1920s-30sUNIT 4 INTERWAR

YEARS

• People were relieved war was over, but it had fundamentally changed their world. Economic and political stability were elusive in the 20s, cultural and social norms had shifted. Everything was different, and no one quite “gets it” yet- therefore, anxiety.

AGE OF ANXIETY (1920S)- WHY?

• WWI had been catastrophic. Traditional gov’t and dynasties blown to bits. New countries, new democracies (Germany and Eastern Europe) Communism has risen, totalitarianism (under Stalin) freaking people out.

• People felt the world they knew was gone, and they couldn’t control the changes. Really don’t feel “secure” again until 50s-60s.

END OF THE OLD ORDER

• New German gov’t- had signed the Versailles Treaty, doomed from the start. Social Democratic Party (Bismarck’s old enemy) in control. Germany has very little experience with Democracy, which also makes gov’t shaky. Greatest fear was that communism would rise there too.

WEIMAR REPUBLIC

• France is a mess- determined to get $$ from Germany.

• Germany also an economic mess, and had to pay reparations + their own war debt (Kaiser had refused to raise taxes during war- had borrowed instead). Weimar Republic shaky at best- also reluctant to raise taxes (never popular) so began printing more $$- leading to runaway inflation. Savings wiped out, wheel barrels of $$ for groceries, bred resentment

ECONOMIC ISSUES

Germany fell behind in reparations payments, so France seized the Ruhr Valley (which held 80% of German steel and coal)

RUHR CRISIS 1923

• International committee headed by Charles Dawes (American) determined reduced reparations payments, and offered Germany loans so they could make up the balance. • Germany got loans from US

to pay Eng/Fr- that way Eng/Fr could pay back war loans from US.• System worked, promoting

econ recovery until 1929

DAWES PLAN 1924

“Roaring” 20s masked problems of restoring stability and implementing democracy.

Strong anti-war spiritPeople went back

home to lick their wounds, new nations not given the support they needed.

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS

New Republics unprepared for challenges of postwar era.

Nationalism still a problem- border disputes. Poland especially messy ethnically

Germany: Gustav Stressman Chancellor. citizens quickly developed nostalgia for German Empire. Afraid of communism, so turned to the right- WAY right. Upper and middle classes had lower standard of living than before war.

EASTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE

1923 Right wing activist Adolf Hitler (head of “national socialist party” or “brown shirts”) led coup d'état against Weimar gov’t to protest the French occupation of the Ruhr valley. Coup put down, Hitler arrested and spent a year in prison (where he writes “Mein Kampf”) Light jail sentence showed sympathy from judiciary.

BEER HALL PUTSCH

Fewer political problems than other areas- representative gov’t were well established. But still struggled with confidence and decision making.

France: Coalition gov’ts through much of 20s (typical). Rebuilt population by making birth control illegal. Hard time physically rebuilding, most of the fighting had been done in France.

England: Ramsey McDonald 1st Prime Minister elected from the new Labour Party (replaced Liberal Party). 1924-26. 1926 there was a 9 day general strike, helped return Conservatives under Stanley Baldwin to power from 1926-29. Unemployment their largest problem. Social welfare programs (unemployment, supplemented housing, medical care) grew. Canada and Australian given full independence as thanks for contributions in war

FRANCE AND ENGLAND

Easter Rising 1916 had put strain on England already struggling with war- they didn’t think it was funny- savage reprisal.

IRA used terrorist/guerrilla tactics against British troops (Black and Tans)

Irish leaders created an Irish Parliament (underground at first) which then negotiated a treaty in 1922 to create an Irish Free State. (England kept some territory) Tensions remained

IRELAND

Ordinary people increasingly defined culture- and culture was created for the majority. Entertainment in groups (movies, radio) mass production of consumer goods.

Growing access to credit to buy things when you WANTED them.

Shorter working hours (Ford pioneered 8 hour day) gave people greater leisure time. Rising standard of living gave people funds to enjoy

CULTURAL UNCERTAINTYMASS SOCIETY

Before war most people believed in progress, that things would always get better with time.

