The Seven Great Monarchies Vol 3 Media Rawlingson

7/28/2019 The Seven Great Monarchies Vol 3 Media Rawlingson

1/100

MediaTHESEVENGREATMONARCHIES

OFTHE

ANCIENTEASTERNWORLD;

OR,

THEHISTORY,

GEOGRAPHY,

AND

ANTIQUITIES

OF

CHALDAEA,

ASSYRIA

BABYLON,MEDIA,PERSIA,PARTHIA,ANDSASSANIAN,

ORNEWPERSIANEMPIRE.

BYGEORGERAWLINSON,M.A.,

CAMDENPROFESSOROFANCIENTHISTORYINTHEUNIVERSITYOFOXFORD

INTHREEVOLUMES.

VOLUMEII.

WITHMAPSANDILLUSTRATIONS

CONTENTSCHAPTERI. DESCRIPTIONOFTHECOUNTRY.CHAPTERII. CLIMATEANDPRODUCTIONS.CHAPTERIII. CHARACTER,MANNERSANDCUSTOMS.CHAPTERIV. RELIGION.CHAPTERV. LANGUAGEANDWRITING.CHAPTERVI. CHRONOLOGYANDHISTORY.


2/100

Media

ListofIllustrationsMap

PlateI.

PlateII.

PlateIII.

PlateIV.

PlateV.

PlateVI.

PlateVII.

THETHIRDMONARCHY.

MEDIA.


3/100

Media

CHAPTERI.DESCRIPTIONOFTHECOUNTRY.Along

the

eastern

flank

of

the

great

Mesopotamian

lowland,

curving

round

it

on

the

northand stretching beyond it to the south and the southeast, lies a vast elevated region, o

highland,noportionofwhichappears tobe less than3000 feetabove the sealevel.Th

regionmaybedivided,broadly,intotwotracts,oneconsistingofloftymountainousridges

which form itsoutskirtson thenorthandon thewest; theother, in themainahigh fla

tableland,extendingfromthefootofthemountainchains,southwardtotheIndianOcean

andeastwardtothecountryoftheAfghans.Thewesternmountaincountryconsists,asha

been alreadyobserved,of sixor sevenparallel ridges,having adirectionnearly from th

northwest to the southeast, enclosingbetween them, valleysof great fertility, andwe

wateredby

alarge

number

of

plentiful

and

refreshing

streams.

This

district

was

known

t

the ancients as Zagros,while inmodern geography it bears the names of Kurdistan an

Luristan.Ithasalwaysbeeninhabitedbyamultitudeofwarliketribes,andhasrarelyforme

forany longperiodaportionofanysettledmonarchy.Fulloftorrents,ofdeepravines,o

rockysummits,abruptandalmostinaccessible;containingbutfewpasses,andthosenarrow

and easily defensible; secure, moreover, owing to the rigor of its climate, from hostil

invasionduringmore thanhalf theyear; ithasdefiedallattempts toeffect itspermanen

subjugation,whethermadebyAssyrians,Persians,Greeks,Parthians,orTurks,andremain


4/100

Mediato this day as independent of the great powers in its neighborhood as itwaswhen th

Assyrianarmies firstpenetrated its recesses.Natureseems tohaveconstructed it tobe

nurseryofhardyandvigorousmen,astumblingblocktoconquerors,athorn inthesideo

everypowerfulempirewhicharisesinthispartofthegreateasterncontinent.

Thenorthernmountaincountryknown tomoderngeographersasEiburzisa tracto

far less importance. It is not composed, like Zagros, of a number of parallel chains, bu

consistsofasingleloftyridge,furrowedbyravinesandvalleys,fromwhichspursarethrow

out,runningingeneralatrightanglestoitsaxis.Itswidthiscomparativelyslight;andinstea

ofgivingbirthtonumerouslargerivers,itformsonlyasmallnumberofinsignificantstreams

oftendry insummer,whichhaveshortcourses,beingsoonabsorbedeitherbytheCaspia

ortheDesert.ItsmoststrikingfeatureisthesnowypeakofDemavend,whichimpendsove

Teheran,andappearstobethehighestsummitinthepartofAsiawestoftheHimalayas.

Theelevatedplateauwhichstretchesfromthefootofthosetwomountainregionstoth

southandeastis,forthemostpart,aflatsandydesert,incapableofsustainingmorethan

sparse and scantypopulation. Thenorthern andwesternportions are,however, less ari

thantheeastandsouth,beingwateredtosomedistancebythestreamsthatdescendfrom

ZagrosandElburz,andderivingfertilityalsofromthespringrains.Someoftheriverswhic

flowfromZagrosonthissidearelargeandstrong.One,theKizilUzen,reachestheCaspian

Another,theZenderud,fertilizesalargedistrictnearIsfahan.Athird,theBendamir,flowsb

Persepolis and terminates in a sheetofwaterof some sizelake Bakhtigan.A tract thu

intervenesbetweenthemountainregionsandthedesertwhich,thoughitcannotbecalle

fertile, isfairlyproductive,andcansupporta largesettledpopulation.Thisformsthechie

portionof

the

region

which

the

ancients

called

Media,

as

being

the

country

inhabited

by

th

raceonwhosehistoryweareabouttoenter.

Media,however,included,besidesthis,anothertractofconsiderablesizeandimportance

At thenorthwesternangleof the regionabovedescribed, in the cornerwhence the tw

greatchainsbranchouttothesouthandtotheeast,isatractcomposedalmostentirelyo

mountains,whichtheGreekscalledAtropatene,andwhichisnowknownasAzerbijan.Th

districtliesfurthertothenorththantherestofMedia,beinginthesameparallelswithth

lowerpartoftheCaspianSea.ItcomprisestheentirebasinofLakeUrumiyeh,togetherwit

thecountry

intervening

between

that

basin

and

the

high

mountain

chain

which

curves

roun

the southwestern corner of the Caspian, It is a region generally somewhat sterile, bu

containing a certain quantity of very, fertile territory,more particularly in theUrumiye

basin,andtowardsthemouthoftheriverAraxes.

The boundaries ofMedia are given somewhat differently by different writers, and n

doubt theyactuallyvariedatdifferentperiods;but thevariationswerenotgreat,and th

naturallimits,onthreesidesatanyrate,maybelaiddownwithtolerableprecision.Toward


5/100

MediathenorththeboundarywasatfirstthemountainchainclosinginonthatsidetheUrumiye

basin, afterwhich it seems to have been held that the true limitwas the Araxes, to it

entranceonthe lowcountry,andthenthemountainchainwestandsouthoftheCaspian

Westward, the lineofdemarcationmaybebest regarded as, towards the south, runnin

alongthecentreoftheZagrosregion;and,abovethis,asformedbythatcontinuationofth

ZagroschainwhichseparatestheUrumiyehfromtheVanbasin.Eastward,theboundarywa

markedby

the

spur

from

the

Elburz,

across

which

lay

the

pass

known

as

the

Pylse

Caspise

andbelowthisbythegreatsaltdesert,whosewesternlimitisnearlyinthesamelongitude

Towards thesouththerewasnomarked lineornaturalboundary;and it isdifficulttosa

with anyexactnesshowmuchof thegreatplateaubelonged toMedia andhowmuch t

Persia.Havingregard,however,tothesituationofHamadan,which,asthecapital,shoul

havebeen tolerablycentral,and to thegeneralaccountwhichhistoriansandgeographer

giveofthesizeofMedia,wemayplacethesouthernlimitwithmuchprobabilityaboutth

lineof the thirtysecondparallel,which isnearly thepresentboundarybetween Irak an

Fars.

TheshapeofMediahasbeencalledasquare;butitisratheralongparallelogram,whos

twoprincipalsides face respectively thenortheastand thesouthwest,while theendso

shortersidesfronttothesoutheastandtothenorthwest.Itslengthinitsgreaterdirectio

isabout600miles,anditswidthabout250miles.Itmustthuscontainnearly150,000squar

miles,anareaconsiderablylargerthanthatofAssyriaandChaldaeaputtogether,andquit

sufficient to constitute a state of the first class, even according to the ideas ofmoder

Europe.ItisnearlyonefifthmorethantheareaoftheBritishIslands,andhalfasmuchagai

asthatofPrussia,orofpeninsularItaly. ItequalsthreefourthsofFrance,orthreefifthso

Germany.It

has,

moreover,

the

great

advantage

of

compactness,

forming

asingle

solid

mass

withnostragglingoroutlyingportions;and it isstronglydefendedonalmosteverysideb

naturalbarriersofferinggreatdifficultiestoaninvader.

Incomparisonwiththecountrieswhichformedtheseatsofthetwomonarchiesalread

described,thegeneralcharacteroftheMedianterritoryisundoubtedlyoneofsterility.Th

hightablelandiseverywhereintersectedbyrockyranges,spursfromZagros,whichhave

general direction fromwest to east, and separate the country into a number of paralle

broadvalleys,orlongplains,openingoutintothedesert.Theappearanceoftheserangesi

almosteverywhere

bare,

arid,

and

forbidding.

Above,

they

present

to

the

eye

huge

masse

ofgrayrockpiledoneuponanother;below,aslopeofdetritus,destituteoftreesorshrubs

andonlyoccasionallynourishingadryandscantyherbage.Theappearanceoftheplains i

littlesuperior;theyareflatandwithoutundulations,composedingeneralofgravelorhar

clay,andrarelyenlivenedbyanyshowofwater;exceptfortwomonths inthespring,the

exhibittotheeyeauniformbrownexpanse,almosttreeless,which impressesthetravelle

with a feelingof sadnessandweariness.Even inAzerbijan,which isoneof the leastari


6/100

Mediaportionsoftheterritory,vasttracksconsistofopenundulatingdowns,desolateandsterile

bearingonlyacoarsewitheredgrassandafewstuntedbushes.

Still thereareconsiderableexceptions to thisgeneralaspectofdesolation. In thewors

partsoftheregionthereisatimeafterthespringrainswhennatureputsonaholidaydress

andthecountrybecomesgayandcheerful.Theslopesatthebaseoftherockyrangesar

tingedwith an emerald green: a richer vegetation springs up over the plains,which ar

coveredwitha fineherbageorwithavarietyofcrops; the fruit treeswhichsurround th

villagesburstout into themost luxuriantblossom; the roses come intobloom, and the

perfumeeverywherefillstheair.ForthetwomonthsofAprilandMaythewholefaceofth

countryischanged,andalovelyverdurereplacestheordinarydullsterility.

Inacertainnumberofmorefavoredspotsbeautyandfertilityarefoundduringnearlyth

wholeoftheyear.AllroundtheshoresofLakeUrumiyeh,moreespeciallyintherichplaino

Miyandab at its southernextremity, along the valleysof theAras, theKiziluzen, and th

Jaghetu,inthegreatvalleyofLinjan,fertilizedbyirrigationfromtheZenderud,intheZagro

valleys, and in variousotherplaces, there is anexcellent soilwhichproduces abundantl

withveryslightcultivation.

