Vitamin

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A bottle of high potency B-complex vitamin

supplement pills.

A vitamin (US /vatmn/ or UK /vtmn/) is an organic compound required by an organism as a vital nutrient in

limited amounts.[1] An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when it cannot be

synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. Thus, the term is conditional both

on the circumstances and on the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is a vitamin for humans, but

not for most other animals. Supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems but there is little

evidence of benefit when used by those who are otherwise healthy.[2]

By convention, the term vitamin includes neither other essential nutrients, such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids,

or essential amino acids (which are needed in larger amounts than vitamins) nor the large number of other nutrients that

promote health but are otherwise required less often.[3] Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present. Vitaminsare classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each "vitamin" refers to a number ofvitamer compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is

grouped under an alphabetized vitamin "generic descriptor" title, such as "vitamin A", which includes the compoundsretinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the active form of the vitamin in the

body, and are sometimes inter-convertible to one another, as well.

Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Some, such as vitamin D, have hormone-like functions as regulators of

mineral metabolism, or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (such as some forms of vitamin A). Others

function as antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E and sometimes vitamin C).[4] The largest number of vitamins, the B complexvitamins, function as precursors for enzyme cofactors, that help enzymes in their work as catalysts in metabolism. In this

role, vitamins may be tightly bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups: For example, biotin is part of enzymesinvolved in making fatty acids. They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, detachable

molecules that function to carry chemical groups or electrons between molecules. For example, folic acid may carrymethyl, formyl, and methylene groups in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are

vitamins' best-known function, the other vitamin functions are equally important.[5]

Until the mid-1930s, when the first commercial yeast-extract vitamin B complex and semi-synthetic vitamin Csupplement tablets were sold, vitamins were obtained solely through food intake, and changes in diet (which, for

example, could occur during a particular growing season) usually greatly altered the types and amounts of vitaminsingested. However, vitamins have been produced as commodity chemicals and made widely available as inexpensive

semisynthetic and synthetic-source multivitamin dietary and food supplements and additives, since the middle of the 20thcentury.

Contents

1 List of vitamins2 Health effects

2.1 Supplements2.2 Effect of cooking

2.3 Deficiencies2.4 Side-effects

3 Pharmacology4 History

4.1 Etymology5 Society and culture

5.1 Governmental regulation

5.2 Naming

6 Anti-vitamins

7 References8 External links

List of vitamins[edit]

Each vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions, and, therefore, most have multiple functions.[6]

Vitamin

generic

descriptor

name

Vitamer

chemical

name(s) (list not

complete)

Solubility

Recommended

dietary

allowances(male, age 19

70)[7]

Deficiency

disease

Upper

IntakeLevel

(UL/day)[7]

Overdose

disease

Food

sources

Vitamin A

Retinol, retinal,

and

four carotenoidsincluding beta

carotene

Fat 900 g

Night-blindness,

Hyperkeratosis,

and

Keratomalacia[8]

3,000 g HypervitaminosisA

Liver,

orange, ripeyellow

fruits, leafy

vegetables,

carrots,pumpkin,

squash,spinach,

fish, soy

milk, milk

Pork,

VitaminB1

Thiamine Water 1.2 mgBeriberi,Wernicke-

Korsakoffsyndrome

N/D[9]Drowsiness ormuscle relaxation

with large doses.[10]

oatmeal,brown rice,

vegetables,

potatoes,liver, eggs

VitaminB2

Riboflavin Water 1.3 mg

Ariboflavinosis,

Glossitis,Angular

stomatitis

N/D

Dairy

products,

bananas,

popcorn,green

beans,

asparagus

Vitamin

B3

Niacin,niacinamide

Water 16.0 mg Pellagra 35.0 mg

Liver damage(doses > 2g/day)[11] and other

problems

Meat, fish,

eggs, manyvegetables,

mushrooms,

tree nuts

Vitamin

B5Pantothenic acid Water 5.0 mg[12] Paresthesia N/D

Diarrhea;

possibly nausea

and heartburn.[13]

Meat,

broccoli,

avocados

VitaminB6

Pyridoxine,

pyridoxamine,pyridoxal

Water 1.31.7 mgAnemia[14]

peripheral

neuropathy.

100 mg

Impairment of

proprioception,

nerve damage(doses >

100 mg/day)

Meat,

vegetables,tree nuts,

bananas

VitaminB7

Biotin Water 30.0 gDermatitis,

enteritisN/D

Raw egg

yolk, liver,

peanuts,leafy green

vegetables

Vitamin

B9

Folic acid, folinic

acidWater 400 g

Megaloblastic

anemia and

Deficiency

duringpregnancy is

associated withbirth defects,

such as neural

tube defects

1,000 g

May mask

symptoms of

vitamin B12deficiency; other

effects.