But war itself had been so destructive and gruesome, it created psychological as well as physical scars.

Disillusionment- a search for meaning, with no certainty any will ever be found

19th century Science had supplimented European’s idea of an ordered universe which they dominated. But those stable building blocks are challenged.

Einstein/relativity- nothing is certain. Max Plank/Quantum physics- the universe is constantly changing (matter/energy). Ernest Rutherford- split the atom

OPTIMISM/UNCERTAINTY

Laid groundwork for postwar pessimism (though he died in 1900) Argued the Euro had over emphasized rationality since the classical world- which stifled passion and creative thinking. Foretold a dark future of decline for the West.

Criticized church, said “God is dead” and that “Christianity is a slave mentality which glorifies weakness, envy and mediocrity.”

Only the vision and creativity of a few “Supermen” (Ubermenshen) could reorder the world and save it.

PHILOSOPHY: NIETZSCHE

Belief that any issues which cannot be objectively proved are not the proper domain of philosophy. Said scientific evidence cannot prove religion, freedom etc… so those are not philosophy.

Ludwig Wittgenstein- philosophy is the study of language used to express thought

Abstract concepts are senseless because they cannot be tested by science or math. Only experience is worth analyzing

LOGICAL EMPIRICISM

Attempt to find new morality after wwi (will become even more important after wwii)

Saw life as absurd, with no inherent meaning- you have to find your meaning for yourself. Most existentialist are atheists.

Jean-Paul Sartre- life has no meaning, we simply exist. Albert Camus- we find meaning by taking action against what we disagree with

EXISTENTIALISM

1856-1939. Later work is a reflection of postwar values, humans are greedy, irrational creatures defined by repressed desires. Our unconscious (Id) pleasure seeking (sex) tendencies battle our rationality (Ego) and social morality (super Ego)

SIGMUND FREUD

Also impacted by search for new meaning and emphasis on subconscious

ART AND LITERATURE

Reality beyond material world- that which is found in subconscious. Objects are familiar, but distorted, full of contradictory images to inspire imagination. Salvador Dali

SURREALISM

Created figures with complex geometry, zigzagging lines and sharply angled, overlapping planes to portray all perspectives simultaneously. Pablo Picasso

CUBISM

Nonsense world- signaling a world that was no longer rational. Attacked all standards of accepted art, encouraged outrageous behavior.

Marcel Duchamp: the fountain (a urinal)

DADAISM

Grew in 20s- abandoning any attempt to re-create reality.

Wassily Kandinsky- evoke emotion through non-figural images

ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM

Explored human irrationality.Marcel Proust: One person’s inner thoughts

“Remembrance of Things Past”. Franz Kafka: Fantasies that convey agony. Helpless

individuals destroyed by surreal forces “Metamorphosis”

James Joyce: Pioneered “stream of consciousness” “Ulysses” one day in the life of Dublin (with parallels to Homer)

Virginia Woolf: importance of female thought and emotion are underappreciated. “A Room of One’s Own”

WRITERS

Incredibly popular leisure activity- Really took off after wwi (had begun in 1890s)

Silent film era- creation of “celebrities” like Charlie Chaplin, Rudolf Valentino, Greta Garbo and Clara Bow.

“Talkies” began in 1927 with “the Jazz Singer”

Could be a powerful tool for spreading information- will be important propaganda source in 1930s.

MOVIES

Guillermo Marconi invented in 1901. Used for military communications during wwi- entertainment began in 20s.

European radio generally run by gov’t (US private enterprise) will also become an important tool for propaganda.

RADIO

CHAPTER 18: ECONOMIC

DEPRESSION AND WWII

20s often seen as a time of prosperity, but that same instability was just under the econ surface too.

Productivity was above 1914- but it was a house of cards, and when the US stock market crashed in 1929 it virtually brought down the capitalist system.

In the 1930s production shrank, trade dropped, and unemployment skyrocketed.

