Second Industrial Revolution 1 Second Industrial Revolution U.S. Patent#223898: Electric-Lamp. Issued January 27, 1880. The Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution, was a phase of the larger Industrial Revolution corresponding to the latter half of the 19th century until World War I. It is considered to have begun with Bessemer steel in the 1860s and culminated in mass production and the production line. The Second Industrial Revolution saw rapid industrial development in Western Europe (Britain, Germany, France, the Low Countries) as well as the United States and Japan. It followed on from the First Industrial Revolution that began in Britain in the late 18th century that then spread throughout Western Europe and North America. The concept was introduced by Patrick Geddes, Cities in Evolution (1910), but David Landes' use of the term in a 1966 essay and in The Unbound Prometheus (1972) standardized scholarly definitions of the term, which was most intensely promoted by American historian Alfred Chandler (1918–2007). However some continue to express reservations about its use. [1] Landes (2003) stresses the importance of new technologies, especially electricity, the internal combustion engine, new materials and substances, including alloys and chemicals, and communication technologies such as the telegraph and radio. While the first industrial revolution was centered on iron, steam technologies and textile production, the second industrial revolution revolved around steel, railroads, electricity, and chemicals. Vaclav Smill called the period 1867–1914 "The Age of Synergy" during which most of the great innovations were developed. Unlike the First Industrial Revolution, the inventions and innovations were science based. [2] Industry A diagram of the Bessemer converter. Air blown through holes in the converter bottom creates a violent reaction in the molten pig iron that oxidizes the silicon and excess carbon, converting the pig iron to either pure iron or steel, depending on the residual carbon. The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron. Its inventor Sir Henry Bessemer, revolutionized steel manufacture by decreasing its cost, increased the scale and speed of production of this vital raw material, and decreased the labor requirements for steel-making. The Bessemer process was soon followed by the Siemens-Martin furnace which was used in the open hearth process. The open hearth furnace allowed recycling of scrap iron and steel. Because it was easier to control quality with the open hearth process, it became the leading steel making process in early 20th century.
Transcript
Second Industrial Revolution 1
Second Industrial Revolution
U.S. Patent#223898: Electric-Lamp.Issued January 27, 1880.
The Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the TechnologicalRevolution, was a phase of the larger Industrial Revolution corresponding to thelatter half of the 19th century until World War I. It is considered to have begunwith Bessemer steel in the 1860s and culminated in mass production and theproduction line.
The Second Industrial Revolution saw rapid industrial development in WesternEurope (Britain, Germany, France, the Low Countries) as well as the UnitedStates and Japan. It followed on from the First Industrial Revolution that beganin Britain in the late 18th century that then spread throughout Western Europeand North America.
The concept was introduced by Patrick Geddes, Cities in Evolution (1910), butDavid Landes' use of the term in a 1966 essay and in The Unbound Prometheus(1972) standardized scholarly definitions of the term, which was most intenselypromoted by American historian Alfred Chandler (1918–2007). However somecontinue to express reservations about its use.[1]
Landes (2003) stresses the importance of new technologies, especially electricity, the internal combustion engine,new materials and substances, including alloys and chemicals, and communication technologies such as thetelegraph and radio. While the first industrial revolution was centered on iron, steam technologies and textileproduction, the second industrial revolution revolved around steel, railroads, electricity, and chemicals.Vaclav Smill called the period 1867–1914 "The Age of Synergy" during which most of the great innovations weredeveloped. Unlike the First Industrial Revolution, the inventions and innovations were science based.[2]
Industry
A diagram of the Bessemer converter. Air blown through holes in the converterbottom creates a violent reaction in the molten pig iron that oxidizes the silicon andexcess carbon, converting the pig iron to either pure iron or steel, depending on the
residual carbon.
The Bessemer process was the firstinexpensive industrial process for themass-production of steel from molten pigiron. Its inventor Sir Henry Bessemer,revolutionized steel manufacture bydecreasing its cost, increased the scale andspeed of production of this vital rawmaterial, and decreased the laborrequirements for steel-making. TheBessemer process was soon followed by theSiemens-Martin furnace which was used inthe open hearth process. The open hearthfurnace allowed recycling of scrap iron andsteel. Because it was easier to controlquality with the open hearth process, itbecame the leading steel making process inearly 20th century.