Leafy

vegetables,pasta,

bread,cereal, liver

Vitamin

B12

Cyanocobalamin,

hydroxycobalamin,methylcobalamin

Water 2.4 gMegaloblastic

anemia[15]N/D

Acne-like rash

[causality is notconclusively

established].

Meat and

other animalproducts

Vitamin C Ascorbic acid Water 90.0 mg Scurvy 2,000 mgVitamin C

Many fruits

and

megadosage vegetables,liver

Vitamin

D

Cholecalciferol,

ErgocalciferolFat 10 g[16]

Rickets and

Osteomalacia50 g

Hypervitaminosis

D

Fish, eggs,

liver,

mushrooms

Vitamin ETocopherols,

tocotrienolsFat 15.0 mg

Deficiency is

very rare;

sterility in malesand abortions in

females, mild

hemolytic

anemia in

newborn infants.[17]

1,000 mg

Increased

congestive heartfailure seen in

one large

randomized

study.[18]

Many fruits

and

vegetables,

nuts and

seeds

Vitamin

K

phylloquinone,

menaquinonesFat 120 g

Bleeding

diathesisN/D

Increasescoagulation in

patients taking

warfarin.[19]

Leafy green

vegetables

such as

spinach,

egg yolks,

liver

Health effects[edit]

Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint

inherited from its parents, a fetus begins to develop, at the moment of conception, from the nutrients it absorbs. It

requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that

produce among other things, skin, bone, and muscle. If there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a

child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage.[20]

For the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by other means. For example,

microorganisms in the intestine commonly known as "gut flora" produce vitamin K and biotin, while one form ofvitamin D is synthesized in the skin with the help of the natural ultraviolet wavelength of sunlight. Humans can produce

some vitamins from precursors they consume. Examples include vitamin A, produced from beta carotene, and niacin,

from the amino acid tryptophan.[7]

Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential nutrients for the healthy maintenance of the

cells, tissues, and organs that make up a multicellular organism; they also enable a multicellular life form to efficiently use

chemical energy provided by food it eats, and to help process the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats required for

respiration.[4]

Supplements[edit]

Evidence for supplementation in those who are otherwise healthy do not show any benefit with respect to cancer or

heart disease.[2][21] Vitamin A and E supplements not only provide no health benefits for generally healthy individuals,

but they may increase mortality, though the two large studies that support this conclusion included smokers for whom it

was already known that beta-carotene supplements can be harmful.[21][22] While other findings suggest that vitamin E

toxicity is limited to only a specific form when taken in excess.[23]

The European Union and other countries of Europe have regulations that define limits of vitamin (and mineral) dosages

for their safe use as food supplements. Most vitamins that are sold as food supplements cannot exceed a maximum daily

dosage. Vitamin products above these legal limits are not considered food supplements and must be registered as

prescription or non-prescription (over-the-counter drugs) due to their potential side effects. As a result, most of the fat-

soluble vitamins (such as the vitamins A, D, E, and K) that contain amounts above the daily allowance are drugproducts. The daily dosage of a vitamin supplement for example cannot exceed 300% of the recommended daily

allowance, and for vitamin A, this limit is even lower (200%). Such regulations are applicable in most European

countries.[24][25]

500 mg calcium supplement tablets, with

vitamin D, made from calcium carbonate,

maltodextrin, mineral oil, hypromellose,

glycerin, cholecalciferol, polyethylene glycol,

and carnauba wax.

Dietary supplements often contain vitamins, but may also include other ingredients, such as minerals, herbs, and

botanicals. Scientific evidence supports the benefits of dietary supplements for persons with certain health conditions.[26]

In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary

supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions.[26] They may also contain levels of

vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food.[27]

Effect of cooking[edit]

Shown below is percentage loss of vitamins after cooking averaged for common foods such as vegetables, meat or fish.

Vitamin C B1 B2 B3 B5 B6 Folate B12 A E

Average %loss 16 26 3 18 17 3 20 ? 11 11

It should be noted however that some vitamins may become more "bio-available" that is, usable by the body when

steamed or cooked. [28]

The table below shows whether various vitamins are susceptible to loss from heatsuch as heat from boiling, steaming,

cooking etc.and other agents. The effect of cutting vegetables can be seen from exposure to air and light. Water

soluble vitamins such as B and C seep into the water when a vegetable is boiled.

Vitamin Soluble in Water Exposure to Air Exposure to Light Exposure to Heat

Vitamin A no partially partially relatively stable

Vitamin C very unstable yes yes yes

Vitamin D no no no no

Vitamin E no yes yes no

Vitamin K no no yes no

Thiamine (B1) highly no ? > 100 C

Riboflavin (B2) slightly no in solution no

Niacin (B3) yes no no no

Pantothenic Acid (B5) quite stable ? NO yes

Vitamin B6 yes ? yes ?

