action, you usually need to ask.
In making a routine request, say:
202. What you want to know
203. Why you want to know
204. Why it is in the reader's interest to help you
Routine requests deserve a touch of tact, because in many organizations, memos and letters
are sent to hundreds of employees, customers, clients, and shareholders. Thus, the concern
for creating positive impressions is not as vital as the risk of causing ill will through
ambiguous wording or discourteous tone.
a) Requests to fellow-employees:
Although requests to fellow-employees are after oral and rather casual, some requests
are better put in permanent, written form. A request in memo form
i) Provides a permanent record
ii) Saves time (when well written)
iii) Helps readers to know precisely what is required
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b) Requests to other businesses :
Many letters to other businesses are requests for information about products, or
something you have seen in advertisement. Where writing a letter in response to an
advertisement
i) Say where you saw the advertisement
ii) Provide a clear and complete return
in) Provide a clear and complete return address on the letter
Very often inquires, not prompted by advertisement, demand more detailed letter.
c) Request to customers and other outsiders :
Businesses after ask individuals outside the organization to provide information or to
take some action- such as attend a meeting, return an information card, enclose a
document etc. Often these messages can be short and simple, but after situations
require a more detailed explanation. In such cases, readers may not be willing to
respond unless they understand hoe the request benefits them.
Businesses sometimes need to reestablish a relationship with former customers. A
letter of inquiry and encouragement to reestablish relationship with the company is
needed.
Activity B :
You are Assistant Manager, Purchase, and your boss has asked you to inquire about air
conditioners, which are to be installed in different offices of the company. The requirement is for
10 air conditioners that have to be installed within a period of 15 days.
You need to obtain information from different agencies to acquire the best buy. Write a letter
requesting information that would help your company to make the most appropriate decision.
Unit? Writing Routine, Good News and Goodwill Messages
7.4 WRITING POSITIVE MESSAGES
When you have only positive information to present, rank your information with the most
positive first, followed by the next most positive, and so on. Work your way down to the least
positive details.
Penrose et al observe,
"When reading the most positive information first, the reader encounters the next thought in a
more receptive mood. Assuming the second thought is the second most positive comment, these
thoughts combine to place the reader in an even more favourable frame of mind for the third
thought, and so on. This cumulative effect helps the reader receive the message with a better
overall reaction than would be derived from an indirectly organized message".
They further suggest,
"Because substantial positive feelings can reflect well on the sender, you should make optimal
use of this message category. You can achieve even more benefits by using direct statements that
follow a subject/verb - first organization, selecting active voice, picking present tense, using
strong verbs, organizing sentences for emphasis, and involving the reader through the use of the
you tone."
With positive content messages, the most difficult writing steps are:
» Correctly ranking the importance of the various items from the reader's point of view
* Omitting extraneous information
t Writing transitions from thought to thought
Most business communication consists of positive messages. A clear understanding of how such
messages are organized will allow you to write good ones quickly.
Whether oral or written, these messages follow a simple formula:
206. Clear statement of the main idea.
207. Necessary details.
208. Courteous close.
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1. Planning positive messages
a) Clear statement of the main idea:
This refers to the main purpose of the message. When you begin a message write a
statement of your purpose, you prepare your audience for the explanation that follows.
Your introductory statement is important, so do not fill it up with unnecessary
statements.
For example:
Instead of: I am pleased to inform you that after deliberating the matter carefully, our
H.R. department has recommended you for appointment as an accountant.
Write: You have been selected to join our firm as an accountant.
b) Necessary details :
The middle part of the message is typically the longest section of a routine, good-
news, or goodwill message. Your purpose of communicating can usually be expressed
in a sentence or two, but you will need more space or time to explain your point
completely so that the reader will not be left in confusion.
In addition to providing details in the middle section, you must maintain the supportive
tone established at the beginning. Maintaining this tone is easy while writing good-
news.
c) Courteous close:
Your message is most likely to succeed if your readers are left with the feeling that
you have this personal welfare in mind. Make sure each audience member understands
what to do next and how that action will benefit her or him.
2. Checklist for Positive Messages
a) Initial statement of the good news (Main idea) i) Respond
promptly to the request.
ii) In your first statement indicate that you are fulfilling the readers request. iii) If you
are acknowledging an order, summarize the transaction, iv) Convey a courteous and
you-oriented tone.
Unit 7 Writing Routine, Good News and Goodwill Messages
b) Middle informational section
i) Express interest in the request.
ii) If possible, answer all questions and requests (in the order posed).
m) Provide all the important details about orders.
iv) Use sales opportunities when appropriate (e.g. enclose brochure).
v) If you cannot comply with part of the request, explain to the reader why this is so, and
offer positive alternative.
vi) Frame negative statements in positive context, or as offer positive alternative.
c) Courteous close
i) Avoid cliches (e.g. "please feel free to")
ii) Direct a request to the reader, or specify the action you want the reader to take.
iii) Remind the reader of the benefits to be derived from the action you are suggesting.
iv) Offer additional services. v) Express
goodwill
3. Conveying positive information about people
Professors, supervisors, and managers are after asked to write letters recommending
students or employers for jobs, awards, or membership in organizations such letters may
take the direct approach when the recommendation is generally positive.
a) Recommendation letters:
It is important that letters of recommendation contains all the relevant details
1. The full name of the candidate
2. The job or benefit that the candidate is seeking
3. Whether the writer is answering a request or taking the initiative
4. The nature of the relationship between the writer and the candidate
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208. Facts relevant to the position or benefit sought
209. The writer's overall evaluation of the candidate's suitability for the job or
benefit sought.
Recommendation letter are usually mailed directly to the person or committee who
requested them, and are not shown to the concerned candidates. This enables the writer
to give a balanced view of the candidate. A Good writer of recommendation letters
will:
1. include only relevant, factual information
2. avoid value judgements
1. balance criticisms with favourable points
b) Good news about employment:
Finding suitable job applicants and then selecting the right candidate for the job is a
task fraught with hard choices. In contrast writing a letter to the successful candidate
is a pleasure. Most of the time such a letter is eagerly awaited, so the direct approach
serves well.
A letter telling someone that she or he has been selected for the job is a legal
document; hence make sure that all statements are accurate. The letter should take a
friendly and welcoming tone and should explain the necessary details: job title,
starting date, salary and benefits. The last paragraph, with the explanation of the first
day's routine, will help the new employee.
For example," please plan to arrive at 8.30 am on 24th of Nov. and ask for me at the
reception. We will spend an hour or so in filling out the necessary forms and going
over company employment policies "
c) Writing positive replies:
Many news and business letters are written in response to an order, an inquiry, or a
request. When the answer is positive, or involves straightforward informatio then the
direct plan is appropriate.
4. Acknowledgement letters
One of the simplest letters to write is one confirming that a customer's order has been*
received and is being filled. If the products are being shipped or the services are <
Unit 7 Writing Routine, Good News and Goodwill Messages
provided immediately, then the acknowledgement letter is unnecessary. But if the
orders are large that cannot be supplied immediately, then it is appropriate to
acknowledge the orders.
Acknowledgement letters play a role of fostering "goodwill". In accordance with the
direct plan, the first paragraph of the acknowledgement letter is a statement of "good
news" The customer has placed an order and looks forward to receiving the
merchandise, all you have to do is acknowledge the order and is being processed and
that the merchandise is on its way.
The middle section should demonstrate the professionalism of the firm by giving an
accurate summary of the transaction, such as:
1. When the delivery may be expected
2. The cost of the merchandise
3. Cost of shipping and taxes
4. Explanation of problems that may have arisen
Note :
Letters of this type frequently add information in the middle or the closing sections,
such as:
a) Resale :
Information about the company or product that confirms the customer's good
judgement in making the transaction
b) Sales promotion:
Information about goods and services that go along with the customers purchase
is also a part of this letter.
Despite the business purpose of the acknowledgement letter, it should end on a
warm, personal note and with a look towards future transactions.
c) Replying to requests for information and action
Any request is important to the person making it, whether inside or outside the
organization. That person's opinion of your company and its products, your
department, and yourself will be influenced by how promptly, graciously and
thoroughly the request is handled.
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1
However, complying with a request is not always easy because the information may not be
immediately available, and decisions to take some action may take longer time since higher level
of management is involved.
Furthermore, since a reply is written on letterhead stationery, it becomes legally binding. Hence,
one must be careful in writing a response.
i) When a potential sale is involved :
Prospective customers often request an annual report, catalogue, brochure, or other type of
information to help them make a decision about a product they have come across through
advertisement. A polite and helpful response may help them to make the decision to buy.
When answering requests involving a potential sale, you have three main goals:
2. To respond to the inquiry, or answer all the questions
3. To encourage the sale
4. To convey a good impression of you and your firm
ii) When no sale is involved :
Some requests from outsiders and most requests from within the organization are no
opportunities to sell a product. In replying to these requests, you have two goals:
1. To answer all the questions honestly and completely
2. To leave a favourable impression of your company or foster good working
relationships.
Activity C ;
Consider yourself as a professor who has been approached by a student
intending to study abroad. The university requires a recommendation letter
from a professor. The student requests you to write the letter of
recommendation. Taking into account the entire relevant details necessary,
write a recommendation letter.
Unit 7 Writing Routine, Good News and Goodwill Messages
7.5 WRITING GOODWILL MESSAGES
Business is not often all business. To a large extent, it is an opportunity to forge personal
relationships. You can enhance your relationships with customers and other business people by
sending friendly, unexpected notes with no direct business purpose. Some examples of these are
congratulations, thanks, condolences, and greetings.
Although goodwill messages have little to do with business transaction, they might include some
sales information. You could use the opportunity to mention about some particular service or
remind the reader of your company's product.
However, it should be secondary to the goodwill message.
Only the straight hint of a sales message should ever appear in a goodwill message.
1. Congratulations:
One prime opportunity for sending congratulations is the news of some significant business
achievement or attaining an important civic position. Taking note of significant events in
someone's personal life helps cement the business relationships.
Highlights in people's personal lives - such as weddings, births, graduations, and success in non-
business competitions - are another reason for sending congratulations. You may even
congratulate your business acquaintances on their achievements, or on their spouse or children's achievements.
Some alert companies develop a mailing list of potential customers by assigning an employee
to keep a track of important events. They then introduce themselves by sending out a
congratulation note on the company's letterhead. This is enough to start a business
relationship.
2. Letter of appreciation:
An important quality of messages is to have the ability to see employees or other business
associates as individuals and to recognize then- contributions. People often value praise more
highly than monetary rewards, and a letter of appreciation may also become a part of an
employee's personal file. This documents a person's contribution. Sending a copy of the letter
to the personnel department could do this. It could be of value to the person appreciated at the
time of future pay increase or promotion.
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Suppliers also like to know that you value some exceptional product or the service you
received. Long-term association also deserves recognition and appreciation. Your letter
of appreciation not only makes the supplier feel good; it also encourages further
excellence and good service. When you write a letter of appreciation to a supplier, try to
mention specifically the person or people you want to praise. Guest speakers at meetings
should also be thanked, even if they have been paid an honorarium or their travel
expenses. Letters of appreciations are also appropriate for acknowledging donations to
campaigns or causes. They should usually include a few details about the success of the
campaign or about how the donation is being used.
&$ Activity D :
Write the following letters, keeping the points mentioned in mind:
i) a letter appreciating the good work done by your advertising agency.
i) a letter congratulating your dealer for having crossed the target set for the year.
7.6 SUMMARY
Positive replies, favourable responses, responses to routine requests, positive
information about people, good news about products and operations, and goodwill
messages - these make up much of the daily business correspondences.
Theirrjurrjose is to convey a message that readers will eithen^elcomex^r accept without
s^ Some of the messages also encourage readers to take a specific action.
Routine, good news and goodwill messages follow a direct approach plan, first, a clear
statement of the news or main point, second, the necessary explanatory details, third, a
warm and courteous close. Some include resale information or sales promotion, which
are complimentary references to the writer's company and its products.
Unit 7 Writing Routine, Good News and Goodwill Messages
A sincere and courteous tone highlights the positive image that your messages seek to convey and
helps maintain a warm business relationship.
7.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Q. 1 Explain the process of organizing "direct requests".
Q.2 What are the important points to remember while writing positive messages?
Q.3 Explain various types of "positive replies" and their salient features.
Q.4 Write explanatory note on the following:
1. Congratulations
2. Letters of appreciation
Q.5 Indicate whether the following statements are 'true'(T) or 'false'(F):
1. The direct approach plan is also known as inductive plan.
2. Always begin a direct message with personal introduction.
3. Middle part of direct message explains the main point.
4. It is always good to thank the reader "in advance".
5. It is advisable to write a request to fellow-employee in memos.
6. Recommendation letters are generally handed to the candidates.
g) Good news letter about selection for a job is a legal document.
h) Acknowledgement letter also fosters "goodwill".
i) Prospective customers often request an annual report.
j) Letter of appreciation contributes to the person's future promotion.
Q. 6 Give three examples of positive requests.
Q, 7 Give three examples of letters giving negative news.
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8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit we explained that when the writer expects the reader to agree with the content
of a message, it is best to present the message directly.
However, you will encounter many other occasions when you are likely to expect resistance
- for instance, when transmitting strong negative information or when persuading someone
to act.
If positive messages with direct approach are among the easiest to write, then those with negative
information or persuasive contents are among the most difficult.
The difficulty of writingnegative messageis because of their dual objectives:
• To transmit bad news clearly ^
To maintain reader's goodwill "Q
To accomplish either of the objectives is fairly easy; to accomplish both takes skill. Persuasive
messages, too, are usually indirect messages because they try to overcome a reader's resistance.
8.2 OCCASIONS FOR NEGATIVE MESSAGES
Negative messages convey information that the audience will likely resist. Occasions for writing
negative messages can be grouped into three broad categories:
211. Writer-centred situations when a writer must give a negative response to a
routine
request that often requires his/her personal attention or participation.
212. Reader-centred occurrences when a reader' s direct request for information,
goods,
or services, or persuasive request for action meets with a negative reply.
213. Message-centred occasions when negative information must be conveyed about
an organization's operations, performance, or products. »
Following are the examples of occasions that call for negative messages: \
a) Writer-centred: Occasion when the writer must respond negatively: i) Expressing
inability to honour routine requests, i) Declining invitations and requests for
favours
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Unit 8 Writing Indirect Messages
iii) Refusing to write letters of recommendation
b) Reader-centred: Occasion when the writer or organization needs to address a
reader's correspondence (inquiry, direct request, order, persuasive request) with
negative message:
i) Responding to an inquiry with negative answers
ii) Providing negative information about an order placed by the reader
ffi) Refusing to grant requested credit or to allow a claim, complaint, or adjustment
c) Message-centred: Occasion when the organization must convey negative information
about itself:
i) Conveying bad news about goods and services
ii) Revealing bad news about operations (changes in policy or procedure)
iii) Providing negative information about company performance, reporting bad news
internally about company performance.
83 INDIRECT APPROACH FOR PRESENTING NEGATIVE INFORMATION
One important consideration in writing negative message is to avoid hurting someone's
feelings. When composing bad news or negative message, you must address two basic
questions:
213. What tone will best contribute to the effectiveness of the message?
214. What arrangement of the main idea and supporting data will ease the
disappointment
of the audience?
a) What tone?
In bad news or negative messages of any kind, you must try to adopt at tone that
supports three specific goals:
i) You want your audience to understand that your negative message represents a
; firm decision.
i) You want your audience to understand that under the circumstances, your
decision is air and reasonable.
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iii) You want your audience to remain well disposed toward your business and, possibly,
toward you.
With right tone, you can make an unwelcome point while preserving the audience's ego.
One key is to make liberal use of the "you" attitude. For example, point out how your
decision might actually further the audience's goals, even though if first causes
disappointment. Or, for instance, even if a person is at fault, assume that he/she is interested
in being fair.
b) What arrangement?
When you write a negative message, you have a choice between using an inductive (direct)
and using deductive (indirect) approach. The more common plan for meeting reader-
resistance in a negative message is indirect or inductive approach. Following are the
conventional organizational components of indirect approach.
i) Opening: contains detail that "buffers" or softens the bad news,
i) Body: has the reasons for the bad news, or negative message
iii) Statement: a clear and diplomatic statement of the negative decision
iv) Close: a helpful and friendly attitude and positive close.
i) Opening:
The first step in using the indirect approach is to put the audience in an accepting mood my
making a neutral, non-controversial statement closely related to the point of the message. Such a
statement that puts the audience at ease is known as "buffer". Buffer is a device in the opening
paragraph of a negative message that attempts to soften bad news.
There a various ways in which you could build buffers. Here are some:
• Agreement:
Find a point on which you and the reader share similar views. Example: "We both
know how hard it is to make profit in this industry"
• Appreciation:
Express sincere thanks for receiving something.
Example: "Your cheque for Rs. 10,0007- arrived yesterday. Thank you."
Unit 8 Writing Indirect Messages
• Cooperation:
Convey your willingness to help in any way you can.
Example: Employee services have been established to smoother the way for those who work
to achieve the company's goals.
t Praise:
Find an attribute or an admirable breath of experience, which should serve you well as you
progress in your career.
Here are some other things to avoid when writing a buffer:
• Avoid saying no:
If you say no at the beginning, the reader may not read the reasons for saying no with an
open mind.
» Avoid Apologizing:
An apology weakens your explanation for the unfavourable decision
• Avoid using a "Know-it-all" tone:
Do not use phrases such as " You should be aware that..." This will cause resistance to your
message, because it will sound as if you are lecturing the reader.
• Avoid costing time:
If you spend time with irrelevant phrases or unnecessary detail, your reader may loose
patience at the outset.
• Avoid misleading the reader:
Indirection is not the same as misdirection. In using indirect approach to write your
message avoid information that can misdirect the reader.
if) Body:
This forms the first part of the body of the negative message. It presents reasons to show 'at
your decision is justifiable and fair. It is important to explain why you have reached ur
decision before you state what the decision is. If you present your reasons effectively, ;y will
help convince your audience that the decision is justified, fair, and logical.
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Some guidelines:
219. Explain why you have made your negative decision before stating what the
decision
is.
220. Make sure that your explanation is specific and related to the reader's particular
situation.
221. Use only your strongest reasons in your explanation. Avoid hiding behind
company
policy and blaming or criticizing others; accept responsibility for the decision.
222. Structure the explanation so mat it leads logically to the decisions.
223. Use positive wording and tone. Remember to add "you" attitude.
In short, well-written reasons that ought to be incorporated in the body are:
222. Detailed
223. Tactful
224. Individualized
225. Unapologetic
226. Positive
iii) Statement of Bad News
So that the audience is psychologically prepared, the bad news should be the logical outcome of
the reasons that come before it. The bad news or decision could be explicitly stated on implied,
but in any case it must be clear.
If the message is handled carelessly it may cause the audience to react emotionally. When
constructing the bad news try to minimize its negative impact by:
1. Avoiding 'no' and 'not'
1. Subordinating the bad news in the sentence
2. Limiting the space devoted to the bad news
3. Embedding it in the middle of a paragraph
Unit 8 Writing Indirect Messages
iv) Close
You may choose to close a negative message with either an action close or positive close. Action
close: is especially appropriate to negative message that specifies alternative action.
Positive close: ends the message in prosperous note- i.e. including subtle and appropriate sales
information.
An upbeat, positive close:
1. builds goodwill
2. offers suggestion for action
3. provides a look toward the future
Whatever type of close you choose, observe these don'ts:
1. Don't refer to or repeat the bad news
2. Don't apologize for the decision
1. Don't encourage further communication ("if you have further questions, please write."),
unless you are really interested in discussing your decision further.
2. Don't anticipate problems, (example: "Should you have further problem, please let us know")
^Activity A;
Business communicators should develop skills to say "no". Below are some negative sentences,
which have to be restated, by avoiding the use of "you" and yet conveying the
negative message:
•I) I don't think I should remind you that the deadline for getting this information was last
Monday.
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b) No, I cannot write a letter of recommendation for you without knowing about your recent work
in this area of specialisation.
c) You must realize that a person with your credit history is a poor risk for a loan of any amount
over Rupees 25, OOO/-
8.4 CONVEYING BAD NEWS ABOUT ORDERS
For several reasons, businesses must sometimes convey bad news concerning orders. In writing to
a would-be customer, you have three basic goals:
3. To work toward an eventual sale
4. To keep instructions or additional information as clear as possible
5. To maintain an optimistic, and confident tone so that your reader won't lose interest.
1. Back orders
Back orders refer to the message that you send your customer conveying either of the
following:
You are able to send only a part of the order. You are
able to send none of the order.
When sending only part of the order, you actually have both good news and bad news. In
conveying such messages use the indirect approach. The buffer contains the good news
about the order being delivered, along with a resale reminder. After the buffer come the
reasons for the delay of the remaining shipment. A strong and positive close should
encourage favourable attitude toward the total transaction.
Unit 8 Writing Indirect Messages
2. Substitutions
Once in a while, a customer will request something that you no longer sell or that is no
longer produced. If you are sure the customer will approve a substitute product, then you
may go ahead and send it. Otherwise, first send a letter offering substitute product and give
the customer simple directions for ordering it. In either case, be careful to avoid calling the
alternate product a 'substitute', because the term carries a negative connotation. In any of
these cases use the indirect approach for your message.
However, the challenge is greater when the substitute is more expensive than the original.
You should be able to convince the customer that more expensive product can be of more
use than the one ordered for. Explain to the customer of the extra salient features of the
alternate product you are offering.
3. Orders that cannot be fulfilled
There will be times when you may not be able to fill an order either in part or with a
substitute. In such case, use the indirect approach to say that you cannot fill an order at all.
One good way to maintain customer's confidence in you and your company is to mention
another source from which the ordered product could be obtained.
4. Checklist for bad news about orders
a) Overall Strategy
i) Use indirect plan in most cases
i) Use direct plan when the situation is routine
b) Buffer
i) Express appreciation for the specific order i) Extract a
welcome to a new customer m) Avoid negative words
iv) Use resale information on product ordered to build the customer's confidence in
his/her choice.
c) Reasons
i) Avoid apologies
ii) Avoid expressions of regret
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iii) Explain the problem with unclear orders (give details, send photographs,
brochures etc.)
iv) Handle back orders carefully
v) Reinforce the customer's confidence with a resale
vi) Explain substitutions in detail
vii) Explain why orders cannot be filled
viii) Avoid hiding behind company policy.
d) The bad news
i) State the bad news as positively as possible ii) Stress the
benefits of the decision to the reader.
e) Positive, friendly, helpful close
i) Explain the desired reader regarding action, as clearly and simply as possible
ii) Make reader action as easy as possible
iii) Use resale information to clinch the sale, especially for replies about unclear
orders, back orders, and non-confirming orders
iv) Adopt a tone to answer your customer of personal attention. £$
Activity B :
a) Using the indirect approach, organize "back order" letters to your customer informing
them that you are unable to fulfill:
i) Part of the order
ii) Complete order
Unit 8 Writing Indirect Messages
b) During your work experience did you have to deliver "bad news" to your dealers? How
did you 'package' the message?
8.5 COMMUNICATING NEGATIVE ANSWERS AND INFORMATION
In business transactions, occasionally, your response to inquiries must simply be 'no'.
Many people do not know how to say no, without impacting personal relationships. It is a
mark of your skill as a communicator to be able to say 'no' clearly yet not cut yourself off
from future dealing with the other person.
Depending upon your relationship with the reader, you could use either the direct
approach or the indirect approach. Use the direct approach when your negative answer
or information will have little personal impact, use the indirect approach in more
sensitive situations.
1. Denying cooperation with routine requests
When people ask you for information or want you to do something and you cannot
honour the request, you may answer with either the direct plan or the indirect plan. Let
us assume that you have requested South-Western Corporation to participate in a
research project concerning sales promotion. South-Western Corporation, however, has
a policy against passing out any information about projected sales figures. You get an
answer from Southwestern Corporation:
"This letter is to inform you South-Western Corporation has no interest in taking part in
your Sales Management Techniques research project.
In fact, our company has a policy that prohibits dissemination of any projected sales
figures.
Thank you for your interest in our organization. If we can help you in any other way, please let us know."
This letter would offend most readers, for the following reasons:
The direct plan is used, even though the reader is outside the company and may be
emotionally involved in the response.
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1. The tone of the first paragraph is unnecessarily negative and abrupt
2. The phrase "has no interest in taking part" implies that the research is unimportant.
3. The writer hides behind a company policy
4. Cliches in the final paragraph (thank you for your interest; if we can help) undercut
any personal, friendly impact that the letter might have had.
2. Declining requests for favours:
Once more, the plan to use when saying 'no' to a requested favour depends your relationship with
the reader. For example, suppose that the president of the local chamber of commerce asks you to
speak at a luncheon five weeks away; however, you are scheduled for a business trip at the tune.
If you do not know the president well, you would probably use the indirect approach:
The buffer recaps the request and demonstrates respect Dear sir,The chamber of commerce has
accomplished many worthwhile projects and I have always admired the local organization.
Thank you for asking me to speak at your luncheon meeting next month.
The reason for declining implies the bad news itself. As you know, as a manager, I have to plan
the marketing for Unique Pharma Ltd., which involves quite a bit of travelling. In fact, I am
scheduled to be in New Delhi on the day you asked me to speak
The close suggests an alternative plan. Can you suggest an alternative date? Any Thursday
during April could be fine for me. The opportunity to speak to your members would be most
rewarding.
3. Refusing request for claims and complaints
In almost every instance, a customer who requests an adjustment is involved; therefore, the
indirect approach is generally used for a reply. Your job as a writer is to avoid accepting
responsibility for the unfortunate situation and yet avoid blaming or accusing the customer. In
such instances the tone of your message is very important. Remember that a tactful and
courteous letter can build goodwill while denying adjustment claims.
For example, a customer who bought a garment finds out a month and a half later that the
garment has split at the seam and now seeks for a refund of the purchase price. Your negative
response should have the following:
Unit 8 Writing Indirect Messages
1. The buffer covers a point on which both writer and reader agree (appreciate the
choice of purchase your customer has made).
2. The reasons that put the company policy in a favourable light (inform that the company
allows refund for any damage within 30 days of purchase).
3. A positive alternative action should put the customer at ease, (inform that even though
the seam has split, yet it is reinforced with flexible cloth tape).
4. The close could add sales promotion that would interest the customer (by sending
brochures of garments of quality fashions).
Sometimes claims for adjustment could be unreasonable and even outrageous, to which you may
be tempted to respond harshly.
Resist such temptations. If you don't, then the consequences would be unpleasant to all parties
involved. In such cases, demonstrate understanding and tact.
8.6 PERSUASIVE MESSAGES
Persuasion is the process of influencing or changing attitudes, beliefs, values, or
behaviour of your audience. We come across many persuasive messages in the form of
requests for donations, firm trying to market its goods or services, someone wanting a
proposed approved to market its goods and services, someone wanting a proposed
approved, etc. In business context too, there are many occasions when the persuasive
messages are needed.
1. Persuasive Goals
Every persuasive message attempts to achieve one of the four broad objectives:
a) Adoption
Message of adoption attempts to persuade readers to start doing something.
Adoption is the essence of most sales letters.
b) Continuance
Message of continuance urges the continuation of behaviour. Continuance is the
basis for selling any ongoing service. Example magazines, journalssend letters
to current subscribers trying to convince them to renew subscriptions.
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c) Discontinuance
Message of discontinuance are those persuasive messages that encourage customers to
discontinue certain pattern of behaviour. For example, encouraging credit customers to
make payment on delinquent accounts. In effect these messages are asking the
customers to stop avoiding payment.
d) Deterrence
Message of deterrence tries to prevent an action from taking place. For instance, an
important client is considering moving his/her account to a different company. A
deterrence letter might be written to convince the client that the move is not wise.
2. Persuasive appeals
Effectively used, persuasive techniques work simultaneously on these levels. Persuasive
messages appeal to the reader's sense of reasoning, establish credibility of the document,
and evoke an emotional response from the reader.
a) Persuading through Reasoning
Persuasive documents try to convince readers to accept a particular point of view
through the logical presentation of evidences. They thus involve act of reasoning - i.e.
using available evidence to reach a conclusion.
b) Persuading through credibility
Credibility is a degree to which a statement, a person, and/or a company are perceived
to be ethical, believable, trustworthy, competent, responsible and sincere.
Although you cannot control exactly how others will perceive a message, you can use
various techniques to influence how people perceive the document that you actually
write. Your credibility is enhanced when your document focuses on customer benefits
instead of dwelling on features of the product, proposal or idea. Level of credibility
can often be raised through the use of testimonials-words of praise for a firm or its
products or an idea attributable to someone whose name or reputation the reader
respects.
Unit 8 Writing Indirect Messages
c) Persuading with emotion
In many situations, emotions remain the most powerful persuasive factor.
Where logical arguments sometimes fail, emotions often have the power to
motivate people to respond and act. One way to determine the most effective
emotional appeal is to analyse readers according to the hierarchy of needs.
Emotionally appeals can also focus on emotions such as hope, pleasure, pride, honour
courage, respect, and responsibility. For example, in a memo urging the consolidation of
two departments, a writer may focus on both the courage that it takes to make such a
difficult decision and the responsibility needed for the progress of the company.
In some cases, emotional appeals are chosen to arouse negative feelings like fear or
anxiety. A pest control service, for instance, may stress the extent of damage termites can
cause and emphasize the fact that homeowners should investment in prevention rather
than repairs.
