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Tram

Melbourne's oldest tram heads along Glenhuntly

road

Powered yes

Self-propelled yes

Wheels 8+

Tracks 2

Trams in Vienna, one of the largest existing

networks in the world

TramFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A tram (also known as tramcar; in North Americaknown as streetcar, trolley or trolley car) is a railvehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets(called street running), and also sometimes on separaterights of way. The lines or networks operated by tramcarsare called tramways. Tramways powered by electricity,which were the most common type historically, were oncecalled electric street railways. Trams also includehorsecars, which were widely used in urban areas beforeelectrification.

Tram lines may also run between cities and/or towns (forexample, interurbans, tram-train), and/or partially grade-separated even in the cities (light rail). Trams veryoccasionally also carry freight.

Tram vehicles are usually lighter and shorter thanconventional trains and rapid transit trains. However, thedifferences between these modes of public transportationare often indistinct. Some trams (for instance tram-trains)may also run on ordinary railway tracks, a tramway maybe upgraded to a light rail or a rapid transit line, two urbantramways may be connected to an interurban, etc.

Most trams today use electrical power, usually fed by anoverhead pantograph; in some cases by a sliding shoeon a third rail or trolley pole. If necessary, they mayhave dual power systems - electricity in city streets, anddiesel in more rural environments. Steam, petrol(gasoline), gas and draft animals have historically beenused as power sources. A few horse- or mule-poweredtrams remain in operation, mostly for tourist or historic-preservation purposes. Certain types of cable car arealso known as trams.

Trams are now included in the wider term "light rail",[1]

which also includes segregated systems.

Contents

1 Etymology and terminology

2 History

2.1 Horse-drawn

2.2 Steam

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2.3 Cable-hauled

2.4 Hybrid funicular electric

2.5 Electric (trolley cars)

2.6 Gas trams

2.7 Other power sources

3 Design

3.1 Low floor

3.1.1 Ultra low floor

3.2 Articulated

3.3 Double decker

3.4 Tram-train

4 Non-commuter

4.1 Cargo trams

4.2 Hearse trams

4.3 Dog car

4.4 Contractors' mobile offices

4.5 Restaurant trams

4.6 Mobile Library Service

4.7 Nursery trams

4.8 Specialized work trams

4.9 Advertising

5 Tramway operation

6 Tram and light-rail transit systems around the world

6.1 Popularity

6.2 Largest tram systems

6.3 Asia

6.4 Europe

6.5 North America

6.6 Oceania

6.7 South America

7 Pros and cons of tram systems

7.1 Advantages

7.2 Disadvantages

8 In media

8.1 In literature

9 In popular culture

9.1 In the news

9.2 In scale modelling

10 Types

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Old tram stop

on-demand

notifier

11 Regional

12 See also

13 References

14 Further reading

15 External links

Etymology and terminology

The terms tram and tramway are derived from the Scots word tram,[2] referringrespectively to a type of truck used in coal mines, and the tracks on which they ran. Theword tram probably derived from Middle Flemish tram ("beam, handle of a barrow, bar,rung"), a North Sea Germanic word of unknown origin meaning the beam or shaft of a

barrow or sledge, also the barrow itself. Tram-car is attested from 1873.[3]

Although the terms tram and tramway have been adopted by many languages, they arenot used universally in English; North Americans prefer streetcar, trolley, or trolleycar.The term streetcar is first recorded in 1840, and originally referred to horsecars drawn bydraft horses. When electrification came, Americans began to speak of trolleycars or later,trolleys. These terms are believed to derive from the troller (possibly from the wordstraveler and roller), a four-wheeled device that was dragged along dual overhead wiresby a cable that connected the troller to the top of the car and collected electrical power

from the overhead wires.[4]

The troller design frequently fell off the wires, and was soon replaced by the more reliabletrolley pole. This newer device was fitted to the top of the car, and was spring-loaded inorder to keep a small trolley wheel or alternately, a grooved lubricated "skate" mounted atthe top of the pole, firmly in contact with the underside of the overhead wire. The terms

trolley pole and trolley wheel both derive from the troller.[5] Trams using trolley-polecurrent collection are normally powered through a single pole, with return current earthedthrough the steel wheels and rails. Modern trams often have an overhead pantograph mechanical linkage toconnect to power, abandoning the trolley pole altogether.

In North America, trams are sometimes called trolleys, even though strictly this may be incorrect, and the termmay even be applied to cable cars, or conduit cars that instead draw power from an underground supply.Conventional diesel tourist buses decorated to look like streetcars are sometimes called trolleys in the US(tourist trolley). Furthering confusion, the term tram has instead been applied to open-sided, low-speedsegmented vehicles on rubber tires generally used to ferry tourists short distances, for example on the UniversalStudios backlot tour.

Over time, the term trolley has fallen into informal use, and may be applied loosely to a wide variety of differentvehicle types. The word has taken on a historic or picturesque connotation, and is often associated with touristor leisure travel. In North America, professional or formal documents generally use more precise alternativeterms, such as streetcar or light rail vehicle (LRV).

Although the use of the term trolley for tram was not adopted in Europe, the term was later associated with thetrolleybus, a rubber-tyred vehicle running on hard pavement, which draws its power from pairs of overheadwires. These electric buses, which use twin trolley poles, are also called trackless trolleys (particularly in thenortheastern US), or sometimes simply trolleys (in the UK, as well as in Seattle and Vancouver).

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The Welsh Swansea and Mumbles

Railway ran the world's first

passenger tram service

External video

Clip from a Belfast horse tram in

1901

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=L7ILSgK4VgE) on YouTube

Steam hauled tram in Italy c 1890s

History

Horse-drawn

The very first tram was on the Swansea and Mumbles Railway insouth Wales, UK; it was horse-drawn at first, and later moved bysteam and electric power. The Mumbles Railway Act was passed bythe British Parliament in 1804, and the first passenger railway (similarto streetcars in the US some 30 years later) started operating in

1807.[6]

The first streetcars, also known as horsecars in North America, werebuilt in the United States and developed from city stagecoach linesand omnibus lines that picked up and dropped off passengers on aregular route without the need to be pre-hired. These trams were ananimal railway, usually using teams of horses and sometimes mules tohaul the cars, usually two as a team. Occasionally other animals wereput to use, or humans in emergencies. The first streetcar line,developed by Irish born John Stephenson, was the New York andHarlem Railroad's Fourth Avenue Line which ran along The Boweryand Fourth Avenue in New York City. Service began in 1832. It wasfollowed in 1835 by New Orleans, Louisiana, which has the oldestcontinuously operating street railway system in the world, according to

the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.[7]

These early forms of public transport developed out of industrial haulage routes or from the omnibus that firstran on public streets, using the newly invented iron or steel rail or 'tramway'. These were local versions of thestagecoach lines and picked up and dropped off passengers on a regular route, without the need to be pre-hired. Horsecars on tramlines were an improvement over the omnibus as the low rolling resistance of metalwheels on iron or steel rails (usually grooved from 1852 on), allowed the animals to haul a greater load for agiven effort than the omnibus and gave a smoother ride. The horse-drawn streetcar combined the low cost,flexibility, and safety of animal power with the efficiency, smoothness, and all-weather capability of a rail right-of-way. The first horse-drawn street cars were used in Timisoara, Romania, in 1867.

Steam

The first mechanical trams were powered by steam. Generally, therewere two types of steam tram. The first and most common had asmall steam locomotive (called a tram engine in the UK) at the headof a line of one or more carriages, similar to a small train. Systemswith such steam trams included Christchurch, New Zealand; Sydney,Australia; other city systems in New South Wales; Munich, Germany

(from August 1883 on)[8] and the Dublin & Blessington SteamTramway in Ireland. Steam tramways also were used on the suburbantramway lines around Milan; the last Gamba de Legn ("Peg-Leg")tramway ran on the Milan-Magenta-Castano Primo route in late1958.

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A San Francisco cable car: a cable

pulled system, still operating as of

2014

Tram engines usually had modifications to make them suitable for street running in residential areas. The wheels,and other moving parts of the machinery, were usually enclosed for safety reasons and to make the enginesquieter. Measures were often taken to prevent the engines from emitting visible smoke or steam. Usually theengines used coke rather than coal as fuel to avoid emitting smoke; condensers or superheating were used toavoid emitting visible steam.

The other style of steam tram had the steam engine in the body of the tram, referred to as a tram engine or steamdummy. The most notable system to adopt such trams was in Paris. French-designed steam trams also operatedin Rockhampton, in the Australian state of Queensland between 1909 and 1939. Stockholm, Sweden, had asteam tram line at the island of Södermalm between 1887 and 1901. A major drawback of this style of tramwas the limited space for the engine, so that these trams were usually underpowered.

Cable-hauled

The next motive system for trams was the cable car, which was pulledalong a fixed track by a moving steel cable. The power to move thecable was normally provided at a "powerhouse" site a distance awayfrom the actual vehicle.

The first practical cable car line was tested in San Francisco, in 1873.Part of its success is attributed to the development of an effective andreliable cable grip mechanism, to grab and release the moving cablewithout damage. The second city to operate cable trams was Dunedinin New Zealand, from 1881 to 1957. From 1885 to 1940, the city ofMelbourne, Victoria, Australia operated one of the largest cablesystems in the world, at its peak running 592 trams on 75 kilometres(47 mi) of track. There were also two isolated cable lines in Sydney,New South Wales, Australia.

New York City developed at least seven cable car lines. A line in Washington DC ran to Georgetown (wheresome of the underground cable vaults can still be seen today). Los Angeles also had several cable car lines,including the Second Street Cable Railroad, which operated from 1885 to 1889, and the Temple Street CableRailway, which operated from 1886 to 1898. The most extensive cable system in the US was in Chicago

between 1882 and 1906.[9]

In Dresden, Germany, in 1901 an elevated suspended cable car following the Eugen Langen one-railedfloating tram system started operating. Cable cars operated on Highgate Hill in North London and Kenningtonto Brixton Hill In South London. They also worked around "Upper Douglas" in the Isle of Man (cable car 72/73is the sole survivor of the fleet).