The concept of interchangeable parts had been implemented in the early 19th century by inventors including HonoréBlanc, Henry Maudslay, John Hall, and Simeon North. Interchangeable parts in firearms had been developed by thearmories at Springfield and Harper's Ferry by the mid 19th century and mechanics familiar with armory practiceintroduced the concept to other industries, mainly in New England. The system relied on machine tools, jigs forguiding the tools and fixtures for properly holding the work and gauge blocks for checking the fit of parts. Thismethod eventually became known as the American system of manufacturing.[3] Application of the American systemto the sewing machine and reaper industries in the 1880s resulted in substantial increases in productivity. TheAmerican system was applied in the bicycle industry almost from the beginning. A later concept developed duringthe period was scientific management or Taylorism developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor and others. Scientificmanagement initially concentrated on reducing the steps taken in performing work such as bricklaying or shovelingby using analysis such as time and motion studies, but the concepts evolved into fields such as industrial engineeringmanufacturing engineering and business management that helped to completely restructure the operations offactories, and later, entire segments of the economy.The use of wood for making paper freed paper makers from using cotton and linen rags, which had been the limitingfactor in paper production since the invention of the printing press (ca. 1440). Finding a more abundant source ofpulp became particularly important after a machine was invented for continuous paper making (Ptd. 1799). The firstwood pulp (ca. 1840) was made by grinding wood, but by the 1880s chemical processes were in use, becomingdominant by 1900.The petroleum industry, both production and refining, began in 1859 with the first oil well in Pennsylvania, U.S.A.The first primary product was kerosene for lamps and heaters.[4] [5] Kerosene lighting was much more efficient andless expensive than vegetable oils, tallow and whale oil. Although town gas lighting was available in some cities,kerosene produced a brighter light until the invention of the gas mantle. Both were replaced by electricity for streetlighting following the 1890s and for households during the 1920s. Gasoline was an unwanted byproduct of oilrefining until automobiles were mass produced after 1914, and gasoline shortages appeared during World War I. Theinvention of the Burton process for thermal cracking doubled the yield of gasoline, which helped alleviate theshortages.[4]
Electrification allowed the final major developments in manufacturing methods of the Second Industrial Revolution,namely the assembly line and mass production.[6] The importance of machine tools to mass production is shown bythe fact that production of the Ford Model T used 32,000 machine tools, most of which were powered byelectricity.[3] Henry Ford is quoted as saying that mass production would not have been possible without electricitybecause it allowed placement of machine tools and other equipment in the order of the work flow.[7]
Electrification also allowed the inexpensive production of electro-chemicals, a few of the more important onesbeing: aluminum, chlorine, sodium hydroxide and magnesium.[5]
Railroads overtook steamboats operating on rivers and canals as the main transport infrastructure.[8] The building ofrailroads accelerated after the introduction of inexpensive steel rails, which lasted considerably longer than wroughtiron rails. Railroads lowered the cost of shipping to 0.875 cents/ton-mile from 24.5 cents/ton-mile by wagon.[9] Thisincreased the population of many towns. Improved roads such as the Macadam pioneered by John Loudon McAdam,were developed in the first Industrial Revolution, but the road network was greatly expanded during the secondIndustrial Revolution with a few hard surfaced roads being built around the time of the bicycle craze of the 1890s.Iron had been used in ship building for a relatively short time before the development of inexpensive steel, afterwhich steel quickly displaced iron.[5]
The gasoline powered automobile was patented by Karl Benz in 1886, although others had independently built cars around that time.[5] Henry Ford built his first car in 1896 and worked as a pioneer in the industry, with others who would eventually form their own companies, until the founding of Ford Motor Company in 1903.[6] Ford and others at the company struggled with ways to scale up production in keeping with Henry Ford's vision of a car designed and manufactured on a scale so as to be affordable by the average worker.[6] The solution that Ford Motor developed was
a completely redesigned factory with machine tools and special purpose machines that were systematicallypositioned in the work sequence. All unnecessary human motions were eliminated by placing all work and toolswithin easy reach, and where practical on conveyors, forming the assembly line, the complete process being calledmass production. This was the first time in history when a large, complex product consisting of 5000 parts had beenproduced on a scale of hundreds of thousands per year.[3][6] The savings from mass production methods allowed theprice of the Model T to decline from $780 in 1910 to $360 in 1916. In 1924 2 million T-Fords were produced andretailed $290 each.[10]
Technology
Three-phase rotating magnetic field of an ACmotor. The three poles are each connected to a
separate wire. Each wire carries current 120degrees apart in phase. Arrows show the resulting
magnetic force vectors. Three phase current isused in commerce and industry.