3. Preparing to write a persuasive message
Because persuasive message aim to influence an audience that is inclined to resist,
they depend heavily on strategic planning. Before you begin to write a persuasive
message, ask yourself:
224. What you are writing about?
225. What audience you are writing to?
226. What you want to happen as a result?
a) Appealing to the audience i)
Needs and appeals
People have many needs, and are motivated by their needs. Some needs are
more important than the others. In writing messages appealing to the needs
will bring about the desired affect.
For example, you supervise someone who consistently arrives late for
work. Once you have analysed the need that motivates the person to arrive
late, you can craft an appeal ("hook") that will make him/her interested in
your message about changing his/her behaviour.
It is essential to analyse your audience and then construct a message that
will appeal to their needs.
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ii) Emotion and logic
When people's needs are not met, they are likely to respond emotionally. For example, a
person whose need for self-esteem is not fulfilled would respond to the tone of respect in a
message. Or for instance, such a person receives a letter of collection of dues in which there
is a hint that the person is considered dishonourable; the message will have adverse affect.
Persuasive messages make use of the emotions surrounding certain words, such as freedom,
success, prestige, credit record etc., which help put the audience in a certain frame of mind
that helps them to accept the message.
in) Credibility
Without credibility, your skilful use of needs, appeals, emotions and logic may seem to be
nothing more than manipulation. It is especially important for a sceptical or hostile audience
to believe that you know what you are talking about and that you are not trying to mislead
anyone.
One of the best ways to gain credibility is to support your message with facts. Testimonials,
documents, guarantees, statisticsjreseacch results, and the like all provide seemingly
objective evidence for what you have to say ancTthus make yourmessage more credible!
If you demonstrate the following characteristics, your audience will more readily believe
about you say:
228. Enthusiasm
229. Objectivity
230. Sincerity
231. Expertise
232. Good intentions
233. Trustworthiness
234. Similarity
235. Semantics
How do you let an audience know, for instance, that you are enthusiastic or trustworthy?
The choice of words can do that job for you. The words you choose for your message say
much more than their dictionary meaning.
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Take for example, the use of words such as useful, beneficial, and advantageous in
the following sentences:
He suggested a useful compromise (The compromise enabled the parties to get to
work.)
He suggested a beneficial compromise (The compromise not only resolved the
conflict but also had a positive effect, perhaps for both the parties)
He suggested an advantageous compromise (The compromise benefited him or his
company more that it benefited the other party)
Another way that semantics can affect persuasive messages is in the varieties of
meanings that people attribute to certain words. Because abstractions refer to
things that people cannot experience with their senses, they are subject to
interpretation.
For example, you may be able to sell more flags by appealing to people's
patriotism (which may be interpreted in many ways) than by describing the colour
and size of the flags.
b) Organizing persuasive messages
Persuasion requires the indirect approach, often a specialized one called AIDA - i.e.
(Attention, Interest, Desire, Action) Plan.
i) Attention
Begin every persuasive message with a statement that catches attention. Your
statement for attention should be:
1. Personalized
1. You- oriented
2. Not extravagant
2. Relevant
Interest
In the section include:
1. Opening theme in quarter detail
2. Benefits specifically to the one getting attention
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iii) Desire
In the desire section:
3. Provide relevant evidence to prove your claim
4. Draw attention to any enclosures
iv) Action End by:
3. Describing precisely what you would like to happen
4. Restating how the audience will benefit by acting as you wish
5. Making action easy
JS$ Activity C:
a) As the President of the Students' Welfare Association, you have been entrusted with the
task of organizing an inter-college event. This event would require funds, for which you
have to get sponsors.
Write letter to a big business house persuading them to sponsor the event.
b) Take any advertisement that you like and try and figure out how the communication \
works. Do you find the AID A pattern working there? [
8.7 WRITING SALES LETTERS
By and large, specialized and highly skilled professionals write sales letters. Sales letters
come in a variety of sizes, with enclosures or without. They can have messages from a single
individual to another, or they can be mass mailings from one company to many
Unit 8 Writing Indirect Messages
consumers. The common factor, however, is their attempt to motivate people to spend
money or to patronize an organization.
In some countries sales letters are considered as legal contracts, so one has to be very
careful in making offers that cannot be delivered. Also making false statement in a sales
letter is considered as fraud, so avoid misrepresenting the price, quality, or performance
capability of a product. Using a person's name, photograph, or other identity in a sales
letter without permission constitutes invasion of privacy.
Therefore, planning a sales letter requires professional skills.
To maintain the highest standards of business entries, you must make every attempt to
persuade without manipulating.
1. Prewriting
The three steps involved in planning a sales letter are similar to those involved in
planning any persuasive message:
1. Determine the main idea (in sales letters, it revolves around a selling point and
related benefits)
2. Define the audience
3. Plan the approach and format
a) Determine the main idea
Selling points are the most attractive features of a product; consumer benefits
are the particular advantages that buyers will realize from those features.
Therefore, the first step in writing any sales letter is to take a good look at the
product.
Once you have a completed file on the product, you must think of how its
features can help potential buyers. You should determine which are the most
appealing features so that you can direct your audience's attention to them.
b) Defining the audience
The most persuasive sales letters are written to appeal to a specific audience.
When analysing an audience of individual consumers, marketers refer to
demographics andpsychographics.
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1. Demographics: Age, gender, education, occupation, and income
2. Psychographics: Personality', personality, attitude, and life-style.
The purpose of collecting these data about your audience, is to form a mental image of the typical buyer for the product you wish to sell.
c) Planning the format and approach
Once you have decided what and say and whom to say now you must decide on how to say it. You will have to decide on whether to send just a letter, or also enclose brochures, samples, response cards etc. What kind of stationary should be used must also be decided. You will also need to decide whether to reply on a single mailing or multi mailing campaign. All these decisions depend on the audience you are trying to reach.
2. Preparing the copy
As seen earlier, sales letters are prepared according to the AIDA plan used for persuasive messages.
a) Attention
There are many devices for getting attention, which are commonly used in sales letters.
i) Some genuine news
tf) Personal appeal to the reader' s emotions and values
in) Most attractive features and the associated benefits
iv) Sample of the product
v) Provocative questions
vi) Solution to a problem
b) Interest
To generate in your reader, emphasize the central selling
point. To determine your product's central selling point, ask:
i) What does the competition offer?
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ii) What is special about my product? 1) What are potential
buyers looking for? c) Desire
0 Highlighting benefits: Selling points coupled with "you" attitude amounts to benefits.
Determine the central selling point will help you to define the benefits to potential
buyers. The benefit to the potential buyer could be framed in "your" statements.
ii) Using action terms: Active words give force to any business message and are
especially important in sales letters. Also make use of colourful verbs and
adjectives; however, do not overload it. For example, "Your factory floors will
sparkle like diamonds" is hard to believe and may prevent the reader from believing
the rest of your message.
Hi) Talking about price: You can prepare readers for your product's price by subtle
choice and arrangement of words. Price of the product is a complicated issue and
often a sensitive one. Whether the price is highlighted or downplayed, your entire
letter should prepare the reader for it. If the price is an attractive feature, emphasize
it by displaying it prominently
To de-emphasize price:
232. Bury actual figures in the middle of a paragraph near the end
233. Mention benefits and favourable money aspects before the actual price
234. Compare the price with the cost of some other product.
d) Motivating action
The overriding purpose of a sales letter is to get the reader to do something. Many
consumer products are sold through the mail by asking the customers for a cheque -i.e.
an immediate decision to buy. Try to persuade readers to take action immediately. You
need to convince them that they must act now. Many sales letter offer easy payment
mode, or free trial etc. The main purpose of the sales letter is to help the potential
customers to make immediate decision and act.
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Business Communication
3. Checklist for sales letters
a) Planning the direct mail package
i) Determine the specific purpose of the mailing
n) Define selling points and consumer benefits
in) Analyse the audience, using demographic and psychographic information
iv) Plan the approach and format
v) Present every element of your package
b) Attention
dL
~jR i) Design a positive opening
n) Promise a benefit to the reader
in) Write an opening that is appropriate, interesting, and relevant to the central selling
point.
iv) Design an opening that will catch the attention of the reader
c) Interest
i) State information clearly, vividly, and persuasively and relate it to the reader's
concerns.
n) Develop the central selling point, in) Feature the
product in two ways:
1. Physical description and
2. Consumer Benefit.
d) Desire
i) Enlist one or more appeals to support the central selling point, ii) Anticipate and
answer the reader's questions and objection, in) Use an appropriate form of proof
to support your selling points, iv) Provide enclosures along with the selling point.
Unit 8 Writing Indirect Messages
e) Action
i) State clearly the action you desire
ii) Use techniques to make action easy (Example: Mail-back reply card) iii) Provide
specific details on how to order and other necessary information iv) Offer a special
benefit to help the consumer to act.
8.8 SUMMARY j^
The purpose of a bad news message is to convey unfavourable information without alienating the
audience.
o accomrjlisji both these goals, you must first consider the audience's point of view; if possible,
explain how bad news can work to the advantage of the reader.
Bad news or negative message is based on either the direct approach or indirect approach
depending upon the circumstances.*-^ \_ fcgS^ ^\
The indirect approach begins with atbuffej/and moves to the reasons and closes with a
ordial note.
The purpose ofthepersuasive message is to influence attitudes and actions. Persuasive
techniques are especially important for an audience that may not completely agree with you or
gain any direct benefits from doing as you ask.
You can motivate an audience to do as you wish by using theAIDAplan for organizing
persuasive messages. Arreo^ / j^r^T, f>s»*&( f^r^f
Persuasive messages are used in many business contexts, including requests for action.
8.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS _ Q, 1 Explain the occasions for negative messages.
Q.2 Discuss the various steps involved in indirect approach for presenting negative.
messages
03 Describe the various persuasive appeals.
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9.1 INTRODUCTION
Reports come in many different shapes and sizes. There are formal reports and informal reports.
There are news report and technical reports routine reports and special reports. But they all
belong to one of the two main types: status reports and decision reports.
A status report describes things, people, and events. It tells us what things are or were like, or
what happened. It gives us information and occasionally, analysis. It satisfies our need to know.
A decision report, on the other hand, gives the person receiving the report a set of options based
on an analysis of a problem and relevant facts. There may even be a clear recommendation with
sufficient justification for the person to choose one of those options and act. The objective of
decision reports is to help reporters take informed decisions.
Business reports are like bridges spanning time and space. Organizations use them to provide a
formal, verifiable link among people, places and time. Some reports are needed for internal
communication; others are vehicles for corresponding with outsiders. Some are required as a
permanent record; others are needed to solve an immediate problem or to answer a passing
question.
Reports are essentially management tool. Many move upward through the chain of command to
help managers monitor the various units in the organization; some move downward to explain
management decisions to lower-level employees responsible for day-to-day operations. The
term 'report' covers a variety of documents ranging from pre-printed forms to brief, informal
letter and memos to formal manuscript of hundreds of pages.
9.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BUSINESS REPORTS
The goal in developing a report is to make the information as clear and convenient as possible.
Because of the constraints of time you tell the readers what they need to know and present the
information in a way that is geared to their needs. Although reports vary widely in purpose and
often in the audience they are written for, all good reports have at least three things in common:
1. The information is accurate.
2. The content shows the writer's good judgment.
3. The format style and organization respond to the reader's needs.
Unit 9 Short and Long Reports
1. Accuracy
The first thing a business report writer must learn is how tell the truth. Unfortunately, telling
the truth is not always a simple matter. We all see reality a little differently and describe it in
a unique way. The following guidelines will help reduce the distortions resulting from
differences in perception.
1. Describe facts or events in concrete term.
2. Report all the relevant facts.
3. Put the facts in perspective.
4. Give plenty of evidence for your conclusions.
5. Present only valid evidence and supportable conclusions.
6. Keep your personal biases in check.
2. Good Judgment
Some things simply do not belong in a report, whether or not try they are true. You can do
both yourself and your organization a great deal of harm by being indiscreet. So you should
not include anything in a report that might jeopardize you or your organization.
You should also remember that managers have distinct preferences when it comes to report.
They particularly dislike personal criticism, alibis, attempts to blame someone else,
incomplete data, uncalled for opinions, and attempts to bypass them through distributions of
the documents. In other words, keep "politics" out of your reports; provide a clear, direct
accounting of the facts. Managers tend to like five things:
1. Getting the main idea at the beginning of the reports.
2. Seeing the facts.
3. Receiving the whole story.
4. Reading language they can understand.
5. Learning something that will make their jobs easier.
3. Responsive Format, Style and Organization
Select a format, a style, and an organization that reflect the reader's need. Before you write,
you have to decide whether to use letter, memo, or manuscript format; whether
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to group the ideas one way or another; and whether to employ a formal or informal style.
All these decisions revolve around the reader's needs. In thinking about these issues, ask
yourself the following question and tailor the report accordingly:
• Who initiated the report?
Voluntary reports, prepared on your own initiative require more details and
justifications than authorized reports, which are prepared at the request of another
person.
• What subject does the report cover?
The subject of a business report affects its vocabulary and format. When both writer
and reader are familiar with the subject and share the same background, the writer
does not need to define terms or explain basic concepts.
• When is the report to be prepared?
Routine reports submitted on a report basis(daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly,
annually) requires less introduction and transitional material than do special,
nonrecurring reports that deal with unique situations.
• Where is the report being sent?
Internal reports, prepared for use within the organization, are generally less formal
than external reports, which are sent to people in other organizations. Many internal
reports, especially lass than ten pages, are written in memo format. External reports,
on the other hand, may be in the letter format if they are no longer than five pages.
• Why is the report being prepared?
Informational reports focus on facts; analytic reports include analysis, interpretation,
conclusions and recommendations. Informational reports are organized around
subtopics; analytical reports are organized to highlight conclusions, recommendations
or reasons.
• How receptive is the audience?
When the reader is likely to agree with the content of the report, the material is
presented in direct order i.e. key findings, conclusions, and recommendations.
If the reader has reservations about the report, the material is presented in indirect order i.e.
starting with the details
Unit 9 Short and Long Reports
9.3 PLANNING SHORT REPORTS
When planning short reports, your audience, purpose, and subject matter n-mct bf
considered. Each of these three elements influences the format and length of your report,
as well as its basic structure.
1. Deciding on Format and Length
The person who requests the document may make decisions about the format and
length of your report or memo for you. However, if you have some leeway, your
decisions should be based on your reader's needs. In selecting a format for your
report, you have four options:
a) Preprinted Form
Basically preprinted forms are for "fill in the blank" reports. Use this format
when the person authorizing the report requests it.
b) Letter
For reports of five or less than five pages that are directed to people outside the
organization the format of a letter is sufficient. They may have headings,
footnotes, tables and figures.
c) Memo
This is the most common format for short (less than ten pages), informal reports
distributed within an organization. Memos have headings at the top: "Date",
"To", "From", "Subject", " "~~
d) Manuscript
Manuscript format is required for reports (from few pages to several hundred
pages) that require a formal approach. As~the length increases, reports in
manuscript format require more elements i.e. preface, supplementary material.
Length of your report depends on the following factors
1. Subject: if the subject is non-routine or controversial, you generally have to
explain your points in greater detail.
2. Purpose: if the information is routine and uncomplicated then the length will be
shorter than complicated issues.
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Business Communication
• Relationship with readers: if your readers are relative strangers, if they are
sceptical or hostile, you will require more space to get around them while writing
the report.
2. Establishing A Basic Structure
In addition to deciding on format and length, you have to decide on the basic structure of
your report. Choice of structure involves three decisions:
1. What to say?
2. Direct or indirect order?
3. Topical or logical organization?
a) Key points to cover [What to say?]
Your report should answer the key question of your audience. In most situations, the
audience has one main question of greatest importance. For example: "Why are we
loosing sales?" or "Is it a good investment?"
1. The reason to write the report is to answer the main question. Once you
have defined the main question you can sketch a general answer, based on
the information available.
2. The next step is to determine additional questions your audience is likely to
ask based on the main question. As this chain of questions and answers
proceed, the points multiply and become more specific, hi carrying out this
exercise you could have defined the content of your report.
3. The question and answer chain clarifies the main idea of the report and
establishes the flow of ideas from the general to the specific. All effective
reports and presentations are constructed in this way, with a mix of broad
concepts and specific details.
4. Routine and problem solving messages are heavy on details and analytical
and problem solving messages are heavy on generalizations out of all the
information and relate them to the needs of the audience.
b) Direct versus indirect order
Audience attitude is the basis for decisions about organization of a report.
Unit 9 Short and Long Reports
When the audience is considered either receptive or open minded you
should use the direct approach i.e. emphasize your key findings,
conclusions and recommendations. This approach, which is most
common for business reports, enables readers to get the main idea of the
report at the outset, which saves time and makes the rest of the report
easier to follow.
• If your audience is sceptical or hostile, you may want to adapt indirect
$jb _or3^1norganizing your report. With this approved, you introduce the
Aj complete findings and supporting details before the conclusions and
recommendation, which usually come last. The indirect approach gives
you a chance to prove your paints and gradually overcome your audience's
reservations. Indirect approach allows you to weigh the evidence objectively
without prejudging the facts of the case. It also allows the audience to
gradually draw their conclusions when they have access to all the facts.
c) Division of ideas
Regardless of whether you use the direct or the indirect approach, you must still
deal with the question of how your ideas will be grouped and developed.
Table 9.1 Factors Affecting Report
Format, Style, and Organization
Factors
Possibilities
Implications For Format, Style, and Organization WHO originates it?
Voluntary reports prepared on the writer's own initiative
Authorized reports prepared at the request of another person
Requires plenty of introductory information to explain purpose of the report.
Requires less introductory material than voluntary reports; should be organized to
respond to the reader's request.
WHAT subject does
it cover?
Sales reports, compensation policies, affirmative action plans, engineering proposals,
research studies, progress reports
Presentation dictated by characteristics of subject (for example, detailed statistical
information summarized in tabular form)
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Business Communication
Factors
Possibilities
Implications For Format, Style, and Organization
WHEN is it prepared?
Routine, recurring reports prepared on daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, or annual basis
Special, nonrecurring reports prepared on response to unique situation
Require standard format that facilitates comparisons from one period to next; need
relatively little background and transitional information
Do not need standardization; require plenty of background and transitional material
WHERE is it sent?
Internal reports prepared for use within the organization
External reports sent to people outside the organization
Can be relatively informal; written in memo or manuscript format
Should be relatively formal in tone; written in letter or manuscript format
WHY is it prepared?
Informational reports providing facts
Analytical reports providing analysis, interpretation, conclusions, and often
recommendations
Organized around subtopics
Organized around conclusions or recommendations or logical
arguments
HOW will it be received?
Receptive readers Sceptical or hostile readers
Arranged in direct order Arranged in indirect order
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Source: John V. Thill & Courtland L. Bovee, Excellence in Business Communication,
McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York 1991
9.4 ORGANIZING SHORT REPORTS
In the process of organizing reports the key is to decide first whether the purpose of the
receipt is to provide chiefly information or analysis. From there, your can choose an
organizational plan that suits your topic and goals.
A) Organizing Information Memos And Reports
The purpose of informational reports is to explain something in straightforward terms.
Informational reports have several uses in business that include:
Unit 9 Short and Long Reports
1.
Monitoring and controlling operations.
2. Statements of policies and procedures.
3. Reports on the organization's compliance with Government requirement.
4. Personal activity reports.
In writing informational reports, you usually do not have to worry too much about reader reaction
because readers will presumably respond unemotionally to your material. Hence, you can present
your report in the most direct manner possible. However, you must present the information
accurately and in a logical manner.
1. Periodic Reports
Periodic reports are internal reports that describe what has happened in a department during a
particular period. The purpose of these recurring documents, which are sometimes called
status reports, is to provide a picture of how things are going so that the, manager will be up-
to-date and can take corrective actions if necessary.
Periodic reports are usually written in memo format and do not need much introduction.
Most periodic reports follow this sequence in organization:
1. Overview of routine responsibilities: A brief description of activities related to
each of the writer's responsibilities.
2. Discussion of special projects: A description of any new or special projects
undertaken during the reporting period.
3. Plans for the coming period: A schedule of activities planned for the next reporting
period.
4. Analysis of problems: Although often included in the overview of routine or
special activities, problem analysis is sometimes put in a separate section to call
to access that may require high-level intervention.
2. Personal Activity Reports
Personal activity reports, often irrthe form of brief iranies, describes the facts and
decisions that emerged during conventions, conference, trips or business meetings. They
are intended to inform the management of any important information or decisions that
emerged from the meetings.
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Business Communication
Because they are non-recurring documents, they require more of an introduction than a periodic
report does. They are often organized chronologically, but some are organized according to
topics that reflect the reader's interests.
B) Organizing Analytical Reports
Analytical reports differ from informational reports in their purpose and thus, in their
organization. The purpose of an analytical report is to convince the reader that the conclusions
and recommendations developed in the text are valid. They include justification reports, research
reports, client proposals, and troubleshooting reports. In informational report, the focus of
attention is the information itself. On the other hand, in analytical reports, information plays a
supporting role.
Analytical reports are generally written to respond to special circumstances. One common aim of
all analytical reports is to guide the reader toward a decision.
1. Justification Report
Justification reports are internal proposals used to persuade top management to
aggroyean investment or a project. When the reader is concerned about what action
tolakeTu^recolmiOTdationsastrre main points. This structure is extremely efficient because
it focuses the reader's attention on what needs to be done. You can use a similar approach
when you are asked to analyse a problem or are opportunity and draw conclusions, rather
than provide recommendation.
2. New Business Proposal To An Outside Client
Proposals to outside clients are attempts to get products, plans or projects accepted by
outside businesses or Government clients. There also take a direct approach, but instead
oTofganizing arou!iarcolicTusionsr6r recommendations, it is organized around the
statement of a problem and its solutions.
3. Troubleshooting Report
Whenever a problem exists, someone must investigate it and propose a solution. A
troubleshooting report is a decision-oriented document prepared for submission to top
management. When you want your readers to concentrate on why your ideas make sense,
your best way is to let your logical arguments provide the structure for your report. By
using reasons as the main tool, you can gradually build a case for your conclusions and
recommendations.
Unit 9 Short and Long Reports
Organizing an analytical report around a list of reasons that collectively support your main
conclusions and recommendations is a natural approach to take. Many problems are solved this
way, and readers tend to accept the gradual accumulation of evidence, even though they may
question one or two points.
^Activity A;
a) Identify the factors that you would take into consideration (with respect to format, style and
organization) while preparing an appraisal report for a supervisor.
b) Select a product you are familiar with, and imagine that you are the manufacturer trying to get
a local retail outlet to sell your product. Write a sales proposal.
9.5 PLANNING AND ORGANIZING LONG / FORMAL REPORTS
PS Atkinson & Helen Reynolds, in their book, Business Writing and Procedures, define formal
report as that which "presents in organized from the information that has been requested by an
authorized person". Long or formal reports are those, which scientists, engineers, business
executives and administrators haVe to write as a part of their duty. Such reports are the result
of careful investigation, sound thinking, logical organization, and clear writing and they are
presented in a conventional form.
Following are the points, which have been identified by R C Sharma and Krishna Mohan that
constitute the definition of report:
« A report is a formal statement of facts or information or an account of something.
• It is presented in a conventional form
* It is written for a specific audience.
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Business Communication
1. It includes information about the procedures of collecting data and the significance of
such data.
2. It contains conclusions reached by the writer.
3. It often includes recommendations
The steps for planning and organizing formal reports are:
1. Identify the problem
2. Decide on areas to investigate
3. Determine the scope of the report
4. Plan the research or data gathering
5. Develop a preliminary outline
6. Collect the data
7. Analyse data, draw conclusions, and make recommendations.
Step No.l: Defining the problem
The first step is to identify the problem to be studied and the objectives of the report. In other
words, you should develop a clear written statement of the purpose of your report. Often, the
person who authorizes the report defines the problem for you. However, to understand exactly
what is required find out the objectives of the report.
Once you have asked some preliminary questions, you should develop a clear written statement.
Then double-check this statement with the person who authorized the study. The statement may
be expressed as:
• An Infinitive Phrase:
Example: The purpose of the report is to determine if the accounting department needs new
computers.
• A Question:
Example: This report seeks to answer the question "Does the accounting department need
new computer?"
• A Statement:
Example: This report will determine if the accounting department needs new computers.
Unit 9 Short and Long Reports
Regardless of which from you choose for your statement, be sure to make the goal of the
investigation clear so that you will not be side tracked into irrelevant issues.
Step No.2 : Outlining Issues for analysis
This step in report writing has to do with the outline of the issues you plan to study. To organize
the research effort, you need to break the problem into a series of specific questions. This process
of breaking the problem into series of questions is called "factoring". The process of outlining the
issues for analysis enables you to solve a problem methodically.
a) Developing a Logical Structure
Since any subject can be factored in many ways, your task is to choose the most logical
method, the one that makes the most sense. Begin by looking carefully at the purpose of your
study. Logical structuring is used for informational assignments and analytical assignments.
Both these are structured differently. It should however, be remembered that many
assignments require both information and analysis.
• Informational assignments :
General goal is to provide information, which someone else will interpret. Studies that lead
to factual reports with very little analysis or interpretation are generally factored on the basis
of subtopics dealing with specific subjects. These subtopics can be outlined.
1. In order of importance
2. Sequentially
3. Chronologically
4. Spatially (studying a physical object-left, right, top, etc)
1. Geographically
2. Categorically (sales, profit, cost, investments)
These methods of subdivision are commonly used in preparation of policies and
procedures, compliance report, monitor/ control reports.
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Business Communication
Table 9.2: Logically Structured Outline Based on Problem-Solving Method
Factored on the basis Factored on the basis of
of hypotheses relative merits
Problem : Why are we having problem Problem: Where do we build a new
hiring Secretaries? store?
1. Salaries are too low. 1. Construction costs
a. What do we pay our secretaries? a. Location A
b. What do comparable companies b. Location B
paytheir secretaries? c . Location C
c. How important is pay in 2 . Labour availability
influencing secretaries' a. Location A
job choice? b. Location B
2. Our location is poor. c. Location C
a. Are we accessible by public 3. Transportation facilities
transportation and major roads? a. Location A
b. Is the area physically attractive? b. Location B
c. Are housing costs affordable? c. Location C
d. Is crime a problem?
3. The supply of secretaries is
diminishing.
a. How many secretaries were
available five years ago as
opposed to now?
b. What was the demand for
secretaries five years ago as
opposed to now?
Note : Note :
In the above outline the factoring of the In the above outline the factoring of
problem is done on the basis of hypotheses the problem is done on the basis of
(1,2,3) alternatives (1,2,3)
Source : Adapted from. J V Thill and C L Bovee, Excellence in Business Communication
Unit 9 Short and Long Reports
Analytical Assignments
Studies that result in reports containing analyses, conclusions and recommendations are
generally categorized by a problem-solving method.
1. When the problem is to discover causes, predict results, or find a solution to a
problem, then studies may be factored on the basis of hypotheses.
2. When the problem is to evaluate various alternatives, then the studies may be
factored on relative merits.
b) Following the Rules of Division
Follow the rules of division to ensure that your study will be organized in a logical and
systematic way. Scholars have developed a concise set of rules for dividing an idea into
components:
3. Choose a significant and useful basis or guiding principle for the division.
4. When subdividing a whole into its parts, restrict yourself to one basis at a time.
5. Make sure that each group is separate and distinct.
• Be through when listing all the components of a whole.
c) Preparing a Preliminary Outline
As you go through the factoring process, you may want to use an outline format to represent
the logical flow and systematic grouping of your ideas. Organize your study by preparing a
detailed preliminary outline, which gives you a convenient frame of reference for your
investigation.
Detailed outline serves well:
1. When you are one of several people working on an assignment.
1. When your investigation will be extensive and will involve many sources and
many types of data.
2. When the person who requested the study will may revise the assignment during
the course of your investigation (and you can keep track of the changes)
Two widely used systems of outlining are the alphanumeric system and the decimal system.
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Business Communication
Table 9.3
Alphanumeric Decimal
I. 1.0
A. 1.1 1.2
1.3 1.4
2.0
B.
1.
1.2.1
2.
1.2.2
a.
b.
3.
1.4.1
C. 1.4.2
II.
A. 2.1
2.2
2.2.1
Source : Adapted from J V Thill and C L Bovee, Excellence in Business Communication
Step No.3: Preparing The Work Plan
Once you have defined the problem and outlined the issues for analysis, you are ready to
establish a work plan based on your preliminary outline.
When you are conducting a lengthy formal study, the work plan should be quite detailed
because it well guides the performance of many tasks over a span of time. Moreover,
most proposals require a detailed work plan, which becomes the basis for a contract if
the proposal is accepted. A formal work plan might include the following items.
1. Statement of the problem.
2. Statement of the purpose and scope of your investigation.
3. Discussion of the sequence of tasks to be accomplished (indicating sources of
information, required experiments or observations, and any restrictions on time,
money,
or available data)
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Unit 9 Short and Long Reports
3. Description of the end products that will result from the investigation (such as report,
plans, operating improvements or tangible products)
4. Review of project assignments, schedules and resource requirements (indicating who
will be responsible for what, when tasks will be completed, and how much the
investigation will cost).