Biotin (B7) somewhat ? ? no

Folic Acid (B9) yes ? when dry at high temp

Vitamin B12 yes ? yes no

[29]

Deficiencies[edit]

Humans must consume vitamins periodically but with differing schedules, to avoid deficiency. The human body's stores

for different vitamins vary widely; vitamins A, D, and B12 are stored in significant amounts in the human body, mainly in

the liver,[17] and an adult human's diet may be deficient in vitamins A and D for many months and B12 in some cases for

years, before developing a deficiency condition. However, vitamin B3 (niacin and niacinamide) is not stored in the

human body in significant amounts, so stores may last only a couple of weeks.[8][17] For vitamin C, the first symptoms of

scurvy in experimental studies of complete vitamin C deprivation in humans have varied widely, from a month to more

than six months, depending on previous dietary history that determined body stores.[30]

Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when an organismdoes not get enough of the vitamin in its food. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that

prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin, due to a "lifestyle factor", such as smoking, excessive alcohol

consumption, or the use of medications that interfere with the absorption or use of the vitamin.[17] People who eat avaried diet are unlikely to develop a severe primary vitamin deficiency. In contrast, restrictive diets have the potential to

cause prolonged vitamin deficits, which may result in often painful and potentially deadly diseases.

Well-known human vitamin deficiencies involve thiamine (beriberi), niacin (pellagra), vitamin C (scurvy), and vitamin D

(rickets). In much of the developed world, such deficiencies are rare; this is due to (1) an adequate supply of food and

(2) the addition of vitamins and minerals to common foods, often called fortification.[7][17] In addition to these classical

vitamin deficiency diseases, some evidence has also suggested links between vitamin deficiency and a number of

different disorders.[31][32]

Side-effects[edit]

The discovery dates of the vitamins and their sources

Year of discovery Vitamin Food source

1913 Vitamin A (Retinol) Cod liver oil

1910 Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Rice bran

1920 Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Citrus, most fresh foods

1920 Vitamin D (Calciferol) Cod liver oil

1920 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Meat, dairy products, eggs

1922 (Vitamin E) (Tocopherol)Wheat germ oil,unrefined vegetable oils

1926 Vitamin B12 (Cobalamins) Liver, eggs, animal products

1929 Vitamin K1 (Phylloquinone) Leafy green vegetables

1931 Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)Meat, whole grains,in many foods

1931 Vitamin B7 (Biotin) Meat, dairy products, eggs

1934 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Meat, dairy products

1936 Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Meat, grains

1941 Vitamin B9 (Folic acid) Leafy green vegetables

In large doses, some vitamins have documented side-effects that tend to be more severe with a larger dosage. The

likelihood of consuming too much of any vitamin from food is remote, but overdosing (vitamin poisoning) from vitamin

supplementation does occur. At high enough dosages, some vitamins cause side-effects such as nausea, diarrhea, and

vomiting.[8][33] When side-effects emerge, recovery is often accomplished by reducing the dosage. The doses of

vitamins differ because individual tolerances can vary widely and appear to be related to age and state of health.[34]

In 2008, overdose exposure to all formulations of vitamins and multivitamin-mineral formulations was reported by

68,911 individuals to the American Association of Poison Control Centers (nearly 80% of these exposures were in

children under the age of 6), leading to 8 "major" life-threatening outcomes, but no deaths.[35]

Pharmacology[edit]

Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble or fat-soluble. In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E,

and K) and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C). Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water and, in

general, are readily excreted from the body, to the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin

consumption.[36] Because they are not as readily stored, more consistent intake is important.[37] Many types of water-

soluble vitamins are synthesized by bacteria.[38] Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the

help of lipids (fats). Because they are more likely to accumulate in the body, they are more likely to lead to

hypervitaminosis than are water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamin regulation is of particular significance in cystic

fibrosis.[39]

History[edit]

The value of eating a certain food to

maintain health was recognized long

before vitamins were identified. The

ancient Egyptians knew that feeding liver

to a person would help cure nightblindness, an illness now known to be

caused by a vitamin A deficiency.[40] The

advancement of ocean voyages during theRenaissance resulted in prolonged periods

without access to fresh fruits and

vegetables, and made illnesses from

vitamin deficiency common among ships'

crews.[41]