By the middle of the 19th century there was a scientific understandingof chemistry and a fundamental understanding of thermodynamics andby the last quarter of the century both of these sciences were near theirpresent day basic form. Thermodynamic principles were used in thedevelopment of physical chemistry. Understanding chemistry andthermodynamics greatly aided the development of basic inorganicchemical manufacturing and the aniline dye industries.
Control theory is the basis for process control, which is used in manyforms of automation, particularly for process industries such as oilrefining, paper and chemical manufacturing and for controlling shipsand airplanes.[11] Control theory was developed to analyze thefunctioning of centrifugal governors on steam engines. Thesegovernors had been used on wind and water mills to correctly positionthe gap between mill stones with changes in speed. The governor wasadapted to steam engines by James Watt. Improved versions were used to stabilize automatic tracking mechanismsof telescopes and to control speed of ship propellers and rudders. However, these governors were sluggish andoscillated around the set point. James Clerk Maxwell wrote a paper mathematically analyzing the actions ofgovernors, which marked the beginning of the formal development of control theory. The science was continuallyimproved and evolved into an engineering discipline. See: Control system
Another beneficiary of chemistry was steel making with development of the Gilchrist-Thomas process (or basicBessemer process) which involved lining the converter with limestone or dolomite to remove phosphorus, animpurity in most iron ores. Chemistry also benefited metallurgy by identifying and developing processes forpurifying various elements such as chromium, molybdenum, titanium, vanadium and nickel which could be used formaking alloys with special properties, especially with steel. Vanadium steel, for example, is strong and fatigueresistant, and was used in half the automotive steel.[12] Other important alloys are used in high temperatures, such assteam turbine blades, and stainless steels for corrosion resistance.The developing science of metallurgy was able to solve the problem of rail failure in the US by the mid-1880s byproperly controlling the temperature of steel while rolling into rails, although this had been understood in Europesome decades earlier.[13]
One of the most important developments of chemistry was the Haber process for producing ammonia (ca. 1913);however, the process did not become widespread until WWII. Today, the world food supply is critically dependenton inexpensive nitrogen fertilizers produced by the Haber-Bosch process.[14]
The Corliss steam engine (1849) was a significant improvement in efficiency, and later steam engines were designed with multiple expansions (stages) which resulted in even greater efficiency. The steam turbine was developed by Charles Parsons in 1884. Unlike steam engines, the turbine produced rotary power rather than reciprocating power that required a crank and heavy flywheel. The large number of stages of the turbine allowed for high efficiency and
reduced size by 90%. The turbine's first application was in shipping followed by electric generation in 1903.The first widely used internal combustion engine was the Otto type (1876). From the 1880s until electrification itwas successful in small shops because small steam engines were inefficient and required too much operatorattention.[2] The Otto engine soon began being used to power automobiles, and remains as today's common gasolineengine.The diesel engine was designed by Rudolf Diesel in 1897 using thermodynamic principles with the specific intentionof being highly efficient. It took several years to perfect and become popular, but found application in shippingbefore powering locomotives. It remains the world's most efficient prime mover.[2]
One of the most important scientific advancements in all of history was the unification of light, electricity andmagnetism through Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. A scientific understanding of electricity was necessary for thedevelopment of efficient electric generators, motors and transformers. Heinrich Hertz's 1887 experiments confirmedand explored the phenomenon of electromagnetic waves that had been predicted by Maxwell.[2] This led to thedevelopment of radio before the end of the 2nd I.R., but radio was mainly used in shipping until the early 1920swhen commercial broadcasts began. Radio as we know it depended on the development of the vacuum tube(thermionic valve) (ca. 1906-08) which allowed amplification. The vacuum tube was essential for most electronicsuntil the transistor became available in the 1950s.Electrification was called "the most important engineering achievement of the 20th century" by the NationalAcademy of Engineering.[15] In 1881, Sir Joseph Swan, inventor of the first feasible incandescent light bulb,supplied about 1,200 Swan incandescent lamps to the Savoy Theatre in the City of Westminister, London, which wasthe first theatre, and the first public building in the world, to be lit entirely by electricity.