ThegeneralsterilityofMediaarisesfromthescantinessofthewatersupply.Ithasbutfew

rivers,andthestreamsthat itpossessesrun forthemostpart indeepandnarrowvalley

sunkbelowthegeneral levelofthecountry,sothattheycannotbeappliedatallwidelyt

purposesofirrigation.Moreover,someofthemare,unfortunately,impregnatedwithsaltt

such an extent that they are altogether useless for this purpose; and indeed, instead o

fertilizing,spreadaroundthemdesolationandbarrenness.TheonlyMedianstreamswhic

areofsufficientimportancetorequiredescriptionaretheAras,theKizilUzen,theJaghetu

theAjiSuandtheZenderud,orriverofIsfahan.

The Aras is only very partially a Median stream. It rises from several sources in th

mountain tract between Kars and Erzeroum, and runswith a generally eastern directio

throughArmeniatothelongitudeofMountArarat,whereitcrossesthefortiethparallelan

begins to trend southward, flowing along the eastern side of Ararat in a southeasterl

direction,nearlytotheJulfaferryonthehighroadfromErivantoTabriz.Fromthispoint

runsonlya littlesouthofeastto long.4630'E.fromGreenwich,when itmakesalmost

rightangleandrunsdirectlynortheasttoitsjunctionwiththeKuratDjavat.Soonafterth

itcurvestothesouth,andenterstheCaspianbyseveralmouths in lat.3910'nearly.Th

Arasisaconsiderablestreamalmostfromitssource.AtHassanKaleh,lessthantwentymile

from Erzeroum,where the river is forded in several branches, thewater reaches to th

saddlegirths.AtKeupriKieui,notmuch lower, thestream iscrossedbyabridgeofseve

arches.At the Julfa ferry it is fiftyyardswide,and runswithastrongcurrent.AtMegree

thirtymilesfurtherdown, itswidth iseightyyards. Inspringandearlysummerthestream


7/100


8/100


9/100

Mediato deserve any special notice. One of these is Ehagiana, or the tract skirting the Elbur

MountainsfromthevicinityoftheKizilUzen(orSefidEud)totheCaspianGates,alongan

narrowslip,fairlyproductive,butexcessivelyhotinsummer,whichtookitsnamefromth

importantcityofRhages.AnotherisNissea,anamewhichtheMedesseemtohavecarrie

withthemfromtheirearlyeasternabodes,andtohaveappliedtosomehighuplandplain

westofthemainchainofZagros,whichwerepeculiarlyfavorabletothebreedingofhorses

AsAlexander

visited

these

pastures

on

his

way

from

Susa

to

Ecbatana,

they

must

necessaril

have lain to the southof the lattercity.Mostprobably theyare tobe identifiedwith th

modernplainsofKbawahandAlishtar,betweenBehistunandKhorramabad,whichareeve

nowconsideredtoaffordthebestsummerpasturageinPersia.

ItisuncertainwhetheranyofthesedivisionswereknowninthetimeofthegreatMedia

Empire.Theyarenot constituted inany casebymarkednatural linesor features.On th

wholeitisperhapsmostprobablethatthemaindivisionthatintoMediaMagnaandMedi

Atropatenewasancient,AstropatenebeingtheoldhomeoftheMedes,andMediaMagn

alater

conquest;

but

the

early

political

geography

of

the

country

is

too

obscure

to

justify

u

inlayingdowneventhisascertain.Theminorpoliticaldivisionsarestilllessdistinguishabl

inthedarknessofthoseancienttimes.

From the consideration of the districtswhich composed theMedian territory,wema

pass to that of their principal cities, some of which deservedly obtained a very grea

celebrity. Tho most important of all were the two Ecbatanasthe northern and th

southernwhich seem to have stood respectively in the position of metropolis to th

northern and the southern province. Next to these may be named Rhages, which wa

probablyfrom

early

times

avery

considerable

place;

while

in

the

third

rank

may

b

mentionedBagistanratherperhapsapalace thana townConcobar,Adrapan,Aspadan

Charax,Kudrus,Hyspaostes,Urakagabarna,etc.

ThesouthernEcbatanaorAgbatanawhichtheMedesandPersiansthemselvesknewa

Hagmatanwassituated,aswe learnfromPolybiusandDiodorus,onaplanatthefooto

Mont Orontes, a little to the east of the Zagros range. The notices of these authors

combinedwiththoseofEratosthenes, Isidore,Pliny,Arrian,andothers,render itasnearl

certain aspossible that the sitewas thatof themodern townofHamadan, thenameo

whichis

clearly

but

aslight

corruption

of

the

true

ancient

appellation.

[PLATE

I.,

Fig.

2

MountOrontesistoberecognizedinthemodernElwendorErwendawordetymologicall

identicalwithOronteswhich is a long and loftymountains standing out like a buttres

from theZagros range,withwhich it isconnected towards thenorthwest,whileonever

othersideitstandsisolated,sweepingboldlydownupontheflatcountryatitsbase.Copiou

streams descend from the mountain on every side, more particularly to the northeast

wheretheplainiscoveredwithacarpetofthemostluxuriantverdure,diversifiedwithrills

andornamentedwithnumerousgrovesof largeandhandsome forest trees. It ishere,o


10/100

Media

0

groundslopingslightlyawayfromtherootsofthemountain,thatthemoderntown,whic

liesdirectlyatitsfoot,isbuilt.Theancientcity,ifwemaybelieveDiodorus,didnotapproac

themountainwithinamileoramileandahalf.Atanyrate,ifitbeganwhereHamadannow

stands, itmostcertainlyextendedverymuch further into theplain.Weneednotsuppos

indeed that it had the circumference, or even half the circumference,which the Sicilia

romancerassignstoit,sincehistwohundredandfiftystadeswouldgiveaprobableareao

fiftysquare

miles,

more

than

double

that

of

London!

Ecbatana

is

not

likely

to

have

been

at

it

mostflourishingperioda largercitythanNineveh;andwehavealreadyseenthatNineve

coveredaspace,withinthewalls,ofnotmorethan1800Englishacres.

Thecharacterofthecityandofitschiefedificeshas,unfortunately,tobegatheredalmos

entirelyfromunsatisfactoryauthorities.Hithertoithasbeenfoundpossibleinthesevolume

to check and correct the statements of ancient writers, which are almost alway

exaggerated,by

an

appeal

to

the

incontrovertible

evidence

of

modern

surveys

an

explorations. But theMedian capital has never yet attracted a scientific expedition. Th

travellersbywhomithasbeenvisitedhavereportedsounfavorablyofitscharacterasafiel

ofantiquarianresearchthatscarcelyaspadefulofsoilhasbeendug,eitherinthecityori

itsvicinity,withaview to recover tracesof theancientbuildings.Scarcelyany remainso

antiquityareapparent.As the sitehasneverbeendeserted,and the townhas thusbee

subjectedfornearlytwentytwocenturiestothedestructiveravagesofforeignconquerors

and the stillmore injuriousplunderingsofnativebuilders,anxious toobtainmaterials fo


11/100

Medianewedificesatthe leastpossiblecostandtrouble,theancientstructureshaveeverywher

disappearedfromsight,andarenotevenindicatedbymoundsofasufficientsizetoattrac

theattentionofcommonobservers.Scientificexplorershave consequentlybeendeterre

fromturningtheirenergiesinthisdirection;morepromisingsiteshaveofferedandstilloffe

themselves;anditisasyetuncertainwhethertheplanoftheoldtownmightnotbetrace

andthepositionof itschiefedificesfixedbythemeansofcarefulresearchesconductedb

fullycompetent

persons.

In

this

dearth

of

modern

materials

we

have

to

depend

entirel

upontheclassicalwriters,whoarerarelytrustworthyintheirdescriptionsormeasurements

andwho,inthisinstance,laborunderthepeculiardisadvantageofbeingmerereporterso

theaccountsgivenbyothers.

Ecbatanawaschieflycelebratedforthemagnificenceofitspalace,astructureascribedb

DiodorustoSemiramis,butmostprobablyconstructedoriginallybyCyaxares,andimproved

enlarged,andembellishedby theAchaemenianmonarchs.According to thejudiciousan

moderatePolybius,whoprefaceshisaccountbyaprotestagainstexaggerationandover

coloring,the

circumference

of

the

building

was

seven

stades,

or

1420

yards,

somewhat

mor

thanfourfifthsofanEnglishmile.Thissize,whichalittleexceedsthatofthepalacemoun

atSusa,whileitisinitsturnalittleexceededbythepalatialplatformatPersepolis,maywe

beacceptedasprobablyclosetothetruth.Judging,however,fromtheanalogyoftheabove

mentionedpalaces,wemustconcludethattheareathusassignedtotheroyalresidencewa

farfrombeingentirelycoveredwithbuildings.Onehalfofthespace,perhapsmore,woul

be occupied by large open courts, paved probablywithmarble, surrounding the variou

blocksofbuildingsandseparatingthemfromoneanother.Thebuildingsthemselvesmayb

conjecturedtohaveresembledthoseoftheAchaemenianmonarchsatSusaandPersepolis

withthe

exception,

apparently,

that

the

pillars,

which

formed

their

most

strikin

characteristic,wereforthemostpartofwoodratherthanostone.Polybiusdistinguishe

thepillarsintotwoclasses,thoseofthemainbuildings,andthosewhichskirtedthecourts

fromwhichitwouldappearthatatEcbatanathecourtsweresurroundedbycolonnades,a

theywerecommonlyinGreekandRomanhouses.Thesewoodenpillars,alleitherofceda

or of cypress, supported beams of a similarmaterial,which crossed each other at righ

angles,leavingsquarespacesbetween,whichwerethenfilledinwithwoodwork.Aboveth

wholearoofwasplaced,slopingatanangle,andcomposed(aswearetold)ofsilverplate

inthe

shape

of

tiles.

The

pillars,

beams,

and

the

rest

of

the

woodwork

were

likewise

coate

withthinlaminseofthepreciousmetals,evengoldbeingusedforthispurposetoacertai

extent.

SuchseemstohavebeenthecharacterofthetrueancientMedianpalace,whichserve

probablyasamodeltoDariusandXerxeswhentheydesignedtheirgreatpalatialedificesa

the more southern capitals. In the additions which the palace received under th

Achaemeniankings,stonepillarsmayhavebeenintroduced;andhenceprobablythebroke

shaftsandbases,sonearlyresemblingthePersepolitan,oneofwhichSirE.KerPortersawi


12/100

Media

2

theimmediateneighborhoodofHamadanonhisvisittothatplacein1818.[PLATEI.,Fig.1

But tojudge from the description of Polybius, an older and ruder style of architectur

prevailed in the main building, which depended for its effect not on the beauty o

architecturalforms,butontherichnessandcostlinessofthematerial.Apillararchitecture

sofarasappears,beganinthispartofAsiawiththeMedes,who,however,werecontentt

usethemorereadilyobtainedandmoreeasilyworkedmaterialofwood;whilethePersian

afterwardsconceived

the

idea

of

substituting

for

these

inartificial

props

the

slender

an

elegantstoneshaftswhichformedthegloryoftheirgrandedifices.