In 1747, the Scottish surgeon James Lind

discovered that citrus foods helped

prevent scurvy, a particularly deadly

disease in which collagen is not properlyformed, causing poor wound healing,

bleeding of the gums, severe pain, and death.[40] In 1753, Lind published his Treatise on the Scurvy, which

recommended using lemons and limes to avoid scurvy, which was adopted by the British Royal Navy. This led to thenickname Limey for sailors of that organization. Lind's discovery, however, was not widely accepted by individuals in

the Royal Navy's Arctic expeditions in the 19th century, where it was widely believed that scurvy could be prevented by

practicing good hygiene, regular exercise, and maintaining the morale of the crew while on board, rather than by a diet

of fresh food.[40] As a result, Arctic expeditions continued to be plagued by scurvy and other deficiency diseases. In theearly 20th century, when Robert Falcon Scott made his two expeditions to the Antarctic, the prevailing medical theory

at the time was that scurvy was caused by "tainted" canned food.[40]

During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the use of deprivation studies allowed scientists to isolate and identify a

number of vitamins. Lipid from fish oil was used to cure rickets in rats, and the fat-soluble nutrient was called

"antirachitic A". Thus, the first "vitamin" bioactivity ever isolated, which cured rickets, was initially called "vitamin A";

however, the bioactivity of this compound is now called vitamin D.[42] In 1881, Russian surgeon Nikolai Lunin studied

the effects of scurvy while at the University of Tartu in present-day Estonia.[43] He fed mice an artificial mixture of all the

separate constituents of milk known at that time, namely the proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and salts. The mice that

received only the individual constituents died, while the mice fed by milk itself developed normally. He made a

conclusion that "a natural food such as milk must therefore contain, besides these known principal ingredients, small

quantities of unknown substances essential to life."[43] However, his conclusions were rejected by other researchers

when they were unable to reproduce his results. One difference was that he had used table sugar (sucrose), while other

researchers had used milk sugar (lactose) that still contained small amounts of vitamin B.[citation needed]

The Ancient Egyptians knew that

feeding a person liver would help

cure night blindness.

In east Asia, where polished white rice was the common staple food of the middle class, beriberi resulting from lack of

vitamin B1 was endemic. In 1884, Takaki Kanehiro, a British trained medical doctor of the Imperial Japanese Navy,

observed that beriberi was endemic among low-ranking crew who often ate nothing but rice, but not among officers

who consumed a Western-style diet. With the support of the Japanese navy, he experimented using crews of two

battleships; one crew was fed only white rice, while the other was fed a diet of meat, fish, barley, rice, and beans. The

group that ate only white rice documented 161 crew members with beriberi and 25 deaths, while the latter group had

only 14 cases of beriberi and no deaths. This convinced Takaki and the Japanese Navy that diet was the cause of

beriberi, but mistakenly believed that sufficient amounts of protein prevented it.[44] That diseases could result from some

dietary deficiencies was further investigated by Christiaan Eijkman, who in 1897 discovered that feeding unpolished rice

instead of the polished variety to chickens helped to prevent beriberi in the chickens. The following year, Frederick

Hopkins postulated that some foods contained "accessory factors" in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats

etc. that are necessary for the functions of the human body.[40] Hopkins and Eijkman were awarded the Nobel Prize

for Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for their discovery of several vitamins.[45]

In 1910, the first vitamin complex was isolated by Japanese scientist Umetaro Suzuki, who succeeded in extracting a

water-soluble complex of micronutrients from rice bran and named it aberic acid (later Orizanin). He published this

discovery in a Japanese scientific journal.[46] When the article was translated into German, the translation failed to state

that it was a newly discovered nutrient, a claim made in the original Japanese article, and hence his discovery failed to

gain publicity. In 1912 Polish biochemist Casimir Funk isolated the same complex of micronutrients and proposed the

complex be named "vitamine" (from "vital amine", reportedly suggested by Max Nierenstein a friend and reader of

Biochemistry at Bristol University[47]).[48] The name soon became synonymous with Hopkins' "accessory factors", and,

by the time it was shown that not all vitamins are amines, the word was already ubiquitous. In 1920, Jack Cecil

Drummond proposed that the final "e" be dropped to deemphasize the "amine" reference, after researchers began to

suspect that not all "vitamines" (in particular, vitamin A) have an amine component.[44]

In 1930, Paul Karrer elucidated the correct structure for beta-carotene, the main precursor of vitamin A, and identified

other carotenoids. Karrer and Norman Haworth confirmed Albert Szent-Gyrgyi's discovery of ascorbic acid and

made significant contributions to the chemistry of flavins, which led to the identification of lactoflavin. For their

investigations on carotenoids, flavins and vitamins A and B2, they both received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1937.[49]

In 1931, Albert Szent-Gyrgyi and a fellow researcher Joseph Svirbely suspected that "hexuronic acid" was actually

vitamin C, and gave a sample to Charles Glen King, who proved its anti-scorbutic activity in his long-established guinea

pig scorbutic assay. In 1937, Szent-Gyrgyi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery.