[16][17] Electricity was usedfor street lighting in the early 1880s. Electric lighting in factories greatly improved working conditions, eliminatingthe heat and pollution caused by gas lighting, and reducing the fire hazard to the extent that cost of electricity forlighting was often offset by the reduction in fire insurance premiums. Frank J. Sprague developed the first successfulDC motor in 1886 which he successfully adapted to power street railways, and by 1889 there were 110 electricrailways either in operation and using his equipment or in planning. The electric street railway became a majorinfrastructure before 1920. AC motors were developed by Nikola Tesla (Induction motor), Westinghouse, MikhailDolivo-Dobrovolsky and others in the 1890s and soon began to be used in the electrification of industry.[18]
Household electrification did not become common until the 1920s, and then only in cities. Fluorescent lighting wascommercially introduced at the 1939 World's Fair.Telegraph lines were installed along rail lines for communicating with trains, and evolved into a communicationsnetwork. The first commercial electrical telegraph was co-developed by Charles Wheatstone and William FothergillCooke, and was first successfully demonstrated on 25 July 1837 between Euston railway station and Camden Townin London.[19] The first lasting transatlantic telegraph cable was laid by Isambard Kingdom Brunel's ship the SSGreat Eastern in 1866.[20] By the 1890s there was a telegraph network connecting major cities worldwide, whichgreatly facilitated international commerce, travel and diplomacy.[21]
The telephone was patented in 1876, and like the early telegraph, it was used mainly to speed businesstransactions.[22]
The tabulating machine, which read data stored on punched cards byallowing electrical contact through the holes and keeping running totalswith electro-mechanical counters, was invented by Herman Hollerith inthe mid 1880s. Tabulating machines were used for the US 1890 census,which was completed in less than a year and at great reduction in laborcompared to the 8 years for the 1880 census using hand counts.Hollerith founded a company to make and lease the machines. It wasrenamed "International Business Machines" (IBM) in 1924. Tabulatingmachines and other unit record equipment was widely used by censusbureaus, insurance companies, railroads and numerous otherbusinesses. Unit record equipment remained the dominant form of data management until the 1960s.[23]
Studies by biologists led farmers such as Henry A. Wallace to use genetic biology to create hybrid corn in the 1920s.It was the first application of biotechnology and was followed by the Green revolution.[24]
The germ theory of disease was developed and was accompanied by advances in microbiology, such as stainingbacteria to make them identifiable under a microscope.
Socioeconomic impactsThe period from 1870 to 1890 saw the greatest increase in economic growth in such a short period as ever inprevious history. Living standards improved significantly in the newly industrialized countries as the prices of goodsfell dramatically due to the increases in productivity. This caused unemployment and great upheavals in commerceand industry, with many laborers being displaced by machines and many factories, ships and other forms of fixedcapital becoming obsolete in a very short time span.[21]
“The economic changes that have occurred during the last quarter of a century -or during the presentgeneration of living men- have unquestionably been more important and more varied than during anyperiod of the world’s history”.[21]
Crop failures no longer resulted in starvation in areas served by railroads and inland waterways.[21]
Proving the germ theory of disease led to improved public health and sanitation. Measures were taken to insuresafety of public water supply, including chlorination. This greatly reduced the infection and death rates from manydiseases.By 1870 the work done by steam engines exceeded that done by animal and human power. Horses and mulesremained important in agriculture until the development of the tractor near the end of the second IndustrialRevolution.[25]
The improvements in steam engine efficiencies, like triple expansion, allowed ships to carry much more freight thancoal, resulting in greatly increased volumes of international trade. Higher steam engine efficiency caused the numberof steam engines to increase several fold, leading to an increase in coal usage, the phenomenon being called theJevons paradox.[26]
By 1890 there was an international telegraph network allowing orders to be placed by merchants in England or theUS to suppliers in India and China for goods to be transported in efficient new steamships. This, plus the opening ofthe Suez Canal, led to the decline of the great warehousing districts in London and elsewhere, and the elimination ofmany middlemen.[21]