THE GREAT DEPRESSION

The economies of Eng, Ger, Fr, and US all tied together through war debts. US loaned $$ to Ger so they could pay reparations, so Eng/Fr could pay war loans. But as the US econ became more fragile, they pulled out of that circle in 1928, and the downward spiral began.

France was in serious trouble, 230 Bil in damage, and had lost 1.7 mil young men- workers.

English econ had begun to slip before war (had lost econ edge of being 1st through IR) US now financial center of the world, and prime creditor

Causes of Crisis: Weak international econ Overproduction Unstable banking

practices

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS OF THE 1920S

European colonies economies often dependent on small # of cash crops. During 20s as prices rose colonies grew more, led to overproduction, and you can’t just stockpile it.

US and Australia had increased production during the war, and kept it up after- which drove down prices. Which meant farm families couldn’t afford to purchase manufactured goods, which led to surplus there as well.

Western econ policy included protective tariffs- which made situation worse by limiting trade. (Hawley Smoot Tariff in US)

AGRICULTURAL ISSUES

Came from Speculative investment, allowed to buy stock “on the margin” with only 10% down. (works fine as long as stock prices are going up)

When prices stumbled, panic set in, led to waves of selling and “crash” of prices. Banks collapsed b/c they were tied to stock investments- when banks failed savings disappeared (no fdic at this point)

STOCK MARKET CRASH

US called in their loans from Eng/Fr, and cancelled promised loans to Ger/Austria- and it all starts falling apart.

Lack of investment capital led to layoffs and unemployment.

International financial and commercial network destroyed- trade dropped 66% and production dropped 38%

DOMINO EFFECT

USSR- “Socialism in one country” they were outside the system. Their industrial capacity actually increased in the 30s through Stalin’s 5 year plans.

China- not communist- but self contained and in the middle of a civil war.

Japan- expanding through imperialism already

UNDEPRESSED AREAS

Adam Smith would have said this was part of the natural economic cycle- gov’ts should let it go. But voters weren’t willing to do that- Hoover voted out 1932

John Maynard Keynes- Proposes a new econ system: said econ needed investment to thrive, and if people can’t do it, gov’t should

POLITICAL REACTION

Newly elected president- his solution is based on ideas of Keynes- get govt investing in econ- public works projects. (he figures companies and individuals too gun shy to take risks- the gov’t will do it for them- show confidence)

Prevented the collapse of the system with farm subsidies, banking reform, social security and jobs programs

Represents a “reform” of capitalism. Other countries used as well- (esp. Scandinavia where it finds great success) Not full socialism, but greater involvement in econ for good of pop than had ever been seen before

FDR AND NEW DEAL

P.M. Ramsey MacDonald responded to falling revenues by cutting unemployment and present women from collecting unemployment. High Tariffs.

Little progress before 1933 when he started to copy new deal type reforms

Abandoned gold standard. Began balancing budgets, 1930s actually better than 1920s for England

BRITAIN

Depression didn’t hit France as fast (they aren’t as industrialized) But people in France are unhappy, and they don’t trust the gov’t. Riots and tensions from right/left wing groups

Political division will cause weak response to crises.

Proposed social reform like 40 hour week, vacations etc… squashed by right

Popular Front: semi-fascist group in French gov’t

FRANCE

Hitler (in power by mid 30s) used big spending for rearmament to stimulate economy- had eliminated unemployment by 1937 (from 50% in 1932)

GERMANY

Stalin in process of industrializing and collectivizing farmland. Kulaks (wealthy peasants) upset at being ordered to turn over land (which had been given to them by Lenin) so they slaughtered animals and burned crops rather than give them up. Led to Stalin’s 1st big set of purges- and in punishment, Stalin limited food production, and millions starved

STALIN’S RUSSIA

People in the 1920s were worried about far left (communism) didn’t notice that there was a radical alternative just as scary on the right- Fascism

RISE OF FASCISM

One party rule in a totalitarian state with secret police to terrorize population. Extreme nationalism- subordinate your will to the glory of the state. Leaders promised security and strength, and the price was your freedom.

Hated communism – their “mortal enemy” (funny, they have a lot in common at this point)

WHAT IS IT?