In 1943, Edward Adelbert Doisy and Henrik Dam were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their

discovery of vitamin K and its chemical structure. In 1967, George Wald was awarded the Nobel Prize (along with

Ragnar Granit and Haldan Keffer Hartline) for his discovery that vitamin A could participate directly in a physiological

process.[45]

Etymology[edit]

The term vitamin was derived from "vitamine," a compound word coined in 1912 by the Polish biochemist Kazimierz

Funk[50] when working at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine. The name is from vital and amine, meaning amine

of life, because it was suggested in 1912 that the organic micronutrient food factors that prevent beriberi and perhaps

other similar dietary-deficiency diseases might be chemical amines. This proved incorrect for the micronutrient class, and

the word was shortened to vitamin.

Society and culture[edit]

Governmental regulation[edit]

Most countries place dietary supplements in a special category under the general umbrella of foods, not drugs. This

necessitates that the manufacturer, and not the government, be responsible for ensuring that its dietary supplement

products are safe before they are marketed. Regulation of supplements varies widely by country. In the United States, a

dietary supplement is defined under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994.[51] In addition, the

Food and Drug Administration uses the Adverse Event Reporting System to monitor adverse events that occur with

supplements.[52] In 2007, the US Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 21, part III took effect, regulating GMP

practices in the manufacturing, packaging, labeling, or holding operations for dietary supplements. Even though product

registration is not required, these regulations mandate production and quality control standards (including testing for

Nomenclature of reclassified vitamins

Previous name Chemical name Reason for name change[55]

Vitamin B4 Adenine DNA metabolite; synthesized in body

Vitamin B8 Adenylic acid DNA metabolite; synthesized in body

Vitamin F Essential fatty acidsNeeded in large quantities (doesnot fit the definition of a vitamin).

Vitamin G Riboflavin Reclassified as Vitamin B2

Vitamin H Biotin Reclassified as Vitamin B7

Vitamin J Catechol, Flavin Catechol nonessential; flavin reclassified as B2

Vitamin L1[56] Anthranilic acid Non essential

Vitamin L2[56] Adenylthiomethylpentose RNA metabolite; synthesized in body

Vitamin M Folic acid Reclassified as Vitamin B9

Vitamin O Carnitine Synthesized in body

Vitamin P Flavonoids No longer classified as a vitamin

Vitamin PP Niacin Reclassified as Vitamin B3

Vitamin S Salicylic acid Proposed inclusion[57] of salicylate as an essential micronutrient

Vitamin U S-Methylmethionine Protein metabolite; synthesized in body

identity, purity and adulterations) for dietary supplements.[53] In the European Union, the Food Supplements Directive

requires that only those supplements that have been proven safe can be sold without a prescription.[54] For mostvitamins, pharmacopoeial standards have been established. In the United States, the United States Pharmacopeia (USP)

sets standards for the most commonly used vitamins and preparations thereof. Likewise, monographs of the European

Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.) regulate aspects of identity and purity for vitamins on the European market.

Naming[edit]

The reason

that the set ofvitamins skips

directly from E

to K is that the

vitamins

corresponding

to letters F-J

were either

reclassified

over time,

discarded as

false leads, or

renamed

because of

their

relationship to

vitamin B,which became

a complex of

vitamins.

The German-speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin K (in addition to naming it as such) did so because

the vitamin is intimately involved in the Koagulation of blood following wounding. At the time, most (but not all) of the

letters from F through to J were already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable.[55][58]

The table on the right lists chemicals that had previously been classified as vitamins, as well as the earlier names of

vitamins that later became part of the B-complex.

Anti-vitamins[edit]

Main article: Antinutrient

Anti-vitamins are chemical compounds that inhibit the absorption or actions of vitamins. For example, avidin is a protein

in egg whites that inhibits the absorption of biotin.[59] Pyrithiamine is similar to thiamine, vitamin B1, and inhibits the

enzymes that use thiamine.[60]

References[edit]

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89529-769-8

2. ^ a b Fortmann, SP; Burda, BU; Senger, CA; Lin, JS; Whitlock, EP (Nov 12, 2013). "Vitamin and Mineral

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doi:10.7326/0003-4819-159-12-201312170-00729. PMID 24217421.3. ^ Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner, David

LaHart, Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall.

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4. ^ a b Bender, David A. (2003). Nutritional biochemistry of the vitamins. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge

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5. ^ Bolander FF (2006). "Vitamins: not just for enzymes". Curr Opin Investig Drugs 7 (10): 9125.

PMID 17086936.