The tremendous growth in productivity, transportation networks, industrial production and agricultural outputlowered the prices of almost all goods. This led to many business failures and periods that were called depressionsthat occurred as the world economy actually grew.[21] See also: Long depression
The factory system centralized production in separate buildings funded and directed by specialists (as opposed towork at home). The division of labor made both unskilled and skilled labor more productive, and led to a rapidgrowth of population in industrial centers. By the estimate of historian H. C. Cuzins (of the BHS Foundation), theindustrial working class was nearly a third of the US population around the start of the 20th century. Like the firstindustrial revolution, the second supported population growth and saw most governments (not including Britain)protect their national economies with tariffs. The wide-ranging social impact of both revolutions included theremaking of the working class as new technologies appeared. The creation of a larger, increasingly professional,middle class, the decline of child labor and the dramatic growth of a consumer-based, material culture.[27]
By 1900, the leaders in industrial production were the US with 24% of the world total, followed by Britain (19%),Germany (13%), Russia (9%) and France (7%). Europe together accounted for 62%.[28]
The great inventions and innovations of the Second Industrial Revolution are part of our modern life. They continuedto be drivers of the economy until after WWII. Only a few major innovations occurred in the post-war era, some ofwhich are: computers, semiconductors, the fiber optic network and the Internet, cellular telephones, combustionturbines (jet engines) and the Green Revolution.[29] Although commercial aviation existed before WWII, it became amajor industry after the war.
Britain
Relative levels of industrialisation, 1750-1900
New products and services were introducedwhich greatly increased international trade.Improvements in steam engine design andthe wide availability of cheap steel meantthat slow, sailing ships were replaced withfaster steamship, which could handle moretrade with smaller crews. The chemicalindustries also moved to the forefront.Britain invested less in technologicalresearch than the U.S. and Germany, whichcaught up.
Michael Faraday discoveredelectromagnetic induction, and his inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electricmotor technology. In 1880, pioneer of electric light Sir Joseph Swan began installing light bulbs in homes andlandmarks in England, with the Savoy in London electrically lit in 1881.[17] The Bessemer process was the firstinexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron. The process named after itsinventor Sir Henry Bessemer, revolutionized steel manufacture by decreasing its cost, from £40 per long ton to £6-7per long ton during its introduction, along with greatly increasing the scale and speed of production of this vital rawmaterial. The process also decreased the labor requirements for steel-making. After the introduction of the Bessemerprocess, steel and wrought iron became similarly priced, and most manufacturers turned to steel. The availability ofcheap steel allowed large bridges to be built and enabled the construction of railroads, skyscrapers, and largeships.[30] Other important steel products—also made using the open hearth process—were steel cable, steel rod andsheet steel which enabled large, high-pressure boilers and high-tensile strength steel for machinery which enabledmuch more powerful engines, gears and axles than were possible previously. With large amounts of steel it becamepossible to build much more powerful guns and carriages, tanks, armored fighting vehicles and naval ships.Industrial steel also made possible the building of giant turbines and generators thus making the harnessing of waterand steam power possible. The steam turbine invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884, has almost completely
replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine primarily because of its greater thermal efficiency and higherpower-to-weight ratio.[31] As the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive anelectrical generator – about 80% of all electricity generation in the world is by use of steam turbines. Theintroduction of the large scale steel production process perfected by Henry Bessemer, paved the way to massindustrialization as observed in the 19th-20th centuries.The development of more intricate and efficient machines along with mass production techniques (after 1910)greatly expanded output and lowered production costs. As a result, production often exceeded domestic demand.Among the new conditions, more markedly evident in Britain, the forerunner of Europe's industrial states, were thelong-term effects of the severe Long Depression of 1873–1896, which had followed fifteen years of great economicinstability. Businesses in practically every industry suffered from lengthy periods of low — and falling — profitrates and price deflation after 1873.