Atashortdistancefromthepalacewasthe"Acra,"orcitadel,anartificialstructure,ifw

may believe Polybius, and a place of very remarkable strength. Here probably was th

treasury, from which Darius Codomanus carried off 7000 talents of silver, when he fle

towardsBactria for fearofAlexander.Andhere,too,mayhavebeentheRecordOffice, i

which were deposited the royal decrees and other public documents under the earlie

Persian kings. Some travellers are of opinion that a portion of the ancient structure sti

exists;and

there

is

certainly

aruin

on

the

outskirts

of

the

modern

town

towards

the

south

whichisknowntothenativesas"theinnerfortress,"andwhichmaynotimprobablyoccup

some portion of the sitewhereon the original citadel stood. But the remains of buildin

whichnowexistarecertainlynotofanearlierdatethantheeraofParthiansupremacy,an

theycanthereforethrownolightonthecharacteroftheoldMedianstronghold.Itmayb

thoughtperhaps that thedescriptionwhichHerodotusgivesof thebuildingcalledbyhim

"thepalaceofDeioces"shouldbehereapplied,andthatby itsmeanswemightobtaina

exactnotionof theoriginalstructure.But theaccountof thisauthor iswhollyatvarianc

with the natural features of the neighborhood,where there is no such conical hill as h

describes,but

only

aplain

surrounded

by

mountains.

It

seems,

therefore,

to

be

certain

tha

eitherhisdescription isapuremyth,orthat itappliestoanothercity,theEcbatanaofth

northernprovince. It isdoubtfulwhether theMedian capitalwasatany time surrounde

withwalls.Polybiusexpresslydeclaresthat itwasanunwalledplace inhisdayandthere

somereasontosuspectthat ithadalwaysbeen inthiscondition.TheMedesandPersian

appear to have been in general content to establish in each town a fortified citadel o

stronghold, round which the houses were clustered, without superadding the furthe

defenceofatownwall.Ecbatanaaccordinglyseemsnevertohavestoodasiege.Whenth

nationwhich

held

it

was

defeated

in

the

open

field,

the

city

(unlike

Babylon

and

Nineveh

submittedtotheconquerorwithoutastruggle.Thusthemarvellousdescriptionintheboo

ofJudith,which isinternallyvery improbable,wouldappeartobeentirelydestituteofany

eventheslightest,foundationinfact.

ThechiefcityofnorthernMedia,whichboreinlatertimesthenamesofGaza,Gazaca,o

Canzaca, is thought to have also been called Ecbatana, and to have been occasionall

mistakenbytheGreeksforthesouthernorrealcapital.ThedescriptionofHerodotus,whic

isirreconcilablyatvariancewiththelocalfeaturesoftheHamadansite,accordssufficientl


13/100

Mediawith theexisting remainsofaconsiderablecity in theprovinceofAzerbijan;and itseem

certainly to have been a city in these partswhichwas called byMoses of Chorene "th

secondEcbatana,thesevenwalledtown."Thepeculiarityofthisplacewas itssituationo

andaboutaconicalhillwhichslopedgentlydownfromitssummittoitsbase,andallowedo

theinterpositionofsevencircuitsofwallbetweentheplainandthehill'screst.Atthetopo

the hill, within the innermost circle of the defences, were the Royal Palace and th

treasuries;the

sides

of

the

hill

were

occupied

solely

by

the

fortifications;

and

at

the

base

outside the circuit of the outermost wall, were the domestic and other buildings whic

constitutedthetown.AccordingtotheinformationreceivedbyHerodotus,thebattlement

whichcrownedthewallswerevariouslycolored.Thoseoftheoutercirclewerewhite,ofth

nextblack,ofthethirdscarlet,ofthefourthblue,ofthefifthorange,ofthesixthsilver,an

of the seventh gold. A pleasing or at any rate a striking effectwas thus producedth

citadel,whichtoweredabovethetown,presentingtotheeyesevendistinctrowsofcolors.

If there was really a northern as well as a southern Ecbatana, and if the account o

Herodotus,which

cannot

possibly

apply

to

the

southern

capital,

may

be

regarded

as

trul

describing the great city of the north,wemaywithmuch probability fix the site of th

northerntownatthemodernTakhtiSuleiman,intheuppervalleyoftheSaruk,atributar

of the Jaghetu. [PLATE I.,Fig.3.]Herealone innorthernMediaare there important ruin

occupyingsuchapositionas thatwhichHerodotusdescribes.Near theheadofavalley i

whichrunsthemainbranchoftheSaruk,attheedgeofthehillswhichskirtittothenorth

there stands a conicalmoundprojecting into the vale and rising above its surface to th

heightof150feet.Thegeologicalformationofthemoundiscuriousintheextreme.Itseem

toowe itsoriginentirely toasmall lake, thewatersofwhicharesostrongly impregnate

withcalcareous

matter

that

wherever

they

overflow

they

rapidly

form

adeposit

which

is

a

hardand firmasnaturalrock. Ifthe lakewasoriginallyona levelwiththevalley, itwoul

soonhaveformed incrustationsround itsedge,whicheverycasualorpermanentoverflow

wouldhavetendedtoraise;andthus, inthecourseofages,theentirehillmayhavebee

formedbyamereaccumulationofpetrefactions.Theformationwouldprogressmoreorles

rapidlyaccordingtothetendencyofthe laketooverflow itsbounds;whichtendencymus

havebeenstronguntil thewater reached itspresentnatural levelthe level,probably,o

someothersheetofwaterinthehills,withwhichitisconnectedbyanundergroundsiphon

Thelake,

which

is

of

an

irregular

shape,

is

about

300

paces

in

circumference.

Its

wate

notwithstandingthequantityofmineralmatterheldinsolution,isexquisitelyclear,andno

unpleasing to the taste. Formerly itwasbelievedby thenatives tobeunfathomable;bu

experimentsmadein1837showedthedepthtobenomorethan156feet.

Theruinswhichatpresentoccupythisremarkablesiteconsistofastrongwall,guardedb

numerousbastionsandpiercedbyfourgateways,whichrunsroundthebrowofthehillin

slightly irregularellipse,of some interesting remainsofbuildingswithin thiswalled space

andofafew insignificanttracesof inferioredificesontheslopebetweentheplainandth


14/100

Media

4

summit.AsitisnotthoughtthatanyoftheseremainsareofadateanteriortotheSassania

kingdom,nodescriptionwillbegivenofthemhere.WeareonlyconcernedwiththeMedia

city,and thathasentirelydisappeared.Of thesevenwalls,onealone is tobe traced;an

evenheretheMedianstructurehasperished,andbeenreplacedbymasonryofafar late

age.Excavationsmayhereafterbring, to light some remnantsof theoriginal town,buta

presentresearchhasdonenomorethanrecoverforusaforgottensite.

TheMediancitynext in importancetothetwoEcbatanaswasRagaorRhages,nearth

CaspianGates,almostattheextremeeasternlimitsoftheterritorypossessedbytheMedes

ThegreatantiquityofthisplaceismarkedbyitsoccurrenceintheZendavestaamongth

primitivesettlementsoftheArians.ItscelebrityduringthetimeoftheEmpireisindicatedb

thepositionwhich itoccupies in the romancesofTobitand Judith. Itmaintained its ran

underthePersians,andismentionedbyDariusHystaspisasthesceneofthestrugglewhic

terminated thegreatMedian revolt.The lastDarius seems tohave sent thitherhisheav

baggageandtheladiesofhiscourt,whenheresolvedtoquitEcbatanaandflyeastward.

has been already noticed that Rhages gave name to a district; and this district mayb

certainly identifiedwith the longnarrow tractof fertile territory interveningbetween th

Elburzmountainrangeandthedesert,fromaboutKasvintoKhaar,orfromlong.30to52

30'. The exact site of the city of Rhages within this territory is somewhat doubtful. A

accountsplace itnear theeasternextremity;andas there are in thisdirection ruinsof

towncalledRheiorRhey,ithasbeenusualtoassumethattheypositivelyfixthelocality.Bu

similarity,or even identity,ofname is an insufficientproofof a site; and, in thepresen

instance,therearegroundsforplacingRhagesverymuchnearertotheCaspianGatestha

theposition

of

Rhei.

Arrian,

whose

accuracy

is

notorious,

distinctly

states

that

from

th

Gates to Rhages was only a single day's march, and that Alexander accomplished th

distance in that time.Now from Rhei to theGirduni Surdurrah pass,which undoubtedl

representsthePylaeCacpiseofArrian,isatleastfiftymiles,adistancewhichnoarmycoul

accomplishinlesstimethantwodays.Rhagesconsequentlymusthavebeenconsiderablyt

theeastofRhei,abouthalfwaybetweenitandthecelebratedpasswhichitwasconsidere

toguard.ItsprobablepositionisthemodernKalehErij,nearVeramin,about23milesfrom

the commencement of the Surdurrah pass,where there are considerable remains of a

ancienttown.

InthesameneighborhoodwithRhages,butclosertotheStraits,perhapsonthesitenow

occupiedbytheruinsknownasUewanukif,orpossiblyevennearertothefootofthepass

wastheMediancityofCharax,aplacenottobeconfoundedwiththemorecelebratedcit

calledGharaxSpasini,thebirthplaceofDionysiusthegeographer,whichwasonthePersia

Gulf,atthemouthoftheTigris.


15/100

MediaTheotherMediancities,whosepositioncanbedeterminedwithanapproachtocertainty

were in thewesternportionof the country, in the rangeof Zagros,or in the fertile trac

between that range and the desert. Themost importantof these are Bagistan,Adrapan

Concobar,andAspadan.

