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Section 1: Research Methods

Section 2:Causation in Science

Section 3: Procedures and Ethics in Research

Chapter Preview 1

Chapter Preview · Section 1Research Methods (pages 38–49)

When sociologists do quantitative research, they generally use either surveys or precollected data. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Field studies are best used when interaction needs to be observed in a natural setting, and when in-depth analysis is needed. The case study is the most popular approach to field research.

Chapter Preview 2

Chapter Preview · Section 2Causation in Science (pages 50–57)

Causation in science is the idea that one event leads to another event. Scientists assume that all events have causes, or determinants. Sociologists work to discover these causes. Three standards must be met before causation can be proved.

Chapter Preview 3

Chapter Preview · Section 3Procedures and Ethics in Research (pages 58–62)

The research process is made up of several distinct steps. These steps represent an ideal for scientific research. It is not always necessary or even possible that they always be strictly followed. Researchers have an ethical obligation to protect participants’ privacy and to avoid deceiving or harming them. Preserving the rights of subjects is sometimes weighed against the value of the knowledge to be gained.

Chapter Preview-End

Section 1-Preview

When sociologists do quantitative research, they generally use either surveys or precollected data. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Qualitative research uses descriptive rather than numerical data. Field studies are best used when interaction needs to be observed in a natural setting, and when in-depth analysis is needed. The case study is the most popular approach to field research.

Section 1-Key Terms

• survey

• population

• sample

• representative sample

• questionnaire

• interview

• closed-ended questions

• open-ended questions

• secondary analysis

• field research

• case study

• participant observation

A. A

B. B

C. C

D. D

Section 1-Polling Question

A B C D

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How difficult would it be to conduct research in the area of sociology?

A. Very difficult

B. Somewhat difficult

C. Not very difficult

D. Not difficult at all

Section 1

Doing Research in the Social Sciences

• Sociologists must conduct research in a real- world setting as opposed to a laboratory.

• Sociologists rely on quantitative and qualitative research.

• Quantitative research uses numerical data, while qualitative research uses narrative or descriptive data, such as surveys or precollected data.

A. A

B. B

C. C

D. D

Section 1

A B C D

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Which type of research uses numerical data?

A. Quantitative

B. Qualitative

C. Hypothesis

D. Laboratory

Section 1

Survey Research

• A survey is a research method in which people are asked to answer a series of questions.

• It is the most widely used method of research in sociology.

• A population consists of the people with the characteristics a researcher wants to study.

Section 1

Survey Research (cont.)

• Sociologists survey a sample, or a limited number of cases drawn from a larger population.

• A representative sample has the same basic characteristics as the population and is chosen at random.

Section 1

Survey Research (cont.)

• A questionnaire is a written set of questions that survey participants answer themselves.

• During an interview a trained interviewer asks questions and records the answers.

Section 1

Survey Research (cont.)

• Closed-ended questions are those that a person answers by choosing from a limited, predetermined set of responses.

• Open-ended questions ask the person to answer in his or her own words.

Closed-ended and Open-ended Questions

Closed-ended Survey Research

A. A

B. B

C. C

D. D

Section 1

A B C D

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Why must sociologist use samples?

A. Most populations being studied are too large.

B. The cost of studying an entire population would be too much.

C. Sociologists don’t have enough time to study an entire population.

D. All of the above

Section 1

Secondary Analysis (Precollected Data)

• Secondary analysis is the method of using precollected information, such as:

– Government reports

– Company records

– Voting lists

– Prison records

– Other reports by social scientists Secondary Analysis

A. A

B. B

C. C

D. D

Section 1

A B C D

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One of the most important sources of precollected data for sociologists is

A. The U.S. President

B. The U.S. Department of Commerce

C. The U.S. Census Bureau

D. The U.S. Department of Labor

Section 1

Field Research

• Field research looks closely at aspects of social life that cannot be measured quantitatively and that are best understood within a natural setting.

• A case study is a thorough investigation of a single group, incident or community.

Section 1

Field Research (cont.)

• Researchers often become a member of the group being studied, either with or without the group’s knowledge (also known as participant observation).

Investigating School Violence and School Funding

Summary of Research Methods

1. A

2. B

3. C

Section 1

Do you think it is possible to collect valid information about a group that knows you are present ?

A. Yes

B. No

C. Not sure

A B C

0% 0%0%

Section 1-End

Section 2-Preview

Causation in science is the idea that one event leads to another event. Scientists assume that all events have causes, or determinants. Social events are so complex, however, that many factors may be identified as causes. Three standards must be met before causation can be proved.

Section 2-Key Terms

• causation

• multiple causation

• variable

• quantitative variable

• qualitative variable

• independent variable

• dependent variable

• intervening variable

• correlation

• spurious correlation

1. A

2. B

Section-Polling Question

Can you think of any newsworthy events, good or bad, that were predictable?

A. Yes

B. No

A B

0%0%

Section 2

The Nature of Causation

• Causation is a concept that means that events occur in predictable, nonrandom ways.

• Sociologists believe that an event occurs as a result of several factors working in combination, or multiple causation.

A. A

B. B

C. C

D. D

Section 2

A B C D

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What do you think is the main cause of crime?

A. Neglectful parents

B. Drugs

C. Violence on TV

D. Hopeless poverty

Section 2

Variables and Correlations

• A variable is a characteristic that is subject to change.

• Quantitative variable—one that can be measured and given a numerical value.

• Qualitative variable—one that is identified by membership in a category (“either/or” or “yes/no” category).

The Wired World

Section 2

Variables and Correlations (cont.)

• An independent variable causes something to occur.

• A dependent variable results from the change in the independent variable.