BelgiumBelgium provided an ideal model for showing the value of the railways for speeding the Second IndustrialRevolution. After 1830, when it broke away from the Netherlands and became a new nation, it decided to stimulateindustry. It planned and funded a simple cruciform system that connected major cities, ports and mining areas, andlinked to neighboring countries. Belgium thus became the railway center of the region. The system was soundly builtalong British lines, so that profits were low but the infrastructure necessary for rapid industrial growth was put inplace.[32]
United StatesThe U.S. had its highest economic growth in the last two decades of the Second Industrial Revolution.[33] The GildedAge in America was based on heavy industry such as factories, railroads and coal mining. The iconic event was theopening of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, providing six-day service between the East Coast and SanFrancisco.[34]
During the Gilded Age, American manufacturing production surpassed Britain and took world leadership.[35]
Railroad mileage tripled between 1860 and 1880, and tripled again by 1920, opening new areas to commercialfarming, creating a truly national marketplace and inspiring a boom in coal mining and steel production. Thevoracious appetite for capital of the great trunk railroads facilitated the consolidation of the nation's financial marketin Wall Street. By 1900, the process of economic concentration had extended into most branches of industry—a fewlarge corporations, some organized as "trusts" (e.g. Standard Oil), dominated in steel, oil, sugar, meatpacking, andthe manufacture of agriculture machinery. Other major components of this infrastructure were the new methods formanufacturing steel, especially the Bessemer process. The first billion-dollar corporation was United States Steel,formed by financier J. P. Morgan in 1901, who purchased and consolidated steel firms built by Andrew Carnegie andothers.[36]
Increased mechanization of industry is a major mark of the Gilded Age's search for cheaper ways to create more product. Frederick Winslow Taylor observed that worker efficiency could be improved through the use of machines to make fewer motions in less time. His redesign increased the speed of factory machines and the productivity of factories while undercutting the need for skilled labor. This was made possible due to the advent of electrification during this time period. Innovations were possible due to the high amassment of natural resources, which provided a source of capital for the U.S. to continue to build advancing technologies. Mechanical innovations such as batch and continuous processing began to become much more prominent in factories. This mechanization made some factories an assemblage of unskilled laborers performing simple and repetitive tasks under the direction of skilled foremen and engineers. In some cases, the advancement of such mechanization substituted for low-skilled workers altogether. The demand for skilled workers increased relative to the labor needs of the First Industrial Revolution. Machine shops grew rapidly, and they comprised highly skilled workers and engineers that were needed to oversee factory
operation. Both the number of unskilled and skilled workers increased, as their wage rates grew[37] Engineeringcolleges were established to feed the enormous demand for expertise. Railroads invented complex bureaucraticsystems, using middle managers, and set up explicit career tracks. They hired young men at age 18-21 and promotedthem internally until a man reached the status of locomotive engineer, conductor or station agent at age 40 or so.Career tracks were invented for skilled blue collar jobs and for white collar managers, starting in railroads andexpanding into finance, manufacturing and trade. Together with rapid growth of small business, a new middle classwas rapidly growing, especially in northern cities.[38]
The United States became a world leader in applied technology. From 1860 to 1890, 500,000 patents were issued fornew inventions—over ten times the number issued in the previous seventy years. George Westinghouse invented airbrakes for trains (making them both safer and faster). Westinghouse developed alternating current long distancetransmission networks. Theodore Vail established the American Telephone & Telegraph Company. Thomas A.Edison, the founder of General Electric, invented a remarkable number of electrical devices, including manyhardware items used in the transmission, distribution and end uses of electricity as well as the integrated power plantcapable of lighting multiple buildings simultaneously. Oil became an important resource, beginning with thePennsylvania oil fields. Kerosene replaced whale oil and candles for lighting. John D. Rockefeller founded StandardOil Company to consolidate the oil industry—which mostly produced kerosene before the automobile created ademand for gasoline in the 20th century.[36]
At the end of the 19th century, workers experienced the "second industrial revolution," which involved massproduction, scientific management, and the rapid development of managerial skills.[39] The new technology was hardfor young people to handle, leading to a sharp drop (1890–1930) in the demand for workers under age 16. Thisresulted in a dramatic expansion of the high school system.
Influential figuresAndrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, and "Commodore" Cornelius Vanderbilt were among the most influentialindustrialists during the Gilded Age. Carnegie (1835–1919) was born into a poor Scottish family and came toPittsburgh as a teenager. In 1870, Carnegie erected his first blast furnace and by 1890 dominated the fast-growingsteel industry. He preached the "Gospel of Wealth,"saying the rich had a moral duty to engage in large-scalephilanthropy. Carnegie did give away his fortune, creating many institutions such as the Carnegie Institute ofTechnology (now part of Carnegie Mellon University) to upgrade craftsmen into trained engineers and scientists.Carnegie built hundreds of public libraries and several major research centers and foundations.[40] Rockefeller builtStandard Oil into a national monopoly, then retired from the oil business in 1897 and devoted the next 40 years ofhis life to giving away his fortune using systematic philanthropy, especially to upgrade education, medicine and racerelations.[41] Cornelius Vanderbilt started out as a sailor in New York harbor, then took part in the transportationrevolution, from steamboats to railroads. He brought the corporation from its infancy to maturity as the organizationof choice for big business.[42]
GermanyThe German Empire came to rival Britain as Europe's primary industrial nation during this period. Since Germanyindustrialized later, it was able to model its factories after those of Britain, thus making more efficient use of itscapital and avoiding legacy methods in its leap to the envelope of technology. Germany invested more heavily thanthe British in research, especially in chemistry, motors and electricity. The German concern system (known asKonzerne), being significantly concentrated, was able to make more efficient use of capital. Germany was notweighted down with an expensive worldwide empire that needed defense. Following Germany's annexation ofAlsace-Lorraine in 1871, it absorbed parts of what had been France's industrial base.[43]
By 1900 the German chemical industry dominated the world market for synthetic dyes. The three major firms BASF, Bayer and Hoechst produced several hundred different dyes, along with the five smaller firms. In 1913 these eight
firms produced almost 90 percent of the world supply of dyestuffs and sold about 80 percent of their productionabroad. The three major firms had also integrated upstream into the production of essential raw materials and theybegan to expand into other areas of chemistry such as pharmaceuticals, photographic film, agricultural chemicals andelectrochemicals. Top-level decision-making was in the hands of professional salaried managers, leading Chandler tocall the German dye companies "the world's first truly managerial industrial enterprises".[44] There were manyspinoffs from research—such as the pharmaceutical industry, which emerged from chemical research.[45]
Alternative usesThere have been other times that have been called "second industrial revolution". Industrial revolutions may berenumbered by taking earlier developments, such as the rise of medieval technology in the 12th century, or ofancient Chinese technology during the Tang Dynasty, or of ancient Roman technology, as first. "Second industrialrevolution" has been used in the popular press and by technologists or industrialists to refer to the changes followingthe spread of new technology after World War I. Excitement and debate over the dangers and benefits of the AtomicAge were more intense and lasting than those over the Space age but both were predicted to lead to another industrialrevolution. At the start of the 21st century the term "second industrial revolution" has been used to describe theanticipated effects of hypothetical molecular nanotechnology systems upon society. In this more recent scenario, thenanofactory would render the majority of today's modern manufacturing processes obsolete, transforming all facetsof the modern economy.
Notes[1] James Hull, "The Second Industrial Revolution: The History of a Concept", Storia Della Storiografia, 1999, Issue 36, pp 81–90[2] Smil, Vaclav (2005). Creating the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations of 1867–1914 and Their Lasting Impact. Oxford; New York:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516874-7.[3] Hounshell, David A. (1984), From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in
the United States, Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-2975-8, LCCN 83016269[4] [ |Yergin, Daniel (https:/ / www. cera. com/ aspx/ cda/ public1/ about/ expertise/ personPopup. aspx?iAuthorPK=112)] (1992). The Prize: The
Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power.[5] McNeil, Ian (1990). An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14792-1.[6] Ford, Henry; Crowther, Samuel (1922). My Life and Work: An Autobiography of Henry Ford (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ catalog/ world/
readfile?fk_files=22786& pageno=45).[7] Ford, Henry; Crowther, Samuel (1930). Edison as I Know Him. Cosmopolitan Book Company. pp. 30.[8] Grubler, Arnulf (1990). The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures (http:/ / www. iiasa. ac. at/ Admin/ PUB/ Documents/ XB-90-704. pdf).[9] Fogel, Robert W. (1964). Railroads and American Economic Growth: Essays in Econometric History. Baltimore and London: The John
Hopkins Press. ISBN 0-8018-1148-1.[10] Beaudreau, Bernard C. (1996). Mass Production, the Stock Market Crash and the Great Depression. New York, Lincoln, Shanghi: Authors
Choice Press.[11] Benett, Stuart (1986). A History of Control Engineering 1800–1930. Institution of Engineering and Technology. ISBN 978-0-86341-047-5.[12] Steven Watts, The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century (2006) p. 111[13] Misa, Thomas J. (1995). A nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America 1865–1925. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University
Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6052-2[14] Smil, Vaclav (2004). Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production. MIT Press.