Step No.4 : Doing the Research
The value of your report depends on the quality of the information it is based on. So when the
time covers to gather information your first concern is to get organized. Your work plan will be a
big help during the research effort. The work plan should contain a list of the primary and
secondary sources you will consult.
a) Reviewing Secondary Sources
Secondary sources are second-hand reports. Even though you may plan to rely heavily on
primary sources (firsthand reports), you are wise to begin your study with a through review
of information that has already been collected. This literature is usually in the form of
books, periodical and reports.
Secondary sources offer material that can form the background of your investigation and
analysis. It gives a theoretical and conceptual from of reference to your research. Your
objective should be to give as accurate and as through report as possible.
b) Collecting Primary Data
When the information you need is not available from secondary sources, you have to
collect and interpret the data yourself by doing primary research. You must go into the real
world to gather information through your own efforts. The four main ways to collect
primary data are.
• Examine Documents
In business, a great deal of information is filed away for future reference. Your own
company files may provide you with accurate, factual historical records that you cannot
obtain anywhere else. Business documents that quality as primary data include sales
reports prepared by field representatives, balance sheets, income statements,
correspondence with various parties, contracts and logbooks. Besides company files,
government and legal documents are primary sources as well, because they represent a
decision made by those present at some official proceedings.
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Business Communication
• Observations
Observations make use of your five senses and your judgment in the process of
investigation. Informal observations are a rather common source of primary data in business.
Many reports, for instance, are based on the writer's visit to a site to observe operations.
More objective information can be gathered through formal observations because the
researcher has predetermined points that needs to be observed. The decision to observe,
which is predetermined, is based on the purpose of the study. For example, if you are
conducting a study on the sales performance of your company, you would look only for
those behaviour of the employees on the shop floor during certain specific operation
observation is a useful technique when you are studying objects, physical activities,
processes, the environment, or human behaviour.
• Surveys
A common way to conduct primary research is to interview well-qualified experts. The best
way to obtain answers to your questions is to ask people who have relevant experience and
opinions. Such surveys include every thing from a single interview to the distribution of
hundreds of questionnaires.
A formal survey is a way of finding out what a cross-section of people think about
something. Aformal survey requires a number of important decisions.
1. Should you use face-to-face interviews, phone calls or printed questionnaires?
2. How many individuals should you contact to get results that are reliable, and
who should those people be?
• What specific questions should you ask in order to get a valid picture?
Your answers to those questions have a profound effect on the results of your survey.
One of the most critical elements of a survey is the questionnaire. To develop a
questionnaire, begin by making a list of the points you are trying to determine. Then break
these points into specific questions, choosing an appropriate type of question for each point.
The questions could take any of the following forms:
1. Open-ended
2. Either-or
Unit 9 Short and Long Reports
1. Multiple Choice
2. Scale
e) Checklist
1) Ranking
g) Fill in the blanks.
The following hints will help in preparing the questionnaires:
235. Provide clear instructions so that the respondents know exactly how to fill out the
questionnaire.
236. Each question should be clearly framed and should seek to elicit the fill out the
questionnaire.
237. Keep the questionnaire short and easy to answer. It should be precise and not vague.
238. Avoid leading questions-questions that suggest or anticipate answers and thus
either
condition or prejudice the respondent's mind.
239. Do not ask any questions that may embarrass the respondent.
1. Arrange your questions in a logical order.
1. Pre-test the questionnaire on a sample group to identify questions that are subject to
misinterpretation.
£! Activity B;
Design a questionnaire for any topic you may want to find out more information about.
• Experiments
Although some general business questions justify the need for experiments, their use is for
more common in technical fields. An experiment requires extensive manipulation of the
factors involved. Nevertheless, experiments do have their place. Hawthorne Experiment is a
classic example of the use of the use of experiments in business field.
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The aim in conducting an experiment is to keep all variables the same except for the one you are
testing. In other words, you have to be careful to control those factors you are not testing.
Step No.5 : Analysing Data
Once you have completed your research you have to analyse your findings. The analytical
process is essentially a search for relationships among the facts and evidence you have compiled.
By looking at the data from various viewpoints, you attempt to detect patterns that will help you
to answer the question of your work plan. You analyse results by calculating statistics, drawing
reasonable conclusions, and developing a set of recommendations.
a) Calculating Statistics
One important aspect in research is to quantity your findings. Testing of variables involve
quantifying i.e. information that you compile during the research phase will be in numerical
form. If your research does not involve measurable variables then your findings will not be
credible. Once the factual data is precise, measurable, and objective they are credible.
Statistical information in its raw form is of little particle value. It must be manipulated so
that you and your readers can interpret its significance.
i) Averages :
One useful way of looking at data is to find the averages, which is 'one number' that
represents a group of members. The same set of data can be used to produce three
kinds of averages: mean, median and mode.
Mean: Also known asJarithmetic mean^ which is a value that is computed by dividing
the sum of a set of terms by the number of terms.
Median: It is a value, in an ordered set ofyaluesjbelow andaboyewhich there are equal
number of values. Or the average (arithmetic mean) of the middle values if time is no
one middle value.
Mode: It refers to the most frequent value of a set of data. For example, we
want to consider the sales booked by a group of mine sales representatives
over one month. a*
Unit 9 Short and Long Reports
Sales Person
Sales (in Rupees)
Sharma. 3000
Gupta 5000
Kulkarni 6000
Kadam 7000 Mean
Chopra 7500 Median
Jadhav 8500 Mode
Menon 8500 Mode
fillai 8500 Mode
Nikam 9000
63, 000 Functions of the three
types of averages :
• Mean is useful when you to compare one item or individual with the group.
However, this type of average could be misleading if one of the number is extreme.
For example, in this case the mean is 7000; but if Nikam's sales figure were
Rs.27,0007- then the mean would be 9000 in which case Sharma's figure of
Rs.3000 would look even worse.
1. Medium is useful when one (or a few) of the numbers is extreme. For example,
even if Nikam's sales figure was 27,000, yet the middle figure of the list shows
7500. When the median is used for comparing the sales of other members, the
extreme figure of Nikam would not influence it.
2. Mode is very commonly used. It is the figure that occurs more often than other
figures. It is useful in determining the most common level (here sales). For example,
if you wanted to know what level of sales was most common, you could answer
with the mode.
ii) Trends
If you were supervising the work of your sales force, you would be tempted to
make some important personal decisions based on a month's sales figure.
However, it would be a wise decision if you would compare the sales figure of the
present month with the sales performance over a period of time. Doing this would
mean that you are looking for a pattern in the sales performance. This is
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what trend is all about. Looking at the trend would indicate whether a person is
progressing, regressing, or remaining steady. Trend analysis is common in business.
By looking at data over a period of time, you can detect patterns and relationships that
will enable you to answer important questions.
iii) Correlations
A correlation is a statistical relationship between too or more variables. Once you have
identified a trend, you should now look for the cause of the trend. Let us assume that
Nikam consistently produces the most sales. You would want to know the reasons for
his consistent high sales. This raises many questions in your mind - Is he a more
persuasive person? Does he call on his customers more often? Does he have
comparatively larger sales territory? Or is he more experienced there the others?
Seeking answers to these types of questions, you look for a consistent relationship
between each person's sales and other variables such as years of selling experience,
area of territory, etc. If you observe that larger territory produces larger sales, you may
assume that these two variables (area of territory and sales figure) are correlated, or
related in a predictable way. From this assumption you may draw conclusion and state
that Nikam's consistent high sales figure is due to the larger sales territory as compared
to others.
Correlations are useful evidence, but they do not prove a cause-and-effect relationship.
Putting it differently, drawing conclusions from an assumption is not a very sound
method. Nikam's success might well be the result of several other factors.
b) Drawing Conclusions
Regardless of how much evidence you amass, at some point in every analysis you move
beyond hard facts (which can be objectively measured and verified) and begin to draw
conclusions. Conclusions are interpretations of what the facts mean. In formulating
conclusions you make use of your assumptions and value judgments, which have been
formed by your own experience. Thus, conclusions may be based on a combination of
facts, value judgments, and assumptions.
Value judgments and assumption form the basis for interpretation of facts, and decisions
are based on interpretation. This implies that conclusions may be based on subjective
factors. Using scientific research and statistical analysis you may come up with objective
Unit 9 Short and Long Reports
conclusions, but you cannot overcome the subjective factors that influence the
formulation of conclusion.
When applying a subjective thought process to objective evidence, be sure to check
the logic that underlies your conclusions. If needs be get more evidence to confirm
your conclusions. Be aware of possible biases that are not justified by the
circumstances.
If you are working as part of a term, you have the advantage of discussing your
conclusions with your team, you have the advantage of discussing your conclusions
with your team members, during which your own values and assumptions come into
focus. The best conclusion is often the one that gains the most support.
c) Developing Recommendations
If conclusions are opinions or interpretations; recommendations are suggestions for
action. When you have been asked to take the final step and translate your
conclusions into recommendations, be sure to make the relationship between them
clear. You can test the soundness of your recommendations against the following
criteria:
2. The recommendations should offer real advantage to the organization.
3. The recommendations should be financially and politically feasible.
4. Develop specific plans to overcome hindrances that might impede
implementations of the recommendation.
• Risks associated with the recommendations should be acceptable.
£> Activity C;
You have been asked by your Marketing Manager to prepare a formal report on the
problem of declining sales of motorcycles in the district of Pune. Prepare the
following:
a) Problem statement in an infinitive phrase, a question form, and a statement form.
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Business Communication
b) Prepare an outline for the report.
9.6 SUMMARY
Preparing the final draft of a reperfmvolves decision on length, format, and organization.
Short, informal reports ofterffake the form of memos or letters; lopg^k more formal reports
sented in manuscript form. 5^"^ a "f^ <^ ^ i*?-^v K '
When readers are^ecepjive, yoiynay presen^your ideas in direct order, with the main point
first. When readers are hostile or sceptical, use indirect order, presenting key findings,
conclusions and recommendations Ja^tTlriformational reports are organized around
subtopics. Analytical reports are organized around conclusions or recommendations or
around logical arguments.
Effective long reports begin with a clear definition of the problem to be investigated. Once
the problem has been defined, you can determine what information will be required to solve
it and develop a plan for obtaining that information.
During the research phase, you should review secondary information. You may also
conduct primary research to obtain information that is not available from existing resources.
This research may take the form of examining documents, conducting surveys, making
firsthand observations, or doing experiments.
When you have completed your research and analysed the data, you are ready to develop
conclusions and recommendations. Be sure that your suggestions are both logical and
practical.
9.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS _
Q 1 . Discuss Informational reports and Analytical reports.
Q2 Explain the various elements in planning short reports.
Q3 . Describe in brief the different steps in planning formal reports.
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Unit 9 Short and Long Reports
Q4. Write explanatory notes on the following
1. Statement of purpose.
2. Averages
3. Correlations
4. Justification reports.
Q5. AnswerlhefoUowing:
a. Four components of a memo
V«
ifif
b. Two types of informational reports
\
c. Three types of analytical reports
d. Two types of outlining methods
e. Three kinds of averages
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10.1 INTRODUCTION
-y
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Information technologies sucjj^selectronic mail, cellular phones, videoconferencing, and
fax machines have enhanced communication. It has increased the dependency of business
on technology, and this has made decision-making process faster. As a result human
interaction and participation in decision-making by diverse groups of people has also
enhanced. Despite all these developments, face-to-face communication has not mitigated.
In the business world, face-to-face presentation is still the most effective way to reach the
intended audience. : > '
/ *•?•
tion is a form of face-tp4ace communication, and plays an important role in
sharing information and guiding actions within organizations. Presentation is more
formal type of communication and hence requires a definite strategy- such as goal
setting, situational knowledge, communication competence, and anxiety management.
All these require adequate preparation to ensure effective performance.
Making presentation is quite different from speaking with others in a two-party or small-
group context. Ensuring audience comprehension is more difficult because feedback is
less direct and less spontaneous. During a presentation, the speaker must be able to read
the audience's nonverbal behaviour and infer the moods and reactions of the audience to
the message being presented.
10.2 SPEECH AND ORAL PRESENTATIONS
A common tool in business communication, a Speech is a highly structured form of
address in which a speaker addresses an audience gathered to hear a message. Most
feedback comes after the speech is over, although nonverbal feedback can occur at any
time.
By contrast, oral presentations are almost always extemporaneous, are very often
delivered with the help of visual aids, and are frequently participative. Audience
participation often takes the form of comments and questions that can punctuate the oral
presentation at any point.
Oral presentations play important roles in both a company's internal and external
communication systems. Internally, for example, they are used to present budget
requests and sell programmes. For instance, a redesigned benefits package will probably
be presented to top management through an oral presentation.
As an important part of a company's external communication, and presentations are
used as tools to win and keep new clients. For example, when advertising executives
submit
Unit 10 Developing and Delivering Effective Presentations
advertising plans and their clients, they are making presentations. When a small business owner
presents his company's credentials as a sub-contractor to a large corporation, he is making a
presentation.
^Activity A;
a) How would you differentiate between a speech and oral presentation based on your past
observations of both?
b) Can you recollect a speech made by a politician that you have watched live on TV? Try to
note down some non-verbal points you may have noticed.
10.3 IDENTIFYING THE GENERAL AND SPECIFIC PURPOSES
The starting point for developing a message is selecting a topic. Making the decision in
a work setting is usually quite easy; topics emerge naturally from the interplay of your
job, your audience, and the organization's need. After you have generated several
potential •pics, you will select the actual topic for your presentation.
Once you have selected a topic, the process of refining it begins. There are two levels
at •vhich the basic goal of presentation is identified. The two purposes that needs to be
.ientifiedare:
» General Purpose «
Specific Purpose
General Purpose:
Despite the differences between formal speeches and oral presentations, they share
common general purposes- i.e. communicating with an audience.
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1. to inform
2. to persuade
3. to motivate
4. to celebrate.
a) To Inform:
Informative presentations provide ideas, alternatives, data, or even opinion, but most
important, they provide credible, reliable information to supportyour major points. When
giving an informative presentation, you function as s(teachei)ofyour audience. It is not
always easy, to know the audience's level of knowledge on the topic, nor is it easy to narrow
the topic so that you are working with a manageable and teachable amount of information.
Informative presentations have the following characteristics:
i) They are accurate: When you communicate facts, accuracy is essential
ii) They are clear: Information must be communicated in a way that the listeners can
understand.
iii) They are meaningful: They must answer the question that every listener asks. "How will
this help me?"
iv) They are memorable: Information not remembered has little value.
b) To Persuade :
Persuasive presentations can work at three levels.
i) They can change or reaffirm existing attitudes about important topics
ii) They strive to gain the commitment of the audience.
f • . -- .—,
iii) They motivate action.
In Persuasive presentations, you are asking the audience to make a commitment to your
view point and to act in ways that you(advocate)as with informative speaking, persuasive
presentation require conscientious research to uncover the best available data on the topic.
Unit 10 Developing and Delivering Effective Presentations
c) To Motivate :
Presentations designed to motivate audience are a special type of persuasive speech.
Motivational presentations employ persuasion, but rely more extensively on stimulating
the emotions and feelings of listeners as a method of inducing action. For example, drill
sergeants may use highly charged, emotional language to push 'raw' recruits to new
levels of physical exertion.
d) To Celebrate:
Ceremonial presentations often share many of the elements found in informative,
persuasive, and motivational presentations.
Included in the group of ceremonial presentation are the following:
i) Introduction i) Acceptance in) Tribute iv) Goodwill v) Inspiration vi) Celebration
239. introducing other speakers
240. welcoming an honour as reward
241. making toasts
242. remembering and honouring the past
243. presenting a memorial or eulogy
244. rejoicing in achievements.
Ceremonial presentations require you to consider the common ties that bind participants
together as a group.
Usually, for ceremonial presentation you may be given a general purpose and asked to select a
topic, but in business you are frequently assigned a topic and must then choose the general
purpose (approach) that will be most successful.
Specific Purpose:
Having established the general purpose now you must determine the specific purpose, which
identifies what you as the presenter want the audience to think, believe, feel, or do as a result of
listening to your presentation. Specific goals are far more effective for directing communication
to achieve shared meaning and desired results.
The specific purpose should contain a singe idea.
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Business Communication
Some basic considerations for specific purposed include the following:
1. Is the idea manageable in time allotted for presentations?
2. Is the idea challenging to the audience?
3. Is the idea important to the organizational values?
This exercise should result in developing a thesis statement - a single declarative sentence that
summarizes the main ideas to be presented to the audience.
This is also known as the "core idea". Every core idea should define, what speech-
communication experts Gerald Philips & Jerome Zolten call, "residual message- the idea that
breaks through the resistance, that stays in the listener's mind when everything else is forgotten".
10.4 SITUATIQNAL KNOWLEDGE: ANALYZING THE AUDIENCE
Audience analysis is the process by which business communicators analyse the needs and
knowledge of their listeners in order to improve the likelihood of communicating effectively
through oral presentations.
Audience analysis corresponds to the second component of strategic communication- i.e.
gathering situational knowledge. It helps you to understand the speaking situation as it unfolds,
as well as how best to prepare for the audience's needs and likely responses to your message.
Because audience analysis gives speakers tools to link their specific purposes to audience
interests and needs it is at the heart of any successful speech or oral presentation.
1. Demographic profile of the audience - i.e. Age, social class, educational level, gender,
cultural background, and occupational status - is fundamental to any audience analysis.
Demography (the collection and study of such information) is a necessary first step in
establishing more specific and complex analysis of a target audience.
2. Target audience refers to the key decision makers who are members of the general
audience, and should be an important focus for your analysis.
You are more likely to succeed by tailoring your ideas, information, and appeals to there
audience members. Satisfying this target group thus requires asking yourself certain key
questions:
Unit 10 Developing and Delivering Effective Presentations
243. What does the audience know about me? This question goes to the heart of
speaker
credibility: Will my position and reputation affect audience response?
244. What does my audience know about my organization?
245. How much does the audience know about my topic? Is the topic technical for the
audience, so that it will require explanation?
246. How much interest does the audience have in my topic?
247. How does the audience feel about my topic?
(Supportive, non-committed, or hostile).
248. What is the context for my presentations ?
These questions require deliberation and careful analysis of audience to make your presentation
effective. In the words of Peter F. Drucker: "To improve communication, work not on the utterer,
but the recipient".
Audience attitude toward many social and economic issues can be predicted through careful
demographic analysis.
For example, if you learn that for your presentation on "why the company should be de-unionize
to encourage new hiring policies", your audience consists of mostly blue-collar male aged
between forty to sixty who are union members, you will approach the topic with careful
preparation.
& Activity B:
a) What audience information would you gather for analysis for a presentation on: ; i) Annual
Sales Performance ii) School Sports Plan I) Polio Campaign for Uneducated Women
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b) Name three different occasions when a presentation could be made.
10.5 MAJOR PARTS OF PRESENTATION: INTRODUCTION
One of the most difficult task in any kind of presentation is to begin unless you begin you
cannot continue and conclude.
The question is 'How to begin?'
Let us consider a similar situation: first meeting of a class.
What do the students want to know during the first session/period of a class?
Study has shown that they want to learn three categories of information:
1. course coverage - what will be the content and focus of the course
2. course requirement - what is required to complete the course
3. course instructor - what kind of person will this teacher turn out to be?
These questions fall into three general categories:
252. Orientation-what is happening?
253. Motivation-what is in it for me?
254. Rapport - will I like and respect the teacher? VfsoH f U{V£rV75Z!r\.
The introduction to a presentation serves similar functions.
1. It informs the listener what the message is about - orientation
2. Why the listener should attend to it - motivation
3. Why the speaker is a credible source of the message - rapport.
a) Orientation:
i) One method of orientation is to state the topic to be discussed, give the thesis
statement, explain the title of presentation, or review the purpose of
presentation.
Unit 10 Developing and Delivering Effective Presentations
Example: A speaker at a business fundraiser for local arts group." Some of you may
wonder why this presentation is titled "Give, Don't Give Up". I am here today to tell you
only it is more important now, in the face of difficult economic times, than ever before to
contribute to cultural organizations"
ii) Another method of orienting the audience is to preview the structure of the message.
Example: "Cultural organizations provide three vital services to our community: they
expand our view of the world and each other; they raise issues that we need to discuss;
and they enrich our lives."
I) The speaker may also explain why the topic was narrowed as it was:
"When I was asked to give a fundraising presentation to you, business leader in the
community, my first question was what can you do for us? I soon realized that I needed
to tell you what are doing- and help to continue to do for you".
b) Motivation:
i) Motivational strategies include linking the topic and thesis statement to listener's
lives.
Example:' 'How many of you have attended a cultural event in our community in the
recent past? Think of how our city would be diminished if these events were no longer
held?"
I) Another motivational strategy is to show how the topic has affected or will affect the
audience's past, present and future.
Example: "You may not have realized it, but tourism generated Rs.34 million for our
city last year. Surveys showed that many of the visitors came to participate in our
numerous cultural events, and in the process they bolstered the profits of
your business."
I) Third method of motivating the audience to listen is by demonstrating how the topic is
linked to their basic need/goal.
Example: "Cultural events are an important part of making our community vital and
prosperous, and I am sure that all of us would want to keep it that way."
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Business Communication
c) Rapport:
Building rapport can take several forms:
i) Language - demonstrates competence and credibility. Through your words and delivery,
you must convince your audience that you are qualified to speak. Establishing your
expertise on the topic that would increase the audience's receptivity to your message.
i) Capture attention - the main purpose of your introduction is to capture the attention of
your audience and make them want to hear more. Capturing attention is a technique to
build rapport.
This can be done by:
255. Complimenting the audience
256. Using humour
257. Making startling statements
258. Anecdotes
259. Quotations
260. Rhetorical question (question designed to produce audience involvement in a
subject without requiring an answer)
Your introduction should also preview your main points- i.e. Preview things to come. In no more
than a sentence or two, your preview can provide the reasons why your audience should continue
listening.
10.6 MAJOR PARTS OF PRESENTATION: THE BODY
Generating Potential Main Ideas :
Once you have narrowed a topic to a specific purpose and thesis statement and identified the
characteristics of your audience, the next step in planning is to identify and research your main
points. Be it a speech or a presentation, it is imperative that you carry out a thorough research so
that your audience is drawn towards your goal.
For instance, if you are an account executive for an advertising agency and your goal is to
persuade a local hotel to select your agency to handle the hotels advertising campaign, what are
the main ideas you need to stress to show them the benefits of selecting your
Unit 10 Developing and Delivering Effective Presentations
agency? Here it becomes necessary to do a thorough research before you make your presentation
to the prospective client You need to generate main ideas for your presentation.
There are many ways to generate main ideas, but the topical system has been in use and still
continues to be effective. Topical system uses a small set of headings or topic to identify standard
ways of thinking and speaking about any subject.
The basic premise of this approach is that the infinite member of possible topics contains finite
number of themes - a result of our shared ways of thinking about human affairs. Putting it in
simple terms, the infinite ways in which the humans think and act can be classified into finite
number of themes:
1. Attributes:
4. Existence/ Nonexistence of things.
5. Degree or quantity of things or forces.
6. Spatial attributes - location, distribution, and position of things, especially in
relation to other things.
7. Time - when an event took place, how long it lasted, etc.
8. Motion or activity - type, degree.
9. Form - the physical or abstract shape of a thing.
10. Substance - the physical or abstract content of a thing.
h) Capacity to change - whether an event or situation is predictable or unpredictable.
i) Potency - power or energy, including the ability to further or hinder something
else.
j) Desirability - whether the thing results in rewards or penalties. k)
Feasibility - how well the thing works or how practical it is.
2. Basic Relationships :
1. Causality - the relation of causes to effects, effects to causes, etc.
2. Correlation - correspondence between, coexistence of, as coordination of things or forces.
c) Genus - species relationships - common characteristics or distinguishing
characteristics of a thing as group of things.
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Business Communication
255. Similarity or dissimilarity in appearance, content, form, shape, etc.
256. Possibility or impossibility of an event happening.
Now let us consider the case of an account executive of an advertising agency. In view of
the attributes he/she could come up with the following points:
262. Existence: The ad agency has been serving the community for more than 30
years.
263. Degree: The agency handles more than 20 hostel accounts and gains more every
year (degree of expertise)
264. Spatial attributes: The agency is conveniently located in a business center.
265. Time: The agency can put together a trial campaign in two weeks.
266. Activity: The agency's clients have reported substantial increase in customers.
267. Form: The agency can provide latest designs and graphics for the look of
campaign.
268. Substance: The agency will work with hotel management to decide on the precise
message for the campaign.
h) Capacity to change: The agency will modify the campaign if it is not bringing the
desired result.
i) Potency: The agency can promote increased business of the hotel based on the campaign
done for similar hotels in the past.
j) Desirability: The agency can promote increased business that will enable hotel owners to
open another hotel.
k) Feasibility: The agency is a practical choice because of its expertise in the area of hotel
advertising and its competitive rates.
Once the main ideas of your topic has been developed you could choose few of these themes to
stress during your presentation. However, it is not possible to cover all the themes during one
presentation, but could be taken up during subsequent presentations.
The main thing to remember in business presentation is to do a thorough spade work before
making the presentation. As it is read: "People don't plan to fail, they fail to plan".
Unit 10 Developing and Delivering Effective Presentations
>rk ,rf.
Providing Support Material for Ideas:
Regardless of the purpose of your presentation, you will use some form of supporting
materials to give credibility to your main ideas and to awake the message more
informative, interesting, relevant, clear, and acceptable, supporting materials facilitate
learning
Although teaching the audience is a fundamental goal of most presentations, for some
people learning can be an uncomfortable or frightening experience, and therefore can be
resisted.
Certainly, people tend to resist a speaker's attempts the speaker to overcome these
barriers to complete a successful presentation.
These materials include: t
Explanation
264. Example
265. Statistics
266. Listening
267. Visual aids
266. Explanation: is an act or process of making a subject plain or
comprehensible. This
is often accomplished through a simple statement of the relationship of a whole
and
its parts. There are many ways in which explanation can be offered- such as
providing
a definition, using comparison between the familiar and the unfamiliar, showing
contrasts, giving a brief history, and so on.
273. Examples: comment the main ideas of presentation with a real or and ideal
situation
thought out by to speaker. Examples take a variety of forms, which include
illustrations,
specific instances, etc. The speaker may involve the listeners in a hypothetical
illustration
by suggesting, "imagine yourself.
c) Statistics: describes the result of collecting, organizing, and interpreting numerical
data. They are specially useful when you want too accomplish the following:
1. Reduce large masses of information to general categories (the average score of
college students on the communication skills is 75).
2. Emphasize the size of something (corporate houses spend more than Rs. 200
cross annually for training and development).
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Business Communication
• Indicate trends (from 1997 to 2000, state government expenditure on
prisons increased 30% while spending on higher education fell by
18%).
275. Testimony: a statement by a credible person (who is quoted by the speaker) that
trends weight and authority is the speaker's presentation. The testimony gains credibility
proper timidly to the expertise of the person who is the source of testimony. For
insistence, any relevant quotation from Peter F. Drucker used in a management speech
will give credibility to the presentation.
276. Visual Aids: Business speaker after structure their presentations around series of
slides that provide visual appeal and content, interest, clarity. Experienced speaker
have added number of interesting option to the use of visual aids in written documents.
JSZ Activity C;
Name some visual aids you would use for the following presentations:
i) Book Review
ii) Ad campaign by an ad agency
iii) Student case study
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Unit 10 Developing and Delivering Effective Presentations
10.7 MAJOR PARTS OF PRESENTATION: THE CONCLUSION
The conclusion of a speech or an oral presentation performs four important functions:
1. It summarizes your message.
2. It extends your message to a broader context
3. It personalizes your message
4. It calls for specific future action.
Like the introduction, the conclusion should take about 10 percent of your presentation
time.
As you think about you conclusion, keep in mind that these are the last words your listener will
hear and that it is important to leave them with a lasting impression. Remember, also that your
listeners need a signed that your speech is over. Use your conclusion to communicate closure.
Your conclusion is not the place at which to make yet another point.
a) Summarize your message
Think of your summary as you last opportunity to "nail" your main points. As Winston
Churchill once said: "If you have an important point to make, don't try to be subtle or
clever. Use a pile driver. Hit the point once. These come back and let it again, there hit it a
thirst time- tremendous whack.
When you want to make your point over again, do not repeat, but recast it in way, that
would be remembered by you audience. Restatement is absolutely necessary to get your
point across. If you are forced to cut-short your speech as presentation, your summary may
be even more critical. When forced with the constraint of time you may omit some details
or visual aids, but your summary can still make your point. As one expert or public speaker
says, "tell them in brief, what you would have told them in full if you had not run out of
time."
Summarizing should have the following points.
277. Restating the main points. Once you have everyone's attention repeat your main
ideas. Be sure to emphasize what you want your audience to do or think. Then
state the key motivating factor.
278. Outlining the next steps: Some speeches and presentations require the audience
to reach a decision or to take specific action. Be certain that everyone agrees on
the outcome and understands what should happen next.
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Business Communication
• Ending on a positive note: Your final remarks should be enthusiastic and memorable.
The end of your speech should leave a strong and lasting impression.
b) Extend your Message to a Broader Context
Use you conclusion to look ahead. Do not let your presentation begin and end in the
lecture hall; it should extend beyond the present context audit your ideas to broader
from work of goals and ideas. For example, giving a lecture to students on
communication skills should conclude by~bordering the thoughts from merely passing
tfie exam to the use Gl communication skill in the world.