• An intervening variable influences the relationship between the independent and the dependent variable.

Section 2

Variables and Correlations (cont.)

• A correlation is a measure of how things are related to one another.

– Positive correlation—if both the independent and dependent variable change in the same direction.

– Negative correlation—if the variables change in the opposite direction.

Positive and Negative Correlations

A. A

B. B

C. C

D. D

Section 2

A B C D

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Whether a variable is dependent or independent can change depending on the situation.

A. Always

B. Sometimes

C. Never

D. Not sure

Section 2

Standards for Showing Causation

• Standard 1: Two variables must be correlated.

• Standard 2: All other possible factors must be taken into account; the fact that two events are correlated does not mean that one causes the other.

Section 2

Standards for Showing Causation (cont.)

• Spurious correlation is an apparent relationship between two variables that is actually caused by a third variable affecting both of the other variables.

• Standard 3: A change in the independent variable must occur before a change in the dependent variable can occur, or the cause must occur before the effect.

A Spurious Correlation

A. A

B. B

C. C

D. D

Section 2

A B C D

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Which statement best defines a spurious correlation?

A. Two variables must be correlated.

B. A third variable may affect the other two variables.

C. A cause must occur before the effect.

D. One variable causes the other to occur.

Section 2-End

Section 3-Preview

The research process is made up of several distinct steps. These steps represent an ideal. It is not always necessary or even possible that they be strictly followed. Researchers have an ethical obligation to protect participants’ privacy and to avoid deceiving or harming them. Preserving the rights of subjects must be weighed against the value of the knowledge to be gained.

Section 3-Key Terms

• scientific method

• hypothesis

A. A

B. B

C. C

Section 3-Polling Question

A B C

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How large a role do you think ethics should play when scientists conduct research?

A. Always

B. Sometimes

C. Never

Section 3

Steps for Doing Research

• The scientific method involves the pursuit of knowledge in a systematic way. Most sociologists follow this method, but not always mechanically.

Secondary Analysis:A Model for Research

Section 3

Steps for Doing Research (cont.)

• The steps are as follows:

– Identify the Problem—the researcher chooses an object or topic to study.

– Review the Literature—she then conducts a literature search.

– Formulate Hypotheses—she forms a hypothesis, or testable statement of relationships among well-defined variables.

Section 3

Steps for Doing Research (cont.)

– Develop a Research Design—the researcher then states the procedures she will follow for collecting and analyzing data.

– Collect Data—this involves either asking people questions, observing behavior, or analyzing existing materials and records.

– Analyze Data—at this point, the researcher determines if the hypothesis can be supported.

Section 3

Steps for Doing Research (cont.)

– State Findings and Conclusions—finally, she shares her methods and findings with others so that they too can learn.

Steps in the Research Process

A. A

B. B

C. C

Section 3

A B C

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How important it for scientists to follow the scientific method?

A. Very important

B. Not important at all

C. Not sure

Section 3

Ethics in Social Research

• The American Sociological Association has published guidelines for conducting research.

• Conducting ethical research means:

– Showing objectivity

– Using superior research standards

– Reporting findings and methods truthfully

– Protecting the rights, privacy, integrity, dignity, and freedom of research subjects

A. A

B. B

C. C

D. D

Section 3

A B C D

0% 0%0%0%

Do you agree that the matter of ethics in conducting sociology research is difficult?

A. Yes

B. No

C. Not sure

D. Sometimes

Section 3-End

Research

Secondary Analysis: A Model for Research

Sources: (left) National Vital Statistics Reports, from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2005. (right) U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2004–2005.

World View

The Wired World

Source: United Nations Development

Programme, 2004.

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4

Figure 2.5A

Figure 2.5B

Figure 2.8

Positive and Negative Correlations

Figure 2.9

A Spurious Correlation

Figure 2.10

Steps in the Research Process

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Wheel of Science

How Variables Are Related

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Vocab 1

survey

research method in which people respond to questions

Vocab 2

population

a group of people with certain specified characteristics

Vocab 3

sample

a group of people that represents a larger population

Vocab 4

representative sample

a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole

Vocab 5

questionnaire

a written set of questions to be answered by a research participant

Vocab 6

interview

a survey method in which a trained researcher asks questions and records the answers

Vocab 7

closed-ended questions

questions a person must answer by choosing from a limited, predetermined set or responses

Vocab 8

open-ended questions

questions a person is to answer in his or her own words

Vocab 9

secondary analysis

using precollected information for data collection and research purposes

Vocab 10

field research

research that takes place in a natural (nonlaboratory) setting

Vocab 11

case study

intensive study of a single group, incident, or community

Vocab 12

participant observation

a case study where the researcher becomes a member of the group being studied

Vocab 13

causation

the belief that events occur in predictable ways and that one event leads to another

Vocab 14

multiple causation

the belief that an event occurs as a result of several factors working in combination

Vocab 15

variable

a characteristic that is subject to change

Vocab 16

quantitative variable

a characteristic that can be measured numerically

Vocab 17

qualitative variable

a characteristic that is defined by its presence or absence in a category

Vocab 18

independent variable

a characteristic that causes something to occur

Vocab 19

dependent variable

a characteristic that reflects a change

Vocab 20

intervening variable

a variable that changes the relationship between an independent and a dependent variable

Vocab 21

correlation

a measure of the relationship between two variables

Vocab 22

spurious correlation

a relationship between two variables that is actually caused by a third factor

Vocab 23

scientific method

the recognition and formulation of a problem, the collection of data through observation and experiment, and the formulation and testing of a hypotheses

Vocab 24

hypothesis

testable statement of relationships among variables

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