BagistanisdescribedbyIsidoreasa"citysituatedonahill,wheretherewasapillarand

statueofSemiramis."DiodorushasanaccountofthearrivalofSemiramisattheplace,ofhe

establishingaroyalparkorparadiseintheplainbelowthemountain,whichwaswateredb

anabundantspring,ofhersmoothingthefaceoftherockwhereitdescendedprecipitousl

uponthe lowground,andofhercarvingonthesurfacethusobtainedherowneffigy,wit

an inscriptioninAssyriancharacters.ThepositionassignedtoBagistanbybothwriters,an

the description of Diodorus, identify the place beyond a doubt with the now famou

Behistun,where theplain, the fountain, theprecipitous rock,and thescarpedsurfacear

still tobe seen, through the supposed figureof Semiramis,herpillar, andher inscriptio

havedisappeared.[PLATEII.,Fig.1.]Thisremarkablespot,lyingonthedirectroutebetwee

Babylonand

Ecbatana,

and

presenting

the

unusual

combination

of

acopious

fountain,

aric

plain,andarocksuitableforsculptures,musthaveearlyattractedtheattentionofthegrea

monarchswhomarchedtheirarmiesthroughtheZagrosrange,asaplacewheretheymigh

conveniently set up memorials of their exploits. The works of this kind ascribed by th

ancientwriters toSemiramiswereprobablyeitherAssyrianorBabylonian,and (it ismos

likely)resembledtheordinarymonumentswhichthekingsofBabylonandNinevehdelighte

toerectincountriesnewlyconquered.TheexamplesetbytheMesopotamianswasfollowe

by their Arian neighbors, when the supremacy passed into their hands; and the famou

mountain,investedbythemwithasacredcharacter,wasmadetosubserveandperpetuat

theirglory

by

receiving

sculptures

and

inscriptions

which

showed

them

to

have

become

th

lords of Asia. The practice did not even stop here. When the Parthian kingdom of th

ArsacideehadestablisheditselfinthesepartsattheexpenseoftheSeleucidse,therockwa

oncemorecalledupontocommemoratethewarliketriumphsofanewrace.Gotarzes,th

contemporary of the Emperor Claudius, after defeating his rivalMeherdates in the plai

betweenBehistunandKermanshah, inscribedupon themountain,whichalreadybore th

impressofthegreatmonarchsofAssyriaandPersia,arecordofhisrecentvictory.


16/100

Media

6


17/100

MediaThenameofAdrapanoccursonlyinIsidore,whoplacesitbetweenBagistanandEcbatana

atthedistanceoftwelveschoeni36Romanor34Britishmilesfromthe latter. Itwas,h

says,thesiteofanancientpalacebelongingtoEcbatana,whichTigranestheArmenianha

destroyed.Thenameandsituationsufficiently identifyAdrapanwiththemodernvillageo

Arteman,whichliesonthesouthernfaceofElwendnearitsbase,andiswelladaptedfor

royal residence. Here, during the severest winter, when Hamadan and the surroundin

countryare

buried

in

snow,

awarm

and

sunny

climate

is

to

be

found;

whilst

in

the

summer

thousandrillsdescendingfromElwenddiffusearoundfertilityandfragrance.Grovesoftree

growupinrichluxuriancefromthewellirrigatedsoil,whosethickfoliageaffordsawelcom

shelter from the heat of the noonday sun. The climate, the gardens, and the manifol

blessingsoftheplaceareproverbialthroughoutPersia;andnaturallycausedthechoiceo

thesiteforaretiredpalace,towhichthecourtofEcbatanamightadjournwheneitherth

summerheatanddustorthewintercoldmaderesidenceinthecapitalirksome.

IntheneighborhoodofAdrapan,ontheroadleadingtoBagistan,stoodConcobar,whic

isundoubtedly

the

modern

Kungawar,

and

perhaps

the

Chavon

of

Diodorus.

Here,

accordin

to theSicilianhistorian,Semiramisbuiltapalaceand laidoutaparadise;andhere, in th

timeof Isidore,wasa famous templeofArtemis.Colossal ruins crown the summitof th

acclivityonwhich the townofKungawar stands,whichmaybe the remainsof this latte

building;butnotracehasbeenfoundthatcanberegardedaseitherMedianorAssyrian.

The Median town of Aspadan, which is mentioned by no writer but Ptolemy, woul

scarcelydeservenoticehere,ifitwerenotforitsmoderncelebrity.Aspadan,corruptedint

Isfahan,becamethecapitalofPersia,undertheSenkings,whorendereditoneofthemos

magnificentcities

of

Asia.

It

is

uncertain

whether

it

existed

at

all

in

the

time

of

the

grea

Medianempire.Ifso,itwas,atbest,anoutlyingtownoflittleconsequenceontheextrem

southernconfinesoftheterritory,whereitabutteduponPersiaproper.Thedistrictwherei

itlaywasinhabitedbytheMediantribeoftheParastaceni.

Upon thewhole itmustbeallowed that the townsofMediawere fewandofnogrea

account. The Medes did not love to congregate in large cities, but preferred to scatte

themselves in villages over their broad and varied territory. The protection of walls

necessary for the inhabitants of the low Mesopotamian regions, was not required by

peoplewhose

country

was

full

of

natural

fastnesses

to

which

they

could

readily

remove

o

theapproachofdanger.Excepting thecapitaland the two importantcitiesofGazacaan

Rhages,theMediantownswereinsignificant.Eventhosecitiesthemselveswereprobablyo

moderatedimensions,andhadlittleofthearchitecturalsplendorwhichgivessopeculiara

interesttothetownsofMesopotamia.Theirprincipalbuildingswereinafrailandperishabl

material, unsuited to bear the ravages of time; they have consequently altogethe

disappeared,and in thewholeofMediamodern researcheshave failed tobring to light


18/100

Media

8

single edifice which can be assigned with any show of probability to the period of th

Empire.

Theplanadopted in formerportionsofthisworkmakes itnecessary,beforeconcludin

thischapter,toglancebrieflyatthecharacterofthevariouscountriesanddistrictsbywhic

MediawasborderedtheCaspiandistrictupon thenorth,Armeniaupon thenorthwest

theZagros regionandAssyriauponthewest,Persiaproperupon thesouth,anduponth

eastSagartiaandParthia.

North and northeast of the mountain range which under different names skirts th

southernshoresoftheCaspianSeaandcurvesrounditssouthwesterncorner,liesanarrow

butimportantstripofterritorythemodernGhilanandMazanderan.[PLATEII.,Fig.2.]Thi

isamostfertileregion,wellwateredandrichlywooded,andformsoneofthemostvaluabl

portionsofthemodernkingdomofPersia.Atfirst it isa lowflattractofdeepalluvialsoi

but littleraisedabovethe leveloftheCaspian;graduallyhowever itrises intoswellinghil

which formthesupportsofthehighmountainsthatshut inthisshelteredregion,aregio

onlytobereachedbyaveryfewpassesoverorthroughthem.Themountainsareclothedo

thissidenearlytotheirsummitwithdwarfoaks,orwithshrubsandbrushwood;while,lowe

down,theirflanksarecoveredwithforestsofelms,cedars,chestnuts,beeches,andcypres

trees. The gardens and orchards of the natives are of the most superb character; th

vegetation is luxuriant; lemons, oranges, peaches, pomegranates, besides other fruits

abound; rice,hemp, sugarcanes,mulberries are cultivatedwith success; vines growwild

andthevalleysarestrewnwith flowersof rare fragrance,amongwhichmaybenotedth

rose, the honeysuckle, and the sweetbrier. Nature, however, with her usualjustice, ha

balancedthese

extraordinary

advantages

with

peculiar

drawbacks;

the

tiger,

unknown

in

an

otherpartofWesternAsia,herelurksinthethickets,readytospringatanymomentonth

unwary traveller; inundationsare frequent,andcarrydesolation farandwide; thewaters

which thusescape from the riverbeds, stagnate inmarshes,andduring the summeran

autumnheatspestilentialexhalationsarise,whichdestroythestranger,andbringeventh

acclimatizednative to thebrinkof the grave.ThePersianmonarch chooses the souther

ratherthanthenorthernsideofthemountainsforthesiteofhiscapital,preferringthekee

wintercoldanddrysummerheatofthehighandalmostwaterlessplateautothedampan

stiflingairofthelowCaspianregion.

The narrow tract of which this is a description can at no time have sheltered a ver

numerousorpowerfulpeople.DuringtheMedianperiod,andformanyagesafterwards,

seemstohavebeeninhabitedbyvariouspettytribesofpredatoryhabitsCadusians,Mard

Tapyri,etc.,whopassedtheirtimeinpettyquarrelsamongthemselves,andinplunderin

raidsupontheirgreatsouthernneighbor.OfthesetribestheCadusiansaloneenjoyedan

considerable reputation. They were celebrated for their skill with the javelina ski

probablyrepresentedbythemodernPersianuseofthedjereed.AccordingtoDiodorus,the


19/100

MediawereengagedinfrequentwarswiththeMediankings,andwereabletobringintothefield

forceof200,000men!UnderthePersianstheyseemtohavebeenconsideredgoodsoldiers

and tohave sometimesmadea struggle for independence.But there isno real reason t

believe that theywere of such strength as to have formed at any time a danger to th

Mediankingdom,towhichitismoreprobablethattheygenerallyacknowledgedaqualifie

subjection.

ThegreatcountryofArmenia,which laynorthwestandpartlynorthofMedia,hasbee

generallydescribed inthefirstvolume;butafewwordswillbehereaddedwithrespectt

the more eastern portion, which immediately bordered upon the Median territory. Thi

consistedof twooutlyingdistricts, separated from the restof the country, the triangula

basinofLakeVan,andthetractbetweentheKurandArasriversthemodernKarabaghan

Erivan.ThebasinofLakeVan,surroundedbyhighranges,andformingtheveryheartofth

mountainsystemofthispartofAsia,isanisolatedregion,asortofnaturalcitadel,where

strongmilitarypowerwouldbelikelytoestablishitself.Accordinglyitishere,andherealon

inall

Armenia,

that

we

find

signs

of

the

existence,

during

the

Assyrian

and

Median

periods

ofagreatorganizedmonarchy.

TheVaninscriptionsindicatetousalineofkingswhoboreswayintheeasternArmenia

thetrueAraratandwhowerebothincivilizationandinmilitarystrengthfarinadvanceo

anyoftheotherprinceswhodividedamongthemtheArmenianterritory.TheVanmonarch

mayhavebeenat times formidableenemiesof theMedes.Theyhave left tracesof the

dominion,notonlyon the topsof themountainpasseswhich lead into thebasinof Lak

Urumiyeh,buteven in thecomparatively lowplainofMiyandabon thesouthernshoreo

thatinland

sea.

It

is

probable

from

this

that

they

were

at

one

time

masters

of

alarge

portio

ofMediaAtropatene,andtheverynameofUrumiyeh,whichstillattachestothelake,ma

havebeengiventoitfromoneoftheirtribes.InthetractbetweentheKurandAras,onth

other hand, there is no sign of the early existence of any formidable power. Here th

mountains are comparatively low, the soil is fertile, and the climate temperate. Th

characteroftheregionwould lead its inhabitantstocultivatetheartsofpeacerathertha

thoseofwar,andwouldthustendtopreventthemfrombeingformidableortroublesomet

theirneighbors.