A gov’t on the extreme right or left, (Hitler or Stalin, either will do) where all aspects of life are controlled by the state

Six main featuresDynamic leader - Propaganda Indoctrination - terrorPersecution - Censorship

TOTALITARIANISM

Absolutism- mostly worried about preserving the social order. Leader had little interest in actual governing- just wanted power

Creating a new social order. Leader wants control- expects others to actively support regime

CONSERVATIVE AUTHORITARIANISM VS. TOTALITARIANISM

Invented the word “Fascism” (from Faces, roman symbol of strength)

Took control of Italy in 1922 (Il Duce- the leader) Used modern communications and propaganda to spell bind Italy- an idea that spread.

Appealed to people who were frightened by rapid chaotic change, looking for someone to believe in

Manufactured crisis to gain dictatorship. Promised an end to troubles and return to glory. (ancient roman empire)

Combination of socialism and nationalism- territorial expansion, benefits for workers.

ITALY: BENITO MUSSOLINI

Italy was full of disturbances/riots (many with Mussolini’s knowledge) he could then send in his peeps to “restore order”. Made Mussolini appear effective- helped his popularity. Hitler will do the same thing with his Brown shirts

BLACK SHIRTS

Top down control of economy. Syndicalist - corporate system, econ basis of Fascism. “Everything in the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state”. Outlawed unions and strikes, said they were communist and unpatriotic.

CORPORATE STATE

Italy never “fully” totalitarian- no purges or real police state (only 23 executions)

Brought order and organization to Italy- modernized and industrialized.

Suppression of Mafia. (they come to US)

It’s a dictatorship- any way you slice it.

Limited curriculum in school- regulated leisure time

Women restricted- told to go home and have babies (medal for those with 10+) Special tax on Bachelors, divorce outlawed

POSITIVES AND NEGATIVE

See ChartFASCISM VS. COMMUNISM

Most notorious version of fascism. Aggressive, determined to reverse the “humiliations” of 1918. Told people that if they would subject their will to the gov’t they could achieve greatness for the fatherland.

Appealed to middle and lower classes who were tired of suffering, and to upper classes who feared communist threat.

GERMANY: ADOLF HITLER

Hitler said that the German peoples were Aryan- one of the 4 purely “European” races (the others were Greek, Latin and Celtic) All others were “mongrelized” mixed blood (esp. Slavs and Jews) and were subhuman- and those of pure blood need protection from them.

Like Mussolini- big into women as baby machines- no birth control or abortions allowed etc..

Hitler also hated gypsies, Jehovah’s witnesses, communists, homosexuals, the mentally handicapped. One of his 1st acts as chancellor was the T4 project- 200,000 mentally handicapped people “euthanized”

THE “MASTER” RACE

One of the 7 original members of the Nationalist Socialist German Worker’s Party.

Like Mussolini, used Brown shirts to terrorize so he could stop the terror.

Beer Hall Putsch gave him national attention- made him realize he needed the validation of taking power legally, not through revolution (which is how communist do it- and he hates communists)

RISE OF HITLER

Written while in jail- 1923, an outline of his future plans. Germany needs a “Fuhrer” with unlimited power for the good of the people

Said Germany was winning wwi until they were “stabbed in the back” by Jews and communists.

Germans needed Lebensraum (Living space) from inferior Slavs in eastern Europe

MEIN KAMPF

Doomed from start, but fell with depression. Nearly 50% unemployment. Hitler promised econ, political, and military salvation.

Nazis largest party in the Reichstag in 1933- Hitler appointed chancellor (leader of legislature) Reichstag building burned 1933 (probably by Nazis) Hitler used it to crack down and consolidate power. Enabling Act March 1933 made Hitler dictator.

June 1934 “Night of Long Knives” elimination of political enemies

FALL OF WEIMAR REPUBLIC

Big part of Hitler’s plan. Used all resources to create a “mystique” for himself, the Nazi cause, and Germany.

Joseph Goebbels: minister of propaganda. “Triumph of the Will” documentary about Hitler.