^ ^ | . . v
c) Personalize your Message
At the conclusion of your speech or presentation, reemphasize your focus or your
listeners' needs- that is where their real motivation lies. Listeners who perceive
themselves as the focus of your final remarks are more likely to receive your entire
massage in personal term.
d) Make a Call to Action
Asking your listeners too do something is a task best left to the end of your message.
Many persuasive speeches and sales presentation conclude with appeals that urge
action. In concluding a presentation, you may also talk about the steps that come next.
Talk about responsibilities or tasks that must be accomplished and the people
responsible for them. Leave your audience with a vision and a sense of every.
Table 10.1: Purpose and Technique in a Formal Presentation
Element
Purpose
Techniques
Introduction
Body
Establish Credibility Capture attention
Preview main points Present main points
Refer to your personal background
Use humour
Tell a story
Ask rhetorical questions
Use quotations
Demonstrate
Briefly tell your audience what is to come
Rely on common organizational patterns Use facts, statistics, examples, narratives, testimony and
quotations
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Unit 10 Developing and Delivering Effective Presentations
Conclusion
Present supporting material
Summarize main points Extend message to broader context Personalize message
Call to action
Use repetition
Form conclusions and recommendations
Focus your message on the needs of your
audience
Focus on the future and what must be done.
Source : L.E. Boone, D.L. Kurtz and J.R. Block, Contemporary Business Communication, pg 459
10.8 VISUAL AIDS
It has been estimated that 11 % of what we learn is through hearing, 83 % through sight and the
rest through the other threes sources. Hence, visual aids can make your presentation more
effective.
Visual aids help both the speaker and the audience remembers the important points. Some of the
aids, which can serve you well, are snaps, pictures, pictures, charts, motion pictures, and slides
overhead projectors, and blackboard. Two types of visual aids are used to supplement speeches
and presentations. They are:
1. Text visuals help listeners to follow the flow of thoughts/ideas.
2. Graphic visuals present and emphasize important facts. They help the audience to
grasp numerical date and other types of information that would be hard to follow of
presented orally.
Types of Visual Aids :
1. Objects and Models:
If you were presenting the prototype for a new product, your best visual aid would be the
product itself. For example, if you were involved in the manufacture of a new commercial
jet, a scaled-drown model would help you demonstrate its pique characteristics. As objects
and models are passed around the room, they encourage active, hands-on interaction, but
also disturb the audience from your presentation.
2. Flip Chart, Chalk and Writing Board and Porters
These media are effective in presenting information to small interaction groups. Flip charts
are most co rumor way to display visuals in a business presentation, allowing you show a
sequence of graphic with a turn of a page.
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Business Communication
In certain situations, you may actually prefer to write as you speak. When used in this
manner, aids like flip charts and posters are excellent group- interaction tools.
3. Overhead Transparencies:
Overhead transparencies allow an image to be projected without losing touch with the
audience. They are easy to use and are widely employed in many business settings. They
are also flexible, allowing you to add or highlight concept while it is being shown.
4. Slides:
Both color and black-and-white slides can add a professional touch to a presentation. Slides
can be used to display any type of two-dimensional visual aid, including photographs,
maps, lists tables, and graphs.
5. Videos:
Videos are an integral part of many business presentations. Advertising agencies use video
to screen new commercials for clients. A fashion designer may use a video to display the
latest creation on live models.
Videos have the advantage of easy recording and instant playback. Most videos are shown
on small television screens, and are most effective for small audiences.
Table 10.2 : Using Visual Aids in Formal Presentations
Format Audience Advantages Disadvantages
Flip charts Small Help to organize/summarize Low-impact
Chalk and High flexibility: low human
Writing error Informal
boards
Overhead Medium/large Portable Can be distracting
Transparencies No technician needed Complex charts and
High flexibility graphs are ineffective
Slides Medium/large Flexible/Modular Do not show motion
Minimum equipment needs Lights must be
Type serves as outline dimmed
Graphs show relationships
Charts save time conceptually
Unit 10 Developing and Delivering Effective Presentations
Video Cassettes
Small/medium High-impact Instant replay Flexible
Requires equipment Availability
Easy assembly Supports other AV formats Provides change of pace
Source: L.E. Boone, D.L. Kurtz and J.R. Block, Contemporary Business Communication, pg 466
10.9 GUIDELINES FOR USING VISUAL AIDS
a) Choose the right visual aid
Limit your visuals to important points. Your choice should be determined by the
purpose of your speech, the size of your audience, the needs of the occasion, and
your skill and experience in using the medium.
b) Remember that your audience wants to see you, not your visuals.
For instance, beginning your presentation with slides projected on a screen in
darkened room will prevent you from establishing our immediate audience
conviction. On the other hand, ending with a visual will encourage your audience to
remember the visual
instead of you.
1. Don't repeat the context of the visual when you comment on it.
You should explain to the audience the context of the visual.
2. Stop after your main point
Allow the audience to scan the information projected on the visual.
Avoid tuning your back on your audience.
Maintain eye contact throughout your speech, even when displaying a visual.
1) Work on your timing.
Never display a visual before talking about it; remove it when you have finished
the
thought.
.;i Rehearse
Integrate your visual and oral presentations before your actual performance.
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Activity D;
a) List some guidelines you would follow while using visual aids.
b) Do you remember having sat through a good presentation? How would you comment on the:
i) presentation as a whole:
ii) the visual aids used:
10.10 SUMMARY
At some point in your career, you are likely to be called on to give a speech or presentation.
Brief speeches are organized like letters and short memos. Formed presentations, lasting up to an
hour or more, generally involve more complex subjects and require more interaction with
audience. They are organized like formed reports, with an introduction, a body and a final
summary.
Many long speeches and presentations make use of visual aids such as handouts, chalkboards,
hip charts, overheads, and slides. These should be selected to suit your purpose and the size and
needs of the audience.
Unit JO
10.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Ql. Discuss the general and specific purpose of a presentation.
Q2. Explain the following categories of introduction of a presentation.
a. Orientation
b. Motivation
c. Rapport.
Q3. Describe the various "support materials" for developing ideas. Q4. Explain the
different types of visual aids.
1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7, 8. 9.
Steps in listeners mind.
Collection and study of profile.
Correlation.
Indicate trends.
Empjhasi2
Tribute.
They are numerable.
Q5. Match the following:
1. Oral presentation
2. Ceremonial presen
3. Residual message
4. Demography
iportant. *^
'0
277. Capture attention
278. Coordination of things or forces^
i
Single declaration statement Extemi
g) Statistics is used to \f
h) Graphics visuals ^
i) Informative presentations
t
O-> 10. Using humour.
j) Thesis
ir
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Business Communication
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Simply stetedUnterviews are a conversation between two people. EC Eyre, a management
expert, states "an interview is a face-to-face verbal exchange, which endeavours to discover
as much information as possible in the least amount of time about some relevant matter."
Ajob hunter writes a resume and letter of application to get a job interview. Job interviews
are more than just conversation with prospective employers. Interviews are valuable
oppostmitics for both parties to see if the applicant fits comfortably into the company
environment. Interviews play an important part in two-way communication. For not only
does the interviewer learn a great deal about the interviewee, but it also provides an
opportunity to the interviewee to give information about the organization and its aims ad
objectives.
Meetings, like interviews, are vital to the functioning of modern organizations. Meeting
provides a form for making key decisions and a vehicle for coordinating the activities of
people and departments. Whether the meeting is held to solve a problem or to share
information, the participants gain a sense of involvement and importance from their
attendance. Because they share in the decision, they accept it and are committed to seeing it
succeed.
There are many committees and meetings in an organization of any size. Not all the
committees and meetings are successful. There are unproductive meetings, which are
frustrating and expensive. If the management believes in the old proverb:" two heads are
better than are," they equally ignore another adage: "Too many cooks spoil the broth."
Whatever the outcome, meeting are an indispensable fact of corporate life in which you are
going to be drawn whether you like it or not.
11.2 CATEGORIZING INTERVIEWS
Not all interviews are alike, thus they do not require the same set of skills. One major
difference is that some interviews are dominated by exchange of information, which the
other are geared more toward the exchange of feeling. Thus, the two types of interviews
are:
279. Those dominated by the exchange of information
280. Those involving the exchange of feelings.
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Unit 11 Interviews and Meetings
1. Exchange of information :
a) Job interviews
The candidate-seeking job wants to learn about the position and the organization; the
employer wants to learn about the applicant's abilities and experience. Both hope to
make a good impression and to establish rapport. Job interviews are usually fairly
formal and structured. Content and critical listening skills are especially important.
b)
Information interviews
c) Persuasive interviews
The interviews seeks facts that influence a decision or contribute to basic understanding of certain
subject matter. Information flows mainly in one direction - one person asks a series of question
that must be covered and listens to the answers supplied by the other persons. Contentand critical
listening skills are dominant, i
In these interviews, one person tells another about a new idea, product, or
serviceandexplains why the other should act or the recommendations. The
persuader discusses the other person's needs. Thus persuasive interviews require
skill in drawing out and listening to other as well as the ability to impart
information.
d) Exit interviews
The interviews try to understand why the interviewee is leaving the organization
of transferring to another department or division. A departmenternployer can often
provide insight into whether the business is being handled efficiently or whether
things could be improved. The departing employee should be encouraged to focus
on events and process rather than personal gripes.
2. Exchange of feejings^~^^
a) Evaluation interviews
A superViser-per4eeti6alry gives on employer feedback or whisper performance.
The supervisor and the employee discuss progress toward predetermined
standards or goals and evaluate areas that require improvement. They may also
discuss goals for the coming years, as well as, the employee's longer-term
aspirations and general concerns. Content, critical, andempathic listening skills
may all be required. "~
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Business Communjefition
w ffe.
b) Counselling intervi^
aese involve thesupervisor's the supervisor's talks with the employee about personal-
problems that are interfering with work performance. The interviewer should be
concerned with the welfare of both the employee and organization and should confine
the discussion to business. Critical and empathic listening skills are both important
because the employer needs to evaluate the facts of the situation and deal with the
human emotions involved.
c) Conflict-resolutions interviews
Here two competing people or groups of people explore their problems and attitudes.
Thejoal is to bring the two parties clojertogethei^ cause adjustments in perceptions and
attitudes, and create a more productive climate. Empathic and active listening skills
are useful in fostering these changes.
d) Disciplinary interviews
Injhesethe^supervisor tries to correct the behavior ofan_employee whohas ignored the
organization's rules and regulations. The interviewer must not only get the employee
to set the reason for the rules and agree to comply, but must also review the facts and
explore the person's attitude. Because of the possible emotional reaction, neutral
observations are more effective than critical comments. Active and empathic listening
skills are of prime importance.
11.3 PLANNING THE INTERVIEW
Planning an interview is similar to planning any other form of communication. You beginby
stating the purpose, analysing the other person, and formulating your main ideas. Then you
decide on length, style, and organization of the interview.
Even as an interviewee, you have some control over the conversation. You need to anticipate a
the interviewer' s question and then plan your answers so that the points you want to mak \ will be
covered. Furthermore, by your comments and nonverbal cues, you can affect the | relationship
between you and the interviewer.
If you are the interviewer, responsibility for planning the interview session falls on you. ( the
simplest level, you must schedule the interview and see that it is held in a comfo and convenient
location. You need to develop a set of interview questions and decide on| their sequence. Having
a plan will enable you to conduct the interview more efficiently.
Unit 11 Interviews and Meetings
1. Types of Interview Questions :]$>
The purpose of the interview and the nature of the participants determ i n p th p
questions that should be asked. In terms of the structure of an interview, it is conducted
in four phases, which can be remembered by the acronym -WASP- i.e. Welcome,
Acquiring information, Supplying information and Parting.
You should ask question so as to:
283. get information
284. motivate the interviewee to respond honestly and appropriately, and
285. create a good working relationship with the other person.
To obtain both factual information and underlying feelings, you would want to use
types of questions, such as:
/a) Open-ended questions
1.
Direct open-ended questions
2. Closed-ended questions
3. Restatement questions
a) Open-ended questions: JD
b)
These are questions that invite the intervieweetopffer an opinion) and not just one-word
answer. You can learn some interesting and unexpected things from open-ended
questions. They, however, decrease your control over the interview. When you allow the
interviewee to voice his/her opinion or idea that many not be what you want, you may
waste time in getting the interview back on tracks.
Use open-ended questions to put the interviewee at ea§e, or to gain information when
you have plenty of time for conversation.
Direct open-ended questions: ib
These types of questions ffiiggest respon^but no^pinion. For example, "What
javeyou^one about.. ?" Assumes that something^ha& been done and calls for an
explanation. With direct open-ended questions, you have somewhat more control over
the interview, yet you still give the other person some freedom in framing a response.
This form of question is good to use when you want to get a specific conclusion as
recommendation from someone.
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Business Communication
c) Close-ended questions:
These typeof questions reguirej'yes' or 'nojjanswers or call for short response.
For example, "Did you makeji resery ationT or the flight?" Questions like these
produce specific information, save time, require less effort from the
interviewee, and eliminate bias and prejudice in answers. The disadvantage is
that they limit the respondents' initiative and may prevent important
information from being revealed. These questions are better for gathering
information than for prompting an exchange of feelings.
d) Restatement questions :
Restatement, or mirror,questions invite the respondent to expand on the
answer: "You said you disliked travel vouchers. Is that correct?" They also
slgnaTthe interviewee that you are paying attention. Restatements provide
opportunities to clarify points and correct misunderstandings. Use them to
persue a subject further or to encourage the other person to explain a statement.
You can use restatement question to soothe upset customers or co-workers. By
acknowledging the other person's complaint, you gain credibility.
2. The Structure of the Interview:
Organize an interview as much as you would organize a written document, with the
interview's
purpose and the audience's receptivity shaping the sequences of questions. Various
types of questions are tools for developing ideas, which should be arranged in a
sequence that will enable you to accomplish your purpose. Following are the
purposes:
a) .Informational Purpose:
Topical organization, which is presented in direct order.
b) Analytical or problem-solving purpose:
Organization that allows you to state the problem, review the background and objectives,
suggest solutions, evaluate the pros and cons of each, identify the best option, and agree
on implementation plans.
c)
Persuasive Purpose:
Organization that is based on the other person's receptivity. If there is receptivity, then
focus on conclusions and recommendations that highlight the benefits of your ideas; if
there is resistance, then focus on the logical argument that gradually builds a convincing
case for your position.
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Unit 11 Interviews and Meetings
JS*> Activity A;
a) You must have been for a few interviews in the recent past. Can you identify the i)
type of interview you attended, ii) the type of questions asked by the interviewer.
b) Looking back at that interview, what was the preparation you took to ensure your
interview went off well?
11.4 EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW
Unfortunately for both companies and employees, there is not much correlation between
interviewing well and actually doing the job well. For this reason, experts now advise
that tests become a larger part of the interview process. Computers have been suggested
to answer multiple-choice questions based on the job description and corporate style.
Applicants tend to be more honest with a computer than with human interviewers when
asked about such things as their goals and preferences.
However, until such testing becomes commonplace, interviews allow employers to
decide how a prospective employee fits into the company. Employment interview may
be the most intense and dynamic communication situation that you ever encounter in
your career. Therefore, you ought to prepare adequately for success at the interview.
Here are some important tips for preparing for an interview.
1. Do self-analysis - know your strengths and weaknesses.
2. Find out how relevant your competence is to the job you are seeking, and how
you
would use it for performing the required duties.
3. Gather information about the history, function and development plan of the
organization
and visualize the role you could play in its growth and development.
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Business Communication
285. Anticipate the likely questions that could be asked and their answers.
286. Discuss, if possible, with some employees of the organization of its work culture,
professional ethics, and growth direction.
1. Attending the Interview:
At the time of interview you should give positive clues to the interviewer - such as, punctuality,
neat physical appearance, cheerful expression, pleasant manners, presence of mind, positive
attitude and clear and confident voice.
Here are some more practical hints:
288. Be brief and spontaneous in your response
289. Present the relevant matter in an organized way.
290. Support your views with nature and rational arguments.
291. Be honest in referring to events, situations, and experiences.
1. Listen carefully to the interviewer's questions, statements and comments.
292. Be perceptive of the signals that the body language of the interviewer may give.
g) Speak in a conversational style and avoid using unnecessary words,
h) Exhibit utmost courtesy both in manners and speech.
To avoid negative impact, take the following precautions:
1. Do not give irrelevant information.
2. Do not give excessive details about the topic under discussion.
3. Do not try to change the topic of discussion.
4. Avoid hasty generalization.
5. Do not give any evasive reply in an attempt to hide your ignorance.
6. Avoid long pauses while speaking
7. Do not keep smiling all the time
1. Do not make any disrespectful remarks of people with whom you have worked.
Unit 11 Interviews and Meetings
2. Interview Process:
The interview would usually start with direct questions, seeking specific information regarding
your qualifications, achievements, and experience. After this introductory exchange, the
interview process becomes more dynamic. At this stage open-ended questions, seeking
substantial information are asked. For instance, you may be asked questions about the types of
courses, and projects you did and to explain how they relate to your professional ambition. If you
have some experience, you may be required to describe it in terms of its relevance the job you
have applied for. Before the interview ends closed-ended questions may be asked. These usually
related to the time you would take in joining the post, the place of posting, the nature of
appointment (temporary, on probation, contracted, etc), or the expected salary, etc. You may be
given an opportunity to ask questions about the job, comparcy, or clarification about anything
that has been discussed or mentioned earlier.
Various areas from whichquestions are usually asked arej
:»^Academic background •-^Co-curricular activities t
Extracurricular activities
293. General
Knowledge
t Experience
294. Miscellaneous
3. Expectations of the Employers:
Through the process of interview the aim of the interviewer is not only to assure himself about
the suitability of qualifications and experience required for the job, but also to discover the
significant traits of your personality and family environment. Personal happiness and healthy
social relationships are conducive to efficiency in work.
In specific terms what the prospective employer seeks to find out may be classified as
Mows:
8. Aptitude
9. Attitude - toward job, employer, colleagues, and towards life and society
10. Achievements
11. Temperament
12. Health
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Business Communication
4. Conducting an Interview:
On becoming, a senior professional, you may be asked to interview candidates for a job
in your organization. Given below are certain specific guidelines in the form of DOs and
DON'Ts to help you conduct an interview effectively.
Dos:
1. Analyse carefully the knowledge, skills, and abilities required for the job.
299. Study the resume of the candidate to match his attainments to the
requirement of the
job.
2. Frame in your mind (or even write) the basic questions you would like to ask.
300. Ask only one question at a time :
3. Use precise expressions and plain language
301. Repeat the question if the candidate so desires, explaining to him clearly
what you
want to know.
g) Allow time to the candidate to warm up and become interactive,
h) Establish a rapport and encourage him to give his best.
i) Be courteous, polite and amiable, but firm and professional.
j) Listen carefully with interest to the responses of the candidate.
k) Try to understand what the candidate is and to find out what he knows.
Don'ts:
294. Do not ask a series of questions
295. Do not put the same question to different candidates
296. Do not ask for unnecessary details
297. Do not ask questions to impress the candidate or to display your
knowledge.
298. Do not ask highly personal questions
299. Do not continue asking questions on one topic for a long time.
1
rr
D
CO
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Unit 11 Interviews and Meetings
g) Do not put any question when the candidate is answering your colleague.
h) Do not at any time loose your temper or raise your voice.
i) Do not become excited or emotional during interaction.
j) Do not use slang or uncommon phrases or language.
k) Do not make any comments that may make the candidate feel small or that may hurt him.
11.5 MEETINGS
"Meetings are a strange phenomenon. Everyone calls them; everyone attends them. Yet
nearly everyone is highly critical of them. They think of and talk about meetings as a
necessary evil. Hardly anyone says they are fond of meetings". M.M. Monippally.
Here are some statements about meetings:
302. "A committee keeps minutes and loses hours".
303. "A committee is a group of the unwilling, picked from the unfit, to do the
unnecessary."
304. "When you don't want to commit, committee yourself".
305. "A committee is a cul-de-sac into which ideas are lured, there to be quietly
strangled
to death".
306. "Best committee is a committee of two when one is absent".
307. "If you want to get a thing done, give it to one man; if you don't want it
done, give it
to a committee".
308. "Meetings are indispensable when you don't want to do anything". (J.K. Galbraith)
309. "One either meets or one works. One cannot do both at the some time."
(Peter
Drucker)
Meetings are something that the organizations have to hold them but are seen as
wasteful. They drain the time, money and human resources of a company. They delay
decision-making.
Despite, the fact that committees or meetings are so critically judged by so many, they
still continue to be a part of any corporate culture. They have their own usefulness.
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Business Communication
305. They give decision a depth that few individuals deciding without consultation
can
generate.
306. They help decision-makers see issues from angles that they would not have
thought
of on their own.
307. Ideas trigger new ideas in different minds. They prevent many mistakes from
being
committed.
308. Diversity and cross-fertilization are the strength of a committee.
11.6 CAUSES OF INEFFECTIVE MEETINGS
Universal condemnation of meetings is not without reasons. There are some problems common
to meetings that justifies condemnation. Some of the problems stem from the conveners, some
from the chairperson, and the rest from the attendees.
1. Poor Preparation
This is the most common reason for meetings turning wasteful. Too many meetings are
convened too causally. The conveners are not clear about why they want the meeting and so do
not prepare any agenda. If they do prepare an agenda, it does not reflect focused thinking. The
agenda is not distributed to the committee members before the meeting, and hence, the attendees
discuss issue without preparation. As a result, the members discuss irrelevant matters and this
cause delay in decision-making.
2. Failure to Maintain Minutes
One of the common reasons for many meetings to become wasteful is that no minutes are
prepared and circulated. Or, minutes are prepared and circulated so long after the meeting that
they serve no purpose. Without minutes of meetings people forget what decisions were taken
and who was supposed to do what and when. Thus, the time invested in those meetings is
wasted.
3. Incompetent Chairpersons
Many meetings go off the track because the chairperson is incapable of hedging the discussion.
It is the responsibility of the chairperson to keep the meeting within the limits of the agenda;
and to ensure that everyone participates. Many chairpersons fail to do this because they are
themselves underpreparpfL
Unit 11 Interviews and Meetings
At times chairpersons are unable to exercise control because certain members are above them in
power, or have a strong and forceful personality. It requires high level of skill and courage to
chair a meeting.
4. Cunning Chairpersons
Some managers convene meetings after meeting because they want discussion, but not decision.
Some managers use meetings as a smoke screen for putting off action. Yet some managers use
meetings to hide behind and not take the responsibility of decisions made. Some cunning
managers use meetings to discuss some controversial matter without the members arriving at a
broad agreement, thus, achieve their objective of delaying decision-making. The attendees may
not suspect that they are being manipulated by the chairperson who presents the delaying tactics
in a garb of democracy and the need for looking thoroughly at all aspects of the issue. a
5. Domineering Bosses
The presence of domineering bosses at the meeting may hinder free expression pf the members
and render it wasteful. Members may not want to voice dissent once the boss has made his/her
opinion known. They may not want to appear disloyal. Therefore, The meeting deteriorates into
a monologue. Such meetings are wasteful because theyaddno value to the decision taken.
6. Spineless Bosses
Just the opposites of domineering bosses are the bosses who shy away from decision making on
their own. They are risk-avoiders. They have the authority to take decisions, but not the
responsibility of their consequences. They want to spread the responsibility of the decision made
on the members of the committee, and thus hide behind the committee. This process, however, is
time consuming for a lot of people because the chairperson has to make the attendees say what
he wants to say.
7. Hidden Agendas
Meetings, especially departmental and interdepartmental ones within a company, may end up as
time-wasters if there are hidden agendas. Personality clashes may result in prolonged
discussions and delay decision-making. One or two members may use the whole time in
discussing issues that they either favor or disapprove, while other members say nothing.
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Business Communi
fc~
s ^
8. Bloated Committees
Some committees have more members than required. In such cases there will be too
many members who may not contribute. Some are there because of protocol; some are
there because their names have been suggested. Too many non-contributing members
mean loss of man-hours.
9. Absence of Key Players
Absence of members who contribute, as well as, whose presence is essential for
discussing certain issues, may lead to wasteful meetings. In the absence of such essential
members, if any decision is made they may, at later stage, raise objectives. Or they may
show in the resolution weaknesses that none of those who attended the original meeting
may have noticed.
10. Marathon Meetings
Marathon meetings with long agendas tend to breed wastefulness. When meetings take
long hours, efficiency declines.
Attendees gradually begin to loose concentration because of other responsibilities that
preoccupies their mind. Despite the snacks and beverages served the efficiency is not
created. This leads to a group of people forced to sit waiting for the meeting to end.
Activity B :
The role of the chairperson who convenes the meeting is very important. If you have
watched the proceedings of the Lok Sabha on TV, how would you rate the performance
of the Speaker, who is supposed to conduct the daily meetings?
11.7 ARRANGING MEETINGS
Careful planning of four elements - Purpose, Participants, Agenda and Location - is the
key to productive meetings. The main thrust should be to bring together the right
people, in the right place for just enough time to accomplish your goals.
Unit 11 Interviews and Meetings
1. Determining the Purpose <K "
Before you call a meeting, satisfy yourself that it is the best way to achieve your goal. Then the purpose of a meeting can be categorized as informational or decision-making (although many meetings comprise both purposes).
Informational meeting is called so that the participants can share information and possibly coordinate actions. This type of meeting may involve individuals briefings, by each participants or speech by the leader followed by questions from the attendees.
Decision-making meetings are mainly concerned with persuasion, analysis, and problem solving. They often requires a brain storming session followed by a debate on the alternatives. Such meetings are less predictable than informational meetings.
2. Selecting the Participants
Try to invite only those whose presence is essential. The number and choice of participants should reflect the purpose of the meeting. If the meeting is purely informational and one person will be doing the talking, you could include a relatively large group. However, if you are trying to solve a problem, develop a plan, or reach a decision, you should limit participation to between four and seven members. But be sure to include members who can make important contributions and those who are key decision makers. Holding a meeting to decide an important matter is pointless if the people with the necessary information are not there.
3. Setting the Agenda
Although the nature of a meeting may sometimes prevent you from developing a fixed agenda, you should at least prepare a list of matters to be discussed. The agenda should include the following.
311. the names of expected attendees
312. the exact place and time
313. the time of starting the meeting
314. the time when the meeting is expected to end
315. the objective(s) of the meeting
316. the issues to be discussed and resolved
317. indication of how attendees in general or specific ones among them should prepare themselves for the meeting
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4. Preparing the Location
Decide where you will hold the meeting, and reserve the location. Consider the seating
arrangement, and give some attention to the overall environment and physical conditions of the
location. Also, if you are working for a large organization with teleconferencing facilities, you
may want to use this technology for your meeting.
In companies where executives would otherwise have to spend time and money traveling from
one location to another, teleconferencing can be a real boon.
11.8 RUNNING A PRODUCTIVE MEETING
Whether the meeting is conducted electronically or conventionally, its success depends largely
on how effective the chairperson is. If the leader is prepared and has selected the participants
carefully, keeping in view the nature of agenda, the meeting will generally be productive.
The duties of a chairperson are as follows:
319. Pacing the meeting - allotting time for each item to be discussed.
320. Appointing a note taker (secretary)
321. Following the agenda
322. Stimulating participation and discussion
323. Summarizing the discussion or debate
324. Reviewing the recommendations
325. Circulating the minutes
& Activity C:
a) Have you arranged a meeting in the recent past? What were the steps you took in planning the
meeting? List them out.
Unit 11 Interviews and Meetings
b) Did you attend a meeting that did not go too well ? Now that you have read this unit, can you
identify the reason or reasons why the meeting failed?
11.9 SUMMARY
An interview is any planned, purposeful conversation involving two people. Informational
interviews require mainly context and critical Jistening skills; emotion-sharing interviews may
require empathic and active listening. Various types of interviews require different mixes of the
foj^rnintypes of questions: open-ended, direct open-ended; and restatement. Planning interviews
should be tailored to the subject, purpose, and audience and should include an opening, a body,
and a close.
Meetings have to be carefully mastered because they are expensive. They are indispensable, yet
most people think they are a waste of time. They give depth to decisions, prevent many
mistakes, provide diversity and cross-fertilization of thoughts, and give people the sense of
involvement.
Meetings should be called only when there is a definite purpose. Prepare the agenda well and
select essential members without forgetting numbers whose presence the protect demands.
Effectiveness of a meeting depends upon the skillful leadership of the chairperson. The goal of a
meeting is to get all the participants to share information or to contribute to
a sound decision.
11.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Ql. Describe the different categories of interviews.
Q2. Explain the planning process of an interview.
Q3. Discuss the various elements involved in planning a meeting.
Q4. Justify that the meetings are wasteful.
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12.1 INTRODUCTION
In the 1950s, social psychologist Kurt Lewin, in his book Field Theory in Social Science,
suggested that group dynamics pervade in all facets of human lives. It is natural for human beings
to be associated with some group or the other - be it jocia|ffloup, athleticjeam, student
comrnunity, business organization, or Mends and families.
