SEMICONDUCTOR SENSORS

Edited by

S. M. Sze UMC Chair Professor Department of Electronics Engineering and Microelectronics and Information-Systems Research Center National Chiao Tung University Hsinchu, Taiwan, R.O.C.

A Wiley-Interscience Publication

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

New York • Chichester • Brisbane • Toronto • Singapore

CONTENTS

Preface

1 Classification and Terminology of Sensors S. M. Sze

1.1 Semiconductor Sensors 1 1.2 Classification of Semiconductor Sensors 1.3 Sensor Characterization 7 1.4 Evolution of Semiconductor Sensors 10 1.5 Organization of the Book 13

References 15

2 Semiconductor Sensor Technologies C. H. Mastrangelo and W. C. Tang

2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Basic Fabrication Processes 20 2.3 Micromechanical Process Design 31 2.4 Bulk Micromachining 42 2.5 Surface Micromachining 55 2.6 Other Micromachining Techniques 75 2.7 Summary and Future Trends 80

Problems 81 References 84

3 Acoustic Sensors M. E. Motamedi and R. M. White

3.1 Introduction 97 3.2 Acoustic Waves 99 3.3 Piezoelectric Materials 104 3.4 Acoustic Sensing 110 3.5 SAW Sensors 117 3.6 Sensor Applications 126 3.7 Summary and Future Trends 143

Problems 144 References 146

viii CONTENTS

4 Mechanical Sensors B. Kloeck and N. F. de Rooij

4.1 Introduction 153 4.2 Piezoresistivity 160 4.3 Piezoresistive Sensors 174 4.4 Capacitive Sensors 185 4.5 Applications 187 4.6 Summary and Future Trends 194

Problems 197 References 199

5 Magnetic Sensors H. Bakes and R. Castagnetti

5.1 Introduction 205 5.2 Effects and Materials 211 5.3 Integrated Hall Sensors 231 5.4 Magnetotransistors 246 5.5 Other Magnetic Sensors 258 5.6 Summary and Future Trends 264

Problems 265 References 266

6 Radiation Sensors S. Audel and J. Steigerwald

6.1 Introduction 271 6.2 Common Physics 273 6.3 HgCdTe Infrared Sensors 298 6.4 Visible-Light Color Sensors 305 6.5 High-Energy Photodiodes 308 6.6 Silicon Drift Chamber X-Ray Sensors 314 6.7 Summary and Future Trends 322

Problems 324 References 326

7 Thermal Sensors S. Van Herwaarden and G. C. M. Meijer

7.1 Introduction 331 7.2 Heat Transfer 332 7.3 Thermal Structures 340 7.4 Thermal-Sensing Elements 350 7.5 Thermal and Temperature Sensors 357 7.6 Summary and Future Trends 373

Problems 375 References 380

8 Chemical Sensors 5. R. Morrison

8.1 Introduction 383 8.2 Interaction of Gaseous Species at Semiconductor

Surfaces 384 8.3 Catalysis, the Acceleration of Chemical Reactions 8.4 The Electrical Properties of Compressed Powders 8.5 Thin-Film Sensors 397 8.6 Thick-Film and Pressed-Pellet Sensors 399 8.7 FET Devices for Gas and Ion Sensing 404 8.8 Summary and Future Trends 409

Problems 409 References 410

9 Biosensors A. Dewa and W. H. Ko

9.1 Introduction 415 9.2 Immobilization of Biological Elements 423 9.3 Mass Transport in Biosensors 427 9.4 Transduction Principles 437 9.5 Packaging of Biosensors 455 9.6 Summary and Future Trends 463

Problems 465 References 469

10 Integrated Sensors K. Najafi, K. D. Wise, and N. Najafi

10.1 Introduction 473 10.2 System Organization and Functions 477 10.3 Interface Electronics 493 10.4 Fabrication Techniques 502 10.5 Examples of Integrated Sensors 511 10.6 Summary and Future Trends 523

Problems 526 References 527

Appendix A List of Symbols Appendix B International System of Units Appendix C Physical Constants Appendix D Properties of Si and GaAs in 300K

Index