TheZagros

region,

which

in

the

more

ancient

times

separated

between

Media

and

Assyria

beinginhabitedbyanumberofindependenttribes,butwhichwasultimatelyabsorbedint

the more powerful country, requires no notice here, having been sufficiently describe

among the tractsbywhichAssyriawasbordered.At firstaserviceableshield to thewea

Arian tribes which were establishing themselves along its eastern base upon the hig

plateau, it gradually passed into their possession as they increased in strength, an

ultimatelybecameamainnurseryof theirpower, furnishing to theirarmiesvastnumber

both ofmen and horses. The great horse pastures, fromwhich theMedes first and th


20/100

Media

0

Persiansafterwards,suppliedtheirnumerousandexcellentcavalry,wereinthisquarter;an

the troopswhich it furnishedhardymountaineersaccustomed tobrave theseverityof

mostrigorousclimatemusthavebeenamongthemosteffectiveoftheMedianforces.

On thesouthMediawasboundedbyPersiapropera tractwhichcorrespondednearl

withthemodernprovinceofFarsistan.Thecompletedescriptionofthisterritory,theorigina

seatof thePersiannation,belongs toa futurevolumeof thiswork,whichwillcontaina

accountofthe"FifthMonarchy."Forthepresent it issufficienttoobservethatthePersia

territorywasforthemostpartahighland,verysimilartoMedia,fromwhichitwasdivide

bynostronglymarkedlineornaturalboundary.ThePersianmountainsareacontinuationo

theZagroschain,andNorthernPersiaisaportionthesouthernportionofthesamegrea

plateau, whose western and northwestern skirts formed the great mass of the Media

territory.ThusuponthissideMediawasplacedintheclosestconnectionwithanimportan

country,acountrysimilarincharactertoherown,whereahardyracewaslikelytogrowup

withwhichshemightexpecttohavedifficultcontests.

Finally, towards theeast lay thegreat saltdesert, sparsely inhabitedby variousnomadic race

among which the most important were the Cossseans and the Sagartians. To the latter peopl

Herodotus seems to assign almost thewholeof the sandy region, since he unites themwith th

SarangiansandThamanseansontheonehand,withtheUtiansandMyciansupon theother.The

wereawildrace,probablyofArianorigin,whohuntedwiththelassooverthegreatdesertmounte

onhorses,andcouldbringintothefieldaforceofeightortenthousandmen.Theircountry,awast

of sandandgravel, inparts thicklyencrustedwith salt,was impassable toanarmy,and formed

barrierwhicheffectivelyprotectedMediaalongthegreaterportionofhereasternfrontier.Toward

theextremenortheasttheSagartianswerereplacedbytheCossseansandtheParthians,theforme

probablythe

people

of

the

Siah

Koh

mountain,

the

latter

the

inhabitants

of

the

tract

known

now

a

theAtak,or "skirt,"whichextendsalong the southern flankof theElburz range from theCaspia

Gatesnearly toHerat,and is capableof sustaininga very considerablepopulation.TheCosssean

wereplunderers,fromwhoseraidsMediasufferedconstantannoyance;buttheywereatnotimeo

sufficientstrengthtocauseanyseriousfear.TheParthians,aswe learnfromthecourseofevent

hadinthemthematerialsofamightypeople;butthehourfortheirelevationandexpansionwasno

yet come, and the keenest observer ofMedian times could scarcely have perceived in them th

future lordsofWesternAsia.FromParthia,moreover,Mediawasdividedbythestrongrockyspu

whichrunsoutfromtheElburzintothedesertinlong.5210'nearly,overwhichisthenarrowpas

alreadymentioned

as

the

Caspian

Gates.

Thus

Media

on

most

sides

was

guarded

by

the

stron

naturalbarriersofseas,mountains,anddeserts lyingopenonlyon thesouth,where sheadjoine

upon a kindred people.Her neighborswere for themost partweak in numbers, thoughwarlike

Armenia,however,tothenorthwest,Assyriatothewest,andPersiatothesouth,wereallmoreo

lessformidable.AprescienteyemighthaveforeseenthatthegreatstrugglesofMediawouldbewit

these powers, and that if she attained imperial proportions it must be by their subjugation o

absorption.


21/100

Media

CHAPTERII.CLIMATEANDPRODUCTIONS.Media,likeAssyria,isacountryofsuchextentandvarietythat,inordertogiveacorrec

descriptionofitsclimate,wemustdivideitintoregions.Azerbijan,orAtropatene,themos

northernportion,

has

aclimate

altogether

cooler

than

the

rest

of

Media;

while

in

the

mor

southerndivisionof thecountry there isamarkeddifferencebetween the climateof th

east and of thewest, of the tracts lying on the high plateau and skirting theGreat Sa

Desert,andofthosecontainedwithinorcloselyabuttingupontheZagrosmountainrange

Thedifferencehere isduetothedifferenceofphysicalconformation,which isasgreata

possible,thebroadmountainousplainsaboutKasvin,Koum,andKashan,dividedfromeac

other by low rocky ridges, offering the strongest conceivable contrast to the perpetua

alternations of mountain and valley, precipitous height and deep wooded glen, whic

compose

the

greater

part

of

the

Zagros

region.

TheclimateofAzerbijanistemperateandpleasant,thoughperhapssomewhatoverwarm

insummer;whileinwinteritisbitterlysevere,colderthanthatofalmostanyotherregioni

thesamelatitude.Thisextremerigorseemstobemainlyowingtoelevation,theveryvalley

andvalleyplainsofthetractbeingataheightoffrom4000to5000feetabovethesealeve

FrostcommonlysetsintowardstheendofNovemberoratlatestearlyinDecember;snow

sooncoversthegroundtothedepthofseveralfeet;thethermometerfallsbelowzero;th

sunshinesbrightlyexceptwhenfromtimetotimefreshdepositsofsnowoccur;butakee

andstrong

wind

usually

prevails,

which

is

represented

as

"cutting

like

asword,"

and

being

very"assassinoflife."Deathsfromcoldareofdailyoccurrence;anditisimpossibletotrave

without the greatest risk.Whole companies or caravans occasionally perish beneath th

drift,whenthewind isviolent,especially ifaheavyfallhappentocoincidewithoneofth

frequenteasterlygales.ThesevereweathercommonlycontinuestillMarch,whentravellin

becomes possible, but the snow remains on much of the ground till May, and on th

mountains still longer. The spring, which begins in April, is temperate and delightful;

suddenburstofvegetationsucceedstothelongwinterlethargy;theairisfreshandbalmy

the sun pleasantly warm, the sky generally cloudless. In the month of May the hea

increasesthunderhangs

in

the

airand

the

valleys

are

often

close

and

sultry.

Frequen

showersoccur,andthehailstormsaresometimessoviolentastokillthecattleinthefields

Asthesummeradvancestheheatsincrease,butthethermometerrarelyreaches90inth

shade,andexceptinthenarrowvalleystheairisneveroppressive.Theautumnisgenerall

very fine. Foggymornings are common; but they are succeeded by bright pleasant days

withoutwindor rain.On thewhole theclimate ispronouncedhealthy, thoughsomewha

tryingtoEuropeans,whodonotreadilyadaptthemselvestoacountrywheretherangeo

the thermometer is asmuch as 90 or 100. In the part ofMedia situated on the grea


22/100

Media

2

plateauthemodern IrakAjemiinwhich are the important towns of Teheran, Isfahan

Hamadan,Kashan,Kasvin,andKoum.theclimateisaltogetherwarmerthaninAzerbijan,th

summersbeinghotter,andthewintersshorterandmuchlesscold.Snowindeedcoversth

ground for about threemonths, fromearly inDecember tillMarch;but the thermomete

rarelyshowsmorethantenortwelvedegreesoffrost,anddeathfromcold isuncommon

ThespringsetsinaboutthebeginningofMarch,andisatfirstsomewhatcool,owingtoth

prevalenceof

the

baude

caucasan

or

north

wind,a

which

blows

from

districts

where

th

snowstilllies.Butafteralittletimetheweatherbecomesdelicious;theorchardsareamas

of blossom; the rose gardens come into bloom; the cultivated lands are covered wit

springingcrops; thedesert itselfwearsa light liveryofgreen.Everysense isgratified; th

nightingaleburstsoutwithafullgushofsong;theairplayssoftlyuponthecheek,andcome

loadedwithfragrance.Toosoon,however,thischarmingtimepassesaway,andthesumme

heatsbegin, insomeplacesasearlyas June18Thethermometeratmiddayrisesto90o

100 degrees. Hot gusts blow from the desert, sometimes with great violence. Th

atmosphereisdescribedaschoking;andinpartsoftheplateauitisusualfortheinhabitant

toquit

their

towns

almost

in

abody,

and

retire

for

several

months

into

the

mountains.

Thi

extremeheat is,however,exceptional; inmostpartsoftheplateauthesummerwarmth

temperedbycoolbreezesfromthesurroundingmountains,onwhichthereisalwaysagoo

deal of snow. At Hamadan, which, though on the plain, is close to the mountains, th

thermometerseemsscarcelyevertoriseabove90,andthatdegreeofheatisattainedonl

for a few hours in the day. The mornings and evenings are cool and refreshing; an

altogether the climate quitejustifies the choice of the Persian monarchs, who selecte

Ecbatanafortheirplaceofresidenceduringthehottestportionoftheyear.EvenatIsfahan

which

is

on

the

edge

of

the

desert,

the

heat

is

neither

extreme

nor

prolonged.

The

hot

gustwhichblow from theeastand from the south raise the temperature at timesnearly to

hundreddegrees;buttheseoppressivewindsalternatewithcoolerbreezesfromthewest

often accompanied by rain; and the average highest temperature during the day in th

hottestmonth,whichisAugust,doesnotexceed90.

Apeculiarity in theclimateof theplateauwhichdeserves tobenoticed is theextrem

dryness of the atmosphere. In summer the rainswhich fall are slight, and they are soo

absorbedbythethirstysoil.Thereisalittledewatnights,especiallyinthevicinityofthefew

streams;but

it

disappears

with

the

first

hour

of

sunshine,

and

the

air

is

left

without

aparticl

ofmoisture. Inwinterthedryness isequallygreat; frost taking theplaceofheat,with th

sameeffectupontheatmosphere.Unhealthyexhalationsarethusavoided,andthesalubrit

oftheclimateisincreased;buttheEuropeanwillsometimessighforthesoft,balmyairso

hisownland,whichhavecomeflyingoverthesea,andseemtobringtheirwingsstilldan

withtheoceanspray.

Anotherpeculiarityofthisregion,producedbytheunequalrarefactionoftheairoverit

differentportions, istheoccurrence,especially inspringandsummer,ofsuddengusts,ho


23/100

Mediaor cold, which blow with great violence. These gusts are sometimes accompanied with

whirlwinds,whichsweepthecountryindifferentdirections,carryingawaywiththemleaves

branches, stubble, sand, and other light substances, and causing great annoyance to th

traveller. They occur chiefly in connection with a change of wind, and are no doub

consequentonthemeetingoftwooppositecurrents.Theirviolence,however,ismoderate

comparedwiththatoftropicaltornadoes,and it isnotoftenthattheydoanyconsiderabl

damageto

the

crops

over

which

they

sweep.