Cable cars suffered from high infrastructure costs, since an expensive system of cables, pulleys, stationaryengines and lengthy underground vault structures beneath the rails had to be provided. They also requiredphysical strength and skill to operate, and alert operators to avoid obstructions and other cable cars. The cablehad to be disconnected ("dropped") at designated locations to allow the cars to coast by inertia, for examplewhen crossing another cable line. The cable would then have to be "picked up" to resume progress, the wholeoperation requiring precise timing to avoid damage to the cable and the grip mechanism.

Breaks and frays in the cable, which occurred frequently, required the complete cessation of services over acable route while the cable was repaired. Due to overall wear, the entire length of cable (typically severalkilometres) would have to be replaced on a regular schedule. After the development of reliable electricallypowered trams, the costly high-maintenance cable car systems were rapidly replaced in most locations.

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Cable tram dummy and trailer on the

St. Kilda Line in Melbourne in 1905.

Former second generation cable

tractor, used between 1978 and 2005,

assisting a tramcar on the cable

section of the Opicina Tramway in

Trieste, Italy.

Historic German electric tram

Cable cars remained especially effective in hilly cities, since theirnondriven wheels would not lose traction as they climbed ordescended a steep hill. The moving cable would physically pull the carup the hill at a steady pace, unlike a low-powered steam or horse-drawn car. Cable cars do have wheel brakes and track brakes, butthe cable also helps restrain the car to going downhill at a constantspeed. Performance in steep terrain partially explains the survival ofcable cars in San Francisco. However, the extensive cable car systemof Chicago operated over a large relatively flat area.

The San Francisco cable cars, though significantly reduced in number,continue to perform a regular transportation function, in addition tobeing a well-known tourist attraction. A single cable line also survives

in Wellington, New Zealand (rebuilt in 1979 as a funicular but still called the "Wellington Cable Car"). A thirdsystem, actually two separate cable lines with a shared power station in the middle, operates from the Welshtown of Llandudno up to the top of the Great Orme hill in North Wales, UK.

Hybrid funicular electric

The Opicina Tramway in Trieste operates a hybrid funicular electricsystem. Conventional electric trams are operated in street running andon reserved track for most of their route. However, on one steepsegment of track, they are assisted by cable tractors, which push thetrams uphill and act as brakes for the downhill run. For safety, thecable tractors are always deployed on the downhill side of the tramvehicle.

Electric (trolley cars)

Electric trams (known asstreetcars or trolleys inNorth America) were firstexperimentally installed inSaint Petersburg, Russia,invented and tested by Fyodor Pirotsky as early as 1880. Thesetrams, like virtually all others mentioned in this section, used either atrolley pole or a pantograph, to feed power from electric wires strungabove the tram route. Nevertheless, there were early experimentswith battery-powered trams but these appear to have all beenunsuccessful. The first trams in Bendigo, Australia, in 1892, werebattery-powered but within as little as three months they were

replaced with horse-drawn trams. In New York City some minor lines also used storage batteries. Then,comparatively recently, during the 1950s, a longer battery-operated tramway line ran from Milan to Bergamo.

The first regular electric tram service using pantographs or trolley poles, the Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway, went

into service in Lichterfelde, a suburb of Berlin, Germany, by Siemens & Halske AG, in May 1881.[10] Thecompany Siemens still exists.

Another was by John Joseph Wright, brother of the famous mining entrepreneur Whitaker Wright, in Toronto in1883. Earlier installations proved difficult or unreliable. Siemens' line, for example, provided power through alive rail and a return rail, like a model train, limiting the voltage that could be used, and providing electric shocks

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First type of Mödling and Hinterbrühl

tramcars, bipolar overhead line

Double-decker tram in Blackpool.

to people and animals crossing the tracks.[11] Siemens later designed his own method of current collection, froman overhead wire, called the bow collector.

In 1883, Magnus Volk constructed his 2 feet (610 mm) gauge Volk'sElectric Railway along the eastern seafront at Brighton, England. Thistwo kilometer line, re-gauged to 2 feet 9 inches (840 mm) in 1884,remains in service to this day, and is the oldest operating electrictramway in the world. The first tram for permanent service withoverhead lines was the Mödling and Hinterbrühl Tram in Austria. Itbegan operating in October 1883, but was closed in 1932.

Multiple functioning experimental electric trams were exhibited at the1884 World Cotton Centennial World's Fair in New Orleans,Louisiana, but they were not deemed good enough to replace theLamm fireless engines that then propelled the St. Charles AvenueStreetcar in that city.

Electric trams were first tested in service in the United States in Richmond, Virginia, in 1888, in the RichmondUnion Passenger Railway built by Frank J. Sprague, though the first commercial installation of an electricstreetcar in the United States was built in 1884 in Cleveland, Ohio and operated for a period of one year by the

East Cleveland Street Railway Company.[12]

The first electric street tramway in Britain, the Blackpool Tramway,was opened on 29 September 1885 using conduit collection alongBlackpool Promenade. Since the closure of the Glasgow CorporationTramways in 1962, this has been the only first-generation operationaltramway in the UK.

Sarajevo had the first electric trams on the continent of Europe, with a

city-wide system in 1885.[13] Budapest established its tramwaysystem in 1887, and this line has grown to be the busiest tram line inEurope, with a tram running every 60 seconds at rush hour (howeverIstanbul's line T1, with a minimum headway of two minutes, probablycarries more passengers – 265,000 per day). Bucharest and

Belgrade[14] ran a regular service from 1894.[15][16] Ljubljana introduced its tram system in 1901 – it closed in

1958.[17]

In Australia there were electric systems in Sydney, Newcastle, Broken Hill, Geelong, Ballarat, Bendigo,Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth, Kalgoorlie, Laverton, Hobart and Launceston. By the 1970s, the only tramwaysystem remaining in Australia was the extensive Melbourne system other than a few single lines remainingelsewhere: the Glenelg Tram, connecting Adelaide to the beachside suburb of Glenelg, and tourist trams in theVictorian Goldfields cities of Bendigo and Ballarat. An unusual line that operated from 1889 to 1896 connectedBox Hill, then an outer suburb of Melbourne, to Doncaster, then a favoured picnic spot. In recent years theMelbourne system, generally recognised as one of the largest in the world, has been considerably moderrnisedand expanded. The Adelaide line has also been extended to the Entertainment Centre, and there are plans toexpand further.

In 1904 trams were put into operation in Hong Kong. The Hong Kong Tramway is still in operation today anduses double-decker trams exclusively.

Gas trams

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The only petrol-driven tram of

Stockholms Spårvägar, on line 19 in

the 1920s

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries a number of systems in various parts of the world employed tramspowered by gas, naphtha gas or coal gas in particular. Gas trams are known to have operated betweenAlphington and Clifton Hill in the northern suburbs of Melbourne, Australia (1886–1888); in Berlin andDresden, Germany; in Estonia (1920s–1930); between Jelenia Góra, Cieplice, and Sobieszów in Poland (from1897); and in the UK at Lytham St Annes, Neath (1896–1920), and Trafford Park, Manchester (1897–1908).

On 29 December 1886 the Melbourne newspaper The Argus reprinted a report from the San Francisco Bulletinthat Mr Noble had demonstrated a new ‘motor car’ for tramways 'with success'. The tramcar ‘exactly similar insize, shape, and capacity to a cable grip car’ had the ‘motive power’ of gas ‘with which the reservoir is to becharged once a day at power stations by means of a rubber hose’. The car also carried an electricity generator

for ‘lighting up the tram and also for driving the engine on steep grades and effecting a start’.[18]

Comparatively little has been published about gas trams. However, research on the subject was carried out foran article in the October 2011 edition of "The Times", the historical journal of the Australian Association of

Timetable Collectors.[19][20]

A tram system powered by compressed gas was due to open in Malaysia in 2012,[21] but as of April 2014there was no evidence of anything having happened; news about the project appears to have dried up.

Other power sources

In some places, other forms of power were used to power the tram.Hastings and some other tramways, for example StockholmsSpårvägar in Sweden and some lines in Karachi, used petrol trams.Paris operated trams that were powered by compressed air using theMekarski system.

Galveston Island Trolley in Texas operates diesel trams due to thecity's hurricane-prone location, which would result in frequent damageto an electrical supply system.

Although Portland, Victoria promotes its tourist tram[22] as being acable car it actually operates using a hidden diesel motor. The tram,which runs on a circular route around the town of Portland, usesdummies and salons formerly used on the extensive Melbourne cable tramway system and now beautifullyrestored.

Design

Low floor

The latest generation of light rail vehicles is of partial or fully low-floor design, with the floor 300 to 360 mm(11.8 to 14.2 in) above top of rail, a capability not found in older vehicles. This allows them to load passengers,including those in wheelchairs, directly from low-rise platforms that are not much more than raisedfootpaths/sidewalks. This satisfies requirements to provide access to disabled passengers without usingexpensive wheelchair lifts, while at the same time making boarding faster and easier for other passengers.

Various companies have developed particular low-floor designs, varying from part-low-floor (with internal steps

between the low-floor section and the high-floor sections over the bogies), e.g. Citytram[23] and Siemens S70,to 100% low-floor, where the floor passes through a corridor between the drive wheels, thus maintaining a

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Two Trams in Braunschweig,

Germany. The left one is an 1981

high-floor tram, the right one a 2007

low-floor

Entirely low-floor Škoda ForCity in

Prague

A type B ULF tram in Vienna

Combino Supra articulated tram in

Budapest

relatively constant (stepless)level from end to end of thetram.

Prior to the introduction ofthe Škoda ForCity, thiscarried the mechanicalpenalty of requiring bogiesto be fixed and unable topivot (except for less than 5degrees in some trams) andthus reducing curvenegotiation. This createsundue wear on the tracks and wheels.

Passengers appreciate the ease of boarding and alighting from low-floor trams and moving about inside 100%

low-floor trams. Passenger satisfaction with low-floor trams is high.[24]

Low-floor trams are now running in many cities around the world, including Amsterdam, Dublin, Hiroshima,Houston, Istanbul, Melbourne, Milan, Prague, Riga, Strasbourg, Vienna, Zagreb, Helsinki and Zürich.

Ultra low floor

The Ultra Low Floor or (ULF) tram is a type of low-floor tramoperating in Vienna, Austria and Oradea, Romania, with the lowestfloor-height of any such vehicle. In contrast to other low-floor trams,the floor in the interior of ULF is at sidewalk height (about 18 cm or7 inches above the road surface), which makes access to trams easyfor passengers in wheelchairs or with baby carriages. Thisconfiguration required a new undercarriage. The axles had to bereplaced by a complicated electronic steering of the traction motors.Auxiliary devices are installed largely under the car’s roof.