Hemrich Himmler: leader of SS, Hitler’s personal guard and ultra secret police (as opposed to Gestapo- the regular secret police) Watching constantly for signs of “traitors”

Hitler Youth- Nazi indoctrination for kids, became mandatory

PROPAGANDA

Anti-Semitism. By 1934 most professions were closed to Jews. 1935 denied Jews rights of citizenship, made marriage between Jew and German illegal. Jews could not go to hospitals, use public parks or libraries, or be educated past the age of 14.

By 1938- when physical persecution begins- nearly 50% of Jewish population has fled Germany (cream of intellect)

NUREMBURG LAWS

“Night of Broken Glass” Nov. 9th 1938. Traditionally seen as opening of actual “Holocaust”.

Using the assassination of a German diplomat in Paris as a pretext (again, probably done by Nazi) Hitler ordered an attack on Jewish neighborhoods. Well organized and planned waves of violence destroyed homes/businesses, then made Jews pay for cleanup of damages

KRISTALLNACHT

Economic recovery- ended inflation through re-issuance of currency. Full employment through rearmament.

1936 Olympic Games testament to German resilience

Rearmament, and Nazi plans in general meant war was once again inevitable.

Not a good time to be someone “outside” the accepted norms….

POSITIVES AND NEGATIVES OF NAZI GERMANY

Lenin head of USSR 1921-24, the 1st communist regime

Lenin sought a world wide communist revolution (which had been Marx’s plan)

Encouraged growth of communism elsewhere. Comintern: committee with the purpose of spreading revolution in capitalist countries

USSR- RISE OF STALINMARXISM-LENINISM

Abolished traditional Russian social structure. (and “Russia” itself in creation of USSR)

Women gained (theoretic) equality.

Citizens gained an expectation of greater freedom (quickly crushed by Stalin)

LENIN’S IMPACT

Lenin died in 1924, w/o naming a successor. Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky main contenders. Trotsky was seen as too idealistic, his goal was world wide revolution.

Stalin announced goal of “socialism in one country” saying they should focus on growth at home- that tips the balance. (plus his ruthless oppression on anyone who doesn’t agree with him….)

Trotsky exiled, assassinated in Mexico city in 1940

POWER STRUGGLE 1924-27

No other parties allowed in gov’t after 1921. Only about 7% of pop belonged to communist party- and membership was limited. Selected by Nomenklatura- you had to be nominated by an existing member.

Central Committee 300 people, Politboro (12 men) was the center- they ran the country. Secretary General (Lenin’s job)= Dictator

COMMUNIST PARTY MACHINE

Stalin replaced Lenin’s NEP with full collectivization- no private land or business ownership.

Stalin introduced machinery to agriculture- to free up more workers for industry (which was his 1st priority) farmers paid according to production- but not allowed to keep surplus- that went to industrial workers. Farmers upset- got purged, then punished with smaller food rations. 10 million died between 1927-1930, 7 million of starvation. Ag. Capacity no greater than 1913

COLLECTIVIZATION

USSR is going to be industrialized. Gosplan- central state planning commission, made ALL production decisions

Revolution from above. The goal was to increase industrial output by 250% in 5 years, steel 300%. They would make up a 100 years in 10- or die trying (literally)

It worked- sort of. Steel did grow 400%, Oil 300%- 25% of population urbanized (from 8% in 1917) But quality of work was poor, and standard of living fell

INDUSTRIALIZATION: 5 YEAR PLANS

Glorify the Soviet people- and encourage productivity.

Pravda, only newspaper.

Patriotic filmsCensorship and

monitoring of literary output.

Religion persecuted

PROPAGANDA

Focus was on internal development in 20s and 30s. Treaties and alliances (including Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939) all

based around what would allow USSR to do their thing

FOREIGN POLICY

Old age pensionsEducational

opportunities increase

When rest of the world was hammered by depression, Russia was in good shape (comparatively)

Purges 1934-38 led to 8 million executions (mostly shoot you in the head) and 10 million sent to prison camps

RESULTS: POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE