WISE USE OF MIRES AND PEATLANDS - GRET - PERG · wise use of mires and peatlands - background and...

WISE USE

OF MIRES AND PEATLANDS -

BACKGROUND AND PRINCIPLES

INCLUDING

A FRAMEWORK FOR DECISION-MAKING

HANS JOOSTEN DONAL CLARKE

INTERNATIONAL MIRE INTERNATIONAL PEAT

CONSERVATION GROUP SOCIETY

2 IMCG/IPS STATEMENT

PUBLISHERS

International Mire Conservation Group andInternational Peat Society.

ISBN 951-97744-8-3

Distributed by NHBS Ltd,2-3 Wills RoadTotnes, Devon TQ9 5XN,UKTel: +44 (0) 1803 865913Fax: +44 (0) 1803 865280email: [email protected]: www.nhbs.com

Copyright © 2002 International Mire Conservation Group andInternational Peat Society.All rights reserved.No part of this book may be reproduced by any means, or transmitted, or translated into amachine language without the written permission of the publishers.

Printed November 2002Saarijärven Offset Oy, Saarijärvi, Finland

Cover: Haapasuo, a 2,500 ha large mire complex in the municipality of Leivonmäki, CentralFinland. Photo: Raimo Sopo.

This project has been carried out with financial support from theDutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs (DGIS) under the Global Peatland Initiative(www.wetlands.org/projects/GPI/default.htm), managed byWetlands International in co-operation with theIUCN- Netherlands Committee, Alterra, the International Mire Conservation Group andthe International Peatland Society.

Thanks also to Environment Canada for its provisionof staff time and logistical and financial support for this publication.

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CONTENTS

Guide to the Use of the Document .......................................................... 10

1. Outline of Chapter Contents ............................................................ 102. Guide to the framework for decision-making .................................... 13

1. Introduction .......................................................................................... 18

1.1 Preface ........................................................................................... 181.2 ‘Sustainable’ and ‘Wise’ Use in key conventions .............................. 181.3 Preparation of a Wise Use document ............................................... 191.4 Guidelines for Global Action on Peatlands ........................................ 211.5 Purpose of the document ................................................................. 211.6 Concept and content of the document .............................................. 221.7 Target organisations ......................................................................... 22

2. Mires and peatlands .............................................................................. 24

2.1 Concepts and terms1 ....................................................................... 242.2 Peat formation ................................................................................. 252.3 Mire and peatland types .................................................................. 252.4 Extent and location of mires and peatlands ....................................... 322.5 Rates of peat and carbon accumulation ............................................ 332.6 Characteristics of mires and peatlands .............................................. 352.7 Peatlands as habitats and ecosystems ............................................... 36

3. Values and functions of mires and peatlands ...................................... 45

3.1. What are Values? ............................................................................ 453.2 Positions with respect to intrinsic moral values .................................. 463.3 Types of instrumental values ............................................................. 473.4 Functions of mires and peatlands for human beings ........................... 48

3.4.1 Production functions .............................................................. 483.4.2 Carrier functions .................................................................... 693.4.3 Regulation functions ............................................................... 723.4.4 Informational functions ........................................................... 833.4.5 Transformation and option functions ....................................... 903.4.6 The values of conservation and economics .............................. 91


4. Values and conflicts: where different values meet .......................... 101

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 1014.2 Needs, wants and rights ................................................................. 1014.3 Different types of conflicts .............................................................. 1034.4 Conflicts dealing with facts ............................................................. 1034.5 Conflicts dealing with preferences .................................................. 1034.6 Conflicts dealing with precedences ................................................ 1044.7 Conflicts dealing with priorities ....................................................... 1064.8 The monetarisation of peatland values ............................................ 1084.9 Conflicts dealing with moral positions ............................................. 1124.10 Non-anthropocentric approaches ................................................... 113

5. Framework for Wise Use .................................................................... 120

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 1205.2 Deciding in principle if an intervention is admissible ......................... 122

5.2.1 The effect of a use on the function itself ................................ 1225.2.2. The effect of a use on other functions ................................... 123

5.3 General Considerations .................................................................. 1245.4 Guidance Principles for Wise Use .................................................. 1255.5 Modifiers ...................................................................................... 1275.6 Instruments .................................................................................... 128

5.6.1 Instruments at an international level ....................................... 1285.6.2 Instruments at regional level involving groups of countries ...... 1295.6.3 Instruments at a national level ............................................... 1295.6.4 Instruments at sub-national level involving provinces

and regions .......................................................................... 1335.6.5 Instruments at the level of enterprises ................................... 1355.6.6 Instruments at the level of the individual person ..................... 136

5.7 Codes of Conduct ......................................................................... 1375.8 Non-anthropocentric approaches ................................................... 1385.9 Dialogue ........................................................................................ 1395.10 Conclusion .................................................................................... 140

Glossary of Concepts and Terms ............................................................ 162

Acknowledgements ................................................................................. 178

Appendices .............................................................................................. 183

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References ............................................................................................... 217

Index ........................................................................................................ 253


STATEMENT ON THE WISE USE OF PEATLANDS

Adopted by the International Peat Society and the International Mire Conservation GroupMarch 20021

INTRODUCTION

This document highlights the nature and importance of peatlands and identifies problemsresulting from their use. The International Peat Society (IPS) and International MireConservation Group (IMCG) provide suggestions on how these problems may be resolvedthrough application of the “wise use” approach. The challenge is to develop mechanisms thatcan balance the conflicting demands on the global peatland heritage to ensure its continuedwise use to meet the needs of humankind. It is understood in this Statement that the term“peatlands”2 is inclusive of “mires”.

WHAT ARE PEATLANDS?