As you enter into a work situation, you are bound to become a part of some group, and your
participation will increase as you move up the organizational hierarchy. Communication between
and within groups is vital to the organization. Before we understand group communication, we
need to understand the nature of a group. We shall attempt to define a group by observing some
important behavioural pattern that are prevalent in a group -such as characteristics of groups,
group leaders, and special group formats.
In the previous unit, we have studied information-sharing meetings, which are relatively well-
planned and very often routine. In this unit we shall concentrate on the problem-solving
meetings, which consists of information sharing, tasks of finding solutions and making decisions
about events or situations that have the potential to affect the performance of the organization.
During the process of problem solving, the basic function is to identify and resolve specific
problems by applying strong communication skills and problem-solving techniques.
Besides problem-solving and decision-making, groups are also the source of "competitive
communication" (that which is characterised by interdependent yet conflicting goals) within the
organization. This is manifested in the forms of argumentativeness and verbal aggressiveness. In
handling such situations one must have strong commitment to organizational values and ethical
standards, strong verbal and listening skills, interpersonal communication ability, and
understanding of group roles, norms, and dynamics.
Competitive communication demands the use of the methods of negotiation and conflict
management. Negotiation or bargaining process can attain productive outcomes. However, there
are times when the bargaining sessions can turn into conflict situation. Conflict may erupt from
differences in goals or values, diverse economic or financial interests, role conflict,
environmental changes, or even contradictory group loyalties. A major source of conflict is
misunderstanding and communication failure. By learning productive methods of negotiation
and conflict management, you can contribute a great deal to the groups, organizations, and
people with whom you work.
Unit 12 Group Communication Strategies
12.2 WHAT IS A GROUP?
The interaction that takes place between two individuals is different from that which takes place among three or more people. As the size of the group increases, the interaction also begins to take different forms - the interaction becomes more formal, there is less chance of each member to participate, topics become less intimate, and tasks take longer to accomplish. Hence, the best way to define a group is to observe the behaviour of the people within the group.
When a group is functioning, you can observe several important
behaviours: 1 . The participants know each other by name or role.
Unlike public speaking, where the speaker does not know the audience individually, but as a whole. In a group situation, however, the members know each other by their personal names, or by their roles - i.e. the boss, vice-president, discussion leader, etc. In a group of friends everyone knows everyone by his/her name.
2. There is considerable amount of interaction among the participants.
In a group situation, communication plays an important role. During group meetings, some members request information, and others provide it; there are agreements and disagreements among the members; and members clarify their positions and statements. Communication does not occur in a uniform or consistent manner. Interaction within
3. Each participant has some degree of influence on each of the other members.
When group members get together, each person influences and is influenced by the others to some degree. Participants who express forceful arguments that are backed by powerful documentation may strongly influence others in the group. Influence may be verbal as well as nonverbal. For instance, if there is member who scowls at another, may influence the way that person reacts, speaks, or even votes.
Each participant defines himself or herself as a member of the group and is also defined by outsider as a member.
Over a period of time, as a group continues to meet and its members interact, the participants bond together. In a work situation, the bonding is the task that each member helps to perform. Belongingness to the group is something that each participant is proud of and makes no secret of it. This
feeling is something that the members share with others who not the members of the group; and these outsiders identify them as the members of the group. A sense of membership is a key characteristic of an effective group.
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5. The participants share some common goal, interest, or benefit by holding membership
in the group.
In almost all cases, common goals are the binding factor that holds a group together. They
may be the reason why a person chooses to be a part of a group. Aperson who does not see
that working with others is a means to achieve a common goal, advance a common interest,
or help facilitate a common benefit should withdraw and accomplish the task on his own.
6. There is leadership.
Within every functioning group, leadership is evident. In an informal group leadership
evolves. A leader can emerge from the interaction of the group members. In some formal
groups, a leader is designated. Sometimes group members formally vote and select a person
to lead. At other times, a person is simply looked up to by others as the group leader,
because of the quality of his or her contributions to the group. In many groups, it is difficult
to pinpoint any one person as the group leader. Nevertheless, leadership is certainly present
as group members interact. In such cases, we say that the group has 'shared leadership' - all
of the functions of leadership are present, but they are provided by several members, not
just one.
^Activity A;:
Seek an occasion to be in a group and find out which of the above-mentioned characteristics are
present within the group:
a. b. c. d.
12.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING GROUP COMMUNICATION
Group communications, because of the variety of people who participate, require special effort.
Among the several factors that affect the quality and quantity of group communication are
cohesiveness, norms, roles, conformity, group think, and conflict. Some of these havi positive
effect on the group communication; others become barriers that have to be overcome.
Unit 12 Group Communication Strategies
1. Cohesiveness :.
The tenn 'group' implies that it has to remain intact, which is its primary goal, no matter how
difficult the situation or challenging the environment. Cohesiveness is the capacity and degree
to which the group remains together. There are two ways in which we can think of
Cohesiveness:
323. A group is cohesive when its members retain their membership. The members
desire
membership because of their affinity to other members of the group, perceived benefits
that the members can avail, and financial and social investments that cannot be
abandoned.
337. A group is also cohesive if members strongly identify with the group. The more
the
participants identify with the purposes and goals of the group, tell outsiders about the
activities of the group, and take pride in their membership, the more cohesive the
group remains.
Cohesive nature of a group enables the group as a whole to meet challenges and successfully
overcome obstacles. Maintaining Cohesiveness in a group is a challenge, but strong and
effective communication can help.
Following are the characteristics of Cohesiveness of a group:
• The quality and quantity of communication in a high-cohesive group is more extensive than
in low-cohesive group.
330. High-cohesive group exerts greater influence over its members that a low-
cohesive
group. ~ '
331. High-cohesive group achieves its goals more effectively than low-cohesive group.
t Member satisfaction is greater in high-cohesive group than in a low-cohesive group.
2. Norms :
Group norms are standards or limits that define appropriate behaviour of its members, as "1 as
that of the outsiders. Generally these norms are not formally communicated toits .^infers, but
are feamt 6y fne mem6ers tnrougfi o6servatibns ancf experience, flere are
.some examples of norms:
i) Negative criticism of other members or another person is unacceptable.
Prior permission should be obtained from appropriate person/s before inviting a guest. First
name should not be used during meetings.
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Such norms facilitate the functioning of the group. Any member who fails to follow group norms
may be isolated from other members, ignored, and, in some cases, excluded from group
meetings. However, groups should monitor these norms so that they do not become cumbersome
and adversely affect the functioning of the group.
3. Roles :
Every member of the group has a role. In many groups, members play several roles. These roles
could either be official or unofficial. For instance, facilitator is an official role that demands the
person to make sure that everyone gets to talk during a meeting. On the other hand, there may be
someone who is a dominator (who speaks too often and too long during a meeting), which is an
unofficial role.
Taking on a role leads others to have some expectations about your behaviour in the group. For
example, you have some expectations about your professor - i.e. prepare you for the class, take
attendance, facilitate discussion, prepare examination, etc.
People in a group emerge in certain roles because of the way they communicate with other group
members. Here are some roles often played by members:
b) c) d) e) f)
a) Isolate: Sits and fails to participate. Harmoniser: Keeps tension low. Free rider: Does not
do his/her share of work. Detractor: Constantly criticizes and gripes. Airhead: Is never
prepared for group meetings. Socializer: Is a member of the group only for social and
personal reasons.
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4. Conformity: C
Conformity is agreement with or correspondence to a set of ideas, rules, or principles. In a group,
the ideas are often the opinion of one or more dominant members. Participants who value
conformity either give in, compromise, or abandon their individual positions toj join others in the
group.
One of the reasons for people submitting to conformity is that it is difficult to act \ complete
independence of all the members of the group. If one does try to act indepen of the group
members, then he/she would receive hostile or uncooperative treatment. 1 instance, if, during a
meeting, an issue has been resolved, and someone attempts to 1 it up for discussion it would
spark off another debate. To avoid the situation, highly ( or authoritative leadership would
suppress the individual and encourage conformity.
Unit 12 Group Communication Strategies
Conformity may be necessary for group effectiveness. Groups eventually must reach decision,
and conformity among group members provides a basis for consensus. Conformity to various
rules, to standards, and especially to group goals is necessary under all conditions of group
decision-making.
5. Groupthink:
Groupthink is the tendency of group members to seek agreement. This is conformity carried to its
extreme. In other words, conformity in its extreme form leads to groupthink. Dan O'Hair, Gustav
W. Friedrich, and Lynda Dee Dixon, in their book Strategic Communication, state that "group
gripped by groupthink fails to explore alternative solutions, problems, or concerns in an effort to
present a united or cohesive front to outsiders."
Four conditions that give rise to groupthink are:
338. Being out of touchy When a group meets for long periods of time from its regular
routines, members tend to forget the real world and do what is necessary for the
group to succeed, irrespective of how their decisions or actions may harm others.
339. Being out of order. Informal and unstandardised decision-making procedures
lead
the group into unproductive areas with no way to get back on tracks. In other words,
failing to follow standard procedures in decision-making could lead astray the group
and thus make no headway.
340. Being overruled: When the group members feel that the leader thrusts decision-
making procedures upon them, they are likely to follow without much advocacy or
dissention.
341. JBejng out ofresources:When faced with a critical situation, a short time to make
decision, and no reasonable alternative other than that which is proposed and favoured
by the leader, the group is forced to groupthink.
6. Conflict:
The term 'conflict' is greatly misunderstood facet of group communication. We tend to think of
conflict in its negative sense, but overlook the positive side of it. Many group leaders avoid
conflict because they think that a group experiencing conflict is not running smoothly. Conflict
does not mean that a meeting is disorderly, wild, or rude. It is a sign that people are actively
participating in a discussion. Dan O'Hair, Gustav W. Friedrich, and Lynda Dee Dixon believe
that if a group does not exhibit conflict by debating ideas or questioning others, there is very
little reason for it to exist. Conflict, then, is the very essence
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of group interaction. Skilful leaders can use conflict as a means to determine what is and "what is
not acceptable idea, solution, or problem. It should, however, be borne in mind that conflict here
refers to debate about issues and not personalities. A group will not be productive if arguments
are centred on the participants rather than on what the participants are saying.
£$ Activity B:
List down three norms that you can find in the following groups: a) Office
staff:
b) Your friend circle:
12.4 GROUP PARTICIPATION & GROUP LEADERSHIP
Participation and leadership in groups are likely to be interrelated. The extent to which the
participants contribute to decision-making depends on the leadership style. A communication-
specific definition, as given by Dan O'Hair, Gustav W. Friedrich, and Lynda Dee Dixon, is that
"a leader is the member of a group who speaks the most to the group as a whole, is spoken to
the most, and directs the communication in the group to productive levels."
In the work place, you may be assigned to formal task groups, or you may choose to volunteer
for special project groups. In any case, your level of participation affects the group process and
your attitude toward the group. An important factor influencing group involvement is the style
of participation. Authoritarian, laissez-faire, and participative styles of decision-making allow
varying degrees of participation by members with very different results.
Unit 12 Group Communication Strategies
Many training and development programmes today attempt to teach the managers or supervisors
how to be leaders. The focus of these programmes is on transforming managers from people with
titles into people who exhibit true influence, direction, and motivation. A group cannot function
effectively without a leader. Leadership style defines the communication pattern of a group. In
particular, participative decision-making in the management world is greatly influenced by the
leadership style.
Leaders in business organization and other professions can be viewed in four.ways:
1. Traits 'Spv ,c-«x|\sv. •
2. Style
3. Situational leadership
4. Functional leadership
1. Styles of Group Participation for Decision-Making:
a) Authoritarian Decision Makii
Anjafhoritariaifsryle^fdecision-rnaking is one in which a leader hands downa decision
to the group. The participants are not involved in the making of decision; ~they simply
do what the leader tells them to do. TWo situations call for authoritarian decision-
making:
i. Crisis: When a group faces crisis, decision has to be made swiftly, and there is little
time for discussion.
ii. Lack of knowledge: When the members are asked to give their inputs on a subject, of
which they have no knowledge or information - valuable time is lost. In such
situations, authoritarian decision-making becomes necessary.
b) Laissez-Faire Decision-Making
A laissez-faire style of decision-making is one in which there is minimal involvement
(^by the group leader. In this style, the members make decision without guidance or
direction from the leader. This style is difficult to manage because some people may
assume the role of leaders without having the required skills. Laissez-faire groups are
likely to grope around for ways to identify problems or establish decision criteria, in
which time and resources are lost.
c) Participative Decision-Making
Dan O'Hair, Gustav W. Friedrich, and Lynda Dee Dixon quote Gary Yukl, according
to whom participation "usually refers to a management style or type
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of decision procedure through which subordinates are allowed to influence some of the manager's
decision." Participative decision-making enables the group members to be more committed to the
outcome, and yields an interesting and satisfying experience for group members.
In this style of decision-making,
i. leader must have sufficient authority to delegate and share decision-making with the group,
il members must be knowledgeable and willing to participate in discussion,
arid ~~~ ~"
iii. there must bejmough time for the group to complete discussion and reach a consensus.
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Note:
339. When decision-making is authoritarian, the leader makes the decision for
the group.
340. When decision-making is laissez-faire, the leader turns decision over to the
group.
341. When decision-making is participative, the leader makes decision with the
group
2. Types of Group Leadership:
a) Traits
The 'traits' approach is the oldest method by which people have attempted to measure
leadership. Generally, it is assumed that a leader is higher than non-leaders in
intelligence, scholarship, dependability, and responsibility, activity and social
participation, and socio-economic status. Leaders also outdo others in presenting a
compelling vision, exhibiting power, exemplifying organizational values, and taking
risks. Negative traits that prevent a person from assuming a leadership role include
uninformativeness, nonparticipation, extreme rigidity, authoritarian behaviour, and
offensive verbalization.
b) Style
Another way to conceptualise leadership is to notice the style of a person - the
behaviours that a person exhibits when interacting with group members. A discussion
on leadership style assumes that there is one style that works best for
Unit 12 Group Communication Strategies
most situations. In other words, you cannot have a combination of styles for one
situation.
Leadership styles follow the same classification outlined for decision-making:
authoritarian, laissez-faire, and participative. These styles become obvious depending on
the actions of the leader.
c) Situational Leadership
A third view of leadership suggests that there is no one best style, but rather that the best
style is one that suits the situation. There are two types of situational leaderships:
1. Leader adapts to the situation and maturity level (willingness and ability to
perform the task) of the group members.
2. Leader is inflexible, in which the objective is to match the leader's ability
and style to the situation.
d) Functional Leadership
Sometimes groups contain several members who can perform many duties and
responsibilities of a leader. When groups rise to an occasion and perform needed
leadership functions, the group is demonstrating functional leadership. Some people may
be very task oriented and push the group toward solving the problem. These members
supply the group with a task function. Other members may be adept at maintaining
harmony and social relations within the group.
^ActivityC;
Identify the style of group participation for decision-making in the following:
1. Military Operations
2. Friends deciding to go on a picnic
"} Deciding the date for a class test.
dj Worker is severely hurt during operating a machine. Deciding
to change working conditions of a department.
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12.5 GROUP COMMUNICATION PROCESS: PROBLEM SOLVING
Several types of meetings are common to most organizations. Planning meetings, staff
meetings, and annual meetings bring together groups of employees and stakeholders to
share information and update them on the direction the group and the organization is
taking. Typically, these meetings are scheduled regularly and have set agendas. However,
when problem-solving groups are called, their basic function is to identify and resolve
specific problems.
Problem solving groups are also called as task force, troubleshooting teams, or strategic
communication committee. These groups are called upon to use their strong
communication skills and special problem-solving techniques. In the process of
managing the problem-solving group communication it is essential that you prepare the
agenda, prepare for the meeting, develop critical thinking, and prepare for managing
anxiety.
Preparations:
a) The Agenda:
An agenda is like a road map that enables you to know how to reach you
destination. Before you begin your meeting it is necessary that you prepare your
'road map' to achieve your goal. An agenda is a guide that specifies what is to be
discussed, when, in what order, and for how long.
The agenda serves as the framework, within which, the group leader organizes time
and topics. But leaders are not the only contributors to the direction of the group.
Effective group members must consider organizational, group, and individual
goals. This requires self-control and constant efforts to be mindful of the purpose of
the meeting.
i. Organizational Goals: These are uppermost in the organization's hierarchy and
describe pathways to excellence. To work effectively, serve the purpose of the
organization, and avoid conflicts between group agendas and organizational
goals. Groups are wise to keep in mind the overarching goals of the
organization.
Unit 12 Group Communication Strategies
1C
>n flue
ion. >'to sen.
time oup. ;oals. rfthe
ii. Group Goals: These serve the mission and purpose of the group itself. Often a
higher authority forms the group and gives it the charge to function, which serves
as the fundamental goal of the group. For instance, a chief executive may appoint
a group to recommend a change in the distribution system of the wholesale
products. The group's fundamental charge may be to develop a new and more
effective distribution system.
iii. Groups may also set to "process goals". Groups attempt to improve their
functioning by setting process goals. If, after a series of meetings, group members
feel they are not working together as well as they could, they may set goals to
improve their internal harmony, research skills, decision-making process, or
ability to deal with time pressure. Putting it differently, a group must constantly
monitor its goals to ensure that its actions are serving the best interests of both the
group and the organization.
iv. Individual Goals: These are goals that the group members have, in addition to the
group's goals. Some people join a group either to meet new people at work, to
satisfy their need for achievement, or to gain recognition, knowledge, power,
information, or skill.
However, when you are asked to be a part of a group for some specific purpose,
then it would be wise to keep your individual goals in the background and serve
the purpose of the group for which it has been set up.
Groups function most effectively when members place each type of goals in their
appropriate order and have right perspective of each of them while engaging in
meetings.
b) Preparing for the Meeting:
Proper advance planning is important for the success of a meeting. Location,
participants, scheduling, and other environmental issues can affect the outcome of a
meeting.
i. Meeting Facilitiesj^Nhen deciding on the venue of the meeting the primary concern is that the physical conditions of the place meet the needs of the people planning to attend. See if the place can accommodate everyone in the group, has proper natural lighting and ventilation, etc. It is also important to arrange the seating positions appropriate for the type of meeting. Decide whether you require auditorium setup, or a classroom arrangement, or a conference arrangement, or U-shaped setup. Make sure that there are facilities for audiovisual requirements.
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ii. Settmf^Rujes of Order: Meetings run more smoothly when conducted according to an
orderly procedure and established rules. Consult some best-known set of rules, which
give precise standards of parliamentary procedure to follow in specific situations. One
major advantage of using established rules of order is that the group leader is less
likely to be accused of personal bias in decision-making. Using formal rules can be
very effective for proceeding through the agenda.
in. Developing Critical Thinking Skills: Many skills are necessary for effective
communication, participation, and problem solving in meetings. The foundation of
these skills is the ability to think critically about the subject or issue under discussion.
Doing so, allows group members to formulate and express ideas that move the group
toward achieving its goals.
Analysis is the process of tearing apart an issue and examining its components parts to see how
they relate to the whole. This skill is particularly important when group members are exploring
the characteristics of a problem.
To develop analytical skills for use in a group meeting, participants must exhibit the following:
1. Patience with alternative viewpoints and methods.
2. Ability to define terms clearly and willingness to demand that other participants do
the same.
3. A broad, open-minded approach to the problem.
4. A search for commonalities and differences.
5. A comparison and contrast of the problem under discussion with other problems that
have been previously discussed.
6. A summary of what the group has discussed up to a certain point.
Group members must demonstrate wide range of competence for effective group
communication.
12.6 NATURE OF COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS IN ORGANIZATION
Group meetings are not always smooth and without problems. There are instances when the
meetings could develop situations where the need for strong communication skills and
problem-solving techniques become necessary. In groups you would encounter people who are
more aggressive than the others. It is likely that they would engage in argument.
Unit 12 Group Communication Strategies
What happens when people who are arguing about issues refocus their attention on each other?
An inclination to argue or a fondness for arguing is called "argumentativeness".
"Argumentativeness include the ability to recognize controversial issues in communication
situations, to present and defend positions on the issues, and attack the positions which other
people take." Generally speaking, argumentativeness in the workplace is a positive and
constructive strategy. Arguing for causes, positions, and ideas within organizations is often
viewed favourably because people who are effective arguers are likely to achieve their goals.
On the other hand, tendency to attack other people instead of other points of view is termed
"verbal aggressiveness". It denotes attacking the self-concept of another person instead of, or in
addition to, the person's position on a topic of communication. The difference between verbal
aggressiveness and argumentativeness is the focus of attack. Argumentative people concentrate
on positions, issues, reasoning, and evidence. Verbally aggressive people attack others
personality. The difference affects the group performance, working relationships, and ability to
achieve organization goals.
Determining Your Argumentativeness and Verbal Aggressiveness:
One way to find out is to score yourself on scales designed to measure argumentativeness and
verbal aggressiveness. The Strategic Skills Table 12.1 measures argumentativeness. It measures
your reaction to controversy. The Strategic Skills Table 12.2 measures verbal aggressiveness. It
reveals how you usually try to get people to comply with your wishes.
£> Activity D:
Respond to each of the statements in Table 12.1 as honestly as possible to assess your
communication skills in a group situation.
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Table 12.1
STRATEGIC SKILLS
Argumentativeness Scale
1.
While in an argument, I worry that the person I am arguing with will form a negative
opinion of me.
Arguing over controversial issues improves my intelligence.
I enjoy avoiding arguments.
I am energetic when I argue.
Once I finish an argument, I promise myself that I will not get into another.
Arguing with a person creates more problems than it solves.
I have a pleasant, good feeling when I win a point in an argument.
When I finish arguing with someone, I feel nervous and upset.
I enjoy a good argument over a controversial issue.
343. I get unpleasant feeling when I realise I am about to get into an argument.
344. I enjoy defending my point of view on an issue
345. I am happy when I keep an argument form happening.
346. I do not like to miss the opportunity to argue a controversial issue.
347. I prefer being with people who rarely disagree with me.
348. I consider an argument an exiting intellectual challenge.
349. I find myself unable to think of effective points during an argument.
350. I feel refreshed and satisfied after an argument on a controversial issue.
351. I have the ability to do well in an argument.
352. I try to avoid getting into argument.
353. I feel excitement when I expect that a conversation I am in is leading to an
argument
Note A:
If the statement is:
1. almost never true, place 1 in the blank space
2. rarely true, place 2 in the blank space
3. occasionally true, place 3 in the blank space
4. often true, place 4 in the blank space
5. almost always true, place 5 in the blank space.
g
19. 1C 11
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Unit 12 Group Communication Strategies
Note B :
1. Tendency to approach argumentative situation: add scores on spaces 2,4,7,9,11,
13, 15, 17, 18, and 20.
2. Tendency to avoid argumentative situations: add scores on spaces 1,3,5,6,8,10,
12, 14, 16, and 19.
3. Argumentativeness trait: subtract the total of the ten tendency-to-avold items
from the total of the ten tendency-to-approach items.
345. A higher positive score indicates high argumentativeness (score 20 to 40) •
A
higher negative score reflects low argumentativeness.
Source: Adapted/mm Dan O 'Hair, Gustav W. Friedrich, and Lynda Dee Dixon,
'Strategic Communication in Business and the Professions', New York: Houghton Mifflin
Company. 2002, pg. 338
Table 12.2
STRATEGIC SKILLS
Verbal Aggressiveness Scale
1. I am extremely careful to avoid attacking person's intelligence when I attack her/
his ideas.
356. I use insults to "soften" stubborn people.
357. I try very hard to avoid influencing people by making them feel bad about themselves.
358. If someone refuses to do a task I know is important for a reason that does
not
seem valid to me, I accuse him/her of being unreasonable.
359. When others do things I think are misguided, I try to be extremely gentle
with
them.
2. If someone I am trying to influence really deserves it, I attack her or his character.
360. When people demonstrate poor taste, I insult them to shock them into
proper
behaviour.
361. I try to make people feel good about themselves even when I think their
ideas are
useless.
4. When people simply will not budge on a matter of great importance, I lose my
temper and make strong emotional outbursts.
5. When people criticize my shortcomings, I take it in good humour and do not try to
get back at them.
6. When people insult me, I get a lot of pleasure out of overreacting.
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Business Communication
362. When I dislike someone strongly, I try not to show it in what I say or how
I say it.
363. I like poking fun at people who do or say careless things to "wake them
up".
364. When I attack a person's ideas, I try not to damage his/her self-concept.
365. When I try to influence people, I make an effort not to offend them.
366. If I see someone act cruelly, I tell everyone else how terrible he/she is in
hopes of
changing his/her behaviour.
367. I refuse to participate in arguments when they involve personal attacks.
367. When I am unable to influence others through conventional tactics, I resort
to
yelling and screaming at them.
368. When I am not able to refute others' positions, I try to make them feel
defensive to
weaken their positions.
368. When an argument shifts to personal attacks, I try very hard to change the subject.
Note A:
If the statement is:
364. almost never true, place 1 in the blank space
365. rarely true, place 2 in the blank space
366. occasionally true, place 3 in the blank space
367. often true, place 4 in the blank spaceal
368. most always true, place 5 in the blank space.
Note B:
• Add your scores on numbers 1,3,5, 8,10,12,14,15,17, and 20. Call this "Total
A".
• Add your scores on numbers 2,4,6,7,9,11,13,16,18, and 19. Call this "Total
B".
« Subtract Total B from Total A.
369. If the result is between 20 and 40, you have a low tendency toward verbal
aggressiveness.
370. If the result is between 0 and 19, you have a moderate tendency toward
verbal
aggressiveness.
371. If the result is negative number (below 0), you probably use verbal
aggression
frequently.
Source: Adapted from Dan O 'Hair, Gustav W. Friedrich, and Lynda Dee Dixon, 'Strategic Communication in
Business and the Professions', New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. 2002, pg. 339
Unit 12 Group Communication Strategies
Uncontrolled verbal aggressiveness can lead to interpersonal difficulties. Attacking
the personalities or self-concepts of others demonstrate lack of sensitivity to feelings
and hurts those who are the targets of this aggression.
Reducing verbal aggressiveness is to understand how and why it occurs. There are at
least four reasons for verbal aggression:
1. Psychopathy: This refers to mental disorder that can stimulate attack on people
(clinical counselling is recommended).
2. Dislike of others: This can cause verbal aggressiveness, especially if you are put
off
by the appearance or personality of the person with whom you are
communicating.
3. Social learning: Observing and imitating parents, siblings, peers, and significant
others
who use verbal aggressiveness in your presence, can encourage you to verbal
aggressiveness.
4. Desperation: This can lead to verbal aggressiveness in final effort to win an
argument.
Desperation is a common reason for verbal aggressiveness, which is caused by
deficient
critical thinking.
Understanding and being aware of these causes of verbal aggressiveness can help
you to control the urge to attack people personally. The best way to control verbal
aggressiveness is to become a better communicator.
Learn and practice the following skills on regular basis:
1. Conduct a thorough analysis of the situation.
2. Provide logical reasoning for your position.
1. Develop a careful interpretation of the conflict issues, both your and others.
2. Evaluate your position and that of your partner.
You will find that engaging in constructive argumentation decreases the urge to
attack
others personally. a ,_
-, \ <Z& ^ \^ r^k^ *>•&'&*'
12.7 NEGOTIATION ^^ ^ ^-
Negotiation, or bargaining, frequently involves argumentation and verbal
aggressiveness. It generally occurs when communicators - for example, buyer and
seller, union leaders and company/representatives, supervisor and workers - are not
in agreement.
w\A
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Business Communication
1. Goal Setting:
Negotiators are different from problem-solving groups because of the differences in affiliation,
the goals, the needs, and communication styles. Problem-solving groups work toward one
common goal; whereas, participants in a negotiation session may have a common goal, but
differ or disagree on the means and methods to achieve it.
Negotiation is usually a planned and structured process of communication. Although arguments
may arise spontaneously from something said in the course of discussion, negotiators frequently
plan tactics to be used and topics to be covered before an encounter.
In a negotiation session, two or more people with different goals exchange communication to
produce a mutually desirable outcome. The parties involved must recognize that they are
mutually dependent, because seldom can an acceptable outcome occur unless all the parties to
negotiation recognize this fact. Most bargaining situations require give-and-take policy.
Communicators must bargain forcefully and strategically, using effective argumentation skills
while at the same time remaining aware that some concessions must be made so that all parties
feel satisfied with the outcome.
2. Formal versus Informal Negotiation:
Negotiation or bargaining process can be observed in both formal and informal situations.
Formal bargaining situations develop when recurring issues require deliberation and
confrontation over time, hi organizational setup, the most important formal bargaining is
labour-management negotiation. Other instance of formal bargaining is negotiation between
representatives of government and industry over the issue of law or policies; bargaining
*Tviffilmbcontractorsor firms offering services, negotiation with suppliers over prices, etc.
i—' * 'r
Informal bargaining is also quite prevalent in the workplace, which involve situations] that are
not often repeated. It may occur when two parties must depend on one anotherto| resolve
divergent goals. For example, managers and employees often bargaining over jg descriptions,
salary, and^erformance standards. Informal bargaining could also occur! with outside
organizations - for instance, negotiating discounts from vendors, with 1 about corporate
discounts, etc.
Regardless of whether a situation is formal or informal, similar negotiation strategies are| used.