6. ^ Kutsky, R.J. (1973). Handbook of Vitamins and Hormones. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, ISBN 0-

442-24549-1

7. ^ a b c d Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamins. The National Academies, 2001.

8. ^ a b c Vitamin and Mineral Supplement Fact Sheets Vitamin A. Dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov (2013-06-05).

Retrieved on 2013-08-03.

9. ^ N/D= "Amount not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects. Source of intake should be from food

only to prevent high levels of intake" (see Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamins. The National Academies, 2001).

10. ^ "Thiamin, vitamin B1: MedlinePlus Supplements". U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,

National Institutes of Health.

11. ^ Hardman, J.G. et al., ed. (2001). Goodman and Gilman's Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (10th

ed.). p. 992. ISBN 0071354697.

12. ^ Plain type indicates Adequate Intakes (A/I). "The AI is believed to cover the needs of all individuals, but a lack

of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake" (see

Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamins. The National Academies, 2001).

13. ^ "Pantothenic acid, dexpanthenol: MedlinePlus Supplements". MedlinePlus. Retrieved 5 October 2009.

14. ^ Vitamin and Mineral Supplement Fact Sheets Vitamin B6. Dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov (2011-09-15).

Retrieved on 2013-08-03.15. ^ Vitamin and Mineral Supplement Fact Sheets Vitamin B12. Dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov (2011-06-24).

Retrieved on 2013-08-03.

16. ^ Value represents suggested intake without adequate sunlight exposure (see Dietary Reference Intakes:

Vitamins. The National Academies, 2001).

17. ^ a b c d e The Merck Manual: Nutritional Disorders: Vitamin Introduction Please select specific vitamins from

the list at the top of the page.

18. ^ Gaby, Alan R. (2005). "Does vitamin E cause congestive heart failure?". Townsend Letter for Doctors and

Patients.

19. ^ Rohde LE, de Assis MC, Rabelo ER (2007). "Dietary vitamin K intake and anticoagulation in elderly patients".

Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 10 (1): 15. doi:10.1097/MCO.0b013e328011c46c. PMID 17143047.

20. ^ Gavrilov, Leonid A. (10 February 2003) Pieces of the Puzzle: Aging Research Today and Tomorrow.

fightaging.org

21. ^ a b Moyer, VA (Feb 25, 2014). "Vitamin, Mineral, and Multivitamin Supplements for the Primary Prevention

of Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement.".

Annals of internal medicine. PMID 24566474.

22. ^ Bjelakovic, Goran; Nikolova, D; Gluud, LL; Simonetti, RG; Gluud, C (2007). "Mortality in Randomized Trials

of Antioxidant Supplements for Primary and Secondary Prevention: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis".

JAMA 297 (8): 84257. doi:10.1001/jama.297.8.842. PMID 17327526.

23. ^ Sen, Chandan K.; Khanna, Savita; Roy, Sashwati (2006). "Tocotrienols: Vitamin E beyond tocopherols". Life

Sciences 78 (18): 208898. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2005.12.001. PMC 1790869. PMID 16458936.

24. ^ S. Getman (March 2011). EU Regulations on food supplements, health foods, herbal medicines. US

Commercial Service. Retrieved February 2014.25. ^ Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft. Bundesrecht 817.022.104. Verordnung des EDI ber Speziallebensmittel

vom 23. Nov. 2005 Art. 22 Nahrungsergnzungsmittel. (in German)

26. ^ a b Use and Safety of Dietary Supplements NIH office of Dietary Supplements.

27. ^ Higdon, Jane (2011)Vitamin E recommendations at Linus Pauling Institute's Micronutrient Information Center

28. ^ Comparison of Vitamin Levels in Raw Foods vs. Cooked Foods. Beyondveg.com. Retrieved on 2013-08-03.

29. ^ Effects of Cooking on Vitamins (Table). Beyondveg.com. Retrieved on 2013-08-03.

30. ^ Pemberton, J. (2006). "Medical experiments carried out in Sheffield on conscientious objectors to military

service during the 193945 war". International Journal of Epidemiology 35 (3): 5568.

doi:10.1093/ije/dyl020. PMID 16510534.

31. ^ Lakhan, SE; Vieira, KF (2008). "Nutritional therapies for mental disorders". Nutrition journal 7: 2.

doi:10.1186/1475-2891-7-2. PMC 2248201. PMID 18208598.

32. ^ Boy, E.; Mannar, V.; Pandav, C.; de Benoist, B.; Viteri, F.; Fontaine, O.; Hotz, C. (2009). "Achievements,

challenges, and promising new approaches in vitamin and mineral deficiency control". Nutr Rev 67 (Suppl 1):

S2430. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00155.x. PMID 19453674.

33. ^ Institute of Medicine. Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K,

Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and

Zinc. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2001.