Peatlands are the most widespread of all wetland types in the world, representing 50 to 70% ofglobal wetlands. They cover over four million km2 or 3% of the land and freshwater surface ofthe planet. In these ecosystems are found one third of the world’s soil carbon and 10% ofglobal freshwater resources. These ecosystems are characterized by the unique ability toaccumulate and store dead organic matter from Sphagnum and many other non-moss species,as peat, under conditions of almost permanent water saturation. Peatlands are adapted to theextreme conditions of high water and low oxygen content, of toxic elements and low availabilityof plant nutrients. Their water chemistry varies from alkaline to acidic. Peatlands occur on allcontinents, from the tropical to boreal and Arctic zones from sea level to high alpine conditions.

WHY PAY ATTENTION TO PEATLANDS?

Wise use of peatlands is essential in order to ensure that sufficient areas of peatlands remainon this planet to carry out their vital natural resource functions while satisfying the essentialrequirements of present and future human generations. This involves evaluation of theirfunctions, uses, impacts and constraints. Through such assessment and reasoning, we musthighlight the priorities for their management and use, including mitigation of damage done tothem to date.

They are important ecosystems for a wide range of wildlife habitats supporting importantbiological diversity and species at risk, freshwater quality and hydrological integrity, carbonstorage and sequestration, and geochemical and palaeo archives. In addition, they areinextricably linked to social, economic and cultural values important to human communitiesworldwide. Their total carbon pool exceeds that of the world’s forests and equals that of theatmosphere.

7IMCG/IPS STATEMENT

Peatlands are natural systems performing local, regional and often global functions but theymean different things to different people. They can be considered as land, wetland, geologicaldeposit, water body, natural habitat or forest stand. In many cases, they may be all of these atone time. They are analogous to living organisms because they grow, mature and may evendie. Peatlands are used by many stakeholders for agriculture, forestry, fuel production, industry,pollution control, recreation, tourism, nature conservation and scientific research, while alsosupplying for the needs and life support of local communities and many indigenous peoples.As a consequence, any human influence on peatlands, or their surrounding landscape, canaffect their form and function. This necessitates an integrated environmental impact assessmentapproach prior to approval of any development affecting peatlands.

The global area of peatlands has been reduced significantly (estimated to be at least 10 to20%) since 1800 through climate change and human activities, particularly by drainage foragriculture and forestry. The latter continue to be the most important factors affecting changein peatlands, both globally and locally, particularly in the Tropics. Human pressures onpeatlands are both direct through drainage, land conversion, excavation, inundation andvisitor pressure, and indirect, as a result of air pollution, water contamination, contractionthrough water removal, and infrastructure development. The range and importance of thediverse functions, services and resources provided by peatlands are changing dramaticallywith the increases in human demand for use of these ecosystems and their natural resources.

PEATLANDS - A VITAL LOCAL, REGIONAL AND GLOBALRESOURCE

Peatlands satisfy many essential human needs for food, freshwater, shelter, warmth andemployment. With the growing understanding of their ecological importance to the planet,conflicting uses of peatlands arise. There are many examples of such conflicting and importantdemands and needs, several of which are outlined below.● In Europe, agriculture has been the principal sector use of peatlands for several centuries,

occupying 125 000 km2. Well-managed peatland soils are among the most productiveagricultural lands available, facilitating the efficient production of essential food crops.Drainage and conversion of peatland to agriculture has been going on for many centuriesand continues to this day.

● In the tropics, peatland utilization mainly commenced after 1900; peatland conversionspeeded up after the Second World War. The main impacts on peatlands in the tropics arethrough agriculture and human settlement by forest removal, fires and land drainage.

● Extensive commercial forestry operations have been established on peatlands in manynations. It is estimated that nearly 150 000 km2 of the world’s peatlands have been drainedfor commercial forestry.

● In several countries, peat is extracted and burned for its energy value, providing an importantlocal and national source of heat and power. In total, some 21 million tonnes of peat generateabout five to six million tonnes of oil equivalent per year.

● Peat offers an ideal substrate for horticultural plant production. Peat forms the basis ofgrowing media that are readily available, easily processed, uniform, high performance andcost-effective, a business that is worth around $US 300 million annually. In 1999, nearly 40million m3 of peat were used across the world in horticulture.


● The global area of peatland used for energy generation and production of plant growingmedia is around 2000 km2. Peat is also used as a critical growth medium for greenhouseseedlings used in many North American forestry replanting operations.

● There are many other uses of peatlands and peat, including building and insulation systems,animal stable litter, alcoholic drinks, environmental improvement and purification systems,balneology, therapy, medicine and textiles.

● All these uses of peatlands underpin downstream businesses that support the livelihoodsof many thousands of people and generating billions of dollars annually.

PEATLAND CONFLICTS

Peatlands have been depleted or degraded in many countries around the world owing toshort-term or single sector development strategies, leading to conflicts between differentuser groups. For example:● the drainage of peatlands may affect their flood control functions leading to damage

of downstream valley farmlands, bridges and buildings;● drainage of peatlands for agriculture may lead to loss of carbon storage and climate

change mitigation functions;● drainage of peatlands and planting them with forests impacts on biodiversity and

constrains their use for recreation, berry picking and hunting;● strict nature conservation may impact upon the local socio-economic situation,

especially in developing countries.

These conflicts often relate to trade-offs between different stakeholder groups and result in“win-lose” situations with the more influential or powerful stakeholders “winning” and theless powerful “losing”. An example is peat extraction for energy or horticulture that does nottake into account peatland conservation issues or after-use. There can also be “lose-lose”situations in which all stakeholders lose, for example, the Indonesian Mega Rice Project thatcommenced in 1996. This project was abandoned in 1998 after drainage of 1.2 million ha ofwetlands, mostly peatlands, destruction of approximately 0.5 million ha of tropical peat swampforest and the investment of $US 500 million. The project was cancelled without producingany economically viable agricultural crops.

“Win-lose” situations can sometimes be turned into “win-win” situations by appropriaterehabilitation and after-use in which, for example, formerly drained and cutover peatlands arere-wetted, conditions for peat formation restored, essential functions revitalized, andbiodiversity increased.

A key issue in the management of peatlands is the lack of human and financial resources. Thisincludes appropriate understanding of these complex ecosystems, implementation techniques,and the human capacity to manage peatlands appropriately. There are those who wish to usepeatlands for their production functions, and others who wish to preserve and regulate theseecosystems for their life-support functions. Conflicts arise between these competing views ofprotection and production.