Unit 12 Group Communication Strategies
3. Communication Competence :
The first step in negotiation is to make an offer within limits acceptable to the other bargaining
party. This would establish that the negotiator is bargaining in good faith. However, if the offer is
not acceptable or does not appear to be reasonable on the first hearing, may in fact become
persuasive as the negotiator takes it through the subsequent steps in the bargaining process.
Regardless of the quality of your initial offer, you will usually need to persuade others that your
position is worthy of consideration and their support. Use of strong evidence gives credibility to
your position more effectively than does any other tactics. Evidence usually consists of some
form of information - published documents, statistics, expert opinion, or testimony. Another
persuasive element in negotiation is summarizing - summarizing your arguments may clear up
confusion about the position you have taken and your reasons for taking it.
Finally, look at the position taken by the other side.
Negotiation is most effective when all concerned participants understand each other's positions
on the issue and when there is no inconsistency.
4. Dimensions of Negotiation :
According to experts, there are three dimensions of negotiation: information management,
concessions, and positioning. Each of them represents a category of strategies, tactics, and
behaviours that are used by negotiators to advance their goals.
1. Information management: When engaging in bargaining with others, have at hand
as much research and information as possible, but manage the information effectively
- use it to promote your goals. Information can be managed in a number of ways that
strengthen your bargaining position - such as seek explanation from your opponents
in an effort to clarify the issues; realign their position according to prevailing evidence;
or reduce ambiguity that can be used against you.
2. Concessions: Negotiators come to the bargaining table expecting to give up, or
concede, some of their goals to obtain something in return. Making concessions
demonstrates cooperativeness, which usually makes a positive impression on others
and may encourage them to reciprocate.
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Business Communication
Making concessions is also a good way to maintain interest in the negotiation.
Providing a minor concession from time to time can open new venues of
opportunities, stimulate fresh approaches to negotiation, and revitalize
communication among the bargaining parties. These concessions, however, should
be judiciously administered. Concessions can take the form of time, money,
resources, responsibilities, autonomy, and even change in job descriptions.
• Positioning: This term refers to moving the focus of the negotiation to issues that are
important to you. You must use this technique carefully - i.e. if the issues that
interest you are not central to the discussion, then refrain from emphasising them.
Many negotiators use positioning to show their side in its most favourable light. In
emphasising your issues you should not lose sight of your position, or distort or
misrepresent it.
Positioning, more than technique, is a result of pre-established rules and procedures.
Many formal bargaining situations prescribe certain methods of discussion, procedures
for decision-making, or an agenda of topics to be discussed.
>,. 5. Anxiety Management :
Negotiations can often produce anxiety, but there are some strategies to reduce the
nervousness.
First, remember that bargaining is a normal, accepted business practice. You are not a
troublemaker for entering into a bargaining situation.
Second, set a specific date and time for the bargaining session. This will give you time
to gather enough evidence and data needed to support your position. This will build your
confidence and reduce your anxiety.
Third, keep in mind that bargaining is not a do-or-die situation. Be open and flexible
during negotiations. Create a non-hostile environment by making the first concession.
Negotiation is a common communication strategy in business and professional settings.
The more effectively you can bargain, the more likely you are to attain positions of
enhanced responsibility and authority because you can be trusted to get the best deal for
your organization.
Unit 12 Group Communication Strategies
Activity E ;
a) Remember any negotiation you have had recently, and state if it was formal or informal.
b) Also mention if there was any nervousness on your part and the strategy that you used.
12.8 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
When bargainers come to the table with serious purposes, strong negotiation skills, and mutual
dependency, they can attain productive outcomes. But there are many instances when the
bargaining sessions end up in serious conflict situations. When bargaining session breakdowns
into conflict situation then the outcome is unproductive.
What is Conflict?
Conflict can take many shapes in the workplace. It can occur between people representing
different organizational units, it can occur between organizational levels such as labour and
management, and it can occur between people who work together. Conflict is a dynamic process
that is precipitated, developed, and governed by the joint communication strategies of the
parties involved.
One expert defines conflict as "an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent
parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce rewards, and interference from the other party
in achieving their goals." The parties must be interdependent. Conflict results when people
view other people (people on whom they depend) as the reason they cannot attain their goals.
Interdependency forces the conflict: if a party could attain its goals without interaction with the
other party, conflict would not arise. The same dynamic properties that make group and
organizational communication valuable are the reasons for potential conflict.
Business Communication
1. Causes of Conflict :
The primary cause of conflict is competing goals. Even though people usually enter into conflict
situation with established goals, the goals may change as the situation develops and
understanding of the opponents increases. As goals change, so does the communication of the
conflict.
Es
b) o types of goals in most conflict situations: content and relational.
this conflict situation, the conflicting parties believe they understand t of the goals in the
situation, yet each has a perspective that is different and unknown to the other party. Thus,
content goals involve the obvious reasons for a dispute, but differing perspectives unknown to
the other party. They are issues characterized by such as decision-making (participation in
decision-making process), and rights (maintaining fairness), bach party understands its goals but
has few ideas aBout the goals of its conflicting partner. Failure to communicate differing goals
usually
Relational Goals: If in the content goals the involved parties are unaware of each other's
goak<in relational goals there is an attempt by the conflicting parties to make Hheirg^afeless
obvious. Relational goals "define each party's importance to the other, the emotional distance
they wish to maintain, the influence each is willing to grant the other, the degree to which the
parties are seen as a unit, or the rights each party is willing to grant to the other".
2.
Managing Conflicting Goals :
Both content and relational goals must be brought out into the open and honestly discussed to
prevent confusion and misunderstandings. The only way mat people in a conflict can share the
perspective of their opponents is by understanding their goals.
The following steps can help you to clarify goals :
1. State your goals in clear, unambiguous language (use language that the other party
can understand).
2. Draw out clearly stated goals from the other party.
c) d)
Openly discuss the difference between your content and relational goals.
Make sure that you and your opponent have a shared understanding of each other's goals.
e)
Show that upholding your goals will not prevent managing the conflict productively.
Unit 12 Group Communication Strategies
Haying clarified the goals of both the opposing parties, now there should be an attempt to
collaborate the goals - i.e. interdependent solution. The key to managing any conflict is working
toward an interdependent solution. If any party considers only its goals and fails to acknowledge
the other party's goals, it will only delay the productive resolution of differences.
Here are some ways to encourage goal collaboration:
378. Search for commonalities among the competing goals.
379. Recognize that some of your opponent's goals may not have long-term
implications
and you may be able to live with them.
1. Remember the adage: "Every defeat is a victory and every victory is a defeat". People
who always get their way may be disliked for their success.
380. Give some concessions while asking for some.
381. Develop new goals that incorporate and complement the competing goals of all parties.
3. A Strategic Approach to Conflict:
When approaching conflict situations, communicators must remain flexible so that the strategy
they select is suitable for the people concerned, the goals to be achieved, and the situational
constraints involved. Communicators must be able to respond to the changing conditions of a
conflict situation. A number of factors can influence the selection of a conflict strategy. The
various strategies or styles are competing, accommodating, compromising, avoiding, and
collaborating.
For productive conflict management, you should consider the following factors: goal setting,
situational knowledge, communication competence, and anxiety management.
a) Goal Setting:
An important consideration in any conflict management is that the goals of communicators
can change during the course of a conflict. If the goals of the conflict appear to be changing,
you should be prepared to respond with an alternative conflict
style.
Second consideration for selecting a conflict style is the likelihood of multiple goals. You
may choose a particular style because of your opponent's primary goals, but be flexible
enough to shift to a more compromising position if it is productive in bringing about a
resolution.
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Business Communication
284
Relational goals also influence the choice of a conflict style - i.e. if you feel connected to
your opponent in some personal way, you are less likely to use competing or avoiding
strategies and use more positive strategies. Also consider professional relationship you have
with your conflict partner. His/her position in the organization may influence your choice of
style.
When you decide on a conflict style, consider the long-term relational consequences of your
action. If you hope to carry on a long-term relationship with your opponent, employing
competing or avoiding tactics may destroy your relationship. The destruction of long-term
relationship may not be worth the short-term gains you may make by using such tactics.
Therefore, it is very important to consider all possible aspects of conflict in the process of
goal setting.
b) Situational Knowledge:
Situational factors are elements in a conflict that affect the nature of conflict and the styles
you select to deal with them. For example, the physical environment (where the conflict
takes place, such as private office, in the cafeteria, or in a meeting) will affect how you
communicate during a conflict. Aggressive tactics are particularly risky when the conflict
occurs in public view.
Time is another factor that influences your choice of style of conflict management. For
example, if you are expected to settle your differences with someone in a limited time
period, you may feel unable to develop a successful, positive style and may resort to tactics
such as competing or avoiding. If you have more time to settle your differences, you may
be able to work out more elaborate styles such as collaborating and compromising.
c) Communication Competence:
In conflict situation be aware of your strengths and weaknesses - i.e. your communication
competence. Competencies include argumentation skills, control of verbal aggressiveness,
listening skills, and verbal and nonverbal skills.
Controlling verbal aggressiveness is important in conflict situation. Allowing the
discussion to drop to the level of personality attacks accomplishes nothing in the way of
conflict management. It only escalates the conflict.
Listening skills are essential to the choice of conflict style. Knowing what your opponents
are saying and why they are saying it can tell you a lot about what style will work best in
resolving conflict with them.
Sincere effort to remain flexible also aids in resolving disputes. Flexibility allows you to
adapt to the changing dynamics of a conflict. For example, you may decide to
Unit 12 Group Communication Strategies
adopt an accommodating style in the initial stages of the conflict, but as the conflict
progresses, the opponent stubbornness or hostility may make competitive tactics more
useful. By remaining flexible, you will be able to make a change in your conflict style to
counter the shift. In general, successful conflict managers are highly sensitive to shifts in
conflict strategies by their opponents.
d) Anxiety Management:
Conflict can be a major cause of anxiety in the workplace. You may dread or avoid particular
situations, such as an argument with a superior, hostility in a group meeting, or even a
sensitive bargaining session, if the possibility of conflict makes you uneasy. Conflict,
however, can have productive outcomes, and on some occasions it is better to engage in
conflict than to avoid it.
To lessen your anxiety in a conflict:
376. focus on goals and outcomes
377. view your conflict partner positively
378. seek support of others who share your goals and position
379. take a break to collect your thoughts
380. call for a time out to relax.
^ Activity F:
a) List some conflict situations that are likely to arise, (two at your workplace and two in your
home environment).
b) Can you recollect a recent situation where you had to face conflicting goals? List the steps
that you took to help you clarify goals.
Business Communication
12.9 SUMMARY
Group communication is inevitable in any business organization and professional settings. They
are necessary because decisions are reached by groups are superior to decisions reached by
individuals. The nature of group communication grows out of what groups do, what purposes
they serve, and what constitutes a group. A number of factors influence group communication:
cohesiveness, norms, roles, conformity, and groupthink. Groupthink can lead to poor decision-
makTrig^ _ 3*-<( f§0
Another important dimension of group communication is leadership. Leaders can be classified
according to the traits they exhibit, their behavioural styles, their adaptability to the situation at
hand, or their ability to perform the duties and responsibilities of a leader.
Most competitive communication situation can be addressed through negotiation, which can be
formal or informal. The three dimenslonsof negotiation are information management,
concessions, and positioning. The selection of most appropriate negotiation strategy depends on
the situation, although general guidelines can be applied. When bargaining breaks down it
develops into a conflict. Conflict, the struggle between interdependent parties who perceive
incompatible goals, may exist in all levels, situations, and relationships in an organization.
Successfully resolving conflict requires strategic communication - goal setting, situational
knowledge, communication competence, and anxiety management.
12.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Ql. Describe what constitutes a group and what are the factors that influence group
communication.
Q2. Discuss the different types of group participations and group leaderships.
Q3. Explain the strategic communication for negotiation.
Q4. Explain the strategic management of conflict in an organization.
Business Communication
13.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units, we focused on the importance of communication skills as both a speaker
and writer. The attempt was to understand the survival techniques, with regard to communication,
in the work place. However, as a graduate from a college or a university, the first important
business letter you would have to write would be an application for a job.
As an advanced business student, you will share many common qualities with your peers - at
school or at work. If you are not presently employed in a career-path job you probably also share
a desire to find that special job where you will be rewarded with good pay and praise for your
contribution to the team.
But remember that such a job does not come easily. For majority of the students, obtaining the
first major job takes a lot of hard work.
Likewise, for those who are currently employed and working on a graduate degree, a new job,
one that will allow you to use your newly acquired skills, is sometimes difficult to acquire.
Traditionally, the job search process requires conducting a personal assessment, researching an
organization, preparing a personal resume, writing letters of application, interviewing with
several prospective employers both on campus and off campus, and sometimes applying for jobs
through employment agencies.
Today, the process has been enhanced enormously by taking your job search on-line. Electronic
job searching and on-line career discussion groups that were once used by only a few are now
considered important job-finding alternatives. In fact, employers are more frequently bypassing
the campus recruiting process and are going straight to potential employees through on-line job
advertising.
You should be prepared for whatever job finding process you choose. You should be well
equipped to join the working world. In this unit you will learn who you are and what you want
to do, deciding how to market yourself through the preparation of a resume and different types
of employment letters, and selling yourself in the job interview.
13.2 PLANNING YOUR CAREER PATH
Anyone can find a job; finding the right job is more difficult. As an advanced busine candidate,
you are faced with tremendous pressure from the school administrators <
Unit 13 Resumes and Employment Letters
placement centre personnel to complete your resume and make a decision on your major area of
emphasis, and start the interview process.
All too often, candidates do not consider what they want out of the job until, with resumes
completed; they find themselves in the middle of the interviewing process. Presumably, you will
have made your decision about your career before completing your resume; but if you have not,
then realise that you are competing with the ones who have already made their decisions. Be as it
may, it is essential that you take some time and assess who you are and what you want to do.
1. Consider Your Skills
Begin with assessing your skills and interests and clarifying what is most important to you in
your career. One way of making such assessment is to go back over your life and identify
several successful accomplishments. Describe each of these accomplishments in detail and list
specific skills that you utilized in the different successes. This method, however, is too
descriptive and potential employers would not be interested in going through the details.
Moreover, you may not be able to list more that three or four success stories.
Another way is to compile an inventory of all the major activities that you have been involved
in during your life.
Use the following list as a starting point:
• EducationoUVocational programmes that you enrolled in and completed, and which contributed significantly to your overall education.
» Course work accomplishments those were challenging and beneficial.
• Volunteer, community, and extracurricular activities, which added to your skills,
knowledge, and leadership abilities.
i Personal hobbies those you have enjoyed.
• Military experiences and jobs to which you were assigned.
i Recreational activities that you found enjoyable.
• Travel experiences to different countries and the learning you acquired.
Go back over the inventory and identify specific skills that you have learned and enjoyed
using in different activities and experiences.
Business Communication
Review the skills that you have identified and circle the functional skills found in Table 13.1.
2. Consider Your Interests and Values
Richard Bolles, in his best-seller, What Colour Is Your Parachute? stresses three questions that
one must ask in job finding process:
Where do you want to live? What do you
want to do in life? Who do you want to work
for?
First question deals with the location where you would like to spend your remaining time after
work. This should include the kind of people and surroundings you enjoy.
Second question is concerning your personal and professional goals. You not only
want to work, but also grow in your profession.
Review the Table 13.2 and consider work values that affect your career, and write a brief
description of your personal wants, dreams, career interests, and job values.
The third question helps you to summarise and evaluate the types of jobs that can help you more
fully develop your total personality, potential, and lifestyle.
Table 13.1: Functional Skills Needed for Professional Employment
Communication & Persuasion
Writing Listening Training Selling ability Interviewing ability Making presentation
Negotiation Thinking on one's feet Conversational ability Public speaking Teaching
Research & Investigation
Analysing Researching Reading Data gathering Critical thinking Data analysis
Observing Outlining
Human Service
Interpersonal skills
Unit 13 Resumes and Employment Letters
I
Organization Management
^roblem solving Time management Decision making leadership Meeting deadlines
Supervision Motivation ability Organization Coordinating Administration
Ability to put theory into practice Ability to delegate Applying policies Giving directions
Assuming responsibilities Discriminating tasks Interpreting policies Setting priorities
Group process skills Sensitivity to needs Empathizing ability Counselling skills
Information Management Math skills
Ability to recognize information Information management Record keeping Attention to details
Logical ability
Design & Planning
Anticipating problems
Planning
Conceptualising
Designing programmes
Anticipating consequences of action
Seeking new ideas
Visual thinking
Source .• J.M. Penrose, R.W. Rasberry, and R.J. Myers, Advanced Business Communication, Singapore: Thomson Asia Pvt. Ltd. 2002, pg., 372. Adaptedfrom
Stanford University Career Planning ,uide, 1995-96.
Table 13.2 : Values that affect Career Choice
Some wise person said: "Work without value is just mere labour." Work values are the
aspects of our work that we regard as important sources of satisfaction. Values can be
generally categorised as those that affect:
'.« Work enjoyment
j» Work condition
!» Work of importance to others.
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Business Communication
Work Enjoyment values might include:
382. Excitement, Change, Variety - experiencing a high degree of any of these in the
course of one's work.
383. Creativity - creating new ideas, programs, organizational structures, etc., or not
following a format previously developed by others.
384. Knowledge - engaging oneself in the pursuit of knowledge, truth, and understanding.
385. Profit, Gam - having a strong likelihood of accumulating large amounts of
money
or other material gain.
386. Recognition - being recognized for the quality of one's work in some visible or
public way.
Work Condition values might include:
1. Work Alone/Work with Others - doing work, which emphasizes either of these
conditions.
2. Independence - being able to determine the nature of one's work without significant
direction from others.
3. Time Freedom - having work responsibilities, which allow for flexible time schedules
or working on one's own time schedule.
4. Stability - having a work routine that is largely predictable and not likely to change
over a given period of time.
1. Adventure - having work duties, which involve frequent risk taking.
Work of Importance to Others might include:
Moral fulfilment
Helping society and contributing to the betterment of the world. Helping others,
usually in a direct way, individually or in small groups. Friendship and
community
Source : J.M. Penrose, R.W. Rasberry, and R.J. Myers, Advanced Business
Communication, Singapore : Thomson Asia Pvt. Ltd. 2002, Adapted from Howard
Figler, The Complete Job Search Handbook, 1979, and Stanford University Career
Planning Guide, 1995-96
Unit 13 Resumes and Employment Letters
3. Consider the Kind of Work You Want to Do and With Whom You Want to Do It
In order to consider this part of the process of job searching you have to do intensive
research of the organization that interests you. If you do your research long before you
write your resume and try to establish interview dates, you will come closer to knowing
precisely which companies you do and do not want to work for. You will prepare a better
resume and will be able to ask and answer questions during your interview.
As you proceed in your research, the kind of work you want to do and the company you
want to work for will emerge.
A study conducted showed the characteristics that the employees most want from their
jobs.
The list is ranked in order of importance:
383. Health
384. Interesting work
385. Job security
386. Opportunity to learn new skills
387. Vacation time
I) Working independently
g) Recognition from team members
h) Regular hours
i) A job in which I can help others
j) Little job stress
k) High income
1) Working close to home
m) Work important to the society
n) Chances for promotion
o) Contact with people
Find out what are your motivators for the job you are looking for. Make your own list
and ask if the company that you are considering will allow you to meet your objectives.
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is* •'
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Business Communication
Besides these motivators there are some pertinent questions posed by career specialist,
Edgar H.Schein:
5. Will the company give me the opportunity to stretch and really discover what I
am
capable of doing?
6. Will I really matter inside the organization? Will they see me as a person of
worth?
Will they give me real responsibility and a chance to show what I can really do?
7. Will I be able to maintain my integrity? Will this company help me achieve a
balance
my life, to have a family, and to pursue my individual interests?
8. Will this job give me a real chance to grow? Will I be able to learn new things and
develop new talents?
9. Will this company meet the ideals of the sound and ethical businesses that I have
studied about? Will working for this organization enhance my self-image?
Source: J.M. Penrose, R.W. Rasberry, andR.J. Myers, Advanced Business Communication, Singapore: Thomson Asia
Pvt. Ltd. 2002.
Activity A ; Identify the
following: a) Your skills
b) Your work condition values
c) Your motivators for job search
Unit 13 Resumes and Employment Letters
13.3 PREPARING YOUR RESUME
Is the resume important?
Yes ! It is the vital first step for marketing yourself.
As an applicant, you may have excellent qualification, but if you cannot communicate your
qualification clearly in a resume, you may never reach the interview stage. A good resume is
a marketing tool. It should portray you in the most favourable manner possible.
1. Fallacy & Facts about Resumes
Table 13.3 : Fallacy and Fact about Resumes
455
FALLACIES:
388. The purpose of your resume is list all your skills and abilities.
389. A good resume will get you the job you want.
390. Your resume will be read carefully and thoroughly by an interested employer.
391. The more good information you present about yourself, the better.
392. If you want a really good resume, have it prepared by a resume service.
FACTS:
393. The purpose of your resume is to kindle employer interest and generate an
interview.
394. Several good resumes cross employer's desks every working day.
395. Your resume probably has less than ten seconds to make an impression.
1. By including too much information, a resume may actually kill the reader's appetite
to know more.
2. Many resume services use undistinguished standard formats, so you should prepare
your own - unless the position you are after is very high level and you choose the
service very carefully.
Source: J.V. Thill <& C.L. Bovee, Excellence in Business Communication, New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1991.
'Resume' is a French word meaning to summarize', a resume is a summary of pertinent "acts
about the candidate. The typical resume consists of one to three pages about the andidate and
includes job objectives, past employment, education, and personal data.
297
Business Communication
Developing a strategic plan that focuses on what you want to do now and several years from now
will help you to write a good resume.
2. What should be in your Resume?
As a marketing tool, the purpose of the resume is to 'sell' you. Your resume should include the
most important information about you, your education and your work experience. From this your
prospective employer will make a preliminary determination about whether you qualify for the
job.
Resumes contain many other types of information such as:
c) d) e) f)
g) h) i)
388. Personal data - name, address, telephone, fax number, and e-mail address.
389. Career/job objective
Educational background
Work experience (both full and part-time) Militaty
experience
Special qualification, awards, honours, and publications
Community activities
Personal interests, special skills, and hobbies Statement
about references.
The Harvard University Graduate School of Business Student Handbook on Resume^ Writing
makes the following statement:
"Don't write an autobiography or an obituary; the resume is not an all-inclusive life history! In it
you work mostly with the "plus factors" that will help you sell yourself, so emphasize your most
important assets. Above all, it must be factual. Each statement needs to be accurate and not
blown up beyond its value; on the other hand, it need not be underplayed. Executives are
seeking capabilities, so write up your achievements with the employer's needs in mind."
[Student Handbook On Resume Writing, Harvard Graduate School of Business and
Administration, Boston, Massachusetts, p. 2 Quoted by J.M. Penrose, R. W. Rasberry, and R.J.
Myers, Advanced Business Communication, Singapore: Thomson Asia Pvt. Ltd. 2002]
Unit 13 Resumes and Employment Letters
Your resume should be able to balance the employer's needs and what you can offer.
Employer's Needs
Wzoareyou? What do you want to do? What do you have to offer? What
can you do?
3. Types of Standard Resumes
There are three kinds of standard resumes:
396. Traditional Resume
397. Functional Resume
398. Skills Emphasis Resume
a) Traditional Resume
Your Resume Description
Identification section Job objective section Education and work history Personal skills
•t A traditional resume lists your educational background and your work experience in
reverse chronological order. It highlights job titles, company and school
namesTdates of enrolment and employment, and other pertinent information needed
by the employer.
A traditional resume is best if you have steady career growth, if you intend to remain
with your current employer, or if you intended profession calls for it. Certain
professions, such as education, law, and accounting, require a traditional resume.
If your response to the following questions are positive then you should construct a
traditional resume:
i) Can you show continuity in your work history?
ii) Are you looking for a job related to your past experience?
iii) Are you unconcerned about employers seeing gaps in your past?
iv) Do you want to emphasize non-professional jobs that you have held?
There are, however, some drawbacks with type of resumes. The gaps and
discontinuities in your jobs profile becomes very evident and can cause you
difficulty in getting a job.
Business Communication
This is especially true for those who are seeking to re-enter the job market, or for
fresh candidates from colleges whose work experience may be a part-time or
summer jobs. Traditional resumes place little value on non-paid jobs such as
community programmes, campus activities, and volunteer work. Table 13.4 gives an
idea of traditional resume.
b) Functional Resume
This type of resume is preferable to traditional resume when there are gaps that you
do not want to highlight.
The functional resumelists your education and job experiencss^but in a more
organized manner - allows your experiences to be described by function instead of
by employment history, job titles, company names and dates of employment.
You can, in the functional resume, describe what functions you have most
satisfying, what research you have done, and how you have handled problems or
managed people.
In this type of resume you can describe your other activities and experiences, such
as travel, community activities, and sports achievements.
Functional resume is appropriate
if you are: Changing careers.
i) Entering the job market with no work history, but have other relevant experiences
to offer.
in) Returning to the job market after an absence.
iv) Seeking a position unrelated to your previous employment.
v) Moving from one professional realm into another (for example, office
assistant to manager).
Table 13.5 is a sample of functional resume, c)
Skills Emphasis Resume
A skills emphasis resume resembles a functional resume in format. It begins with the
identification section, followed by an objective or desired position.
Unit 13 Resumes and Employment Letters
The objective should indicate and highlight some of the skills that the applicant
mentions in the resume.
For instance,
"Desired: A Sales Position leading to a career in marketing and management
staff that calls for skills in leadership, communication, financial analysis, and
creativity."
Following this include short background information, and a description, which
would explain how this background has helped you in developing skills such as
leadership, communication analysis, and creativity. Table 13.6 shows the skills
emphasis resume.
Table 13.4: Traditional Resume
Kyle Woo
123" Baseline
Boulder, CO 23920
(310)
555-
7321
kwoo@
mail.eoc
.eda
Career Focus: international Business
Education University of Colorado B.S., Business Administration <200I) Emphasis: International Business
Representative Coursework
Introduction to International Business Management of Muitinationai Enterprises World Commerce arid Development
International Finance international Marketing International Management
Related Experiences
398. Pacifle JUm Trip: Visited Hong Kong, Bangkok, Seoul, and Singapore i» connection with CD cogrsework.
Opportunity gave exposure to conducting business in the Pacific Rim.
399. International Business Internship: Under direction of CU Small Business Center, worked with entrepre
neurs from ireiand in researching, identifying, and contacting companies ottering potential for import/export
business
400. Import Experience: Presently employed with Far East Trade Company which specializes in importing fine
jewelry from Hong Kong, Malaysia, and India; recommend product purchase, maintain inventory, and orga
nize shows for sales in five western states.
Computer Usage
Extensive computer coiirsework (6XH- hours) with knowledge of various desktop hardware and
software applications, including Lotus I -2-3, Microsoft Office, and dBase III+ and IV. Extensive
application of Work! Wide Web.
Employment Summary Personally financed 100% of education through the following employment:
Import/Sales: Far East Trade Company Assistant Manager/Driver. Boulder Cab Convention Coordinator: Broker Hotei Waiter: Bouldrado Hotel
Affiliations International Business Association Pacific Rim Trade Association Toastmasters interniuionai
1999-Present 1998-1999 1997-1998 1996-1997
Desire to Relocate—References Upon Request
Business Communication
Activity B;
a) Construct a Functional Resume presenting your qualifications.
b) Construct a Traditional Resume presenting your qualifications.
13.4 APPLICATION LETTERS
A letter of application is written to sell one's services. It should, therefore have all the qualities
that are required in the sales of any tangible product. When you write an application letter you
must keep the requirement of the employer's point of view in mind. Having these requirements in
mind, you must analyse to see if you have the required qualities.
Putting it differently, before applying for any job, you should be able to assess the requirement
and your own personal qualities and achievements.
The job analysis will help you to understand the kind of person the company is looking for and
self-appraisal will enable you to prepare an inventory of your personal details and achievements.
There are two kinds of application letters:
400. One-part letter in which all the information - your qualification, experience, and
personal details - is written in just one letter, and
401. Two-part letter in which there are two parts. The first part is short and serves as
a
covering letter, containing reference to the information about the vacancy - such as
advertisement - to which you are responding; the second part consists of your resume.
Unit 13 Resumes and Employment Letters
The second type of application is more common and effective. In this
type of application
the applicant has more scope of revealing his personal qualities and
experiences. It enables
the prospective employer to examine your resume more effectively. o
Letters of application and their accompanying resumes can be solicited or unsolicited
^STW 3JAA ' •"" "~~~ ~"
•Ty A solicited letter responds to a specific announced job opening in a newspaper.
'AJ - — ~~~
• An unsolicited letter explores the possibilities of employment based
either on the
information received or past experience of the company.
Whether solicited or unsolicited, the letter of application consists of the
following components:
1. Opening : name the job position and the context
2. Body : develop major selling points and create a match between writer's
qualification
and prospective employer's needs
3. Penultimate (second-to-last) paragraph of the body (if necessary) : refer to
desirable personal qualities
• Close : request an interview and facilitate
contact
1. Drafting the Application
The letter of application is a special letter and functions as a sales letter.
It prepares and invites the reader to have a closer look at the product
that is being offered - i.e. the resume.
It prepares the reader - here the prospective employer - by indicating
the need advertised by the employer, and invites the employer to
examine the resume and thereby know the "product" (i.e. the applicant)
the employer wishes to acquire.