Articulated

Articulated trams, invented and first used by the Boston Elevated

Railway in 1912–13[25] at a total length of about twelve meters long(40 ft) for each pioneering example of twin-section articulated tramcar, have two or more body sections, connected by flexible joints anda round platform at their pivoting midsection(s). Like articulatedbuses, they have increased passenger capacity. In practice, these

trams can be up to 53 metres (174 ft) long[26] (such as in Budapest,Hungary), while a regular tram has to be much shorter. With this type,the articulation is normally suspended between carbody sections.

In the Škoda ForCity, which is the world's first 100% low floor tram with pivoting bogies, a Jacobs bogiesupports the articulation between the two or more carbody sections. An articulated tram may be low-floorvariety or high (regular) floor variety. Newer model trams may be up to 72 metres (236 ft) long and carry 510

passengers at a comfortable 4 passengers/m2. At crush loadings this would be even higher.[27]

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A double deck London tram in 1910

CarGoTram run by Volkswagen in

Dresden, Germany on a section of

grassed track. It delivers parts to the

Transparent Factory.

Double decker

Double decker trams were commonplace in Great Britain and DublinIreland before most tramways were torn up in the 1950s and 1960s.

Hobart, Tasmania, Australia made extensive use of double deckertrams. Arguably the most unusual double decker tram used to runbetween the isolated Western Australian outback village of Lavertonand its small suburb of Gwalia.

Double decker trams still operate in Alexandria, Blackpool and HongKong.

Tram-train

Tram-train operation uses vehicles such as the Flexity Link and Regio-Citadis, which are suited for use on urbantram lines and also meet the necessary indication, power, and strength requirements for operation on main-linerailways. This allows passengers to travel from suburban areas into city-centre destinations without having tochange from a train to a tram.

It has been primarily developed in Germanic countries, in particular Germany and Switzerland. Karlsruhe is anotable pioneer of the tram-train.

Non-commuter

Cargo trams

Since the 19th century goods have been carried on rail vehiclesthrough the streets, often near docks and steelworks, for example the

Weymouth Harbour Tramway in Weymouth, Dorset.[28] Belgianvicinal tramway routes were used to haul agricultural proeduce, timberand coal from Blégny colliery (http://www.trams-trolleybus.be/Blegny_video.html) while in the USA several of the USinterurbans carried freight. In Australia, three different "Freight Cars"

operated in Melbourne between 1927 and 1977[29] and the city ofKislovodsk in Russia had a freight-only tram system consisting of oneline which was used exclusively to deliver bottled Narzan mineral

water to the railway station.[30]

Today, the German city of Dresden has a regular CarGoTramservice, run by the world's longest tram trainsets (59.4 metres(195 ft)), carrying car parts across the city centre to its Volkswagen

factory.[31] In addition to Dresden, the cities of Vienna and Zürich currently use trams as mobile recyclingdepots.

At the turn of the 21st century, a new interest has arisen in using urban tramway systems to transport goods. Themotivation now is to reduce air pollution, traffic congestion and damage to road surfaces in city centres.

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One recent proposal to bring cargo tramways back into wider use was the plan by City Cargo Amsterdam toreintroduce them into the city of Amsterdam. In the spring of 2007 the city piloted this cargo tram operation,which among its aims aimed to reduce particulate pollution in the city by 20% by halving the number of lorries(5,000) unloading in the inner city during the permitted timeframe from 07:00 till 10:30. The pilot involved twocargo trams, operating from a distribution centre and delivering to a "hub" where special electric trucks deliveredthe trams' small containers to their final destination. The trial was successful, releasing an intended investment of€100 million in a fleet of 52 cargo trams distributing from four peripheral "cross docks" to 15 inner-city hubs by2012. These specially built vehicles would be 30 feet (9.14 m) long with 12 axles and a payload of 30 tonnes(33.1 short tons; 29.5 long tons). On weekdays, trams are planned to make 4 deliveries per hour between7 a.m. and 11 a.m. and two per hour between 11 a.m. and 11 p.m. With each unloading operation taking onaverage 10 minutes, this means that each site would be active for 40 minutes out of each hour during themorning rush hour. In early 2009 the scheme was suspended owing to the financial crisis impeding fund-

raising.[32]

Hearse trams

Specially appointed hearse trams, or funeral trolley cars, were used for funeral processions in many cities in thelate 19th and early 20th century, particularly cities with large tram systems. The earliest known example in North

America was Mexico City, which was already operating 26 funeral cars in 1886.[33] In the United States,funeral cars were often given names. At the turn of the century, "almost every major city [in the U.S.] had one or

more"[33]:93 such cars in operation.

In Milan, Italy, hearse trams were used from the 1880s (initially horse-drawn) to the 1920s. The maincemeteries, Cimitero Monumentale and Cimitero Maggiore, included funeral tram stations. Additional funeral

stations were located at Piazza Firenze and at Porta Romana.[34] In the mid-1940s at least one special hearse

tram was used in Turin, Italy. It was introduced due to the wartime shortage of automotive fuel.[35]

Newcastle, NSW, Australia also operated two hearse trams[36] between 1896 and 1948.

Dog car

In Melbourne a "dog car" was used between 1937 and 1955 for transporting dogs and their owners to the

Royal Melbourne Showgrounds.[29]

Contractors' mobile offices

Two former passenger cars from the Melbourne system were converted and used as mobile offices within thePreston Workshops between 1969 and 1974, by personnel from Commonwealth Engineering and ASEA who

were connected with the construction of Melbourne's Z Class cars.[29]

Restaurant trams

A number of systems have introduced restaurant trams, particularly as a tourist attraction. This is specifically amodern trend. Systems which have or have had restaurant trams include Adelaide, Australia; Bendigo, Australia;Brussels, Belgium; Christchurch, New Zealand (currently suspended pending post earthquake infrastructureassessment); Melbourne, Australia; Milan, Italy; Moscow, Russia; Turin, Italy; and Zurich, Switzerland.

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A Melbourne tramcar restaurant in St

Kilda

Vasileostrovsky tram depot and

Museum of electrical transport in St.

Petersburg, Russia

These type of vehicles are particularly popular in Melbourne where three of the iconic "W" class trams havebeen converted to restaurant trams. All three often run in tandem and there are usually multiple meal sittings.Bookings often close months in advance.

Bistro trams with buffets operate between Krefeld and Düsseldorf in Germany,[37] while Helsinki in Finland hasa pub tram. Frankfurt, Germany has a tourist circle line called "Ebbelwei-Express", in which the traditional local

drink "Apfelwein" is served.[38]

Mobile Library Service

Munich tram No.24, delivered in 1912, was refurbished as a mobilelibrary in 1928. Known as "Städtische Wanderbücherei München", itwas in public service until 1970. It was preserved and is now on

public display in a railway museum in Hannover.[39]

Nursery trams

After World War Two, in both Warsaw and Wrocław, Poland, so-

called trams-nurseries[40] were in operation, collecting children from the workplaces of their parents (often tramemployees). These mobile nursuries either carried the children around the system or delivered them to the

nursery school run by transport company.[41]

Specialized work trams

Most systems had cars that were converted to specific uses on the system, other than simply the carriage ofpassengers. As just one example, the Melbourne system used or uses the following "technical" cars : a BallastMotor, Ballast Trailers, a Blow Car, Breakdown Cars, Conductors and/or Drivers' Instruction Cars, aLaboratory Testing Car, a Line Marking Car, a Pantograph Testing Car, Per Way Locomotives, Rail Grinders,a Rail Hardner Loco., a Scrapper Car, Scrubbers, Sleeper Carriers, Track Cleaners, a Welding Car, a Wheel

Transport Car and a Workshops Locomotive.[29]

Advertising

Many systems have passenger carrying vehicles with all-over advertising on the exterior and/or the interior.

Tramway operation

There are two main types of tramways, the classic tramway build inthe early 20th century with the tram system operating in mixed trafficand the later type which is most often associated with the tram systemhaving its own right of way. Tram systems that have their own right ofway are often called light rail but this does not always hold true.Though these two systems differ in their operation their equipment ismuch the same.

Infrastructure and equipment

Tram stop

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Czech Tatra T3 – 14,113 units sold

worldwide make it one of the highest-

selling types of tram.

Controls

Track

Power supply

Pantographs

Ground-level power supply

Conduit current collection

Tram and light-rail transit systems around the world

Throughout the world there are many tram systems; some dating fromthe late 19th or early 20th centuries. However a large number of theold systems were closed during the mid-20th century because of suchperceived drawbacks as route inflexibility and maintenance expense.This was especially the case in North American, British, French andother West European cities. Some traditional tram systems didhowever survive and remain operating much as when first built over acentury ago. In the past twenty years their numbers have beenaugmented by modern tramway or light rail systems in cities that haddiscarded this form of transport.

Popularity

Tramways with tramcars (British English) or street railways withstreetcars (American English) were common throughout theindustrialised world in the late 19th and early 20th centuries but they

had disappeared from most British, Canadian, French and US cities by the mid-20th century.[42]

By contrast, trams in parts of continental Europe continued to be used by many cities, although there were

contractions in some countries, including the Netherlands.[43]

Since 1980 trams have returned to favour in many places, partly because their tendency to dominate theroadway, formerly seen as a disadvantage, is now considered to be a merit. New systems have been built in theUnited States, Great Britain, Ireland, France and many other countries.

In Milan, Italy, the old "Ventotto" trams are considered by its inhabitants a "symbol" of the city.

Largest tram systems

The seven largest tram networks in the world by track length are Melbourne, Australia (250 km (160 mi)),[44]

St. Petersburg (240 km (150 mi)), Amsterdam (213 km (132 mi)), Berlin (190 km (120 mi)), Moscow

(181 km (112 mi)), Vienna (172 km (107 mi)) [45] and Budapest (157 km (97 mi)). The longest single tram linein the world is the Belgian Coast Tram, which runs almost the entire length of the Belgian coast. Other largesystems include (but are not limited to) Brussels, Bucharest, Kiev, Leipzig, Milan, Prague, the SilesianInterurbans, Toronto, Turin, Warsaw, Zagreb and Zurich.