ISBN 0-262-69313-5.[15] Constable, George; Somerville, Bob (2003). A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives (http:/
/ www. greatachievements. org/ ?id=2988). Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 0-309-08908-5. . (Viewable on line)[16] "The Savoy Theatre", The Times, October 3, 1881[17] Description of lightbulb experiment (http:/ / math. boisestate. edu/ GaS/ carte/ savoy/ electric. html) in The Times, December 29, 1881[18] *Nye, David E. (1990). Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology. The MIT Press. pp. 14, 15.[19] Hubbard, Geoffrey (1965) Cooke and Wheatstone and the Invention of the Electric Telegraph, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London p. 78[20][20] Wilson, Arthur (1994). The Living Rock: The Story of Metals Since Earliest Times and Their Impact on Civilization. p. 203. Woodhead
Publishing[21] Wells, David A. (1890). Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well-Being of Society
ots=ncSpCE9hHa& sig=iPvAvory04aF3HjrUJENkSwFtCw& hl=en& ei=95bDTJC0CoKVnAf-utnpCQ& sa=X& oi=book_result&ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false). New York: D. Appleton and Co.. ISBN 0-543-72474-3. .Openingline of the Preface.
[22] Richard John, Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications (2010)[23] Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray, Computer: A History Of The Information Machine (2nd ed. 2004) pp 29–157[24] Cowan, Ruth Schwartz (1997). A Social History of American Technology. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504605-6. pp
303–10[25] Ayres, Robert U.; Warr, Benjamin (2004). Accounting for Growth: The Role of Physical Work (http:/ / www. iea. org/ work/ 2004/ eewp/
Ayres-paper1. pdf).[26] Wells, David A. (1890). Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well-Being of Society
[27][27] Hull (1996)[28] Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (1987) p. 149, based on Paul Bairoch, "International Industrialization Levels from
1750 to 1980," Journal of European Economic History (1982) v. 11[29] Constable, George; Somerville, Bob (2003). A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives (http:/
/ www. greatachievements. org/ id=2988). Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 0-309-08908-5. .This link is to entire on line book.[30] Alan Birch, Economic History of the British Iron and Steel Industry (2006)[31] Sir Charles Algernon Parsons (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 444719/ Sir-Charles-Algernon-Parsons) Encyclopædia
Britannica[32] Patrick O’Brien, Railways and the Economic Development of Western Europe, 1830–1914 (1983)[33] Vatter, Harold G.; Walker, John F.; Alperovitz, Gar (June, 2005). The onset and persistence of secular stagnation in the U.S. economy:
1910–1990, Journal of Economic Issues (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_qa5437/ is_n2_v29/ ai_n28658086/ ).[34] Stephen E. Ambrose, Nothing Like It In The World; The men who built the Transcontinental Railroad 1863–1869 (2000)[35] Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (1987) p. 149[36] Edward C. Kirkland, Industry Comes of Age, Business, Labor, and Public Policy 1860–1897 (1961)[37] Daniel Hovey Calhoun, The American Civil Engineer: Origins and Conflicts (1960)[38] Walter Licht, Working for the Railroad: The Organization of Work in the Nineteenth Century (1983)[39][39] Licht (1995)[40] Joseph Frazier Wall, Andrew Carnegie (1970).[41] Ron Chernow, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr. (2004)[42] T.J. Stiles, The First Tycoon: The Epic Life of Cornelius Vanderbilt (2009)[43][43] Broadberry and O'Rourke (2010)[44][44] Chandler (1990) p 474-5[45] Carsten Burhop, "Pharmaceutical Research in Wilhelmine Germany: the Case of E. Merck," Business History Review. Volume: 83. Issue: 3.
2009. pp 475+. in ProQuest
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