As any other letter the application also has three parts - introduction, body, and conclusion.
a) The introduction should attract the attention of the employer
besides saying whether you are applying in response to an
advertisement, or at someone's suggestion, or on your own
initiative. Some common ways of starting such an introduction are:
• I wish to apply for the post of Manager HR, as advertised by your
company in Times of India of 6 November, 2006.
Business Communication
403. Please refer to your advertisement on page 12 of Times of India of 6 November,
2006 for the post of Manager HR. I wish to be considered for this post.
404. I should be grateful if you would consider me for the post of Manager HR
advertised by your company in Times of India, dated 6 November, 2006.
You could use a more dynamic approach by writing something like this:
• My qualification and experience as an Assistant HR Manager for five years in
TELCO, Pune makes me confident that I can do the job of Manager HR
advertised by your company in Times of India of 6 November, 2006.
b) The body of the application letter should contain information that would help develop
the interest of the prospective employer. Make an attempt to show, with evidence,
how you are the person the company is looking for.
You could do this by indicating that you possess the qualities and experience, which the
post requires. If you have made any contribution that is worth mentioning, do it.
Encourage the reader to go through your resume. If there is any indication of mentioning
expected salary then mention your present salary and further give a range within which you
would be willing to except the job.
Do not specify the salary that you want; it is better to discuss the details of salary at the
time of interview.
The question about the salary is a sensitive issue, though all of us work for that. Therefore
do not take the initiative to start the discussion on salary but allow the interviewer to start
it.
c) The conclusion should be such that it would motivate the employer to respond to
your application. The purpose and goal of your application letter should be to secure
an interview. If your application letter gets you an interview you have achieved your
purpose.
Some ways of concluding your application letter are as follows:
1. I look forward to hearing from you.
2. I hope that my qualifications will merit your consideration.
3. I trust you will favour me with an interview.
Unit 13 Resumes and Employment Letters
• I would very much appreciate if an opportunity is given to me for providing furtherdetafls.
• I would appreciate an opportunity of attending an interview. Source: R.C.
Sharma, Business Correspondence and Report Writing, pp. 284- 285 2.
Portfolios
One of your options in applying for a job is to svfbmit a portfolio along with your
resume and letter of application. Portfolios are displa/of assetsj'ortfolios concerned with
your communication assets would be indicative of your oral as well as your written skills
such
as:
1. Topics you can handle
2. Audience for which you have written
3. Designs you have created
4. Visuals and graphics you have designed and used
5. Organizational and development strategies that you have used in various projects
6. Presentational strategies, including multimedia
7. Genres or types of writing you are skilful and comfortable with.
Source: H.R. Ewald and R.E. Burnett, Business Communication
The content of the portfolio would depend on the nature of job you are applying for and the
skills you wish to highlight. The purpose of portfolio is sales: you are marketing yourself. Since
your task is to display your communication skills you would have to include everything that will
enable you to demonstrate them.
The design of portfolio should help the reader to get in it and out of it without much difficulty
or loss of time.
At the same time the reader must learn something useful about your abilities. Your resume
should provide the reader with an overview of your credentials and the context for your
portfolio.
JS$ Activity C;
Prepare the following application letters for a position of Management Trainee: a)
Solicited
b) Unsolicited
13.5 OTHER TYPES OF EMPLOYMENT MESSAGES
In search of a job, you may have to prepare other types of messages, as the case may be -
such as job-inquiry letter, application form, and application follow-up letters.
1. Writing a Job-Inquiry Letter
Some companies will require of you to fill out and submit an application form for a job.
The purpose of a job-inquiry letter is to get you an application form. You should include
enough information about yourself indicating that you have sufficient qualification for
the position that you are seeking for. This would increase your chances of getting the
necessary application form.
Another approach would be to go to the company in person to obtain the application
form, which you may be able to get at the reception counter or the personnel department.
This would give you an opportunity to get a first hand impression about the company. It
would also indicate your initiative.
2. Filling out Application Forms
Some organizations require an application form instead of a resume, and many require
both and application form as well as a resume for all positions.
Unit 13 Resumes and Employment Letters
An application form is a standardized data sheet that simplifies comparison of applicants'
qualifications. Moreover, it provides a convenient one-page source for the information, which is
essential for the employer to make decision.
The most important thing about filling the application form is to be accurate and thorough. Use
your resume as a reference for such details as dates of employment, educational qualifications,
etc. When not sure of date for which you have no reference then give an approximate date.
Many application forms request that you provide information about expected salary. Unless you
are sure what the range of salary is for the company's employees do not commit. The safest thing
would be to suggest a range that is common in the job market for that particular position, or write
"Negotiable" or "Open".
One of the major drawbacks of the application forms is that it does not provide enough space to
indicate one's abilities and skills. You could, however, fill out the form, as best as you can, and
wait for the interview time when you can provide all necessary information.
3. Writing Application Follow-ups
If your application letter fails to bring a response within a certain period, say a month or so, it
would then be proper to write another letter. The purpose of the follow-up letter is to keep your
file active. This will give you an opportunity to upgrade your original application letter with
additional information that will job-related. For example: Since applying to you on May 3 for an office secretary position, I have completed a course in office management. Also, my typing speed has increased to 75 words per minute. Please keep my application in your active file, and let me know when you need skilled secretary. Even if you have received a letter acknowledging your application and saying that it will be kept on file, do not hesitate to send a follow-up letter two or three months later. Business Communication Activity D ; You must have had the opportunity to fill a number of application forms as a student or while applying for a job. What were the drawbacks you faced? List three of them. 13.6 SUMMARY
A resume is a factual report about your qualifications that is intended toiet The organizing of a resume depends on the type of information that you wish to supply to your prospective employer. Depending on the need and type of information that you wish to offer you could either use the traditional type of resume, orjunctionaLoi skills emphasising resume. o An application letter often accompanies a resume. An application letter is a sales letter, which is meant to sell yourservices to an employer."~" r . . Application letter could either be a solicited or an unsoliqkeBone. This has to have an introduction, a body and a conclusion that would fetch you an opportunity for an interview. The application letter has to be carefully drafted so as to inform the reader about you and win an interview. There are other types of employment related messages - such as job-inquiry letter, application form, and follow-up letters. Application forms are often used by organizations to make their search easier. These need to be filled out completely and accurately. Application follow-up letters are intended to keep your file active in the organization for " " Business Communication 14.1 INTRODUCTION Communication is central for the success of any organization, and so the challenge for businesses is to create a communication system that is both effectiyeand efficient. The advancement and growth in technology has made impact on every facet of organizational life, and the need to develop effective and efficient communication system has intensified. The use of technology in the communication process has been termed "electronic communication" or "e-communication". Electronic communication - voicejnail
9|p teleconferencing, e-mail, electronic databases, and electronic networks - is increasingly <* "common in business world. While^Enology may change the speed with which a message is generated and received, the amount of information available, and the number of people involved in generating and receiving message, the technology does not change the quality of the message itself. In other words, while technology changes the human element remains constant.Affective communicatorestill need to consider the purpose, audience, and occasion of a message, regardless of the way the message is generated or transmitted. " Traditional media, such as written messages, phone calls, and face-to-face communication, arenow being replaced by e-mailas the^rsferr^d channel in the business world. Increasing use of Internet and intranet is decreasing the importance of brochures and organization-wide memos. These changes have influenced organizational communication internally as well as externally. "To maximize the impact of technology as a communication method, organizations must be aware of the possible benefits and associated problems in order to create both the process and atmosphere for effective communication". (P. O'Kane, O Hargie, and D. Tourish) 14.2 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES The formal networks of communication are reflected visibly in a company's organizational chart, informal networks are invisible and yet influential. When you work in an organization, you are automatically part of both its formal communication network as well as its informal networks. When you need to communicate with someone - whether a co-worker within the organization or a client across the country - you have a wide choice of technologies to choose from, The two key tools for facilitating e-communication are: the Internet and e-mail. Unit 14 Communicating with Technology 1. The Internet The Internet is a system of networked coniputers. It had its beginnings in the 1960s in the form of Arpanet, commissioned by the Department of Defence to promote the sharing of
super-computers amongst researchers in the US. Since then it has metamorphosed into the World Wide Web (WWW), becoming an almost indispensable source of information globally. The use of Internet has grown to such an extent that it has permeated every aspect of human activity, and in particular the economic activity. Internet is considered as the "public face of the organization"(P. O'Kane, O Margie, and D. Tourish). A research suggests that image creation is the major function of a corporate home page. 2. Website As suggested by P. O'Kane, O Hargie, and D. Tourish, a corporate website should have the following characteristics: Easy to navigate Provide relevant information Represent the company image. Organizations design their website in one of the following formats: a) Static: ^W ^^W , *\rt&* i) It provides a fixed message ii) It is not interactive iii) It serves as a promotional brochure iv) It gives "cyber presence" to the organization. b) Broadcast: i) Content of the message is continually changed and refined ii) It is one-way message - i.e. it is not interactive iii) Hyperlinks are provided so that the visitors can navigate specific areas of interest Business Communication Examples: Special information, events, weather, etc. c) Interactive: i) These sites encourage two-way communication (visitors can interact with the information) ii) E-mail addresses are provided for interested visitors to contact specific corporate staff members
in) Since the sites are interactive they should be well manned and managed to deal with inquiries. The key factors that the organizations need to bear in mind are: the audience, available resources, and products. Audience: An organization should design their website depending on the needs of its customers. Manufacturing or engineering firms may require information site with feedback and contact options. Trading firms and banks may require transaction tools because of high level of interaction needed with the users. Younger audience may require information on latest music scene, healthier life-styles, etc. Resources: Companies should have resources to deal with extra orders they may receive by way of their website. Companies should be fully competent to deal with difficulties associated with overseas selling, such as exchange rates and tax tariffs Continual maintenance of the website Training staff to deal with customer-service and communication. Product: Many prefer to browse the Internet for products to standing in a shop to do their purchasing. Therefore, many organizations are moving the sales of their products onto the Internet site. Unit 14 Communicating with Technology According to one management expert, to transform traditional business transaction into e-commerce one must follow these five steps: Redefine the competitive advantage - decide what the company can offer that no one can. Rethink business strategy - how does this need to change in order to capture the cyber market. Re-examine traditional business and revenue models - integrate the figures
for doing business on to the net in order to assess financial viability. Re-engineer the corporation and website - the company needs to pursue the proposed changes and ensure that the site meets the company needs. Re-invent customer service - the unique needs of the Internet customer must be met. [Source: P. O'Kane, O Hargie, andD. Tourish] 3. E-commerce E-commerce is the use of electronic information technology for business transactions such as displaying catalogues, selling and buying goods and services, processing payments, etc. . There are three types of E-commercel: inter-organizational, retail, and intra- organizational. ' ^ *" "' a) Retail: Many companies have established their own websites, which are mainly used for passing on information about their products and also for the purposeof_ sales. The direct cojitact between the producer and the consumercan^o^t sales, and the time and moneyspent on despatch^ advertisements, stationary, etc. can be cut down dramatically. However, in order to target their market the companies need to develop a profile of their customers who can receive tailored information. Furthermore, creating a site that enables the user to have a personalized experience increases its usage potential. For instance, hotmail.com provides horoscopes and up-to-date news, which encourages the user to return to the site. This form of "virtual marketing" both draws the visitors to the site as well as keeps them there. Business Communication The Internet differs from other forms of customer communication in that it requires the individual to make the first move - this is known as "pull strategy". This means that a person who is interested in a product or a service should log onto the site. In such cases the organization must build a relationship with the client, and this can be done by: i) Regular e-mail contact ii) Prompt response to queries
iff) Provide a medium for personal contact - to clarify information, close a transaction, correct an error, etc. b) Inter-organizational: According to R.C. Sharma & K. Mohan, business-to-business E-commerce has been expanding faster than business-to-consumer E-commerce because many reputed companies are already in possession of necessary technology infrastructure. Internet is usedinsourcing suppliers and resources. It gives the organization an opportunity toTnvestigate and gain information on many different producers and products in order to select the most relevant. It also provides an opportunity to find out the competitors' products and services in order to remain up-to-date. The Internet riot only makes other organizations vulnerable, but ""also exposes your organization to the competitors, c) Infra-organizational: E-commerce occurs within an organization too. The objective is to link the members of the organization and increase the flov&LofJnformation. For instance, Internet presents a new opportunity for training. P. O'Kane, O Hargie, and D. Tourish state: "E-learning enables employees to manage their own education time table and encourages 'bite-sized' learning, which breaks it into manageable chunks that can be undertaken at the employee's convenience... From an organizational view point it is easier to manage and assess training programmes as the facilities are in place to allow reporting of progress". [Pg.81] 4. Intranet and Extranet An "intranet" facilitates increased collaboration among employees, as it flattens the organizational structure and introduces "anyone-to-anyone" connectivity within the company. An "extranet" extends this form of communication to tire external sjakeTKteT such as specifjccustomeivQLshareholders. These media can havestotegicadvantages Unit 14 Communicating with Technology such as improved decision making and innovation. The intranet has a different role to play than the Internet in the field of organizational communication. Consequently, the designing and managing of the intranet has to ifferent because it caters to a specific audience. Following are the guidelines: Know your audience: As the intranet audience is much smaller there are fewer needs to be catered for. 'Visitors' access it only to find out information, which is work-related. Deliver woik_productivity: To discover the productivity of the site, find out what me site is usedlorTwho uses it, and how frequently it is used. It should consist of a directory, search facility, and corporate news.
c) Emphasize breadth overdepth: Intranet sites should allow employees an easy access to important information and applications. Links to information should be available as early as possible. d) Minimize the graphics: Intranet is meant for quick reference and not to for long accesses. If a person w£nts to access a telephone number, then it would be Irritating and cumbersome to go through graphics or news that are not relevant. 3JL Colloquial labelling can work: An intranet audience is more defined and therefore •*\ specialized, andTiehce company- or organization-specific labels can be incorporated to aid understanding. The extranet is a more common feature in corporate websites, in which companies allow their customers to keep a track of their orders or their accounts online. Corporate information can be limited to "members only" to make it cost effective. Like the intranet the extranet also has information that is relevant, accessible and up-to-date. For security purpose, the company can have sign-in and sign-out procedures. 5. E-mail Electronic mail or e-mail is the method of communication electronically with other users of the network. "The central advantage of e-mail is that it enables the 'instant transfer of messages and documents world-wide between people on the same private network, or with access to the same public network" 319 320 Business Communication Uses of e-mail: Saving of cost and reduction of time Electronic filing and distribution of information Dissemination of useful marketing information Making time-critical corporate announcements Multimedia
The e-mail is informal in nature, which can be the cause of misunderstandings. Spellings and grammatical errors that would be unacceptable in written memos or letters are readily accepted in e-mail. In business contexts, words and phrases need to be chosen carefully. Table 14.1 presents guidelines for e-mail composition, which should be incorporated into employee training. Table 14.1: Rules for the Composition of Business E-mail Decide that e-mail is definitely the most effective medium. Would face-to-face telephone or 'paper' communication be better? Be aware of your audience. Tailor the style to the person to whom it is being sent Always use a signature as this gives vital contact details for follow-up. Select the 'subject' line carefully to reflect the content. Only prioritise or mark 'urgent' when it really is. Keep the message brief and to the point. Keep emphasis to a minimum. Check for spelling and grammar - this is often overlooked in casual e-mail. Re-read message to check for clear understanding. Do not get involved in 'flaming'. There is a natural temptation to respond to rude e- mails in kind. But remember, if you lose your temper you lose the argument. Source : P. O'Kane, O Hargie, and D. Tourish, "Communication without frontiers: The impact of technology upon organizations ", Key Issues in Organizational Communication. Eds. Dennis Tourish & Owen Hargie, Routledge, London. 2004 Unit 14 Communicating with Technology & Activity A: a) Go to the Internet and select some companies in India and identify at least three that have designed their websites in the following formats: Static websites Broadcast
Interactive b) Do you know any organization that uses intranet? Talk to an employee and find out how he would list out the benefits. c) In your organization, is e-mail used extensively? How would you define the e-mail etiquette which is followed? 14.3 ISSUES COMMUNICATION WITH ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY When an organization embarks upon the process of introducing new technology for communication purposes it must look at issues surrounding cost, time, and storage and the underlying consequences, which include changes in organizational structure, legal, security and privacy issues, and technologies. P. O'Kane, O Margie, and D. Tourish make the following observation: 321 322 Business Communication 1. Cost: Reduction in cost is one of the compelling motives in the introduction of new technology for organizational communication. Sending messages via the e-mail is far cheaper than written messages, which involves the cost of stationary, postage, and internal mail costs. E-communication also allows the organization to eliminate the supply chain by using Internet to sell goods ad services. This not only reduces the cost for the organization, but also for the consumers (as well as an opportunity for improved customer relations). However, in introducing new technology, care should be taken in providing proper support system, maintenance, and training of the staff. 2. Time: Use of e-mail for transmitting messages, in an organization, can have both positive as well as negative effects. E-mail reduces the time for both internal and external transfer of messages. It also provides a quick way to send messages to both the employees and the
customers. There is a temptation to waste time by reading e-mails related to gossip, jokes, and other unproductive materials. Internet misuse, through excessive web surfing, and problems associated with the technology, can lead to loss of productivity. While introducing E-communication technology in the organization there has to be a monitoring system to control the use of Internet. 3. Information Flow: A core advantage of e-mail has been in the field of information transmission. a) You can send documents as attachments that would save time, not only over long distance, but also within the organization (which would otherwise be carried physically from one place to another). Unit 14 Communicating^ith Technology Bulk mail is distributed, company- wide, customer- wide, and as well as to specific audience, without much delay and thus all are kept informed about the activities of the organization. Information can be easily and speedily updated on the Internet - i.e. there is an increase in information exchange. For example, from the point of the organization, employees have more relevant material available to them - such as during some major change the employees and customers can be quickly informed. The ease with information flows can lead to information overload - the level of material available to employees can become overwhelming. This information overload can affect productivity. For instance, in one survey the respondents stated that the work would be more effective if information overload was reduced. Such overload could be handled if the employees are trained to prioritise their e-mails. Some organizations create electronic distribution lists and indiscriminately send messages to everyone on those lists, which can create information overload. You should consider the following questions while sending information in order to avoid information overload: i) Does the recipient need the information? ii) Do recipient begin to ignore all messages if many of them are irrelevant?
in) Is selecting only certain messages to read or installing 'filter' to prevent messages from certain individuals an appropriate solution for information overload? 4. Storage and Retrieval : The traditional form of storage such a filing cabinets and cupboards are being replaced by the storage facility that the computers applications provide. For example, the Encyclopaedia Britannica of 32 volumes is available in just one CD-ROM at a fraction of the cost. Information stored on the website, which reduces the possibility of it being lost, because it cannot be removed by an individual, and it can be easily retrieved much quicker than form a traditional filing system. Business Communication 5. Organizational Structure: Electronic networks are changing traditional hierarchies in organizations where employees can directly contact anyone else in the organization, regardless of rank or position (although some organizations actually forbid staff from sending e-mails to level higher than immediate line manager). This widespread access through technology has impacted the work culture in organizations in various ways: A sense of empowerment in the employees because of their ability to pull information towards them rather than pushing the information at them. Technology enables the employees to complete their task with ease, which influences their self-image as effective workers. Higher level of collaboration becomes possible because information sharing between members of the same community has become more readily available through features such as bulletin boards on the intranet. It has a positive affect on the relationships among the employees. It was observed that in companies with low level of dynamism and complexity, an increased use of Internet and intranet led to increases in organizational innovation. Information technology can help to generate ideas in a company, but it should be implemented with certain amount of caution. The increase in communication across all levels that has resulted form the introduction of e-communication has impacted upon the internal mechanism of
most companies. One problem is the threat to management jobs, because decisions are increasingly becoming the responsibility of the employees. This could lead traditional managers to view e-communication with an air of mistrust. The loss of power may be associated with accompanying feeling of loss of status. This feeling may result in lack of motivation to help build a communication technology system that may be their end of authority and power. As one of the managers has observed: "The cultural effect is enormous. It's helping to dissolve the old corporate hierarchy". Computer-based interactive media facilitates information exchange, yet creates interpersonal distance. For instance, people may opt to exchange e-mails with colleagues in adjacent offices rather than engage in face-to-face communication. Unit 14 Communicating with Technology This raises important issues such as: i) Social presence that is conceptualised as the prominence of the other persons involved in an interaction, and the consequent prominence of the interpersonal relationship. In other words, the more aware we are of the other person's presence the more it will result hi interpersonal relationship. Various media simulate the 'presence' aspect of a dyadic encounter. ii) Media richness is a result of social presence and refers to a channel's capacity to carry information based on: Availability and speed of feedback Ability to communicate many cues simultaneously, such as voice tone and nonverbal behaviours Use of language rather than statistics Ability to transmit affective components of messages. Thus, social presence is reduced when communication channels that simulate 'presence' are available. However, face-to-face communication is best when: Issues are inherently complex Conflict is involved Reducing uncertainty is a priority
Building interrelationship is an urgent requirement. Therefore, managers must make intelligent and informed choices about channel and media selection, depending on the numerous variables, before using them. g) E-communication also enables some employees to make the decision to work away from the office for an extended period of time. While this arrangement could have its merits, it also can result in decreased job satisfaction. There is a clear 'isolation effect' associated with a remote working environment. In other words, working away from the organization could isolate a person from fellow-workers and the organizational setup, which could have an adverse affect. Business Communication 6. Technostress : Technology can add stress to the workplace. The phenomenon has been termed as "Technostress" or "information fatigue syndrome". This is caused by various factors such as challenge to learn new and ever-developing technology, changes to existing work routines, meeting deadlines, systems problems, and computer errors. Physical problems include backaches, eyestrain and headaches. Emotionally, the workers are affected in more serious ways by technophobia, ineffective training in use of computer, negative experiences (such as losing important documents or contracting virus), and inability to use the equipment (keyboarding skills). With sufficient encouragement to use the technology, and appropriate support, these difficulties can be overcome. 7. Facilitating group communication: The Internet, e-mail and their applications have important role to play in enhancing group communication. Using technology for discussion over long distance and time results in greater flexibility in the structure of task groups and members can participate without having to travel for the meetings. Managers need to be aware of number of factors that influence meetings using technology and the dynamics of e-group, which differs form face-to-face communication. 8. Legal, security and privacy issues : When a company install the Internet system, it has to protect itself from the legal and security problems that are associated with it. Internet being a worldwide network, companies should take care to safeguard itself from any infringements. "People often e-mail messages that they would never send in a formal written paper document. They forget that the 'delete' button is not a destruct button. Messages have a
permanency in the system and can be tracked and traced." (P. O'Kane, 0 Hargie, and D. Tourish) Table 14.2 indicates some areas for which monitoring measures are required. Unit 14 Communicating with Technology Table 14.2 : Privacy, Legal and Security Issues Legal Cognisance must be taken of the following legal possibilities: Copyright infringement Corporate espionage Harassment and discrimination Admission against interest Adverse uses -liability for company Defamation Invasion of privacy Security Here, protection should be developed against: Hackers - e-communication exposes the company to external hackers Viruses - these can lead to the theft, destruction or alteration of vital data Unauthorized access to confidential information - can be illegally transferred by employees Privacy An 'electronic trial' is left form which it is possible to identify the source of the message and view the contents. This can allow organization to: Track worker productivity Monitor e-mail content
Monitor web usage Source : P. O'Kane, O Hargie, and D. Tourish, "Communication without frontiers: The impact of technology upon organizations" in Key Issues in Organizational Communication, Eds. Dennis Tourish & Owen Hargie, Routledge, London 2004 There is a necessity to monitor employee actions in terms of e-mail content and website accessed in order to protect the company. The question, however, is to what extent should the employees be monitored? O'Kane et al quoting a research conducted state: "several 327 ft Business Communication studies of telecommunications and clerical workers suggest that electronically monitored workers experience higher levels of depression, tension and anxiety, lower level of productivity, and more health problems than unmonitored employees". Table 14.3 gives some recommendations that could be followed in monitoring the use of e-mail by the employees. Table 14.3: Recommendations for managing employee e-mail Develop an e-mail system plan. Formulate an e-mail policy. Identify who will put this e-mail policy into practice. Appoint an e-mail system manager. Implement technical forms of privacy protection within the e-mail system. Consider the consequences for employees. Understand the implication for the organization. Take cognisance of the wider external consequences. Clearly communicate to all employees the e-mail policy and system. Undertake regular audits and reviews of the e-mail policy.
Source : P. O'Kane, O Hargie, and D. Tourish, "Communication without frontiers: The impact of technology upon organizations" in Key Issues in Organizational Communication, Eds. Dennis Tourish & Owen Hargie, Routledge, London 2004 Activity B ; a) Interview a person from a company that uses electronic technology for communication and identify the following: i) Impact on the organizational hierarchy. Unit 14 Communicating with Technology n) Symptoms of "Technostress" experienced by the people in the company. b) Check out if your company has an email policy. If it does, what are the points highlighted? 14.4 SOFTWARE FOR BUSINESS COMMUNICATION You will have access to many different types of computer software typically used in business. One of your challenges will be to know what software to use for a particular audience, purpose, communicator role or occasion. Table 14.4 indicates various communication problems encountered in an organization and the corresponding technological software that offers solution. Table 14.4: Communication Problems Solved with Software COMMUNICATION PROBLEM SOFTWARE SOLUTION You need to generate, revise, and store and print documents Word processing software such as Microsoft Word or Word Perfect. You need to organise numeric data in order to complete computation or transformations. Spreadsheet software such as Lotus 1-2-3 or Microsoft Excel. Spreadsheets are useful for forecasting and decision-making. You need to create tables, graphs, diagrams, drawings, and other visuals.