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Two Melbourne trams passing

Flinders Street Station in Swanston

Street, 2013.

A double-decker tram in Hong Kong

The new tram in Kolkata, India

Before its decline, the BVG in Berlin operated a very large networkwith 634 km (394 mi) of route. The largest tram system ever, with857 km (533 mi), existed in Buenos Aires before the 1960s. During aperiod in the 1980s, the world's largest tram system was in Leningrad,USSR, being included in Guinness World Records.

Until the system started to be converted to trolleybus (and later bus)in the 1930s, the first-generation London network was also one of the

world's largest, with 526 km (327 mi) of route in 1934.[46] While thelargest streetcar network in the world used to be located in Chicago,

with over 850 km (530 mi) of track,[47] all of it was converted to busservice by the late 1950s.

The Paris Tram System accounted at its peak 1,111 km (690 mi) of tracks (in 1925), before its completedestruction in the 1930s.

Asia

Tramway systems were well established in the Asian region at thestart of the 20th century, but started a steady decline during the mid tolate 1930s. The 1960s marked the end of its dominance in publictransportation with most major systems closed and the equipment andrails sold for scrap; however, some extensive original lines still remainin service in Hong Kong and Japan. In recent years there has beenrenewed interest in the tram with modern systems being built in Japan,the Philippines, and South Korea.

In India trams still operatein Calcutta. Trams werediscontinued in Chennai in

1954 and in Mumbai in 1960.

The Northern and Central areas of the City of Colombo in Sri Lankahad an electric Tram Car system (42" Gauge). This systemcommenced operations about 1900 and was discontinued by 1960.Other countries with discontinued tram systems include Malaysia,Thailand Bangkok Tram (http://www.bangkoktram.com), Pakistanand Vietnam. However, a tram system is planned for construction inGwadar, Pakistan where construction started in late 2011. In China the cities of Beijing, Zhuhai, Nanjing andShenzhen are planning tram networks for the future.

The first Japanese tram line was inaugurated in 1895 as the Kyoto Electric Railroad. The tram reached its zenithin 1932 when 82 rail companies operated 1,479 kilometers of track in 65 cities. The tram declined in popularitythrough the remaining years of the 1930s and during the 1960s many of the remaining operational tramwayswere shut down and dismantled.

Europe

In many European cities much tramway infrastructure was lost in the mid-20th century, though not always on thesame scale as in other parts of the world such as North America. Most of Eastern Europe retained tramwaysystems until recent years but some cities are now reconsidering their transport priorities. In contrast, some

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New Berlin MetroTrams

San Francisco PCC heritage streetcar

on Market Street

The Toronto streetcar system is the

largest in North America.

Western European cities are rehabilitating, upgrading, expanding and reconstructing their old tramway lines.Many Western European towns and cities are also building new tramway lines.

North America

In North America, tramsare generally known as"streetcars" (or sometimesas "trolleys"); the term tramis more likely to beunderstood as a touristtrolley, an aerial tramway,or a people-mover.

In most North American cities, streetcar lines were largely torn up inthe mid-20th century for a variety of financial, technological and socialreasons, mainly as a result of the Great American Streetcar Scandal.

Exceptions included Boston, New Orleans, Newark, Philadelphia (with a much shrunken network), Pittsburgh,San Francisco, Cleveland, and Toronto. Pittsburgh had kept most of its streetcar system serving the city andmany suburbs until severe cutbacks on 27 January 1967, making it the longest-lasting large-network USstreetcar system, though Pittsburgh's surviving streetcar lines were converted to light rail in the 1980s.

Toronto currently has the largest streetcar system in the Americas interms of track length and ridership, operated by the Toronto TransitCommission. This is the only large-scale streetcar system existing inCanada, not including the light rail systems that some Canadian citiescurrently operate, or heritage streetcar lines operating only seasonally.Toronto's system uses Canadian Light Rail Vehicles and ArticulatedLight Rail Vehicles, after a history of using PCCs, Peter Witt cars,and horse-drawn carriages. The TTC has ordered a fleet ofBombardier's Flexity Outlook (also used in some European tramsystems) as a replacement, and is in acceptance testing as of Fall

2012.[48] Newer light rail lines in Toronto and Kitchener-Waterloowill be using the Flexity Freedom.

Streetcars once existed in Edmonton and Calgary, but both Canadian cities have since converted their systemsto support light rail vehicles instead. Streetcars also once operated in cities such as Ottawa, Montreal,Kitchener, Hamilton, Kingston, London, Windsor and Peterborough. Some of these cities have restored theirold streetcars and run them as a heritage feature for tourists, such as the Vancouver Downtown HistoricRailway.

San Francisco's Muni Metro system is the largest surviving streetcar system in the United States, and has even inmore recent years revived previously closed streetcar lines such as the F Market & Wharves heritage streetcarline.

In a trend started in the 1980s, some American cities have brought back streetcars, examples of these beingMemphis, Portland, Tampa, Little Rock, Seattle and Dallas. Prior to 2000, most of these new-generationstreetcar systems were heritage streetcar lines, using vintage or replica-vintage vehicles, but following the 2001

opening of the Portland Streetcar system – the first to use modern vehicles[49] – most new US systems havebeen designed to use modern, low-floor cars. Several additional cities are planning or proposing new streetcarsystems, and such systems are under construction in Atlanta, Cincinnati, Dallas (a second system), Kansas City,

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A heritage H-Class model

(foreground) and modern Flexity tram

(background) in Glenelg, Adelaide

Puerto Madero Tramway in Buenos

Aires

Tucson and Washington DC. Alternatively, in the late 20th century, several cities installed modern light railsystems, in part along the same corridors as their old streetcars systems, the first of these being the San DiegoTrolley in San Diego in 1981.

Oceania

In Australia, trams are used extensively only in Melbourne, and to alesser extent, Adelaide, all other major cities having largely dismantledtheir networks by the 1970s. Sydney reintroduced its tram in 1997 ona modern light rail network, while Ballarat reintroduced their trams asa heritage system. Bendigo had a heritage system for a while, whichhas been upgraded to a basic public transport system through anincrease in frequency. A completely new system will open on theGold Coast, Queensland in 2014. As of January 2014, the Sydneyline was being expanded. There are also plans for the reintroductionof trams in Perth and Hobart, and for another completely new systemin Canberra.

A distinctive feature of many Australian trams was the early use of alowered central section between bogies (wheel-sets). This wasintended to make passenger access easier, by reducing the number of steps required to reach the inside of thevehicle. It is believed that the design first originated in Christchurch, New Zealand, in the first decade of the 20thcentury. Cars with this design feature were frequently referred to as "drop-centres". Trams for Christchurch andWellington built in the 1920s with an enclosed section at each end and an open-sided middle section were alsoknown as boon cars, but did not have the drop-centre. Trams built since the 1970s have had conventional highor low floors.

New Zealand's last public transport tramway system, that of Wellington, closed in 1966. Christchurch howeversubsequently reintroduced heritage trams over a new CBD route, but the overhead wiring plus some track wasdamaged by the earthquake of 2011. In November 2013 a limited circuit was reopened. Auckland has recentlyintroduced heritage trams into the Wynyard area, near the CBD using former Melbourne trams as no operableformer Auckland cars are believed to exist. A heritage line exists in Queen Elizabeth Park on the Kapiti Coast,running through open countryside.

South America

Buenos Aires in Argentina had once one of the most extensivetramway networks in the world with over 857 km (535 mi) of track,most of it dismantled during the 1960s in favor of bus transportation.Now slowly coming back, the 2 km Puerto Madero Tramway runningin the Puerto Madero district is spearheading the move withextensions to Retiro station and La Boca in the planning stages.Another line, the PreMetro line E2 system feeding the Line E of theBuenos Aires Subway has been operating for the past few years onthe outskirts of Buenos Aires, and a unique leisure "Tren de la Costa",an artery that stretches for 15 kilometres by the River Plate, fromOlivos to the village of Tigre has also been running in Buenos Aires.

Also in the city Mendoza, in Argentina, a new tramway system is in construction, the Metrotranvía of Mendoza,which will have a route of 12.5 km and will link five districts of the Greater Mendoza conurbation. The openingof the system is scheduled for August 2011.

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In Medellín, Colombia, there is a tram line under construction and the opening schedule is for December

2011.[50] Bogota, Colombia used to have a very extensive tram system until the violent events of the Bogotazo

in 1948.[51]

Pros and cons of tram systems

All transit services, except personal rapid transit, involve a trade-off between speed and frequency of stops.Services that stop frequently have a lower overall speed, and are therefore less attractive for longer trips.Metros, light rail, monorail, and bus rapid transit are all forms of rapid transit, which generally signifies highspeed and widely spaced stops. Trams are often used as a form of local transit, making frequent stops. Thus,the most meaningful comparison of advantages and disadvantages is with other forms of local transit, primarilythe local bus.

Advantages

Vehicles run more efficiently and overall operating costs are lower.[52]

In general, trams provide a higher capacity service than buses.

Consistent market research and experience over the last 50 years in Europe and North America shows

that car commuters are willing to transfer some trips to rail-based public transport but not to buses.

Typically light rail systems attract between 30 and 40% of their patronage from former car trips. Rapid

transit bus systems attract less than 5% of trips from cars, less than the variability of traffic.[53]

Steel wheels on steel track create about one-seventh as much friction as rubber tyres on bitumen, thus

creating dramatically less pollution when carrying the same load.[54]

Unlike omnibuses, but like trolleybuses, (electric) trams give off no exhaust emissions at point of use.

Since the beginning, many trams have been bidirectional (i.e. driver cabs at both ends) and most new

trams being built (particularly by the major universal manufacturers) are bidirectional. The major

advantage of a bidirectional tram over a unidirectional vehicle (tram or bus) is that stub terminals are used

rather than turning loops, allowing a major saving in rail infrastructure and sometimes-expensive real

estate. A few tram systems, particularly in North America, are still unidirectional.

Compared to motorbuses the noise of trams is generally perceived to be less disturbing. (However, the

use by some trams of solid axles with wheels fixed to them can cause slippage between wheels and tracks

when negotiating curves. This produces a characteristic squeal.)

Trams can run on renewable electricity without the need for very expensive and short life batteries.[53]

They can use overhead wire set to be shared with trolleybuses (a three wire system).