Clearly, criteria are needed to assist in land use decision-making surrounding peatlands.Several examples illustrate criteria that could assist in governing the wise use of peatlands:

9IMCG/IPS STATEMENT

use of the peatland resource ensures the availability of the same quantity and quality ofthat resource, there is - except for side effects – no reason to refrain from using the resource.

2. Even when the supply is decreasing, a particular peatland use can be continued as long asthe resource is abundant.

3. If the peatland resource is not abundant and getting rare, it is wise not to use the resourceto the point of exhaustion, as the resource might be needed for more urgent purposes in thefuture.

4. The use of a peatland for a specific purpose may have considerable side effects. All otherfunctions must be taken into account in the full assessment of the suitability of anintervention.

5. With respect to side effects, an intervention could be considered permissible when:● no negative side effects occur, or● the affected resources and services remain sufficiently abundant, or● the affected resources and services can be readily substituted, or● the impact is easily reversible.

6. In all other cases, an integrated cost-benefit analysis should be carried out involvingthorough consideration of all aspects of the intervention

IMPLEMENTING WISE USE

The International Peat Society and International Mire Conservation Group believe that wisemanagement of peatland ecosystems requires a change in approach. This must involve changefrom that of single sector priorities to an integrated, holistic planning strategy, involving allstakeholders, such that consideration is given to potential impacts on the ecosystem as awhole. The design of peatland resource management projects involving a wide group ofstakeholders is a major challenge, in which stakeholders should be prepared to ensure benefitsfor future generations. Wise use of peatlands will be enhanced by initiatives such as:

1. Adoption and promotion of the Ramsar Convention’s Guidelines for Global Action onPeatlands (GGAP) and implementation of its wise use themes.

2. Publication and distribution of the joint IPS/IMCG Report The Wise Use of Mires andPeatlands - Background and Principles.

3. Implementation of the Global Peatland Initiative (GPI) being facilitated by WetlandsInternational and its partner organizations.

4. Publication of a handbook of Wise Use Guidelines by the Ramsar Convention and itspartner agencies as a means of delivering key aspects of the GGAP.

5. Refinement of global criteria for identifying and protecting key peatland sites for conservationpurposes.

6. Refinement and standardization of peatland classification systems and terminology.

1 See note on page 181.2 A “peatland” is an “area with a naturally accumulated peat layer at the surface. A “mire” is a peatland

where peat is being formed and accumulating. All mires are peatlands. Sites no longer accumulating peatwould not be considered mires anymore.

10 GUIDE TO THE USE OF THE DOCUMENT

GUIDE TO THE USE OF THE DOCUMENT

Since 1999 the International Peat Society and the International Mire Conservation Grouphave been working on a project to prepare a comprehensive document on the Wise Use ofmires and peatlands. This background document is the result of that work. The document isintended to be read as a whole, providing a logical sequence – what are peatlands, why arethey valued, what conflicts arise between values and how these conflicts can be resolved.Chapter 5 sets out a framework of procedures which should make it possible to reach aconclusion where conflicting claims arise. These decision support procedures are essentiallya sequence of questions the answers to which should provide decision-makers with a rationalbasis for decisions and should provide those on different sides of a dispute with anunderstanding of the reasoning behind a particular decision. Because this is a backgrounddocument it can be further developed and applied to particular circumstances.

This summary Guide is in two parts. The first is an outline of the contents, chapter by chapter.The second is a guide to the framework for decision-making.

1. OUTLINE OF CHAPTERCONTENTS

Chapter 1

Chapter 1 outlines the background to theterm ‘Wise Use’, describes why and how thedocument was prepared, and sets out thepurpose and concept of the document andits intended use.

Chapter 2

Chapter 2 defines the principal terms used inthe document, describes the process of peatformation, the different types of mires andpeatlands1, the extent and location ofpeatlands, rates of peat and carbonaccumulation, and the characteristics of miresand peatlands. The principal characteristicshighlighted are:

● peat formation requires high water levelsin the peatland;

● drainage causes oxidation resulting infundamental changes to the mire;

● there is an intimate relationship betweenthe vegetation type, the type of peat in amire and its water quality and fluctuations;

● a peatland is closely linked to itssurrounding catchment area through waterflow.

The chapter concludes with an account ofthe importance of mires as habitats andecosystems.

Chapter 3

Chapter 3 outlines different approaches towhat values are: why different people valuethe same entity2 differently. Two categoriesof values are identified:– instrumental value: the value an entity has

as a means to an end: and– intrinsic value: the value an entity has in

itself, irrespective of its importance toothers.

This document is based on the human-centred (anthropocentric) approach that onlyhuman beings have intrinsic value. However,many people have a non-anthropocentric

11GUIDE TO THE USE OF THE DOCUMENT

approach and believe that other entities alsohave intrinsic value.

Instrumental values are divided betweenmaterial life-support values (those whichcontribute to the maintenance of physicalhealth) and non-material life support values(those that contribute to the health of spiritand mind).

Within these categories of instrumentalvalues, a number of functions of mires andpeatlands are described:

Material life-support values

These include:● production functions: the role of peatlands

in the production of peat for such uses asenergy and horticulture, in the productionof plants as food and raw materials, in theprovision of drinking water, in supportinganimals which provide food, and insupporting forestry.

● carrier functions: the role of peatlands inproviding space and/or a base for suchpurposes as water reservoirs, fish pondsand waste deposits.

● regulation functions: the role of peatlandsin regulating climate, and the hydrology,hydrochemistry and soil chemistry in theircatchment areas.

Non-material life-support values

● informational functions: the role ofpeatlands in such areas as social identity,providing recreation, the appreciation ofbeauty, the perception of the spirit, and thedevelopment of knowledge.

● transformation and option functions: therole of peatlands in helping develop newtastes, and in creating reassurance thattheir biological and regulation functionswill be there for future generations.