Drawing and graphing software such as Claris Draw, Lotus Freelance, or Adobe Illustrator enables you to create graphs and figures of various kinds that can be placed directly into documents. Business Communication You need to produce high-quality documents without the expense of outside designers and typesetters. Desktop publishing software such as Aldus PageMaker or Ventura Publishing. You need to collaborate to share ideas and expertise, coordinate schedules, work on projects, and prepare documents. Groupware such as Lotus Notes or CE Software's TeamVision allows you to collaborate with physically distant groups, sharing schedules, database, mail, memos, and reports. You need to organize and have easy access to large amounts of data that can be shared with colleagues. Database management software such as Microsoft's Access lets you obtain, organize, transform, and display information so that it can be shared and used in a variety of documents and oral presentation. You need to 1. do complex, long-range project planning, be able to track every aspect of the project, and quickly obtain up-to-date information about the project. Project planning or project management software such as Microsoft Project. Most planning packages enable you to generate information for reports at various stages in the process. You need to create presentations with transparencies or slides and coordinate handout materials. Presentation software such as Aldus Persuasion or Microsoft PowerPoint. You need to create a presentation that attracts the audience through multiple
senses. Persuasion or PowerPoint in conjunction with QuickTime video clips lets you integrate slides, clip art, video clips, and sound into simple multimedia presentation. You need to input the information from paper documents and picture into a computer. Imaging software enables you to scan paper documents or pictures so they are digitised in the computer and can be imported into the current document. Source : Helen Rothschild Ewald & Rebecca E. Burnett, Business Communication, Prentice-Hall International, Inc. NJ, 1997. Unit 14 Communicating with Technology Four types of software are particularly important for business communication: Groupware Database management software Project planning software Multimedia software 1. Groupware This type of software is becoming increasingly important to business communication because it allows you to collaborate with physically distant people. Following are the features of groupware software: i) Aid to productivity ii) Communicating electronically with colleagues iii) Pool information about prospective clients iv) Draw on the expertise of the others in the organization v) Helps you to answer a question or resolve a problem vi) Collaborative interaction vii) Access database to retrieve useful information
vm) Overcome and move past restrictions imposed by social or political pressures in an organization 2. Database Management This is vital to business communication because it gives users access to huge amounts of information that would otherwise be overwhelming or inaccessible. Its features are: i) Allow you to obtain, organize, and display variety of information, which can be used in oral presentations. i) Access to database can change the way people do their job - lets employees know what information is available so that they can draw on it and improve. iii) Coordinates information about customers' orders and current inventory. 331 Business Communication iv) Writing reports become easy, interesting, and useful. 3. Project Planning Another very important kind of software for business communication is project planning software that lets you keep track of and update deadlines, resources, and costs. The functions of project planning software are as follows: i) _ Visualize your plan i) Allocate resources efficiently (equipments and personnel) iii) Manage large projects iv) Monitor progress v) Create custom graphs and reports Big value of this software is when there is a change in the original plan. With the change in plan comes the change in schedule and cost. Project planning software enables you to identify the steps for each job, construct a schedule, assign resources and estimate costs. 4. Multimedia Software
Multimedia presentations integrateslides^clip art, video clips, and sound (voice. music, sound effects) to cf&ffirfopealingL business presentations. Multimedia presentations are widely used in sales and marketing presentations, in conference presentations, and at important meetings. Multimedia could be used at different levels and for different purposes. Firstly, it could be used for making a simple presentation using simple graphs and charts that could be for promoting a product or service. Secondly, it could be used for preparing a presentation for, say annual stockholders meeting or trade show booth. You could make such presentation interactive for the benefit of the participants. Thirdly, multimedia could be used to prepare more advanced production for the viewing of general public. This would include the use of sound, musical score, animated maps, video sequence, etc. c a Ir n< ef fr( flu 332 Unit 14 Communicating with Technology Activity C; a) Prepare a PowerPoint presentation on "Environmental Awareness" for the benefit of the employees of a company. b) Open Microsoft Project and list down the features that are helpful in preparing a project report. c) Have you had the experience of working on a database? How did you use it and what were the advantages you saw? 14.5 SUMMARY The machines have taken overjriany of the routine functions of a business office such as recording information, receiyjrtg and sending messages, calculating and accounting, gathering and analysing data. Consequently, paper has considerably reduced and there has been an enormous increase in efficiency. The introduction of computers has facilitated the processing of information, reproduction of documents and communication with persons or organizations anywhere in the world. Internet and intranet has become a part of the business world that enables the companies not only to make a "cyber presence", but also to encounter their customers directly and effectively. Electronic networks also serve employees at every level of the organization,
from executive to worker on the production line. Different types of software make the functions of the employees quicker and easier. 333 338 Business Communication 15.1 INTRODUCTION An effective letter, memo, or report does more than store words on paper. It must get to the right person, make an impression, and tell the recipient who wrote it and when it was written. Over the centuries, certain conventions for formatting and laying out business documents have developed. Though some aspects of business documents have remained the same, the organization and style often varies to suit the needs. Effective communicators know that format, the way information is arranged on a page, helps readers to move through documents in a predictable and logical fashion. Formats are not about rigidity^but about consistency and fulfilling reader expectations. Most organizations recognize that documents appearance acts as an expression of company image. The function of company stylesheets is to make that image consistent. For example, most companies establi sh guidelines for how they want headings situated, greetings worded, persons addressed, and so on. Companies also specify how they want these guidelines to appear- whether it is conventional block style or a customized style. Regardless of what type of organization you belong to, that organization is going to have some idea about how it wants its image and ideas conveyed through written documents, and you should be aware of these written conventions. 15.2 FORMATS OF BUSINESS DOCUMENTS A) Letters A letter or other written document is often the first or only contact that a person has with your organization. Therefore, it is important for documents to look neat and professional and to be easy to read. Several elements - the paper you use, the letterhead, and the typing - tell the readers a lot about you and your company's professionalism. Elements: 1. Stationary: a) Paper: The paper used for letterheads and other company documents should be of the finest quality. The texture and thickness of the paper should all spell of class. Do not economize on the paper by writing business letters on very thin paper, or poor quality of paper. It may offend the recipient and will be counterproductive. Unit 15 Formats for Business Documents
Never send out business letters on ruled or coloured paper. White is the safest colour all over he world. The size of the paper that is most popular is the A4 size (297 mm x 210 mm). For short and routine letters we may use A 5 size (° 10 mm x 148 mm). The idea is that the text should match the size of the paper used. <tf b) Letterhead: «-\J The letterhead should be elegant. Letterpress printing for the letterhead should be avoided because it not even and sharp. Screen-printing is recommended for I smaller quantity and offset printing fore bigger print-orders. Get the letterhead designed professionally for maximum positive impact on the potential reader. The colour scheme adopted should project the company in a favourable light. M. M. Monippally states: "Loud colours may be good for a flashy designer's firm, but not good for serious commercial organization. The stationary is like the clothes you wear; they should match and support the image you want to project." c) "typing: The kind of typing or printing you adopt is also important because they appeal to the reader in different ways. For instance, hand written note may give a personal touch, but a long official letter written by hand may seem odd. It is advisable to type out the letter and print in on a laser printer that may give the letter a professional look. In business situation creating an impression is very important for business deals and relationships. A letter not well written and printed may give an impression that the person is either not serious or lacks secretarial assistance. d) Envelopes: Many attractive letters loose out by sending them in envelops that are not good enough. An envelope is more than a cover; it packages the letter. It is the first impression. An ill-chosen envelope can spoil the image that you are trying to create with your letter. Cheap envelopes may easily come open in the course of shipment, and important papers may be displaced. Such open envelopes also pose the danger of the contents of the letter being read by someone else. 339 340 Business Communication
Letters carry communication from one person to another. Whatever the content, they are the medium by which communication is transferred form one to another. In other words, the content of the letter is the voice of the people; and it must be sent in the most appropriate and acceptable manner. Standard Letter Parts: According to Thill and Bovee, all business letters typically include seven elements in the following order: Heading Date Inside address Salutation Body Complimentary close Signature block According to Sharma and Mohan, the following 12 elements usually constitute the structure of a business letter. Heading Date Reference Inside address Attention line Salutation Subject Body Complimentary close Signature
Identification marks Enclosures Unit 15 Formats for Business Documents Table 15.1: Components of a Business Letter Heading Date Your Reference Our reference Inside address _ Attention Salutation. Subject Body Complimentary close Signature Identification marks Enclosure Source: R C Sharma & Krishna Mohan, Business Correspondence and Report Writing 1. Heading Most business organization use printed letterheads for correspondence. The letterhead show the organization's name, full address, and almost always the telephone number and telegraphic address (if any). Executive letterhead bears the name of the person who is within the organization.
Generally, the name and address are printed in the top middle of the letterhead and any other information is indicated in the margins. 2. Date The date is placed two spaces below the last line of the letterhead; or typed immediately below the return address. The date is written on the upper right-hand corner. When you are typing the date, the full name of the month (no abbreviations) is written, followed by the day (in numerals), then a comma, and then the year: November 14, 341 Business Communication 2003. You could also write it in the following manner: 14 November 2003 (notice there is no comma after the name of the month). 3. Reference Some letterheads contain two lines to indicate references - our reference and your reference. This usually happens when there is a series of correspondence that require references. For example, some companies prefer to indicate the reference number of the correspondence in the body of the letter: Thank you for your letter No. CB/54/S321 of November 14 2003. This is with reference to our letter No. FG/65/E786 of November 12 2003... The reference number is advantageous when you want to continue discussion on a specific topic that you have been engaged in with your reader. 4. Inside address The address of the recipient, whether a person or an organization, should be written two spaces below the date and two spaces above the attention line. In case there is no attention line then the inside address should be written two spaces above the salutation in the left margin. The addressee's name is preceded by a courtesy title - such as Mr., Ms., Dr., and so. The accepted courtesy for women in business is Ms; however, a woman who is known to prefer the tile Miss or Mrs. should be accommodated. Any other title, such as Professor or General should not be abbreviated.
The person's organizational title, such as Director may also be included in the first line along with the name or in the next line below; the name of the department may also follow. 5. Attention Line To ensure prompt attention, sometimes a letter, which is addressed to a firm, is marked to a particular person (either by designation or name) of a department. This is usually written two spaces below the inside address. Attention line is generally underlined. 342 Example: Attention: The Sales Manager or Attention: Mr. R.C. Gupta. L Unit 15 Formats for Business Documents 6. Salutation Salutation in a letter is an essential element, which is like greeting a person when you meet. It should be placed two spaces below the attention line, if there is one, or below the inside address. The choice of salutation depends upon the personal relationship between the writer and the reader. If you are addressing a firm, a board, a club, a society, or an association, use 'Dear Sirs". Letters to people you do not know well enough to address personally should use the courtesy title and last name followed by a colon. Addressing someone as Dear Lewis instead of Dear Professor Lewis, whom you do not know well, may demonstrate disrespect and the stranger might resent it. / When you are writing to a government officer by name, your salutation should be 'DearSir', 'Dear Smt.', followed by his or her surname-example: 'Dear Sir Gupta' or 'Dear Smt. Sharma'. In government departments, letters that are addressed by name are known as demi-official letters (DO). They are written to draw attention of the concerned officer and to ensure prompt action. 7. Subject In business correspondence the subject line enables the reader to immediately know what the massage is all about. This also helps to direct the letter quickly to the concerned person. The usual practice is to type the line in double space between the salutation and
the first line of the body of the letter. Some organizations prefer to have the subject line between the attention line and the salutation. The subject must be mentioned if it has been indicated in the letter you are replying to. Like the reference the subject line helps to keep track of numerous correspondence that will be exchanged on the subject. 8. Body The body of the letter is the message. The main purpose of the letter is to convey a message and the main purpose of the message is to produce a suitable response in the reader. This achieved through the body of the letter. In the first paragraph, reference, to any correspondence, which has already taken place, should be mentioned. In the second paragraph the main message should be 343 344 Business Communication stated. The paragraphs are not given headings, unless the letter is a long one with many important points, which ought to be indicated. Almost all letters are typed single-spaced. There, however, should be double spacing before and after salutation, between the paragraphs, and before the complimentary close. 9. Complimentary close Complimentary close is a polite way of ending the letter. It is typed two spaces below thelast line of the body of the letter. The close must agree with the salutation - i.e. depending upon whom you are addressing to. A number of alternatives for wordings are available - such as faithfully, obediently, respectfully (when you are writing to someone who is senior to you or some dignitary); truly, or sincerely (when the salutations are formal); sincerely is very commonly used. To place Yours before these words is a common practice. 10. Signature Signature is the signed name of the sender and is placed below the complimentary close. After leaving three to four spaces below the signature the name of the sender is typed. The sender's title or designation may also be written along the name or just below it.
For a partnership firm, any one of the partners may sign either by writing in ink the name of the firm or by putting his signature below the typed name of the firm. The firm may also delegate the authority of signing letters to an officer by executing a legal instrument called Power of Attorney in his favour. Such an employee will write per pro. or pp. before the name of the firm and then sign below it. [Per pro. or pp. is the abbreviation of a Latin phrase per procurationem meaning 'agency' or 'on behalf of] 11. Identification marks These marks are put in the left margin to identify the typist of the letter, and are placed one or two spaces below the signature. These marks are also known as "reference initials", which show who helped prepare the letter. When the writer's name has been typed in the signature block, then only the typist's initials are necessary. But if only the department name appears in the signature block then the initials of both - the one Unit 15 Formats for Business Documents who dictated and the one typed the letter - will appear in the following form: RSR/sm or RSRrsm. (thr first set of initials is the writer's and the second is the typist's. 12. Enclosures If there is anything attached to the letter then it must be notified. This is the enclosure notation, which appears at the bottom of the letter, one or two lines below the identification marks. Some common forms are as follows: Enclosure Enclosures (3) Enclosures: Resume Photograph End. Letters Formats: There are several styles that are used for writing business letters. Individual taste and preference decides the choice of style used for writing letters. 1. According to Sharma and Mohan, the following are the styles used for writing business letters : The Indented style The Block style The Complete-block style The Semi-block style
The Hanging-indented style a) The Indented style In this style of writing each new item is indented two or four spaces. Perhaps the oldest style of writing letters, yet many use it. Closed punctuations are used in this style of writing. b) The Block style In this style the date line, the complimentary close, and the signature are aligned with the right margin. All the other parts of the letter are set to the left side. 345 Business Communication 2. Double spacing indicates division between the different parts of the letter. That is to say the distance between the reference, inside address, salutation, body, signature, and identification marks is all double space. c) The Complete-block style All the parts of the letter are aligned with the left margin. There is no indentation required for this style. There is very little use of punctuation in this form of letter. d) SejntbJock-5tyle- The format of this style is like the block style - date line, complimentary close and signature are all on the right side - except that the paragraphs are indented and (spaced. ' e) The Hanging-indented style This style is like the block style except that the first line of each paragraph is aligned with the left margin whereas, all other lines in each paragraph are indented four or five spaces. This style uses mixed punctuation. Punctuation Styles : Open Punctuation refers to omission of unnecessary commas and full stops. Open punctuation uses no colon or comma after the salutation or the complimentary close. It does not even use full stops in any part of the letter
except in the body in which usual punctuations are used. Mixed Punctuation uses a comma after the date, the salutation, and the complimentary close and a full stop follows the last line of the inside address. Closed Punctuation makes use of punctuation in the main parts of the letter- such as commas and full stops. Sometimes instead of putting a comma after the salutation a colon is used - Dear Sir: According to Thill & Bovee and Ewald & Burnett there are basically three types of letter formats: Block format Modified format Simplified format (also known as AMS - Administrative Management Society Simplified Letter format) 346 Unit 15 Formats for Business Documents The major differences among these formats are the way the paragraphs are indented, the placement of letter parts, and some of the punctuations. However, each part of the letter is separated form each other at least by one line. If the paragraphs are indented, the indention is normally five spaces. In addition to these three letter formats, letters may also be classified according to the way the punctuations are used. Mixed punctuation style uses colon after the salutation (a comma if the letter is social or personal) and comma after the complimentary close. Open punctuation uses no colon or comma after the salutation or the complimentary close. Either style of punctuation can be used with block or modified formats. But because the simplified letter format has no salutation or complimentary close, the style of punctuation is irrelevant. Tables 15.3,15.4, and 15.5 indicate block, modified, and simplified formats respectively. Table 15.2 : Components of Business Letter Components Explanation Issues & Considerations Dateline
Include month (spelled out), day, and year. Place approximately 2 inches from top of the page:o If letterhead is being used, place dateline two spaces below letterheado If standard address line is used, place dateline immediately below address Block - date is aligned with left margin Modified block - date is placed in the right two-third of the page AMS -same as block Inside Addresses Include name (with Dr., Mr., Ms., etc) and title of person, company (optional department), street a ddress, city, state abbreviation, and ZIP. Unless the person explicitly refers to him- or herself as Dr., or Rev., defer to Mr., or Ms. Use "Mrs" only if that is her preference. Unless the addressee is in a leadership or noteworthy position, title is not needed. Salutation Use appropriate courtesy title unless you are on a first-name basis with the addressee. Mixed style of punctuation requires a colon after salutation. 347 Business Communication Components
Explanation Issues & Considerations Use "Ladies and Gentlemen" when addressing a letter to a general and unidentified audience. Open style requires no punctuation after salutation. AMS omits salutation. Body Complimentary Close Use single spacing; leave space between paragraphs. Avoid indenting paragraphs. Indentation is appropriate only when a more "personal" style is wanted - when correspondence is addressed to customers. Rely on using Sincerely or Yours truly in more formal situations; Cordially in less formal. Block - paragraphs are not indented. Modified block -indentation is optional AMS - paragraphs are not indented. Mixed style of punctuation requires a comma after close. Open style requires no punctuation after close, AMS - close is omitted. Signature and Tide Place title below signature unless both are short, then a comma can be used to separate. Modified block - sometimes initials after the name and title in the "From" section at the top of the page can substitute for a signature. 348
Source : Helen Rothschild Ewald & Rebecca E. Burnett, Business Communication Unit 15 Formats for Business Documents Table 15.3 : Block MatteiToys M»t1el, Ine, s Avenue Hs*!f!arf», CA9025Q-«92 TelephOfW 213 V>9 5150 TELEX 188155 or 188170 September 5, 1991 Mr. Clifford Hanson General Manager Th« Toy Trunk 356 Emerald Drive Lexington, K¥ 40500 Dear Mr, Hanson: You should receive your shipment of Barbie dolls and acces-sories within two weeks, just in ti»e for the holiday shop-ping season. The merchandise is being shipped by United Parcel Service. As the enclosed invoice indicates, the aaoant due is $332.32. In preparing to ship yowr order, I noticed that this is your 15th year as a Mattel customer. During that period, you have sold over 3,750 Barbie dolls! We sincerely appre-ciate tise part you have played .in marketing our toys to the public. Your customers should be particularly excited about the new Barbie vacation outfits that you have ordered. Our winter advertising campaign will portray Barbie trekking through the jungle in her safari suit, climbing mountains in her down parka, and snorkel ing off a coral reef in her skin diving gear. Next month, you'll be receiving our spring catalog. Notice the new series of action figures that will tie in with a TV cartoon featuring King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. As a special introductory incentive, you can re-ceive a 15 percent discount on all items in this line until the end of January. Please send your order soon. Sincerely, Ms. Rhonda Rogers Customer Service Representative jhb
Enclosure 349 Business Communication 350 Table 15.4: Modified June 3, 1991 Ms. Clara Simpson, President jLeague of Women Voters of Miami P.O. Box 112 Miami, FL 33152 Dear Ms. Simpson: : Thank you for inviting us to participate in the League of Women Voters' Spring Fashion Show. We will be de- lighted to provide some clothing samples for the May 15 event. . You indicated that you would like us to supply about 12 outfits from our designer collection, all in a size 6. We can certainly accommodate your request, To give your audi-ence a representative overview of our .Merchandise, I sug-gest we provide the following: three tailored, daytime dresses or suits, two dressy dresses, one formal ball gown, four casual weekend outfits, and two active sports outfits. Please give me a call to schedule a "shopping" trip for you and your committee members. Together, I'm sure we can find exactly what you need to stage -a well-rounded show. In the meantime, you might enjoy looking through the enclosed catalog. It will introduce you to. some of the options. Sincerely, (Mrs.) Vera O'Donnell Director, Public Relations beg .Enclosure Unit 15 Formats for Business Documents Table 15.5: Simplified
Kgntuc^f fried CMcten P.O. Box 32070 Louisville Kentucky 4Q232-2fftGl (502) 456&*» August 20, 1991 Mr. Arnold Brewer 8976 Commerce Avenue Hot Springs, AR 7.1901 FRANCHISE INFORMATION Thank you, Mr. Breaer, for your recent inquiry about becoming a Kentucky Fried Chicken franchisee. We appreciate your enthusiasm for our organization and sincerely hope that you will decide to become one of our affiliates. I have enclosed a package of information for your review, including our offering circular and a confidentional appli-cation fora. Filling out the form does not obligate you in any way; it simply gives us a general idea whether you have the background and financial resources required to succeed as a Kentucky Fried Chicken franchisee. Please complete the application and return it in the en-closed envelope. We will then contact you to discuss the next steps toward owning a franchise of your own. In the meantime, please use the enclosed coupon to enjoy a free sample of our Chicken Littles. If you have any doubts about joining the organization, one bite should convince you that you are on the right track, with Kentucky Fried Chicken. WAYNE SUTHERLAND Franchisee Comaunications pb Enclosures 351 Business Communication B) Memos Interoffice memos are not distributed outside the organization and thus may not need to be typed on the best-quality paper. They, however, are official documents that convey important information. Clarity, careful organization, and neatness are important. Guidelines that have developed for memos enable the reader to understand the content at a glance. Many organizations have memo forms printed, with labelled spaces for date, the receiver's name, the sender's name, and the subject. Fig 15.1 shows a sample of a preprinted memo form.
MEMO -FROM: DEPT: TELEPHONE: -StfBJECT: Y For your Approval | (information | | Comment 352 Message, Comment, or Reply Fig 15.1 Following are the considerations for a memo : • The memos typed or printed should always have a tide - MEMO or INTEROFFICE CORRESPONDENCE (all in capital) centred at the topofthe withtheleft margin. • The four elements - Date, To, From, and Subject - should also appear on the memo sheet. • Some memos also have the word "File* for the purpose of file or reference number. ^ ^ If the memo is to be sent to a long list of people, the notation See distribution list or See below goes in the place provided for "To". Sometimes the memo is addressed to a group of people -All Sales Representatives, Production Personnel, Assistant Vice Presidents, etc. ' ~~ Unit 15 Formats for Business Documents Courtesy titles need not be used anywhere on a memo; in fact, first initials and last name, first name, or even initials are sufficient. The body of the memo starts on the second or third line below the heading. Like the body of the letter, it is usually single-spaced. In case the memo is very short, it may be double-spaced.
Paragraphs are separated by blank^es, but may or may not be indented. Unlike the letter the memo does not require a complimentary close, because the writer's name is already mentioned on the top. However, the writer may initial the memo. All other elements - such as reference initials, enclosure notations, and copy notations - are treated as they are in a letter. Memos may be deliveredbyjiand, by post office (in case the receiver is working in the same organization, but at a different location), or through interoffice mail. Q Meeting Documents Meetings are important forum for business communication. But the success of any meeting depends on the preparation of the participants and on the follow-up measures they take to implement decisions or to seek information after the meeting. Meeting documents - agendas and minutes - aid in this process. 1. Agenda: Small, informal meetings may not require a written agenda, but any meeting involving relatively large number of participants or covering numerous points will run smoothly if an agenda is distributed in advance. The advantage of having a written agenda is that it helps participants prepare by telling them what will be discussed, and it helps keep them on track once the meeting begins. 353 II 354 Business Communication Table 15.6: Agenda Format AGEND APLANNING COMMITTEE MEETING TEUSDAY, AUGUST 21,1991 / 10:00 am EXECUTIVE CONFERENCE ROOM I. Call to Order H. Roll Call
ffl. Approval of Agenda Approval of Minutes from Previous Meeting Chairperson's Report Subcommittee Reports New Markets New Products Finance VII. Unfinished Business VHI. New Business IX. Announcements X Adjournment Source: Adapted from J. V Thill & C. L. Bovee, Excellence in Business Communication 2. Minutes: The body of the minutes, which follow the heading, should note the time at which the meeting started and ended, all the major decisions reached, all assignments of tasks to the participants, and all subjects that were deferred to a later meeting. In addition, the minutes should objectively summarize important discussions, noting the names of those who contributed major points. Additional documentation, such as tables, charts submitted by participants, should be noted in the minutes and attached. At the end of the minutes, the words "Submitted by" should be added, followed by few blank lines for signatures, and then the name of the one who prepared the minutes. Unit 15 Formats for Business Documents D) Report Format The report format has these following components: [From "Standard Report Components" in H R Ewald & R E Burnett, Business Communication] Letter of Transmittal \ Title Page Table of Content
Text Body Appendixes Bibliography / Works Cited 1. Letter of Transmittal Letter of transmittal will contain three main paragraphs: 5 Introduction to report subject and purpose^ (j Focus on some key points - such as central problem, recommendations Courtesy close and a call for action Letter of transmittal should provide a context for the report that follows. Readers should be provided with enough information so that they will know what to expect in the report. 2. Title Page Title page should contain three main sections (all centred): • The report title Title type style should match the highest-level heading found in the text (all caps) If report title is more than one line in length, double-space between lines and divide the line according to logical units. • Person or group for whom the report is prepared • Receiver line (the name of the one who receives the report) is preceded by the words "prepared for" 355 Business Communication Receiver line should note the title of the receiver, company, and company address Identification of report writer(s) ^\ Preparer line (name of the person/s who has/have prepared the report) should be preceded by the words "prepared by"
Preparer line should note the title of the preparer, company, and company address Preparer line should include date after address and a space. 3. Table of Content Table of content has three functions: Locating device for topics Forecasts extent and nature of topics Shows logical arrangement and relationship of parts Following are some considerations: A table of content can serve as an outline while drafting report You should match entries to page numbers using a dotted line for easy reading of topic and page number You should also space out entries; overcrowding can hinder referencing You should match heading in the content with the highest-level headings found in the text 4. Text Body Generally, all reports will have certain basic components in the following order- Overview Background Recommendations Evidence Discussion 356 Unit 15 Formats for Business Documents Considerations:
All sections of the report must be easy to find (by good use of space and logical arrangement of headings) Remember that reports are persuasive documents that are not to be diluted with extraneous materials; this will reduce the power of the report. 5. Appendixes If appendixes are used, they need to be listed in a separate section after the Table of Content Appendixes should be used only if visuals are referred to in multiple sections of the report 6. Bibliography/Works Cited • In order to make your report credible, outside research data must be used to support the report's ideas and argumentative points. In so doing, all outside sources must be attributed within the text (footnotes, parenthetical citations, etc.) and in the bibliography. • You should be knowledgeable of your organization's style preference and use it properly and consistently. &$ Activity A: Visit a company and request them for A blank memo form. A letter written by them to the general audience. Study its format. Formats they use to write reports. 357 Business Communication 15.3 DOCUMENTATION AND CITATION This section contains excerpts from Business Communication by Helen Rothschild Ewald & Rebecca E. Burnett.
Documentation and citing indicates that you are a careful researcher. It also enables your readers to make judgement about the credibility of your argument based on these resources. Let us define these terms. Documentation typically refers to the source lists that appear at the end of a document. When these lists are called Sources, References, or Bibliography, they typically list all sources used in preparation of a document. When the list is called Source Cited, it typically lists only sources actually referred to in the document. Citation typically refers to the in-text of end-of-document references for specific materials. These in-text notes (usually in parenthesis or brackets), bottom-of-page footnotes, or end-of-document notes identify the source for quoted or paraphrased information. While text citation appear in the text or at the end of the document, citation for data in visuals or for entire visuals are typically placed immediately after the visual (as in the case of table, or a figure, etc.) Circumstances that require citations: <&'%?. / 3*K /X^7* t' *£&~v When you quote material directly, using the exact words from the original source When you paraphrase or summarize material, using your own words but generally reflecting the content and organization of the original source When you refer to any information (theories, practices, examples, etc.) that is unique to or typically associated with a specific person, publication, or organization When you use data or information from a source as the content of a visual When you use an entire visual of any sort Styles for documentation and citations: There are three most commonly used manuals for documentation and citations: Chicago Manual of Style Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) MLA Handbook, published by Modern Language Association Unit 15 Formats for Business Documents Documentation and Citation Formats 1. Journal Articles: MLA Style Jaffe, W. "Walras's Economics As Others See It." Journal of Economic Literature
18 (June 1980): 528 In Text: (Jaffe 528) Footnote: W. Jaffe, "Walras's Economics As Others See It," Journal of Economic Literature 18 (June 1980): 528 APA Style Jaffe, W. (1980, June). Walras's Economics As Others See It. Journal of Economic Literature, 18, 528 In Text: Jaffe, 1980, pg. 528) Chicago Manual Style Jaffe, W. 1980. Walras's Economics As Others See It. Journal of Economic Literature 18:528 In Text: (Jaffe 1980, 528) Footnote: Jaffe, "Walras's Economics As Others See It," Journal of Economic Literature 18 (June 1980): 528 2. Books : MLA Style Kuhn, T.S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962 InText: (Kuhn 123) Footnote: T.S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962)123 359 360 Business Communication APA Style Kuhn, T.S. (1962). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ^
In Text: (Kuhn, 1962,123) Chicago Manual of Style Kuhn, T.S. 1962. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. In Text: (Kuhn 1962, 123) Footnote: T.S. Kuhn. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), 123. 3. Reference Books (Signed Articles in a Reference Book): MLA Style Krooss, Herman. "Business and Industry, History of ." Collier's Encyclopaedia. 1989 ed. 20-27 In Text: (Krooss 20-27) Footnote: Herman Krooss, "Business and Industry, History of," Collier's Encyclopaedia, 1989 ed. 20-27 APA Style Krooss, Herman. (1989). Business and Industry, history of. In Collier's Encyclopaedia (1989 ed., Vol. 5, pp. 20-27). New York: Macmillan 4. Electronic Resources: a) CD ROM MLA Format Weidman, Christine Ingleborg. "Prices for Earnings Expectations: The Role of Loss Functions". ProQuest. CD-ROM. 1994 Unit 15 Formats for Business Documents APA Style Weidman, Christine Ingleborg (1994). Prices for Earnings Expectations: The Role of Loss Functions [CD-ROM]. Abstract from: ProQuestFile: Dissertation Abstract Item: 9409570 b) On-Line Journal Article - General Access APA Style
Haynes, Jenny. (1994). Checklist on market makers [17 paragraphs]. NASDAQ Financial Executive Journal [on-line serial], 4(2). Available: http://www.law.cornell.edu/nasdaq/ nasdtoc.html Chicago Manual of Style Haynes, Jenny. 1994. Checklist on market makers. In NASDAQ Financial Executive Journal (Vol. 4, no. 2) [on-line serial] Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Law School. [Available from http.Y/www/law.comell.edu/nasdaq/nasdtoc.html] c) Software - With Author MLA Format Wright, Will. Sim City 2000. Computer software. Orinda, CA: Maxis, 1993 APA Style Wright, Will. (1993). Sim City 2000 [computer software]. Orinda, CA: Maxis. Chicago Manual of Style Wright, Will. Sim City 2000, Maxis, Orinda, CA £$ Activity B : a) Visit an on-line site and write the citation for On-line Journal Article in ah1 three styles MLA, APA, and Chicago Manual. 362 Business Communication b) Write a citation for an abstract from CD-ROM in the MLA and APA style. 15.4 SUMMARY An effective letter, memo, or report not serves to store messages, but also get across to the right person and makes the necessary impact to get the appropriate action from the receiver. To make the right impact on the reader the message has to have the correct format and medium. Business documents have definite format that has to be used in order to create the necessary impact.
All business letters have components that are common - such as heading, date, inside address salutation, body, complimentary close, and signature block. However, the formats differ depending on the indentation and punctuation style. Letters may be used for internal communication or external, depending on the type of message. Similarly, memos also have definite format and are used primarily for communication within the organization. Other forms of business documents are the meeting documents - agendas and minutes - and the reports. Reports are more elaborate form of written communication, which are usually organized around a certain problem that the organization encounters. They have definite format and have the following components - letter of transmittal, title page, table of content, text body, appendixes, and bibliography/works cited. All these components have their specific functions that make the report appear professional and credible. The process of writing reports involves considerable amount of research for which number of sources have to be referred to. The sources that are used have to be cited. Documentation and citation are important part of report writing and should be incorporated in the report. Giving credit to the referred sources requires a definite format. The most professional forms of citing these sources are according to the following format - Chicago Manual of Style; Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA); and MLA Handbook, published by Modern Language Association. Sources for research are available in the library in the form of books, journals, reference books, etc., as well as the Internet.