34. ^ Healthier Kids Section: What to take and how to take it.

35. ^ Bronstein, AC; et al. (2009). "2008 Annual Report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers'

National Poison Data System (NPDS): 26th Annual Report" (PDF). Clinical Toxicology 47 (10): 9111084.

doi:10.3109/15563650903438566. PMID 20028214.

36. ^ Fukuwatari T, Shibata K (2008). "Urinary water-soluble vitamins and their metabolite contents as nutritional

markers for evaluating vitamin intakes in young Japanese women". J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 54 (3): 2239.

doi:10.3177/jnsv.54.223. PMID 18635909.

37. ^ Bellows, L. and Moore, R. "Water-Soluble Vitamins". Colorado State University. Retrieved 2008-12-07.

38. ^ Said HM, Mohammed ZM (2006). "Intestinal absorption of water-soluble vitamins: an update". Curr. Opin.

Gastroenterol. 22 (2): 1406. doi:10.1097/01.mog.0000203870.22706.52. PMID 16462170.39. ^ Maqbool A, Stallings VA (2008). "Update on fat-soluble vitamins in cystic fibrosis". Curr Opin Pulm Med 14

(6): 57481. doi:10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283136787. PMID 18812835.

40. ^ a b c d e Jack Challem (1997)."The Past, Present and Future of Vitamins"

41. ^ Jacob, RA. (1996). "Three eras of vitamin C discovery". Subcell Biochem. Subcellular Biochemistry 25: 1

16. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-0325-1_1. ISBN 978-1-4613-7998-0. PMID 8821966.

42. ^ Bellis, Mary. Production Methods The History of the Vitamins. Retrieved 1 February 2005.

43. ^ a b 1929 Nobel lecture. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved on 2013-08-03.

44. ^ a b Rosenfeld, L. (1997). "Vitaminevitamin. The early years of discovery". Clin Chem 43 (4): 6805.

PMID 9105273.

45. ^ a b Carpenter, Kenneth (22 June 2004). "The Nobel Prize and the Discovery of Vitamins". Nobelprize.org.

Retrieved 5 October 2009.

46. ^ Suzuki, U., Shimamura, T. (1911). "Active constituent of rice grits preventing bird polyneuritis". TokyoKagaku Kaishi 32: 47; 144146; 335358.

47. ^ Combs, Gerald (2008). The vitamins: fundamental aspects in nutrition and health.

ISBN 9780121834937.

External links[edit]

Wikisource has the text of the 1922 Encyclopdia Britannica article Vitamine.

Food portal

USDA RDA chart in PDF format

Health Canada Dietary Reference Intakes Reference Chart for Vitamins

NIH Office of Dietary Supplements: Fact Sheets

NIH Office of Dietary Supplements. Dietary Supplements: Background Information

Interactive table based on United States Department of Agriculture Database

Vitapred : A web server for predicting vitamin interacting residues in vitamin binding protein

v

t

e

Vitamins (A11)

Fat soluble

A -Carotene -Carotene Retinol# Tretinoin

D

D2 (Ergosterol, Ergocalciferol#) D3 (7-Dehydrocholesterol, Previtamin D3, Cholecalciferol,

25-hydroxycholecalciferol, Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol), Calcitroic acid) D4(Dihydroergocalciferol) D5 D analogues (Alfacalcidol, Dihydrotachysterol, Calcipotriol,

Tacalcitol, Paricalcitol)

48. ^ Funk, C. and Dubin, H. E. (1922). The Vitamines. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Company.

49. ^ Nobelprize.org. The Official Website of the Nobel Prize.Paul Karrer-Biographical. Retrieved 08-01-2013.

50. ^ Iowiecki, Maciej (1981). Dzieje nauki polskiej. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Interpress. p. 177. ISBN 83-

223-1876-6.

51. ^ Legislation. Fda.gov (2009-09-15). Retrieved on 2010-11-12.

52. ^ Event Reporting System (AERS). Fda.gov (2009-08-20). Retrieved on 2010-11-12.

53. ^ U.S. Food and Drug Administration. CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21. Retrieved 16 February

2014.

54. ^ not EUR-Lex 32002L0046 EN. Eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved on 2010-11-12.

55. ^ a b Bennett, David. Every Vitamin Page. All Vitamins and Pseudo-Vitamins.

56. ^ a b Davidson, Michael W. (2004) Anthranilic Acid (Vitamin L) Florida State University. Retrieved 20-02-07.

57. ^ Abbasi, Kamran (2003). "Rapid Responses to: Aspirin protects women at risk of pre-eclampsia without

causing bleeding". British Medical Journal 327 (7424): 7424. doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7424.0-h.

58. ^ Vitamins and minerals names and facts. pubquizhelp.34sp.com

59. ^ Roth KS (1981). "Biotin in clinical medicinea review". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 34 (9): 196774.

PMID 6116428.

60. ^ Rindi G, Perri V (1961). "Uptake of pyrithiamine by tissue of rats". Biochem. J. 80 (1): 2146.

PMC 1243973. PMID 13741739.

E Tocopherol (Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta) Tocotrienol (Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta)

Tocofersolan

KNaphthoquinone Phylloquinone (K1) Menaquinones (K2) Menadione (K3) Menadiol

(K4)

Water

soluble

B

B1 (Thiamine#) B2 (Riboflavin

#) B3 (Niacin, Nicotinamide#) B5 (Pantothenic acid,

Dexpanthenol, Pantethine) B6 (Pyridoxine#, Pyridoxal phosphate, Pyridoxamine) B7

(Biotin) B9 (Folic acid, Dihydrofolic acid, Folinic acid, L-methylfolate) B12(Cyanocobalamin, Hydroxocobalamin, Methylcobalamin, Cobamamide) Choline

C Ascorbic acid# Dehydroascorbic acid

Combinations Multivitamins

#WHO-EMWithdrawn from market

Clinical trials:Phase IIINever to phase III

M: NUT cof, enz, met noco, nuvi, sysi/epon, met drug (A8/11/12)

v

t

e

Food chemistry

Additives

Carbohydrates

Coloring

Enzymes

Essential fatty acids

Flavors

Lipids

"Minerals" (Chemical elements)Proteins

Vitamins

Water

v

t

e

Nutrition disorders (E40E68, 260269)

Protein- Kwashiorkor

Hypoalimentation/

malnutrition

energymalnutrition

Marasmus

Catabolysis

Avitaminosis

B

vitamins

B1: Beriberi / WernickeKorsakoff syndrome (Wernicke's

encephalopathy

Korsakoff's syndrome)

B2: Ariboflavinosis

B3: Pellagra (Niacin deficiency)

B6: Pyridoxine deficiency

B7: Biotin deficiency

B9: Folate deficiency

B12: Vitamin B12 deficiency

Other

vitamins

A: Vitamin A deficiency/Bitot's spots

C: Scurvy

D: Hypovitaminosis D/Rickets/Osteomalacia

E: Vitamin E deficiency

K: Vitamin K deficiency

Mineral

deficiency

Sodium

Potassium

Magnesium

CalciumIron

Zinc

Manganese

Copper

Iodine

Chromium

Molybdenum

Selenium (Keshan disease)

Hyperalimentation

Overweight

Obesity

Childhood obesity

Obesity hypoventilation syndrome

Abdominal obesity

Vitamin

poisoning

Hypervitaminosis A

Hypervitaminosis D

Hypervitaminosis E

Mineral

overloadsee inborn errors of metal metabolism, toxicity

M: NUT cof, enz, met noco, nuvi, sysi/epon, met drug (A8/11/12)

v

t

e

Dietary supplements

Types

Amino acids

Bodybuilding supplement

Energy drink

Energy bar

Fatty acids

Herbal Supplements

Minerals

Prebiotics

Probiotics (Lactobacillus

Bifidobacterium)

Protein bar

Vitamins

Vitamins

and

"minerals"

(chemical

elements)

Retinol (Vitamin A)

B vitamins: Thiamine (B1)

Riboflavin (B2)

Niacin (B3)

Pantothenic acid (B5)

Pyridoxine (B6)

Biotin (B7)

Folic acid (B9)

Cyanocobalamin (B12)

Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)

Ergocalciferol and Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D)

Tocopherol (Vitamin E)

Naphthoquinone (Vitamin K)

Calcium

Choline

Chromium

Cobalt

Copper

Fluorine

Iodine

Iron

Magnesium

Manganese

Molybdenum

Phosphorus

Potassium

Selenium

Sodium

Sulfur

Zinc

Other

common

ingredients

AAKG

Carnitine

Chondroitin sulfate

Cod liver oil

Copper gluconate

Creatine/Creatine supplements

Dietary fiber

Echinacea

Elemental calcium

Ephedra

Fish oil

Folic acid

Ginseng

Glucosamine

Glutamine

Grape seed extractGuarana

Iron supplements

Japanese Honeysuckle

Krill oil

Lingzhi

Linseed oil

Lipoic acid

Milk thistle

Melatonin

Red yeast rice

Royal jelly

Saw palmetto

Spirulina

St John's wort

Taurine

Wheatgrass

Wolfberry

Yohimbine

Zinc gluconate

Related

Codex Alimentarius

Enzyte

Hadacol

articles Herbal teaNutraceutical

Multivitamin

Nutrition

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