The existence of a fixed route gives people confidence in the robustness and long-term future of the

system, allowing them to rely on it and build their lifestyles around it. A bus route could be cancelled at

any time, but a tram line is far less likely to close down.

Some trams can adapt to the number of passengers by adding more cars during rush hour (and removing

them during off-peak hours). No additional driver is then required for the trip in comparison to buses.

Multiple entrances allow trams to load faster than suburban coaches, which tend to have a single

entrance. This, combined with swifter acceleration and braking, lets trams maintain higher overall speeds

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Sign warning cyclists of

tram tracks

than buses, if congestion allows.[55]

The trams' stops in the street are easily accessible, unlike stations of subways and commuter railways

placed underground (with several escalators, stairways etc.) or in the outskirts of the city center.

Rights-of-way for trams are narrower than for buses. This saves valuable space in cities with high

population densities and/or narrow streets.

Trams can trackshare with mainline railways, servicing smaller towns without requiring special track as in

Stadtbahn Karlsruhe and at greater speed than buses.

Passenger comfort is normally superior to buses because of controlled acceleration and braking and

curve easement. Rail transport such as used by trams provides a smoother ride than road use by buses.

Because the tracks are visible, it is easy for potential riders to know where the routes are.

Because trams run on rails, the ride is far more comfortable than that of a rubber-tyred bus. Blemishes in

the road surface are less noticeable.

Disadvantages

Tram infrastructure (such as island platforms) occupies urban space at ground-level, sometimes to the

exclusion of other users.

The capital cost is higher than for buses, even though a tramcar usually has a much longer lifetime than a

bus.

Trams can cause speed reduction for other transport modes (buses, cars) when stops in the middle of the

road do not have pedestrian refuges, as in such configurations other traffic cannot pass whilst passengers

alight or board the tram.

When operated in mixed traffic (street running), trams are more likely to be delayed by disruptions in their

lane. Buses, by contrast, can sometimes manoeuver around obstacles. Opinions differ on whether the

deference that drivers show to trams—a cultural issue that varies by country—is sufficient to counteract

this disadvantage.

Tram tracks can be hazardous for cyclists, as bikes, particularly those

with narrow tyres, may get their wheels caught in the track grooves.[56]

It is possible to close the grooves of the tracks on critical sections by

rubber profiles that are pressed down by the wheelflanges of the

passing tram but that cannot be lowered by the weight of a cyclist. If

not well-maintained, however, these lose their effectiveness over time.

When wet, tram tracks tend to become slippery and thus dangerous for

bicycles and motorcycles, especially in traffic.[56][57][58] In some cases,

even cars can be affected.[59]

Steel wheel trams are noisier than rubber-wheeled buses or

trolleybuses when cornering if there are no additional measures taken

(e.g. greasing wheel flanges, which is standard in new-built systems). In

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older trams, the wheels are fixed onto axles so they have to rotate together, but going around curves, one

wheel or the other has to slip, and that can cause loud squeals. A related improvement is rubber isolation

between the wheel disc and the rim, as used on Boston (Massachusetts, US) Green Line 3400 and 3600

series cars. These cars are much quieter than those with solid metal wheels. (This construction requires a

flexible cable to electrically connect the tyre to the wheel body.)

Trams usually have less effective suspension systems than buses, which tends to negate the ride quality

benefits of steel rails.

The opening of new tram and light rail systems has sometimes been accompanied by a marked increase in

car accidents, as a result of drivers' unfamiliarity with the physics and geometry of trams.[60] Though such

increases may be temporary, long-term conflicts between motorists and light rail operations can be

alleviated by segregating their respective rights-of-way and installing appropriate signage and warning

systems.[61]

Rail transport can expose neighbouring populations to moderate levels of low-frequency noise. However,

transportation planners use noise mitigation strategies to minimize these effects.[62] Most of all, the

potential for decreased private motor vehicle operations along the trolley's service line because of the

service provision could result in lower ambient noise levels than without.

In the event of a breakdown or accident, or even roadworks and maintenance, a whole section of the

tram network can be blocked. Buses and trolleybuses can often get past minor blockages, although

trolleybuses are restricted by how far they can go from the wires. Conventional buses can divert around

major blockages as well, as can most modern trolleybuses that are fitted with auxiliary engines or traction

batteries. The tram blockage problem can be mitigated by providing regular crossovers so a tram can run

on the opposite line to pass a blockage, although this can be more difficult when running on road sections

shared with other road users or when both tracks happen to be blocked. On extensive networks

diversionary routes may be available depending on the location of the blockage. Breakdown related

problems can be reduced by minimising the situations where a tram would be stuck on route, as well as

making it as simple as possible for another tram to rescue a failed one.

Exclusive right of way (by law, or by physical exclusion) today can also be achieved by other modes of

transport, which may claim to have a lower cost for a new system (like ULTra personal rapid transit).

Dedicated busways with diesel or electric buses can support commuter services (such as Bus à Haut

Niveau de Service in Paris, and BHNS High Level Service Bus in UK) with features (such as Solaris

Urbino 18 Hybrid MetroStyle) similar to new trams. New technologies have blurred the previously rigid

lines among traditional rail services, traditional bus services, and private cars, with new hybrid mode

systems under development. Experimental vehicles, such as China's straddle bus promise new capabilities

and flexibility not seen in traditional systems.

In media

In literature

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One of the earliest literary references to trams occurs on the second page of Henry James's novel TheEuropeans:

From time to time a strange vehicle drew near to the place where they stood—such a vehicle as

the lady at the window, in spite of a considerable acquaintance with human inventions, had never

seen before: a huge, low, omnibus, painted in brilliant colours, and decorated apparently with

jingling bells, attached to a species of groove in the pavement, through which it was dragged, with

a great deal of rumbling, bouncing, and scratching, by a couple of remarkably small horses.

Published in 1878, the novel is set in the 1840s, though horse trams were not introduced in Boston till the1850s. Note how the tram's efficiency surprises the European visitor; how two "remarkably small" horsessufficed to draw the "huge" tramcar.

James also makes comical reference to the novelty and excitement of trams in Portrait of a Lady (1881):

Henrietta Stackpole was struck with the fact that ancient Rome had been paved a good deal like

New York, and even found an analogy between the deep chariot-ruts traceable in the antique

street and the overjangled iron grooves which express the intensity of American life.[63]

A quarter of a century later, Joseph Conrad described Amsterdam's trams in chapter 14 of The Mirror of theSea (1906): From afar at the end of Tsar Peter Straat, issued in the frosty air the tinkle of bells of thehorse tramcars, appearing and disappearing in the opening between the buildings, like little toycarriages harnessed with toy horses and played with by people that appeared no bigger than children.

In episode 6 (Hades) of James Joyce's Ulysses (1918), the party on the way to Paddy Dignam's funeral in ahorse-drawn carriage idly debates the merits of various tramway improvements:

- I can't make out why the corporation doesn't run a tramline from the parkgate to the quays, Mr Bloom

said. All those animals could be taken in trucks down to the boats.

- Instead of blocking up the thoroughfare, Martin Cunningham said. Quite so. They ought to.

- Yes, Mr Bloom said, and another thing I often thought is to have municipal funeral trams like they have

in Milan, you know. Run the line out to the cemetery gates and have special trams, hearse and carriage

and all. Don't you see what I mean?

– O that be damned for a story, Mr Dedalus said. Pullman car and saloon diningroom.

– A poor lookout for Corny [the undertaker], Mr Power added.

– Why? Mr Bloom asked, turning to Mr Dedalus. Wouldn't it be more decent than galloping two

abreast?[64]

In his fictionalised but autobiographical Memoirs of an Infantry Officer, published in 1930, SiegfriedSassoon's narrator ruminates from his hospital bed in Denmark Hill, London, in 1917 that "Even the screech andrumble of electric trams was a friendly sound; trams meant safety; the troops in the trenches thought about trams

with affection."[65]

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Porcelain plate commemorating the

launch of the first trams in Moscow

and Nizhni Novgorod in 1896-99.

Decorated with a tram running on an

electric cable above, in front of a

building with onion-shaped dome, in

lithographic transfer.Designed by

Vitaly Vlasoff. Imperial Porcelain

Factory, St Petersburg, 2006.

Danzig trams figure extensively in the early stages of Günter Grass's Die Blechtrommel (The Tin Drum). In thelast chapter the novel's hero Oskar Matzerath and his friend Gottfried von Vittlar steal a tram late at night fromoutside Unterrath depot on the northern edge of Düsseldorf.

It is a surreal journey. Von Vittlar drives the tram through the night, south to Flingern and Haniel and then east tothe suburb of Gerresheim. Meanwhile, inside, Matzerath tries to rescue the half-blind Victor Weluhn (who hadescaped from the siege of the Polish post office in Danzig at the beginning of the book and of the war) from histwo green-hatted would-be executioners. Mazerath deposits his briefcase, which contains Sister Dorotea'ssevered ring finger in a preserving jar, on the dashboard "where professional motorman put their lunchboxes".They leave the tram at the terminus and the executioners tie Weluhn to a tree in von Vittlar's mother's gardenand prepare to machine-gun him. But Matzerath drums, Weluhn sings, and together they conjure up the Polishcavalry, who spirit both victim and executioners away. Matzerath asks von Vittlar to take his briefcase in thetram to the police HQ in the Fürstenwall, which he does.

The latter part of this route is today served by tram route 703 terminating at Gerresheim Stadtbahn station ("by

the glassworks" as Grass notes, referring to the famous glass factory).[66]

In his 1967 spy thriller An Expensive Place to Die, Len Deighton misidentifies the Flemish coast tram: "The redglow of Ostend is nearer now and yellow trains rattle alongside the motor road and over the bridge by the Royal

Yacht Club[67]..."[68]

In popular culture

Dziga Vertov's experimental 1929 film Man with a Movie

Camera includes shots of trams (at 10 and 42 minutes).

The Rev W. Awdry wrote about GER Class C53 called Toby

the Tram Engine, which starred his The Railway Series with

his faithful coach, Henrietta.

A Streetcar Named Desire (play)

A Streetcar Named Desire (1951 film)

Black Orpheus (1959), of which the main male character

Orfeu is a tram driver in Rio de Janeiro's tram system.

Toonerville Folks comic strip (1908–55) by Fontaine Fox

featuring the "Toonerville Trolley that met all the trains."

The children's TV show Mister Rogers' Neighborhood

featured a trolley.

The central plot of the film Who Framed Roger Rabbit

involves Judge Doom, the villain, dismantling the streetcars of

Los Angeles.

"The Trolley Song" in the film Meet Me in St. Louis received an Academy Award nomination.

The 1944 World Series was also known as the "Streetcar Series".

Malcolm (film), an Australian film about a tram enthusiast who uses his inventions to pull off a bank heist.

Luis Buñuel filmed La Ilusión viaja en tranvía[69] (English: Illusion Travels by Streetcar) in Mexico in

1953.

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In Akira Kurosawa's film Dodesukaden a mentally ill boy pretends to be a tram conductor.

The Stompin' Tom Connors song "To It And At It" mentions a man who "can't afford the train, he's sittin'

on a streetcar, but he's eastbound just the same." And his song "TTC Skidaddler" makes reference to a

TTC Streetcar driver. "I've been a streetcar driver now about eleven years & I know the old Toronto city

well, There's a whole lotta people who wait along the track, For the signal from my clangin trolley bell..."

The predominance of trams (trolleys) gave rise to the disparaging term trolley dodger for residents of the

borough of Brooklyn in New York City. That term, shortened to "Dodger" became the nickname for the

Brooklyn Dodgers (now the Los Angeles Dodgers).

Jens Lekman has a song titled "Tram No. 7 to Heaven", a reference to line 7 of the Gothenburg tram

which passes through his native borough of Kortedala.

The band Beirut has a song titled "Fountains and Tramways" on the EP Pompeii.

The Elephant Will Never Forget, an 11-minute film made in 1953 by British Transport Films to

celebrate the London tram network at the time of the last few days of its operation.

A W-class tram was used at the opening ceremony of the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne.

The Full Monty, set in Sheffield, managed to squeeze a tram passing in the background into three

scenes.

2009 Thomas Haggerty composed and produced 'Tram' generations 1, 2 and 3 for the popular group

TRAM.

A collaboration between John Ward and Elizabeth Harrod: "a great tram."

In Chrome Shelled Regios, trams are being used in the Academy City Zuelni.

Trams feature in the opening credits of the world's longest running TV soap opera Coronation Street, set

in a fictional suburb of Greater Manchester. A Blackpool tram killed one of the main characters in 1989

and the most recent faked accident involved a tram (modelled on the Manchester Metrolink) careering off

a viaduct into the set in 2009.

In the news

In the Tottenham Outrage in 1909, two armed robbers hijacked a tram and were chased by the police in

another tram.

On 7 June 1926 Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí was knocked down by a Barcelona tram and

subsequently died.

In scale modelling

Model trams are popular in HO scale (1:87) and O scale (1:48 in the US and generally 1:43,5 and 1:45 inEurope and Asia). They are typically powered and will accept plastic figures inside. Common manufacturers are

Roco and Lima, with many custom models being made as well. The German firm Hödl[70] and the Austrian

Halling[71] specialize in 1:87 scale.[72]

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An HO model tram

A model tramway

In the US, Bachmann Industries is a mass supplier of HO trams and kits. Bowser Manufacturing has produced

white metal models for over 50 years.[73] There are many boutique vendors offering limited run epoxy andwood models. At the high end are highly detailed brass models which are usually imported from Japan or Koreaand can cost in excess of $500. Many of these run on 16.5 mm (0.65 in) gauge track, which is correct for the

representation of 4 ft 81⁄2 in (1,435 mm) (standard gauge) in HO scale as in US and Japan, but incorrect in

4 mm (1:76.2) scale, as it represents 4 ft 81⁄2 in (1,435 mm). This scale/gauge hybrid is called OO scale. O

scale trams are also very popular among tram modellers because theincreased size allows for more detail and easier crafting of overheadwiring. In the US these models are usually purchased in epoxy orwood kits and some as brass models. The Saint Petersburg Tram

Company[74] produces highly detailed polyurethane non-powered OScale models from around the world which can easily be powered by

trucks from vendors like Q-Car.[75]

In the US, one of the best resources for model tram enthusiasts is the

East Penn Traction Club of Philadelphia.[76]

It is thought that the first example of a working model tramcar in theUK built by an amateur for fun was in 1929, when Frank E. Wilsoncreated a replica of London County Council Tramways E class car444 in 1:16 scale, which he demonstrated at an early Model EngineerExhibition. Another of his models was London E/1 1800, which wasthe only tramway exhibit in the Faraday Memorial Exhibition of 1931.Together with likeminded friends, Frank Wilson went on to found the

Tramway & Light Railway Society[77] in 1938, establishing tramwaymodelling as a hobby.

Types

AKSM

Articulated Light Rail Vehicle

Avanto

Birney

Citadis

Citytram

Canadian Light Rail Vehicle

Combino

Crotram

Dick Kerr Type Tram

Funicular (Incline)

DL

Double-decker tram

DUEWAG

Eurotram

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Regional

Trams in Africa

Trams in Asia

Trams in Australia

Trams in Europe

Trams in New Zealand

Streetcars in North America

Trams in South America

See also

Flexity Swift

Flexity 2

Gothawagen

GTL

Horsecar

К

Konstal

PESA

PCC

Peter Witt streetcar

Sirio

Soviet/Latvian RVR

Soviet/Russian tramcars LM/LVS, MTV, KTM, Spektr

Škoda ForCity and oth.

Tatra T3

Tatra KT4

TMK 2200

Tramino

Tramway Français Standard

TW 6000

Ultra Low Floor

US Standard Light Rail Vehicle

W class Melbourne tram

ZGT

Air brake (rail)

Armoured tram

Capabus

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References

Cater MetroTrolley

Dual-mode transit

Girder rail

General Motors streetcar conspiracy

Ground-level power supply

Haytor Granite Tramway

List of town tramway systems

List of tram builders

List of transport museums

Locomotive

Premetro

Railway electrification system

Trams and roundabouts

Streetcar suburb

Toronto PCC—specification

Tram spotter

Tram stop

Tram track gauge

Tramway track

Tramways & Urban Transit

1. ^ Collins English Dictionary

2. ^ DOST: Tram (http://www.dsl.ac.uk/getent4.php?

plen=1647&startset=69194131&query=Tram&fhit=tram&dregion=form&dtext=dost#fhit)

3. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=tram), etymonline.com.

Retrieved 4 April 2009.

4. ^ Robert C. Post: Urban Mass Transit, p.43, from Google Books.com (http://books.google.com/books?

id=lZ6Kke0MZWwC&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=troller+definition+streetcar&source=web&ots=7OWG61UJK

6&sig=_CUE5WlQogq9WjTYHQ0z8245rs0&hl=en&ei=QEWVSbjuCou40AXM1rGPCg&sa=X&oi=book_result

&resnum=10&ct=result). Retrieved 13 February 2009.

5. ^ Middleton, William D. (1967). The Time of the Trolley, p. 60. Milwaukee: Kalmbach Publishing. ISBN 0-

89024-013-2.

6. ^ The Mumbles Train from Welcome to Wales.

(http://www.welshwales.co.uk/mumbles_railway_swansea.htm), welshwales.co.uk. Retrieved 11 February

2009.

7. ^ Bellis, Mary. "History of Streetcars and Cable Cars"

(http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blstreetcars.htm). inventors.about.com. Retrieved 10 January

2007.

8. ^ Münchner Straßenbahn (http://www.tram-muenchen.de/geschichte/chronik-vor1964.html). tram-

22/6/2014 Tram - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tram 26/32

muenchen.de.

9. ^ Borzo, Greg (2012). Chicago Cable Cars. The History Press. pp. 15–21. ISBN 978-1-60949-327-1.

10. ^ "This is how some of the world's familiar..." (http://books.google.com/books?

id=wN4DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA750&dq=Popular+Science+1930+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22&hl=en&ei

=fxBvTp7pAoyhtwfhqq33CQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBzgU#v=onep

age&q&f=true) Popular Mechanics, May 1929, pg. 750. via Google Books.

11. ^ Wood, E. Thomas. "Nashville now and then: From here to there"

(http://www.nashvillepost.com/news/2007/4/27/nashville_now_and_then_from_here_to_there). Retrieved 7

August 2007.

12. ^ American Public Transportation Association. "Milestones in U.S. Public Transportation History"

(http://www.apta.com/research/stats/history/mileston.cfm). Retrieved 18 December 2008.

13. ^ Sarajevo through history. (http://www.sarajevo.ba/en/stream.php?kat=79) Retrieved 11 February 2009.

14. ^ City of Belgrade – Important Years in City History (http://www.beograd.org.rs/cms/view.php?id=201239)

Retrieved 7 December 2010.

15. ^ Trams of Hungary (http://hampage.hu/trams/e_index.html). Retrieved 11 February 2009.

16. ^ Transport History in Bucharest (http://www.ratb.ro/index.php?page=meniu&id_rubrica_meniu=13).

Retrieved 11 February 2009.

17. ^ "Historical Highlights" (http://www.jhl.si/en/lpp/?m=51&k=1605). Ljubljanski potniški promet [Ljubljana

Passenger Transport]. Retrieved 25 April 2012.

18. ^ "WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 29, 1886." (http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article11584473). The Argus

(Melbourne, Vic. : 1848 - 1956) (Melbourne, Vic.: National Library of Australia). 29 December 1886. p. 5.

Retrieved 10 March 2013.

19. ^ "Australian Association of Timetable Collectors" (http://www.aattc.org.au/). Aattc.org.au. 2012-08-10.

Retrieved 2012-12-08.

20. ^ The research included consultation of copies of the "Alphington Gazette" in the State Library of Victoria and

the following websites: http://markthefitter.blogspot.com/2008_11_01_archive.html

http://www.google.com.au/search?q=%22gas+tram%22+Northcote+history&rls=com.microsoft:en-au:IE-

SearchBox&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&sourceid=ie7&rlz=1I7GGLL_en-

GB&redir_esc=&ei=R1MvTpXqGamdmQW4ofga http://www.ceti.pl/js29a/ciepl/en,ecal.html

21. ^ Malaysia: first compressed natural gas tram in the world will be ready next year

(http://www.ngvjournal.com/pt/veiculos/item/4266-malaysia-first-compressed-natural-gas-tram-in-the-world-

will-be-ready-next-year). Ngvjournal.com.

22. ^ http://www.google.com.au/search?q=Portland+Tram&rls=com.microsoft:en-au:IE-SearchBox&ie=UTF-

8&oe=UTF-8&sourceid=ie7&rlz=1I7GGLL_en-GB&redir_esc=&ei=RPExTqDCHKzzmAWQuZTxCg

23. ^ Citytram (http://www.trampower.co.uk). Trampower.co.uk.

24. ^ Yarratrams Newsletter No 8.

(http://www.yarratrams.com.au/Portaldata/1/Resources/pdf_document/newsletter/Connections_8.pdf)

Retrieved 12 February 2009.

25. ^ MBTA (2010). "About the MBTA-The "El"" (http://www.mbta.com/about_the_mbta/history/?id=964).

MBTA. Retrieved 8 December 2010.

26. ^ Draemmli.info (http://www.draemmli.info/tangotram.html) (German)

27. ^ Avenio, Then new generation trams from Siemens, Transportation.siemens.com

(http://transportation.siemens.com/en/data/pdf/ts_internet/ts_tr/avenio_a19100-v520-b452-x-7600.pdf)

28. ^ Weymouth Harbour Tramway (http://www.transportdiversions.com/publicationshow.asp?pubid=3117).

Transportdiversions.com.

22/6/2014 Tram - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tram 27/32

Transportdiversions.com.

29. ̂a b c d "Destination City. Electric Rolling Stock of the Melbourne & Metropolitan Tramways Board", various

editions, Australian Electric Traction Association, Melbourne.

30. ^ Clean and efficient freight tram delivers goods – Amsterdam, NL

(http://www.eukn.org/eukn/themes/Urban_Policy/Economy_knowledge_and_employment/Urban_economy/Spe

cific_sectors/Distribution/citycargo-freight-tram_1007.html), eukn.org. Retrieved 12 February 2009.

31. ^ George G. Wynne: 'CarGo Tram' Provides Freight Service on Dresden's Light Rail Tracks

(http://www.apta.com/services/intnatl/intfocus/cargo.cfm), apta.com. Retrieved 12 February 2009.

32. ^ Samenwest 5 December 2006, NOS3 television news 7 March 2007, Amsterdams Stadblad 4 June 2008

33. ̂a b Middleton, William D. (1967). The Time of the Trolley, pp. 93–97. Milwaukee: Kalmbach Publishing.

ISBN 0-89024-013-2.

34. ^ Giornale della Reale società italiana d'igiene, Seduta del 5 febbrajo 1882, Archive.org

(http://www.archive.org/stream/giornaledellare03igigoog/giornaledellare03igigoog_djvu.txt)

35. ^ (Italian) Tramditorino.it (http://www.tramditorino.it/storia.htm)

36. ^ Tram hearse used in Newcastle, New South Wales : About New South Wales

(http://about.nsw.gov.au/collections/doc/tram-hearse-used-in-newcastle-new-south-wales/). About.nsw.gov.au.

37. ^ "Weltpremiere:Speisewagen im Straßenbahnnetz"

(http://www.rheinbahn.de/ueberuns/rheinbahnspezial/historie/Seiten/11_speisewagen.aspx).

38. ^ "Sightseeing in Frankfurt with the Ebbelwei-Express" (http://www.ebbelwei-express.com/html/index_e.html).

Verkehrsgesellschaft Frankfurt am Main. Retrieved 14 March 2013.

39. ^ "Strassenbahn Muenchen" (http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stra%C3%9Fenbahn_M%C3%BCnchen).

de.wikipedia.org. Retrieved 2012-02-11.

40. ^ "Tramwaje Warszawskie - wagon-żłobek" (http://tramwar.republika.pl/twzlobek.html). Tramwar.republika.pl.

Retrieved 2012-12-08.

41. ^ "Tramwaj-żłobek dowoził tylko maluchy do żłobka MPK"

(http://wroclaw.gazeta.pl/wroclaw/1,35771,12466347,Tramwaj_zlobek_dowozil_tylko_maluchy_do_zlobka_M

PK.html). Wroclaw.gazeta.pl. Retrieved 2012-12-08.

42. ^ Jeffrey Spivak: Streetcars are back from Landscape Architecture Department, UC Davis

(http://lda.ucdavis.edu/LDA191/Course%20Handouts%20&%20Readings/08-ULI_Streetcars.pdf). Retrieved 10

February 2009. ucdavis.edu

43. ^ (French) Musée des Transports Urbains – Histoire. (http://www.amtuir.org/03_index_htu_gale.htm),

amtuir.org Retrieved 11 February 2009.

44. ^ "Facts & Figures" (http://www.yarratrams.com.au/about-us/who-we-are/facts-figures/). Yarra Trams.

Retrieved 4 March 2013.

45. ^ "Wien hat das fünftgrößte Straßenbahnnetz der Welt" [Vienna has the fifth largest tramway network in the

world]

(http://www.wienerlinien.at/wl/ep/contentView.do/contentTypeId/1001/channelId/-26075/programId/9419/page

TypeId/9081/contentId/25061). Wiener Linien website (http://www.wienerlinien.at). Wiener Linien. 2011.

Retrieved 4 March 2013. (German)

46. ^ London Passenger Transport Board: Annual Report, 1938

47. ^ Welcome to the Shore Line Interurban Historical Society | Chicago Surface Lines (http://www.shore-

line.org/CSL.html). Shore-line.org.

48. ^ National Post Staff (September 27, 2012). "Next-generation streetcars arrive in Toronto for trials"

(http://news.nationalpost.com/2012/09/27/next-generation-streetcars-arrive-in-toronto-for-trials/). National

Post. Retrieved October 31, 2012.

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49. ^ Taplin, M. R. (October 2001). "Return of the (modern) streetcar: Portland leads the way"

(http://www.lrta.org/mag/articles/art0110.html). Tramways & Urban Transit (Hersham, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan

Publishing Ltd). ISSN 1460-8324 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1460-8324). Retrieved May 3, 2014.

50. ^ "Metrotranvía deal signed" (http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/metrotranvia-deal-

signed.html). Railway Gazette International. 24 February 2009. Retrieved 16 February 2013.

51. ^ Morrison, Allen. "The Tramways of Bogota Colombia" (http://www.tramz.com/co/bg/t/te.html). Electric

Transport in Latin America. Retrieved 16 February 2013.

52. ^ "Why are trams different from buses from Trams for Bath" (http://www.bathtram.org/tfb/tQ24.htm).

Bathtram.org. Retrieved 2012-12-08.

53. ̂a b Sustainable Light Rail – professor Lewis Lesley. Claverton Energy Group Conference, Bath October 2008

(http://www.claverton-energy.com/sustainable-light-rail-2.html), claverton-energy.com

54. ^ Interview with The Hon. Tim Fischer on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's Radio National Breakfast

program on Monday 1 August 2011 <http://www.abc.net.au/rn/breakfast/> regarding his book Trains Unlimited

<http://www.harpercollins.com.au/books/Trains-Unlimited-Tim-Fischer/?isbn=9780730497400>.

55. ^ "Streetcar and Local Bus Comparative Review from Vancouver City"

(http://vancouver.ca/engsvcs/transport/streetcar/documents/comparative_review.pdf). Vancouver.ca. Retrieved

2012-12-08.

56. ̂a b "Crossing tram tracks - Bicycle Network" (https://www.bv.com.au/general/bikes-and-riding/10429/).

Bv.com.au. 2004-07-14. Retrieved 2012-12-08.

57. ^ "Trams/Light Rail - Road Safety Authority Rules of the Road" (http://www.rulesoftheroad.ie/rules-for-

driving/traffic-signs-road-markings/trams-lightrail.html). Rulesoftheroad.ie. Retrieved 2012-12-08.

58. ^ File:NET-tram tracks warning.jpg

59. ^ Andrew Heasley (2004-04-29). "Slippery issue on track" (http://smh.drive.com.au/motor-news/slippery-

issue-on-track-20100824-13kvf.html). Smh.drive.com.au. Retrieved 2012-12-08.

60. ^ Charles S. McCaleb, Rails, Roads & Runways: The 20-Year Saga of Santa Clara County's Transportation

Agency, (San Jose: Santa Clara County Transportation Agency, 1994), 67. Besides recounting statistics and

anecdotes, this source also reprints a San Jose Mercury News cartoon of one such accident, in which a

bemused tow truck driver quips, "Dang! Rod Diridon was right! The trolley does reduce the number of

vehicles on the road!"

61. ^ Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Report 69: Light Rail Service: Pedestrian and Vehicular

Safety, Transportation Research Board TRB.org (http://trb.org/news/blurb_detail.asp?id=2536)

62. ^ Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Report 23: Wheel/Rail Noise Control Manual,

Transportation Research Board, TRB.org (http://trb.org/news/blurb_detail.asp?id=2593)

63. ^ p. 313 of Penguin edition

64. ^ pp. 94–5 of Penguin edition

65. ^ Part 9, p. 163 of the Faber & Faber edition

66. ^ The chapter Die letzte Straßenbahn oder Anbetung eines Weckglases (The last tram or Adoration of a

Preserving Jar). See page 584 of the 1959 Büchergilde Gutenberg German edition and page 571 of the 1961

Secker & Warburg edition, translated into English by Ralph Manheim

67. ^ Ryco.be (http://www.ryco.be). Ryco.be.

68. ^ Chapter 38, p. 198 of the Companion Book Club edition

69. ^ Illusion Travels by Streetcar (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt45907/) at the Internet Movie Database

70. ^ Hödl (http://www.hoedl-linie8.de/), horlf-linir8.de

71. ^ Halling.at (http://www.halling.at/). Halling.at.

^ (German) Marktübersicht Straßenbahnmodelle (http://www.strassenbahnfreunde-

22/6/2014 Tram - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tram 29/32

Further reading

72. ^ (German) Marktübersicht Straßenbahnmodelle (http://www.strassenbahnfreunde-

hemer.de/strassenbahnen/marktuebersicht/), from Strassenbahnfreunden-Hemer.de

73. ^ Bowser – Company History 1961 to Present (http://www.bowser-trains.com/misc/history/history.htm).

bowser-trains.com Retrieved 14 February 2009.

74. ^ Saint Petersburg Tram Company (http://www.sptc.spb.ru), sptc.spb.ru

75. ^ Q-Car (http://www.qcarcompany.com/), qcarcompany.com. Retrieved 2 September 2009.

76. ^ East Penn Traction Club (http://www.eastpenn.org/), eastpenn.org. Retrieved 14 February 2009.

77. ^ Tramway & Light Railway Society (http://www.tramwayinfo.com/tlrs), tramwayinfo.com

Accattatis, Antonio. 2007. "Linee tranviarie a Torino" (ISBN 978-88-87911-78-7). Firenze: Phasar Edizioni.

Arrivetz, Jean. 1956. "Les Tramways Français" (No ISBN). Lyon: Editions Omni-Presse.

Bett, W. C., and J. C. Gillam. 1962. "Great British Tramway Networks (4th Edition)", ISBN 0-900433-03-5.

London: Light Railway Transport League.

Blower, James M., and Robert S. Korach. 1966. "The NOT&L Story" (CERA Bulletin 109) (No ISBN).

Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.

Brimson, Samuel. 1983. "The Tramways of Australia" (ISBN 0-949825-01-8). Sydney: Dreamweaver Books.

Brinson, Carroll. 1977. "Jackson: A Special Kind of Place" (LCCN 77-081145) (No ISBN). Jackson,

Mississippi: City of Jackson.

Buckley, R. J. 1984. "Tramways and Light Railways of Switzerland and Austria" (ISBN 0-900433-96-5).

Milton Keynes, UK: Light Rail Transit Association.

Canfield, Joseph M. (ed.) 1965. "Electric Railways of Northeastern Ohio" (CERA Bulletin 108) (No ISBN).

Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.

Canfield, Joseph M. (ed.) 1968. "West Penn Traction" (CERA Bulletin 110) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central

Electric Railfans' Association.

Canfield, Joseph M. 1969. "Badger Traction" (CERA Bulletin 111) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric

Railfans' Association.

Canfield, Joseph M. 1972. "TM: The Milwaukee Electric Railway & Light Company" (CERA Bulletin) (No

ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.

Carlson, Norman (ed.), with Robert J. Levis (Research Coordinator). 1975. "Iowa Trolleys" (CERA Bulletin

114) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.

Chandler, Allison. 1963. "Trolley Through the Countryside" (No ISBN). Denver: Sage Books.

Chandler, Allison, and Stephen D. Maguire, with Mac Sebree. 1980. "When Oklahoma Took The Trolley"

(Interurbans Special 71) (ISBN 0-916374-35-1). Glendale (CA), US: Interurban Press.

Charlton, E. Harper. 1955. "Street Railways of New Orleans" (Interurbans Specian No. 17, No ISBN). Los

Angeles: Interurbans.

Coscia, David. 2011. "Pacific Electric and the Growth of the San Fernando Valley" (ISBN 1578647355).

Bellflower (CA), US: Shade Tree Books.

Cox, Harold E. 1991. "Diamond State Trolleys – Electric Railways of Delaware." Forty Fort (PA), US: Harold

E. Cox.

Davies, W. K. J. 1986. "100 years of the Belgian vicinal: SNCV/NMVB, 1885–1985 : a century of secondary

rail transport in Belgium" (ISBN 0-900433-97-3). Broxbourne, UK: Light Rail Transit Association.

Dunbar, Charles S. 1967. "Buses, Trolleys & Trams" Great Britain: Paul Hamlyn Ltd. [republished 2004 with

ISBN 0-7537-0970-8 or 9780753709702]

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ISBN 0-7537-0970-8 or 9780753709702]

Dyer, Peter, and Peter Hodge. 1988. "Cane Train: The Sugar-Cane Railways of Fiji" (ISBN 0-908573-50-2).

Wellington: New Zealand Railway and Locomotive Society Inc.

"Electric Railways of Indiana Part II, The" (CERA Bulletin 102) (No ISBN). 1958. Chicago: Central Electric

Railfans' Association.

"Electric Railways of Michigan, The" (CERA Bulletin 103) (No ISBN). 1959. Chicago: Central Electric Railfans'

Association.

Fetters, Thomas. 1978. "Palmetto Traction: Electric Railways of South Carolina" (No ISBN) Forty Fort (PA),

US: Harold E. Cox.

Fletcher, Ken. 1995. "Centennial State Trolleys: The Life and Times of Colorado Streetcars" (ISBN 0-918654-

51-3). Golden (CO), US: Colorado Railroad Museum.

Gragt, Frits van der. 1968. "Europe's Greatest Tramway Network" (No ISBN). Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill.

Hamm, Edward. 1992. "The Public Service Trolley Lines in New Jersey" (ISBN 0-933449-12-7). Poli (IL), US:

Transportation Trains.

Harper, James P. 1953. "Electric Railways of Wisconsin" (CERA Bulletin 97) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central

Electric Railfans' Association.

Hennick, Louis C., and E. Harper Charlton. 1999. "Street Railways of Louisiana" (ISBN 1-56554-564-8).

Gretna (LA), US: Pelican.

Hilton, George W. 1997. "The Cable Car in America: A New Treatise upon Cable or Rope Traction As Applied

to the Working of Street and Other Railways", Revised Edition (ISBN 0-8047-3051-2). Stanford (CA), US:

Stanford University Press.

Howarth, W. Des. 1971. "Tramway Systems of Southern Africa" (No ISBN). Johannesburg: published by the

author.

Janssen, William C. 1954. "The Illinois Traction System" (CERA Bulletin 98) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central

Electric Railfans' Association.

Keenan, David. 1979. "Tramways of Sydney" (ISBN 0-909338-02-7). Sans Souci (NSW), Australia: Transit

Press.

King, B. R., and J. H. Price. 1995. "The Tramways of Portugal (4th Edition)" (ISBN 0-948106-19-0). London:

Light Rail Transit Association.

Krambles, George. 1952. "Electric Railways of Ohio" (CERA Bulletin 96) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central Electric

Railfans' Association.

Kramer, Frederick A., with Ed Wadhams. "Connecticut Company's Streetcars" (ISBN 0-911868-82-8).

Newton (NJ), US: Carstens.

MacCowan, Ian. 1992. "The Tramways of New South Wales" (ISBN 0-949600-25-3). Oakleigh (Victoria)

Australia: published by the author.

McCarthy, Ken. 1983. "Steaming Down Argent Street: A History of the Broken Hill Steam Tramways 1902–

1926" (ISBN 0-909372-13-6). Sutherland (NSW), Australia: The Sydney Tramway Museum.

Middleton, William D. 1967. The Time of the Trolley (ISBN 0-89024-013-2). Milwaukee (WI), US: Kalmbach

Publishing.

Misek, Frank J. 1956. "The Electric Railways of Iowa" (CERA Bulletin 100) (No ISBN). Chicago: Central

Electric Railfans' Association.

Misek, Frank J. (ed.). 1958. "The Electric Railways of Indiana Part I" (CERA Bulletin 101) (No ISBN).

Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.

Misek, Frank J. (ed.). 1960. "The Electric Railways of Indiana Part III" (CERA Bulletin 104) (No ISBN).

Chicago: Central Electric Railfans' Association.

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Molloy, D. Scott. 1998. "All Aboard: The History Of Mass Transportation In Rhode Island" (ISBN 0-7524-

1256-6). Mount Pleasant (SC), US: Arcadia Publishing.

Morrison, Allen. 1989. "The Tramways of Brazil – A 130-Year Survey" (ISBN 0-9622348-1-8) [1]

(http://www.tramz.com/br/tto/01.html). New York: Bonde Press.

Morrison, Allen. 1992. "The Tramways of Chile – 1858–1978" (ISBN 0-9622348-2-6) [2]

(http://www.tramz.com/cl/tto/a.html). New York: Bonde Press.

Morrison, Allen. 1996. "Latin America by Streetcar: A Pictorial Survey of Urban Rail Transport South of the

U.S.A." (ISBN 0-9622348-3-4). New York: Bonde Press.

Myers, Rex. 1970. "Montana's Trolleys: Book 1, Helena" (No ISBN). Los Angeles: Interurbans.

Meyers, Stephen L.: Manhattan's lost streetcars, Arcadia, 2005. ISBN 0-7385-3884-1

Nye, David E.: Electrifying America : social meanings of a new technology, 1880–1940, MIT Press,

Cambridge, Massachusetts c1990. ISBN 0-262-14048-9

Olson, Russell L. 1976. "The Electric Railways of Minnesota" (No ISBN). Hopkins (MN), US: Minnesota

Transportation Museum.

Orr, Richard. 1996 O&CB: Streetcars of Omaha and Council Bluffs (ISBN 0-9653505-0-9). Omaha: published

by the author.

Pabst, Martin. 1989. "Tram & Trolley in Africa" (ISBN 3-88490-152-4). Krefeld: Röhr Verlag GMBH.

Peschkes, Robert. "World Gazetteer of Tram, Trolleybus, and Rapid Transit Systems."

Part One, Latin America (ISBN 1-898319-02-2). 1980. Exeter, UK: Quail Map Company.

Part Two, Asia+USSR / Africa / Australia (ISBN 0-948619-00-7). 1987. London: Rapid Transit Publications.

Part Three, Europe (ISBN 0-948619-01-5). 1993. London: Rapid Transit Publications.

Part Four, North America (ISBN 0-948619-06-6). 1998. London: Rapid Transit Publications.

Reifschneider, Felix E. 1947. "Toonervilles of the Empire State" (No ISBN). Orlando (Florida, US): published

by the author.

Reifschneider, Felix E. 1948. "Trolley Lines of the Empire State" (No ISBN). Orlando (Florida, US): published

by the author.

Röhr, Gustav. 1986. "Schmalspurparadies Schweiz", Band 1: Berner Oberland, Jura, Westschweiz, Genfer See,

Wallis (ISBN 3-921679-38-9). Aachen: Schweers + Wall.

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22/6/2014 Tram - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tram 32/32

External links

"Tramway" (http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Tramway) (article in the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica),

1911encyclopedia.org

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tram&oldid=613418568"

Categories: Electric public transport Tram vehicles Tram transport Light rail Sustainable transport

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926524-23-5). 2004. Berlin: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Blickpunkt Straßenbahn.

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1989-4). Shepperton (Surrey), UK: Ian Allan Ltd.