One further characteristic of the flat region may be noticed. The intense heat of th

summersunstrikingonthedrysandorthesalineefflorescenceofthedesertthrowsthea

over them into sucha stateofquiveringundulationasproduces themostwonderfulan

varyingeffects,distortingtheformsofobjects,andrenderingthemostfamiliarstrangean

hard tobe recognized.Amudbank furrowedby the rainwillexhibit theappearanceof

magnificentcity,withcolumns,domes,minarets,andpyramids;afewstuntedbusheswillb

transformedintoaforestofstatelytrees;adistantmountainwill,inthespaceofaminute

assumefirst

the

appearance

of

alofty

peak,

then

swell

out

at

the

top,

and

resemble

amight

mushroom, next split into several parts, and finally settle down into a flat tableland

Occasionally,thoughnotveryoftenthatsemblanceofwater isproducedwhichEuropean

areareapttosupposetheusualeffectofmirage.Theimagesofobjectsarereflectedatthe

base inan invertedposition; thedesert seems converted intoavast lake;and the thirst

traveller,advancingtowardsit,findshimselfthevictimofanillusion,whichisnonetheles

successfulbecausehehasbeenathousandtimesforewarnedofitsdeceptivepower.

InthemountainrangeorZagrosandthetractsadjacentto it,theclimate,owingtoth

greatdifferences

of

elevation,

is

more

varied

than

in

the

other

parts

of

the

ancient

Media

Severe coldprevails in thehighermountain regions for sevenmonths out of the twelve

whileduringtheremainingfivetheheatisnevermorethanmoderate.Inthelowvalleys,o

the contrary, and in other favored situations, the winters are often milder than on th

plateau;while inthesummers, iftheheat isnotgreater,atanyrate it ismoreoppressive

Owingtotheabundanceofthestreamsandproximityofthemeltingsnows,theairismoist

andthedampheat,whichstagnates inthevalleys,broods feverandague.Betweenthes

extremesofclimateandelevation,everyvarietyistobefound;and,exceptinwinter,afew

hours'journeywillalmostalwaysbringthetravellerintoatemperateregion.

In respectofnaturalproductiveness,Media (asalreadyobserved)differsexceedingly i

different,andeven inadjacent,districts.Therockyridgesofthegreatplateau,destituteo

all vegetable mold, are wholly bare and arid, admitting not the slightest degree o

cultivation.ManyofthemountainsofAzerbijan,naked,rigid,and furrowed,maycompar

even with these desert ranges for sterility. The higher parts of Zagros and Elburz ar

sometimes of the same character; butmore often they are thickly clothedwith forests

affording excellent timber andother valuable commodities. In theElburzpines are foun


24/100

Media

4

near thesummit,while lowerdown thereoccur, first thewildalmondand thedwarfoak

andthentheusualtimbertreesof thecountry,theOrientalplane, thewillow, thepopla

andthewalnut.ThewalnutgrowstoalargesizebothhereandinAzerbijan,butthepoplari

thewoodmostcommonlyusedforbuildingpurposes.InZagros,besidesmostofthesetrees

theashandtheterebinthorturpentinetreearecommon;theoakbearsgallnutsofalarg

size;andthegumtragacanthplantfrequentlyclothesthemountainsides.Thevalleysofth

regionare

full

of

magnificent

orchards,

as

are

the

low

grounds

and

more

sheltered

nooks

o

Azerbijan.The fruittreescomprise,besidesvinesandmulberries, theapple, thepear, th

quince, theplum, thecherry, thealmond, thenut, thechestnut, theolive, thepeach, th

nectarine,andtheapricot.

Ontheplainsofthehighplateauthere isagreatscarcityofvegetation.Treesofa larg

size grow only in the few places which are well watered, as in the neighborhood o

Hamadan, Isfahan,and ina lessdegreeofKashan.Theprincipaltree istheOrientalplane

whichflourishestogetherwithpoplarsandwillowsalongthewatercourses;cypressesals

growfreely;

elms

and

cedars

are

found,

and

the

orchards

and

gardens

contain

not

only

th

fruittreesmentioned above, but also thejujube, the cornel, the filbert, themedlar, th

pistachionut,thepomegranate,andthefig.Awayfromtheimmediatevicinityoftheriver

and the towns, not a tree, scarcely a bush, is to be seen. The common thorn is indee

tolerably abundant in a few places; but elsewhere the tamarisk and a few other saples

shrubsaretheonlynaturalproductsofthisbareandaridregion.

Inremarkablecontrastwiththenaturalbarrennessofthiswidetractarecertainfavore

districtsinZagrosandAzerbijan,wheretheherbageisconstantthroughoutthesummer,an

sometimesonly

too

luxuriant.

Such

are

the

rich

and

extensive

grazing

grounds

of

Khawa

and Alishtar, near Kermanshah, the pastures nearOjan andMarand, and the celebrate

ChowalMoghanorplainofMoghan,onthelowercourseoftheAraxesriver,wherethegras

is said to grow sufficiently high to cover aman on horseback. These, however, are rar

exceptions to the general characterof the country,which isbynatureunproductive, an

scarcelydeservingevenofthequalifiedencomiumofStrabo.

StillMedia, though deficient in natural products, is not ill adapted for cultivation. Th

Zagros valleys andhillsidesproduceunder a very rude systemof agriculture,besides th

fruitsalready

noticed,

rice,

wheat,

barley,

millet,

sesame,

Indian

corn,

cotton,

tobacco

mulberries, cucumbers,melons,pumpkins,and the castoroilplant. InAzerbijan the soil i

almostallcultivable,andifploughedandsownwillbringgoodcropsoftheordinarykindso

grain.Evenonthesideofthedesert,whereNaturehasshownherselfmostniggardly,an

mayseemperhapstodeservethereproachofCicero,thatshebehavesasastepmotherto

man rather than as amother, a certain amount of care and scientific labormay rende

considerabletractsfairlyproductive.Theonlywantofthisregioniswater;andifthenatura

deficiencyofthisnecessaryfluidcanbeanyhowsupplied,allpartsoftheplateauwillbea


25/100

Mediacrops,exceptthosewhichformtheactualSaltDesert.Inmodern,andstillmore inancien

times, this facthasbeen clearlyperceived, andanelaborate systemofartifical irrigation

suitabletothepeculiarcircumstancesofthecountry,hasbeenverywidelyestablished.Th

systemofkanats,astheyarecalledatthepresentday,aimsatutilizingtotheuttermosta

the small streams and rills which descend towards the desert from the surroundin

mountains,andatconveyingasfaraspossible intotheplainthespringwater,which isth

indispensablecondition

of

cultivation

in

acountry

whereexcept

for

afew

days

in

th

spring and autumnrain scarcely ever falls. As the precious element would rapidl

evaporate if exposed to the raysof the summer sun, the Iranianhusbandman carriesh

conduitunderground,laboriouslytunnellingthroughthestiffargillaceoussoil,atadeptho

manyfeetbelowthesurface.Themodeinwhichheproceedsisasfollows.Atintervalsalon

the line of his intended conduit he first sinks shafts, which he then connects with on

anotherbygalleries,sevenoreightfeetinheight,givinghisgalleriesaslightincline,sotha

thewatermayrundownthemfreely,andcontinuingthemtillhereachesapointwhereh

wishestobringthewateroutuponthesurfaceoftheplain.Hereandthere,atthefootofh

shafts,he

digs

wells,

from

which

the

fluid

can

readily

be

raised

by

means

of

abucket

and

windlass;andhethusbringsundercultivationaconsiderablebeltof landalong thewhol

lineof thekanat,aswellasa large tractat its termination.Theseconduits,onwhich th

cultivationof theplateaudepends,were established at so remote adate that theywer

popularlyascribedtothemythicSemiramis,thesupposedwifeofNinus.Itisthoughtthati

ancienttimestheywere longerandmorenumerousthanatpresent,whentheyoccuronl

occasionally,andseldomextendmorethanafewmilesfromthebaseofthehills.

Byhelpoftheirrigationthuscontrived,thegreatplateauofIranwillproducegoodcrop

ofgrain,

rice,

wheat,

barley,

Indian

corn,

doura,

millet,

and

sesame.

It

will

also

bear

cotton

tobacco, saffron, rhubarb, madder, poppies which give a good opium, senna, an

assafoetida. Its garden vegetables are excellent, and include potatoes, cabbages, lentils

kidneybeans, peas, turnips, carrots, spinach, beetroot, and cucumbers. The variety of it

fruittreeshasbeenalreadynoticed.The flavoroftheirproduce is ingeneralgood,and i

somecasessurpassinglyexcellent.NoquincesaresofineasthoseofIsfahan,andnomelon

haveamoredelicate flavor.ThegrapesofKasvinare celebrated,andmakea remarkabl

goodwine.

Amongthe

flowers

of

the

country

must

be

noted,

first

of

all,

its

roses,

which

flourish

in

th

most luxuriantabundance,andareofeveryvarietyofhue.Thesizetowhich the treewi

growisextraordinary,standardssometimesexceedingtheheightoffourteenorfifteenfee

Lilacs,jasmines,andmanyotherfloweringshrubsarecommoninthegardens,whileamon

wildflowersmaybenoticedhollyhocks,lilies,tulips,crocuses,anemones,liliesofthevalley

fritillaries, gentians,primroses, convolvuluses, chrysanthemums,heliotropes,pinks,water

lilies, ranunculuses, jonquils, narcissuses, hyacinths, mallows, stocks, violets, a fin

campanula (Michauxia levigata), a mint (Nepeta longiflora), several sages, salsolas, an


26/100

Media

6

fagonias. In many places the wild flowers during the spring months cover the ground

paintingitwithathousanddazzlingordelicatehues.

ThemineralproductsofMediaarenumerousandvaluable.Excellentstoneofmanykind

abounds in almost everypartof the country, themost important and valuablebeing th

famousTabrizmarble.Thiscurioussubstanceappearstobeapetrifactionformedbynatura

springs,whichdepositcarbonateoflimeinlargequantities.Itisfoundonlyinoneplace,o

theflanksofthehills,notfarfromtheUrumiyehlake.Theslabsareusedfortombstones,fo

theskirtingofrooms,andforthepavementsofbathsandpalaces;whencutthintheyofte

take theplaceofglass inwindows,being semitransparent.Themarble is commonlyof

paleyellowcolor,butoccasionallyitisstreakedwithred,green,orcoppercoloredveins.

Inmetalsthecountryisthoughttoberich,butnosatisfactoryexaminationofithasbee

asyetmade. Iron,copper,andnativesteelarederived fromminesactuallyatwork;whil

Europeans have observed indications of lead, arsenic, and antimony in Azerbijan, i

Kurdistan, and in the rocky ridgeswhich intersect the desert. Tradition speaks of a tim

when gold and silverwere procured frommountains near TakhtiSuleman, and it is no

unlikely that theymay exist both there and in the Zagros range.Quartz, thewellknow

matrixofthepreciousmetal,aboundsinKurdistan.

Ofallthemineralproducts,none ismoreabundantthansalt.Onthesideofthedeser

and again near Tabriz at themouth of theAji Su, are vast plainswhich glistenwith th

substance,andyielditreadilytoallwhocaretogatheritup.Salinespringsandstreamsar

alsonumerous,fromwhichsaltcanbeobtainedbyevaporation.But,besidesthesesource

ofsupply, rock salt is found inplaces,and this is largelyquarried,and ispreferredby th

natives.

Other importantproductsoftheeartharesaltpetre,which isfound intheElburz,and i

Azerbijan; sulphur,whichabounds in the same regions,and likewiseon thehighplateau

alum,whichisquarriednearTabriz;naphthaandgypsum,whicharefoundinKurdistan;an

talc,whichexistsinthemountainsnearKoum,inthevicinityofTabriz,andprobablyinothe

places.

Thechiefwildanimalswhichhavebeenobservedwithinthe limitsoftheancientMedi

arethe

lion,

the

tiger,

the

leopard,

the

bear,

the

beaver,

the

jackal,

the

wolf,

the

wild

ass,

th

ibexorwildgoat,thewildsheep,thestag,theantelope,thewildboar,thefox,thehare,th

rabbit,theferret,therat,thejerboa,theporcupine,themole,andthemarmot.Thelionan

tigerareexceedingly rare; they seem tobe foundonly inAzerbijan,andwemayperhap

bestaccountfortheirpresencetherebyconsideringthatafewoftheseanimalsoccasionall

strayoutofMazanderan,which is theironlyproper locality in thispartofAsia.Ofall th

beasts,themostabundantarethestagandthewildgoat,whicharenumerousintheElburz

andinpartsofAzerbijan,thewildboar,whichaboundsbothinAzerbijan,andinthecountr


27/100

Mediaabout Hamadan, and the jackal, which is found everywhere. Bears flourish in Zagros

antelopesinAzerbijan,intheElburz,andontheplainsnearSultaniyeh.Thewildassisfoun

only in the desert parts of the high plateau; the beaver only in Lake Zeribar, nea

Sulefmaniyeh.

TheIranianwildassdiffersinsomerespectsfromtheMesopotamian.Hisskinissmooth

likethatofadeer,andofareddishcolor,thebellyandhinderpartspartakingofasilver

gray;hisheadandearsarelargeandsomewhatclumsy;buthisneckisfine,andhislegsar

beautifullyslender.Hismaneisshortandblack,andhehasablacktuftattheendofhistai

butnodark linerunsalonghisbackorcrosseshisshoulders.ThePersianscallhimthegur

khur, and chase himwith occasional success, regarding his flesh as a great delicacy. H

appearstobetheAsinusonagerofnaturalists,adistinctspeciesfromtheAsinushemippu

ofMesopotamia,andtheAsinushemionusofThibetandTartary.

It isdoubtfulwhether some kind ofwild cattledoes not still inhabit themore remot

tractsofKurdistan.Thenativesmentionamongtheanimalsoftheircountry"themountai

ox;"and though ithasbeen suggested that thebeast intended is theelk, it isperhapsa

likelytobetheAurochs,whichseemscertainlytohavebeenanativeoftheadjacentcountr

ofMesopotamiainancienttimes.Atanyrate,untilZagroshasbeenthoroughlyexploredb

Europeans,itmustremainuncertainwhatanimalismeant.Meanwhilewemaybetolerabl

sure that, besides the species enumerated,Mount Zagros containswithin its folds som

largeandrareruminant.

Amongthebirdsthemostremarkablearetheeagle,thebustard,thepelican,thestork

the pheasant, several kinds of partridges, the quail, thewoodpecker, the beeeater, th

hoopoe, and thenightingale. Besides these, doves and pigeons, bothwild and tame, ar

common; as are swallows, goldfinches, sparrows, larks, blackbirds, thrushes, linnets

magpies,crows,hawks,falcons,teal,snipe,wildducks,andmanyotherkindsofwaterfow

Themostcommonpartridgeisaredleggedspecies(Caccabischukarofnaturalists),whichi

unabletoflyfar,andishunteduntilitdrops.Anotherkind,commonbothinAzerbijanandi

the Elburz, is the blackbreasted partridge (Perdix nigra)a bird not known in man

countries.Besidesthese,thereisasmallgraypartridgeintheZagrosrange,whichtheKurd

call seslca.Thebeeeater (MeropsPersicus) is rare. It is abirdofpassage, andonly visit

Mediain

the

autumn,

preparatory

to

retreating

into

the

warm

district

of

Mazandoran

for

th

wintermonths.Thehoopoe(Upupa)isprobablystillrarer,sinceveryfewtravellersmentio

it.ThewoodpeckerisfoundinZagros,andisabeautifulbird,redandgrayincolor.

Mediais,onthewhole,butscantilyprovidedwithfish.LakeUrumiyehproducesnone,a

itswatersaresosaltthattheyevendestroyalltheriverfishwhichenterthem.Saltstreams

liketheAjiSu,areequallyunproductive,andthefreshwaterriversoftheplateaufallsolow

insummerthatfishcannotbecomenumerousinthem.ThusitisonlyinZagros,inAzerbijan


28/100

Media

8

and in the Elburz, that the streams furnish any considerable quantity. The kinds mos

commonarebarbel,carp,dace,bleak,andgudgeon. Inacomparativelyfewstreams,mor

especiallythoseofZagros,troutarefound,whicharehandsomeandofexcellentquality.Th

riverofIsfahanproducesakindofcrayfish,whichistakeninthebushesalongitsbanks,an

isverydelicateeating.

ItisremarkablethatfisharecaughtnotonlyintheopenstreamsofMedia,butalsointh

kanatsorundergroundconduits, fromwhichthe lightofday isverynearlyexcluded.The

appear to be of one sort only, viz., barbel, but are abundant, and often grow to

considerablesize.Chardinsupposedthemtobeunfitforfood;butalaterobserverdeclare

that,thoughofnogreatdelicacy,theyare"perfectlysweetandwholesome."

Ofreptiles,themostcommonaresnakes, lizards,andtortoises. Inthe longgrassofth

Moghan district, on the lower course of the Araxes, the snakes are so numerous an

venomous thatmanypartsof theplain are thereby rendered impassable in the summer

time.A similarabundanceof this reptilenear thewesternentranceof theGirduniSiyalu

passinducesthenativestoabstainfromusingitexceptinwinter.Lizardsofmanyformsan

huesdisport themselvesabout the rocksandstones,somequitesmall,others two feeto

more in length. They are quite harmless, and appear to be in general very tame. Lan

tortoisesarealsocommoninthesandyregions.InKurdistanthereisaremarkablefrog,wit

asmoothskinandofanapplegreencolor,which liveschiefly intrees,roosting inthema

night,andduringthedayemploying itself incatchingfliesand locusts,which itstrikeswit

itsforepaw,asacatstrikesabirdoramouse.

Among insects, travellers chiefly notice themosquito,which is inmany places a crue

torment;thecentipede,whichgrowstoanunusualsize;the locust,ofwhichthere ismor

thanonevariety;andthescorpion,whosestingissometimesfatal.

Thedestructivelocust(theAcridiumperegrinum,probably)comessuddenlyintoKurdista

andsouthernMediaincloudsthatobscuretheair,movingwithaslowandsteadyflightan

withasound likethatofheavyrain,andsettling inmyriadsonthefields,thegardens,th

trees, the terraces of the houses, and even the streets, which they sometimes cove

completely.Wheretheyfall,vegetationpresentlydisappears;theleaves,andeventhestem

of theplants,aredevoured; the laborsof thehusbandman throughmanyawearymont

perishinaday;andthecurseoffamineisbroughtuponthelandwhichbutnowenjoyedth

prospectofanabundantharvest. It istruethatthedevourersarethemselvesdevouredt

someextentbythepoorersortofpeople;butthecompensationisslightandtemporary;in

fewdays,whenallverdureisgone,eithertheswarmsmovetofreshpastures,ortheyperis

andcover the fieldswith theirdeadbodies,while thedesolationwhich theyhavecreate

continues.[PLATEIII.,Fig.2.]


29/100

Media


30/100

Media

0

Anotherkindof locust,observedbyMr.Rich inKurdistan, iscalledbythenativesshira

kulla,anameseemingly identicalwith thechargolof the Jews,andperhaps thebestclu

whichwepossesstotheidentificationofthatspecies.Mr.Richdescribesitas"alargeinsec

aboutfourincheslong,withnowings,butakindofswordprojectingfromthetail.Itbites,

he says, "pretty severely,butdoesnoharm to the cultivation."Wemay recognize in th

descriptionavarietyof thegreatgreengrasshopper (Locustaviridissima),manyspecieso

whichare

destitute

of

wings,

or

have

wing

covers

only,

and

those

of

avery

small

size.

The scorpion of the country (Scorpio crassicauda) has been represented as peculiarl

venomous,moreespeciallythatwhichaboundsinthecityandneighborhoodofKashan;bu

themostjudiciousobserversdenythatthereisanydifferencebetweentheKashanscorpio

andthatofotherpartsoftheplateau,whileatthesametimetheymaintainthatifthestin

beproperlytreated,nodangerneedbeapprehendedfrom it.Thescorpion infestshouses

hiding itselfundercushionsandcoverlets,andstingsthemoment it ispressedupon;som

caution is thus requisite in avoiding it; but it hurts no one unless molested, and man

Europeanshave

resided

for

years

in

the

country

without

having

ever

been

stung

by

it.

[PLAT

III.,Fig.3.]

Thedomesticanimalsexistingatpresentwithin the limitsof theancientMediaare th

camel,thehorse,themule,theass,thecow,thegoat,thesheep,thedog,thecat,andth

buffalo. The camel is the ordinary beast of burden in the flat country, and can carry a

enormousweight.ThreekindsareemployedtheBactrianortwohumpedcamel,which i

coarseandlow;thetallerandlighterArabianbreed;andacrossbetweenthetwo,which

calledner,andisvaluedveryhighly.TheordinaryburdenoftheArabiancamelisfromseve

toeight

hundredweight;

while

the

Bactrian

variety

is

said

to

be

capable

of

bearing

aloa

nearlytwiceasheavy.

Nexttothecamel,asabeastofburden,mustbeplacedthemulethemulesofthecountr

aresmall,butfinelyproportioned,andcarryaconsiderableweight.Theytravelthirtymiles

day with ease, and are preferred for journeys on which it is necessary to cross th

mountains.Theassisveryinferior,andisonlyusedbythepoorerclasses.

TwodistinctbreedsofhorsesarenowfoundinMedia,bothofwhichseemtobeforeign

theTurkomanand theArabian.TheTurkoman isa large,powerful,enduringanimal,wit

long legs,alightbody,andabighead.TheArabismuchsmaller,butperfectlyshaped,an

sometimesnotgreatlyinferiortotheverybestproduceofNejd.Athirdbreedisobtainedb

an intermixtureofthosetwo,which iscalledthebidpai,or"windfooted,"and isthemos

prizedofall.

Thedogs areof various breeds,but themost esteemed is a large kindof grayhound

whichsomesupposetohavebeenintroducedintothispartofAsiabytheMacedonians,an

which ischieflyemployed inthechaseoftheantelope.Theanimal isabouttheheightof


31/100

MediafullsizedEnglishgrayhound,butratherstouter;he isdeepchested,has long,smoothhai

and the tail considerably feathered.Hispace is inferior to thatofour grayhounds,but i

strengthandsagacityhefarsurpassesthem.

We do not find many of the products of Media celebrated by ancient writers. Of it

animals, those which had the highest reputationwere its horses, distinguished into tw

breeds,anordinarykind,ofwhichMediaproducedannuallymanythousands,andakindo

rare sizeandexcellence,knownunder thenameofNisaean.These lastarecelebratedb

Herodotus,Strabo,Arrian,AmmianusMarcellinus,Suidas,andothers.Theyaresaidtohav

been of a peculiar shape; and theywere equally famous for size, speed, and stoutness

Straboremarksthattheyresemblethehorsesknown inhisowntimeasParthian;andth

observationseemsdistinctlytoconnectthemwiththeTurkomanbreedmentionedabove

which is derived exactly from the old Parthian country. In color theywere often, if no

always, white. We have no representation on the monuments which we can regard a

certainly intended for aNissean horse, but perhaps the figure from Persepolismay be

Persiansketch

of

the

animal.

[PLATE

III.,

Fig.

4.]

Themules and small cattle (sheep and goats)were in sufficient repute tobe required

togetherwithhorses,intheannualtributepaidtothePersianking.

OfvegetableproductsassignedtoMediabyancientwriters,themostremarkable isth

"Medianapple,"orcitron.Plinysays itwasthesoletreeforwhichMediawasfamous,an

that itwould only grow there and in Persia. Theophrastus,Dioscorides, Virgil, and othe

writers, celebrate its wonderful qualities, distinctly assigning it to the same region. Th

citron, however, will not grow in the country which has been here termed Media.

flourishes only in the warm tract between Shiraz and the Persian Gulf, and in the low

shelteredregion,southoftheCaspian,themodernGhilanandMazanderan.Nodoubtitwa

theinclusionofthislatterregionwithinthelimitsofMediabymanyofthelatergeographer

thatgavetothisproductoftheCaspiancountryanappellationwhichisreallyamisnomer.

AnotherproductwheretoMediagavename,andprobablywithmorereason,wasakin

ofcloverorlucerne,whichwassaidtohavebeenintroducedintoGreecebythePersiansi

thereignofDarius,andwhichwasafterwardscultivatedlargelyinItaly.Straboconsidersth

planttohavebeenthechieffoodoftheMedianhorses,whileDioscoridesassignsitcertai

medicinalqualities. Clover is still cultivated, in the Elburz region,buthorses arenow fe

almostentirelyonstrawandbarley.

Mediawas also famous for its silphium, or assafoetida, a plantwhich the country sti

produces,thoughnotinanylargequantity.Nodrugwasinhigherreputewiththeancient

formedicinalpurposes;andthoughtheMedianvarietywasacoarsekind,inferiorinrepute

notonly to theCyrenaic,but also to theParthian and the Syrian, it seems tohavebee


32/100

Media

2

exportedboth toGreeceandBorne,and tohavebeen largelyusedbydruggists,howeve

littleesteemedbyphysicians.

TheothervegetableproductswhichMedia furnished,orwasbelievedto furnish, toth

ancientworld,werebdellium,amomum,cardamomum,gum tragacanth,wildvineoil,an

sagaponum,ortheFerulapersica.Ofthese,gumtragacanth isstill largelyproduced,and i

an importantarticleofcommerce.Wildvinesabound inZagrosandElburz,butnooil isa

present made from them. Bdellium, if it is benzoin, amomum, and cardamomum wer

perhapsratherimportedthroughMediathantheactualproduceofthecountry,whichisto

coldinthewintertogrowanygoodspices.

ThemineralproductsofMedianotedby theancientwritersarenitre, salt,and certai

gems, as emeralds, lapis lazuli, and the following obscurer kinds, the zathene, th

gassinades, and the narcissitis. The nitre of Media is noticed by Pliny, who says it wa

procuredinsmallquantities,andwascalled"halmyraga."Itwasfoundincertaindrylookin

glens,where the groundwaswhitewith it, andwas obtained there purer than in othe

places.SaltpetreisstillderivedfromtheElburzrange,andalsofromAzerbijan.

ThesaltofLakeUrumiyehismentionedbyStrabo,whosaysthatitformsnaturallyonth

surface,whichwould imply a farmore complete saturationof thewater than atpresen

exists,eveninthedriestseasons.ThegemsabovementionedareassignedtoMediachiefl

by Pliny. The Median emeralds, according to him, were of the largest size; they varie

considerably,sometimesapproaching to thecharacterof thesapphire, inwhichcase the

were apt to be veiny, and to have flaws in them. Theywere far less esteemed than th

emeraldsofmanyothercountries.TheMedianlapislazuli,ontheotherhand,wasthebes

of its kind. Itwas of three colorslight blue, dark blue, and purple. The golden specks

however,withwhichitwassprinkledreally spotsofyellowpyritesrenderedituselesst

the gemengravers of Pliny's time. The zathene, the gassinades, and the narcissitiswer

gemsofinferiorvalue.Astheyhavenotyetbeenidentifiedwithanyknownspecies,itwillb

unnecessarytoprolongthepresentchapterbyaconsiderationofthem.


33/100

MediaCHAPTERIII.CHARACTER,MANNERSANDCUSTOMS,ARTS

ETC.,OFTHEPEOPLE."Pugnatrixnatioetformidanda."Amm.Marc,xxiii.6.

The ethnic character of theMedian people is at the present day scarcely amatter o

doubt.Thecloseconnectionwhichallhistory,sacredandprofane,establishesbetweenthem

and thePersians, theevidenceof theirpropernamesandof their language,so faras it i

known tous, togetherwith theexpress statementsofHerodotus andStrabo, combine t

provethattheybelongedtothatbranchofthehuman familyknowntousastheAriano

Iranic,aleadingsubdivisionofthegreatIndoEuropeanrace.Thetieofacommonlanguage

commonmannersandcustoms,and toagreatextentacommonbelief,united inancien

timesallthedominanttribesofthegreatplateau,extendingevenbeyondtheplateauinon

direction to the Jaxartes (Syhun)and inanother to theHyphasis (Sutlej).Persians,Medes

Sagartians,Chorasmians,

Bactrians,

Sogdians,

Hyrcanians,

Sarangians,

Gandarians,

an

Sanskritic Indians belonged all to a single stock, differing from one another probably no

muchmore thannowdiffer the various subdivisionsof theTeutonicor theSlavonic race

BetweenthetribesatthetwoextremitiesoftheArianterritorythedivergencewasnodoub

considerable;butbetweenanytwoneighboringtribesthedifferencewasprobably inmos

casesexceedinglyslight.Atanyratethiswasthecasetowardsthewest,wheretheMede

and Persians, the two principal sections of the Arian body in that quarter, are scarcel

distinguishablefromoneanotherinanyofthefeatureswhichconstituteethnictype.

Thegeneral

physical

character

of

the

ancient

Arian

race

is

best

gathered

from

th

sculpturesoftheAchsemeniankings,whichexhibittousaverynoblevarietyofthehuma

speciesa form tall, graceful, and stately; a physiognomy handsome and pleasing, ofte

somewhatresemblingtheGreek;theforeheadhighandstraight,thenosenearlyinthesam

line, long andwell formed, sometimesmarkedly aquiline, the upper lip short, commonl

shadedbyamoustache,thechinroundedandgenerallycoveredwithacurlybeard.Theha

evidentlygrew ingreatplenty,andtheracewasproudof it.Onthetopofthehead itwa

wornsmooth,but itwasdrawnback from the foreheadand twisted intoa rowor twoo

crispcurls,whileatthesame time itwasarranged intoa largemassofsimilarsmallclos

ringletsat

the

back

of

the

head

and

over

the

ears.

[PLATE

IV.,

Fig.

1.]


34/100

Media

4


35/100

MediaOf the Median women we have no representations upon the sculptures; but we ar

informedbyXenophon that theywere remarkable for their statureand theirbeauty.Th

same qualities were observable in the women of Persia, as we learn from Plutarch

Ammianus Marcellinus, and others. The Arian races seem in old times to have treate

womenwithacertainchivalry,whichallowedthefulldevelopmentoftheirphysicalpowers

andrenderedthemspeciallyattractivealiketotheirownhusbandsandtothemenofothe

nations.

ThemodernPersianisaverydegeneraterepresentativeoftheancientArianstock.Sligh

andsupple inperson,withquick,glancingeyes,delicatefeatures,andavivaciousmanne

helacksthedignityandstrength,thecalmreposeandsimplegraceoftheracefromwhic

he issprung,Fourteencenturiesofsubjectiontodespoticswayhave lefttheirstampupo

hiscountenanceandhisframe,which,thoughstillretainingsometracesoftheoriginaltype

havebeensadlyweakenedandloweredbysolongatermofsubservience.Probablythewil

Kurdor Lurof thepresentdaymorenearlycorresponds inphysique to theancientMed

thando

the

softer

inhabitants

of

the

great

plateau.

Among themoral characteristics of theMedes the onemost obvious is their bravery

"Pugnatrixnatio etformidanda," saysAmmianusMarcellinus in the fourth centuryofou

era,summingup inafewwordsthegeneraljudgmentofAntiquity.Originallyequal, ifno

superior, to their close kindred, the Persians, theywere throughout thewhole period o

Persiansupremacyonlysecondtothem incourageandwarlikequalities.Mardonius,whe

allowed to takehischoiceoutof theentirehostofXerxes,selected theMedian troops i

immediatesuccessiontothePersians.Similarly,whenthetimeforbattlecamehekeptth

Medesnear

himself,

giving

them

t

Date post:	03-Apr-2018
Category:	Documents
Upload:	nomdahl
View:	223 times
Download:	0 times

The Seven Great Monarchies Vol 3 Media Rawlingson

Documents