Finally, conservation and economic valuesderive from different instrumental values butcan also reflect different approaches tointrinsic values.

Chapter 4

Where different functions and values comein conflict with one another there has to be away to make sensible judgements betweenthem. As a starting point it is establishedthat the fulfilment of absolute human needstakes precedence over the fulfilment ofwishes or ‘wants’.

Conflicts can be divided into those dealingwith facts and those dealing with choices.The first kind can be dealt with bycommunication and the exchange ofinformation. Conflicts dealing with choicescan be divided into those arising from having:

● different preferences as between differentinstrumental values

● different beliefs as to which values takeprecedence over others

● different priorities as between differentvalues, and

● different positions as to which entitieshave intrinsic moral value.

In resolving conflicts between differentpreferences a unit of measurement (e.g.monetary value) can sometimes be used.More usually exploring different perspectivesmay lead to a more comprehensive solution.In general, solutions should tend towardsequality and the preferring of needs overwants.

Conflicts between different precedences dealwith conflicting rights. Conflicts betweenequal rights can not be solved by balancingpros and cons. A series of principles can beapplied which will help in resolving conflicts.In general the lesser interests of individualsare to be sacrificed for the sake of greaterbenefits to the greatest number.


Conflicts dealing with priorities are mostsignificant in relation to intergenerationaljustice - the obligation of the presentgeneration not to so exploit natural resourcesas to damage future generations. To take thefuture into account we must distinguishbetween what is vital and what is normal (non-essential). A number of vital issues in relationto mires and peatlands are identified. Inbalancing the present and future thetechniques of discounting and ofmonetarisation3 can be helpful.

Conflicts between different positions onwhich entities have intrinsic value cannot besolved by compromise, as they involvepeoples’ fundamental value systems. Theseconflicts can only be approached by eachacknowledging and respecting the others’position. While not easy to use in practice, apluralist approach offers the best prospectof making progress.

Non-anthropocentric positions do notexclude human beings but treat them as partof the elements under consideration. Such aholistic ethos puts in question a system ofethics based only on relationships betweenhuman beings. The right to live according toone’s own value system implies that suchpositions have to be considered in conflicts,even by those who do not consider them‘rational’ or ‘objective’. Such respect impliesthat environmental conflicts should beevaluated on the basis of seeking to causethe least possible harm rather than in blackand white terms.

Chapter 5

Chapter 5 sets out a framework for the WiseUse of Mires and Peatlands, which is definedas that use for which reasonable people nowand in the future will not attribute blame. Theframework involves two stages of decision-making:

Decision in principle: any proposedintervention in a mire or peatland can first bejudged against a series of questions (a‘decision tree’) which establish the effectsof the proposed intervention (a) on thefunction which the intervention is intendedto provide, and (b) on other functions of themire or peatland. The proposed interventionis then subjected to some generalconsiderations - for example does it relate toneeds or wants, will it be egalitarian in itseffects, is it the best means to achieve theintended end.

Implementation decisions: if after theseconsiderations the reaction to the proposedintervention remains positive the proposalcan then be considered against a set ofguidance principles. These fourteenprinciples include checking, for example,whether– the proposal is subject to public access to

information,– the proposal will be made on the basis of

the best available information,– any intervention will be the minimum

necessary, and so on.The guidance principles are subject tomodification depending on the time and placeof the proposed intervention.

The next filter is to examine whether a numberof instruments are in use or will be used inrelation to the proposed intervention. Theseinstruments would operate at a variety oflevels. For example at national level it shouldbe checked whether the proposedintervention will be subject to suchinstruments as relevant national policies,legislation, land-use planning andenvironmental licensing.

Instruments to be checked on at the level ofthe enterprise include good corporategovernance, the use of cost-benefit analysisin the appraisal of projects, the existence ofan environmental management system, andpolicies on the rehabilitation of peatlandsafter use.


All of the filters to be used in coming to adecision on a proposed intervention aresummarised in checklists, which in turn canbe used as a basis for codes of conduct.

In considering the sequence of filters outlinedin the framework it is again recalled thatparticipants in any conflict will includepersons who do not accept ananthropocentric point of view, who believethat entities other than human beings haveintrinsic value.

In conclusion, the importance of dialogue andof seeking to understand the other person’spoint of view is paramount. Imbued with sucha frame of mind the proposed framework willprovide decision-makers with a basis fordeciding between different options.

2. GUIDE TO THE FRAMEWORKFOR DECISION-MAKING

By talking of ‘Wise Use’ we implicitly acceptthat there are conflicts between what is wiseand unwise. Conflicts can relate to differentappreciation of facts or to different choices.

Conflicts dealing with facts

These conflicts can be divided between thosebased on different understandings or thosebased on different judgements.

Different understandings: The first of thesearise from different understandings of terms.Chapter 2 gives definitions of terms used inthis document. This does not mean that thesedefinitions are the only possible ones but itdoes emphasise the need for a clearunderstanding in all cases of what peoplemean by particular terms. Conflicts can arisefor example, from different understandings ofwhat the word ‘peatland’ means - some use itto mean wetlands with the potential toaccumulate peat, others to describe areas witha minimal thickness of peat.

A second form of conflict betweenunderstandings can arise from different levelsof knowledge. We have thus included inChapter 2 and in the second part of Chapter 3an outline of the relevant state-of-the artknowledge on mires and peatlands, theirtypes, extent, characteristics and functions.For those who want further information awide range of references is given.

Conflicts arising from different judgementsof which means will best achieve a given end.For example a community in an area withmany peatlands might agree that their aim wasto maximise financial benefit to thecommunity. Some might believe that the bestmeans was to drain the mires for agricultureand forestry. Others might believe that itwould be better to preserve the peatlands anddevelop scientific, educational andenvironmental tourism. This sort ofdifference of opinion as to the best means toan end can best be solved by information.Examples of the elements which could assistin making a decision include– cost-benefit analysis (as in Chapter 5) of

the two options;– the use of both utility and financial

discounting (Chapter 4);– comparative information based on

monetarisation (Chapter 4);– general considerations such as that

benefits accrue widely and not just to afew, and

– guidance principles - such as involvingpublic participation (Chapter 5).

A similar sort of conflict could arise fromdisagreement on the best management optionfor a peatland to reduce the greenhouse effect.Faced with a drained peatland some mightargue for a carbon sink arising from re-flooding, others for a sink based on plantinga forest. Comparative studies can be carriedout, as illustrated in Chapter 3 and Appen-dix 1.


Conflicts dealing with choices

The resolution of conflicts dealing withchoices requires an understanding of values- a value is that which causes a person toattribute worth to another person, livingbeing, idea or thing. Chapter 3 contains abrief study of what values are and the typesof values. The two principal categories ofvalue are instrumental values (valuingsomething as a means to an end, for examplevaluing mires for their beauty) and intrinsicvalue (valuing something in itself - everyoneexcept murderers accepts the intrinsic valueof human life).

The different types of conflicts dealing withchoices are discussed in what follows.

Different preferences as between differentinstrumental values. One person might prefera cultivated flower in a vase which had beengrown in extracted peat. Another might preferan orchid growing wild on an undisturbedmire. These are different preferences betweentwo expressions of the same aestheticfunction. One person might prefer to extractpeat from a mire to heat their home; anothermight prefer to leave the mire intact andharvest the berries growing wild on it. Theseare different preferences between twoproduction functions. In solving conflictsbetween preferences, those preferences morerelated to needs should prevail over thosemore related to wants. As between equalwants, cost-benefit analysis andmonetarisation may give a minimumcomparative value. Respect for the choicesof others and the acceptance of differentperspectives may also assist in conflictresolution.

Another choice may arise for examplebetween production functions (one personwants the heat from extracted peat) andcognition functions (another wants topreserve the mire for scientific research). Butsuch a choice is not only between two

preferences. It also involves an assessmentof other functions - would drainage for peatextraction improve agricultural production onsurrounding mineral soils; would drainageadversely affect important regulationfunctions; if the mire is neither unique norrare is it worth preserving for research; whateventual effect on biodiversity woulddrainage or preservation have; are alternativefuels available. The decision-makingframework set out in Chapter 5 is intended todeal with the complexity of apparently simplechoices.

Attaching different precedence to differentvalues: These are essentially conflictsbetween different rights: the question ofrights and duties is outlined early in Chapter4. Examples would be the right of a group oflandowners to drain and develop ‘their’ mireagainst the right of humanity to the carbonstore in that mire: the right of a farmer todrain ‘his’ land against the right of a provinceto the integrated management of the water ina catchment: the right of humanity to preservea globally threatened species inhabiting a mireagainst the right of a local community to drainthe mire to get rid of disease-carrying insects:the right of a local community to cut turf froma bog against the right of a government topreserve a rare and important mire.

In such conflicts each person or group hasthe right to prefer its interest over that ofothers; but may not violently harm others,nor interfere with their universal rights, nordeprive them of essential needs. Within thoseconstraints one should look to the greatestgood of the greatest number. In dealing withsuch conflicts some of the instrumentsoutlined in Chapter 5 can be used - propertyrights and compensation can ensure that ifthe common good prevails over theindividual, the latter is compensated;legislation and land-use planning can providea context within which to make decisions.Education and awareness programmes canensure that people taking decisions, or


benefiting or suffering from decisions, arewell informed.

Different priorities with respect to values:These conflicts are essentially those betweenthe wants and needs of the present and thoseof the future. The present generation hasduties to future generations, but there aredifferent opinions as to the extent of theseduties. Certain approaches can be helpful insuch conflicts, including: utility or financialdiscounting of future benefits to give them apresent value; distinguishing between whatare normal or non-essential functions andwhat are vital; having a balanced approachto risk and uncertainty; and the use in certaincircumstances of monetarisation (attributionof monetary value to non-material functions).An example of such a conflict would be theneed for agricultural land to feed landlesspeasants in Indonesia versus the long-termenvironmental and climatic benefits of tropicalpeatland forests. In such cases it is possibleto establish a discount ‘value’ for bothintervening and not intervening; both theneed for food and the environmental andclimate functions of the peatland are vital;the risk of the intervention failing and therisk to the future peatland functions even ifthe intervention succeeds can be estimated.These sorts of cases also lend themselves tocost-benefit analysis; there is generalexperience (see Chapter 3) that agriculture onpeatlands can be marginal, and cost-benefitanalysis would estimate the total real costsagainst the total real expected gains.

Different positions on which entities haveintrinsic moral value: This document isbased on the premise that only human beingshave intrinsic moral value (an anthropocentricview). However, some people attributeintrinsic value to some other beings (forexample, sentient beings) while othersattribute intrinsic value also to species,ecosystems, even the biosphere (differentnon-anthropocentric views). The right ofpeople to live according to their own valuesystems means that all such points of view

should be respected, and should beapproached through moral pluralism.Anthropocentrists attribute worth to miresand peatlands for their instrumental values(what they can do for mankind). Non-anthropocentrists often value them forthemselves.

This can be a fundamental issue in peatlandconflicts. If the reason why people disagreein a peatland conflict arises fromfundamentally different world-views it isimportant to establish this fact and deal withit. What many appear to be a conflict betweenprecedents (one considers conservation moreimportant than exploitation) may in reality bea conflict between one who attributes intrinsicvalue to a mire or a species and one who doesnot.

Framework

In general in dealing with peatland conflictsan approach based on moral pluralism isrelevant - different considerations apply indifferent cases.

The framework in this document can besummarised in a series of questions whichcould be posed in relation to any proposedintervention in a peatland (an ‘intervention’would include e.g., a proposal to preserve).While the word ‘conflict’ is used it is notalways intended in the sense of disagreementor controversy - it may also refer to differentoptions or choices available in a particularcircumstance.

● Are all decision makers and participants inthe conflict or choice (“those concerned”)using terms with the same meaning, andhave they a basic knowledge of mires andpeatlands and their characteristics, extentand functions.

● Do those concerned understand the natureand categories of values and why peoplehave different positions with respect tovalues.


● Do those concerned understand thedifferent types of conflicts or choiceswhich arise and have they identified thetype of ‘conflict’ which arises in thisparticular case?

● Is the proposed intervention positive forhuman beings and is the function to beprovided essential and non-substitutable.

● Will the proposed intervention ensure acontinuous supply of the function (forexample, peat for energy) and are thepeatlands affected abundant.

● Will the proposed intervention negativelyaffect other functions, and if so are thenegatively affected functions essential, arethey abundant or are they substitutable.

● Does the proposed intervention interferewith fundamental human rights, is itintended to satisfy needs or wants, will thebenefits be evenly distributed, and is it thebest available means to achieve the desiredend.

● Is the proposal clear and publiclycommunicated; will it produce greateradvantage then not intervening; will adecision be based on the best availableinformation, take into account effects onother entities, be limited to the minimumnecessary, be adapted to the characteristicsof the peatland, and respect ecologicalprocesses and habitats.

● Are the answers to the last set of questionsrelevant to the specific time and place ofthe proposed intervention.

● Is the proposed intervention affected byinternational law or international co-operative instruments.

● Is the proposed intervention regulated bypublic policy, national legislation, land-useplanning and environmental licensing. Are

property rights protected and is thereprovision for rehabilitation of the peatlandafter use. Does the country have a policyto protect areas of environmentalimportance, and are there programmes ofeducation and awareness.

● Does the enterprise which will beresponsible for the proposed interventionbase its activities on commercial strategy,has it a good record of corporategovernance, does it employ cost-benefitanalysis in assessing proposals, has it inplace an environmental managementsystem, does it use the best availabletechnology to minimise environmentalimpact, and does it exploit productdiversification and alternatives whichwould reduce intervention in peatlands.

● Do those concerned appreciate theimportance of dialogue; that there is nosingle set of concepts or principles whichcan govern every situation; and it is notpossible to reduce all complexities to simpleprinciples or single measures.

This framework should result in conflictsbeing resolved or options chosen with:

● a knowledge of the relevant information onmires and peatlands and their functions;

● an understanding of relevant values;● a knowledge of the type of conflict or

choice being faced;● respect for the different points of view

involved;● a knowledge of the effect of the

intervention on the proposed function andon other functions;

● an awareness of the guidance principleswhich will govern the intervention; and

● a knowledge of the legal, regulatory andbusiness framework within which theintervention will be carried out.

While such a framework cannot removevested interest or emotion from choices, it


can provide a rational and inclusive basis fordeciding between different options.

1 The term ‘peatland’ includes mires. Where‘peatland’ is used on its own in this document it isunderstood to include ‘mire’.

2 ‘Entity’ is used in this document as meaninganything which exists whether physically orconceptually (cf. Latin “ens”).

3 The attribution of monetary value to entities orservices which are not normally seen to have afinancial or commercial value.

18 INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION

The first chapter sets out the context in which this document was prepared, the backgroundto the terms ‘Wise Use’ and ‘sustainable’, and outlines the purpose of the document.

1.1 PREFACE

All human beings have a stake in thepeatlands that enrich the planet. Fromnorthwest Canada to southeast Asia andsouthernmost America, from tropical Africato above the Arctic Circle, everybody wantssomething from peatlands. Farmers, foresters,oil and mining companies, hydro-electricityplant operators and urban developers wantthe land beneath peatlands. Horticulturists,farmers and hobby gardeners, energy andbuilding companies, households, chemicaland environmental industries want the peatitself. Hunters, fishermen, berry andmushroom pickers want the natural harvestof the plants and animals of the peatlands.Paper industries, building companies, andfurniture manufacturers want the timber onpeatlands. Nature lovers yearn for primevalpeatlands to nurture their spirits; hikers,campers, and backpackers demand thatpeatlands be preserved for theirenchantment; skiers for their openness;conservationists for their biodiversity;scientists as outdoor laboratories and assources of information.

The distribution of peatland wealth, and itsdivision between the present and the future,was originally relatively simple: some wasused to provide land for crops, some toprovide peat for fuel; some peatlands wereused for hunting, gathering and for recreation;the remainder were inaccessible. In thesecond half of the 20th century the growing

demands for energy, agriculture, horticultureand forestry led to a rapid increase in thecommercial use of mires and peatlands. In thesame period an increasing awareness of theenvironmental, ecological, aesthetic andscientific value of mires and peatlands led todemands for the cessation or reduction ofthis exploitation1.

Different stakeholders have widely differingviews on what peatlands legacy should beleft for future generations. All claim they areentitled to the beneficial air and waterregulating capacities and to the natural andcultural heritage of peatlands. Increasinglythey are becoming aware of the local andglobal environmental issues associated withpeatland exploitation. In the midst of theseinterest groups are the millions of people whodepend directly on peatlands, who earn theirliving harvesting, converting, cultivating,extracting, cutting, planting, exploiting,conserving, and studying peatlands. Theirinterests are served by thousands oforganisations. Silent, but more significant, arethe great numbers of citizens of Earth, who -largely unconsciously - enjoy the productsand services that peatlands provide.

1.2 ‘SUSTAINABLE’ AND ‘WISE’USE IN KEY CONVENTIONS

A number of international conventions havesought to reconcile the actual and potentialconflicts between different uses2 of natural

19INTRODUCTION

resources. These help to provide a contextfor the ‘sustainable’ or ‘wise’ use ofpeatlands.

Ramsar: Under Article 3.1, the ContractingParties of the Ramsar Convention agree to“formulate and implement their planning soas to promote ... as far as possible the wiseuse of wetlands in their territory.” The ReginaConference 1987 defined Wise Use of wetlandsas “their sustainable utilisation for the benefitof mankind in a way compatible with themaintenance of the natural properties of theecosystem”. The Montreux Conference 1990adopted “Guidelines for implementation ofthe Wise Use concept of the Convention”.

The Ramsar Convention Strategic Plan (1997-2002, Recommendation 6.1) calls on RamsarParties to facilitate the conservation and wiseuse of peatlands at national and regionallevels, including the development ofregionally based peatland managementguidelines.

Biological Diversity: The Convention onBiological Diversity states that ‘“Sustainableuse’ means the use of components ofbiological diversity in a way and at a rate thatdoes not lead to the long-term decline ofbiological diversity, thereby maintaining itspotential to meet the needs and aspirationsof present and future generations.”

Climate Change: The United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Changestates ‘The Parties should protect the climatesystem for the benefit of present and futuregenerations of humankind, on the basis ofequity and in accordance with their commonbut differentiated responsibilities andrespective capabilities….The Parties have aright to, and should, promote sustainabledevelopment. Policies and measures toprotect the climate system against human-induced change should be appropriate for thespecific conditions of each Party and shouldbe integrated with national development

programmes, taking into account thateconomic development is essential foradopting measures to address climatechange… The Parties should co-operate topromote a supportive and open internationaleconomic system that would lead tosustainable economic growth anddevelopment in all Parties, particularlydeveloping country Parties, thus enablingthem better to address the problems of climatechange.’

This document is informed by these conceptsof ‘sustainable and ‘wise’. It deals specificallywith mires and peatlands, and defines theWise Use of mires and peatlands as thoseuses of mires and peatlands for whichreasonable people now and in the future willnot attribute blame. The word ‘use’ isemployed in its widest meaning, includingconservation and non-use.

1.3 PREPARATION OF A WISEUSE DOCUMENT

The International Mire Conservation Group(IMCG) and the International Peat Society(IPS) agreed in 1997 to prepare jointly adocument on the Wise Use of Mires andPeatlands.

IPS (www.peatsociety.fi) is aninternational organisation containingrepresentatives of different interests: appliedand academic scientists, engineers, andbusinesspeople. The mission of IPS is topromote international co-operation on allmatters concerning peatlands. IPS carries outits main work through seven Commissionsdealing with the use of peatlands forconservation, industry, agriculture, medicine,forestry; as well as after-use andcharacteristics.

IMCG (www.imcg.net) is aninternational network of specialists having aparticular interest in mire and peatland

20 INTRODUCTION

conservation. The network encompasses awide spectrum of expertise and interests, fromresearch scientists to consultants,government agency specialists to peatlandsite managers. It operates largely through e-mail and newsletters, and holds regularworkshops and symposia.

An IMCG/IPS steering group was appointedconsisting of Jack Rieley (University ofNottingham), Donal Clarke (Bord na Mónap.l.c.), Hans Joosten (University ofGreifswald), and Richard Lindsay (Universityof East London). The compilation and

drafting of the document was carried out onbehalf of the two organisations by HansJoosten and Donal Clarke. It was agreed thatthe document should consist of a brief, clearexecutive summary in layman’s language (the“Guide” on pages 10–17) , supported by amore extended and referenced backgroundpaper.

Progress in drafting the document wasreviewed on a periodic basis at internalmeetings of both organisations. In addition,meetings attended by various participatingparties took place as follows:

Date Place Circumstances

November 1997 Surwold, Germany Joint IMCG & IPS meetingSeptember 1998 Jyväskylä, Finland IPS ‘Spirit of Peatlands Symposium’ with

IMCG members presentMay 1999 San José, Costa Rica 13th Global Biodiversity Forum3

November 1999 Freising, Germany Joint IMCG & IPS meetingMarch 2000 Lagow, Poland IMCG meeting with IPS members presentMay 2000 Stockholm, Sweden IPS meeting with IMCG members presentAugust 2000 Québec, Canada Millennium Wetland EventDecember 2000 Heathrow, England Joint IMCG & IPS meetingMarch 2001 Wageningen Joint IMCG & IPS meeting with Wetlands

International (WI) members present.

The idea for co-operation on the developmentof Wise Use principles arose also from a seriesof other events:

Date Event

1994 The Trondheim Declaration from the Sixth IMCG Symposium, Trondheim, Norway4.1995 The Edinburgh Declaration developed at the International Peatlands Convention,

Edinburgh, Scotland5.1995 The Palangka Raya Declaration adopted by the International Conference on

Biodiversity and Sustainability of Tropical Peatlands, Palangka Raya, Indonesia6.1996 A Global Action Plan on Mire and Peatland Conservation proposed during the

International Workshop on Peatlands and Mire Conservation, Brisbane, Australia7.1996 Recommendation VI.9 of COP6 and Strategic Plan 1997-2002, Ramsar

Convention8.1998 The IUCN Commission on Ecosystem Management report entitled Guidelines for

Integrated Planning and Management of Tropical Lowland Peatlands with SpecialReference to Southeast Asia9.

21INTRODUCTION

1998 Peatlands Under Pressure – Arctic to Tropical Peatlands, International Workshop,IUCN-CEM and Society of Wetland Scientists, Anchorage, Alaska, USA10.

1999 Recommendations VII.1 of COP7, Ramsar Convention11.1999 Statement on Tropical Peatlands, “Safeguarding a Global Natural Resource”,

Statement of the International Conference on Tropical Peat Swamps, Penang,Malaysia12.

In preparing this document the precedents13

set in relation to hydropower and forestrywere useful.

1.4 GUIDELINES FOR GLOBALACTION ON PEATLANDS14

The preparation of this Wise Use documentis part of a wider initiative between theparticipating organisations, the Guidelines forGlobal Action on Peatlands (GGAP), whichhas now become a document within thecontext of the Ramsar Convention. This WiseUse project is referred to in one of the actionpoints within theme 4 of the GGAP. The overallaim of the GGAP is “to achieve recognitionof the importance of peatlands to themaintenance of global biodiversity, storageof water and carbon vital to the world’s climatesystem, and promote their wise use,conservation and management for the benefitof people and the environment.” The GGAPhas seven themes as follows:

1: Knowledge of Global ResourcesDevelopment and application ofstandardised terminology andclassification systemsEstablishing a global database of peatlandsand miresDetecting changes and trends in thequantity and quality of the peatlandresource

2: Education, Training and Public Awareness3: Policy and Legislative Instruments4: Wise Use and Management Guidelines5: Research Networks, Regional Centres of

Expertise and Institutional Capacity6: International Co-operation7. Implementation and Support

Each Theme is supplemented by more detailed‘Guidelines for Action’.

1.5 PURPOSE OF THEDOCUMENT

This document aims to assist all those whoinfluence mire and peatland management inidentifying, analysing, and resolving possibleconflicts, in order to plan, design, andimplement the best management option forany mire or peatland. The document isintended to be applicable to all forms ofmanagement or development, from single-sector developments to multiple use projects.The Wise Use of mires and peatlands requiresan integrative approach, one which looks atall their different values and functions in anintegrated way.

The achievement of an integrative approachrequires(i) a knowledge of the characteristics and

functions of mires and peatlands;(ii) an understanding of the factual issues15

involved,(iii) correct reasoning,(iv) an understanding of the motives and

reasons for one’s own point of view,(v) a willingness to understand the others’

point of view, and(vi) fair compromise where there are

conflicting preferences.

The purpose of the document is to establisha framework within which– judgements can be made on choices

between different options for mires;– any permitted exploitation of mires or

peatlands can be carried out in a way whichcauses the least damage;

22 INTRODUCTION

– judgements can be made on whetherparticular peatland-based services orproducts have been produced or derivedin accordance with accepted principles.

Not all countries will already have in placethe full legal and administrative infrastructureassumed in the document. In countries wherethe full infrastructure does not already existit cannot be put in place at once. It would bepossible, however, to aspire to it over a periodof time.

1.6 CONCEPT AND CONTENTOF THE DOCUMENT

There are no rules or doctrines which areaccepted by all human beings. Livingconditions, preferences, feelings, andconvictions differ strongly between differentinterest groups, different cultures andcountries, and in different time periods.Universally, human beings share only a fewattributes. These include● absolute needs (see §4.2.),● a hereditary tendency to develop specific

preferences (see §3.3), and● an ability to approach choices rationally.

This Wise Use document is based on rationalargument and is built on widely acceptedpremises. These premises includeinternational Conventions and agreed UnitedNations statements and resolutions. It isnecessary to set out first the philosophical,ethical and factual bases from which aframework for Wise Use may be derived.Chapters 2 and 3 provide factual informationon the nature, origin, extent, and functionalbenefits of mires and peatlands. Chapter 3, inaddition, describes the values which informhuman preferences. Chapter 4 looks atconflicts, their causes, and approaches tosolutions. Chapter 5 sets out a framework,based on widely accepted premises, withinwhich the practice of Wise Use of mires andpeatlands can be established.

This document provides● background information on the extent,

types, functions and uses of mires andpeatlands,

● an underlying rationale for Wise Use, and● a proposed framework for the Wise Use of

mires and peatlands.The Appendices contain examples of modelcodes of conduct which can be derived fromthe framework

1.7 TARGET ORGANISATIONS

This document is addressed to anyone whohas to take decisions regarding appropriateuses of peatlands. It is intended to be ofassistance to decision-makers in

■ International Trade and EnvironmentOrganisations, Conventions, andCommissions;

■ Governments and their regulatory bodies,for example, Ministries of Forestry andAgriculture, Environment agencies;

■ State and voluntary bodies charged withthe conservation of peatlands and mires;

■ Development assistance agencies;■ Economic entities which derive commercial

income from peatlands and mires, includingthose using peatlands for agriculture,forestry, and extraction.

■ Environmental management divisions ofprivate companies whose activities mayinfluence, and be influenced by, the stateof peatlands;

■ Scientists who work for companies or inthe development of forestry or agricultureon peatlands;

■ Environment groups, Non-governmentalOrganisations (NGOs);

■ Scientific and educational institutions.

The following networks and organisationswould have a specific interest in the document:● IUCN Commission on Ecosystem

Management (IUCN/CEM);● Ramsar Convention on Wetlands and its

Contracting Parties;

23INTRODUCTION

● International Mire Conservation Group(IMCG);

● Wetlands International (WI);● International Peat Society (IPS);● International Association of Ecology

(INTECOL);● Society of Wetland Scientists (SWS);● Global Environment Network;● Institute for Wetland Policy and Research

(USA).

1 Here and elsewhere in the document, the word“exploitation” is used in the sense of derivingbenefit from, without any pejorative intent.

2 The words ‘use ’ and ‘utilisation’ are employed inthis document to mean any type of use includingconservation (or non-use).

3 IUCN 1999.4 Moen 1995a.5 IPS 1995 p 49.6 Rieley & Page 1997.7 Rubec 1996a, Lindsay 1996.8 Ramsar 1996.9 Safford & Maltby 199810 Maltby & MacClean 1999.11 Ramsar 1999.12 IMCG Newsletter 6 (Nov. 1999): 8-9

(www.imcg.net).13 Forestry Stewardship Council 2000, International

Energy Agency 2000.14 Ramsar 2001. http://www.ramsar.org/

cop8_dr_17_e.htm15 Including factual uncertainties.

24 MIRES AND PEATLANDS

CHAPTER 2.

MIRES AND PEATLANDS

The second chapter■ sets down the basic concepts required in this document and the terms chosen to describe

them,■ explains the natural properties of mires and peatlands,■ summarises the latest available information on the extent and location of mires and peatlands,

and■ outlines some basic characteristics of mires and peatlands relevant to the functions discussed

in the following chapter.

2.1 CONCEPTS AND TERMS1

International peatland terminology isacknowledged to be in a state of confusion2.In order to communicate concepts are neededand terms are required to define theseconcepts. In this document, the followingterms are used for the following concepts3:

A wetland4 is an area5 that is inundated6 orsaturated by water7 at a frequency and for aduration sufficient to support8 a prevalenceof vegetation typically adapted for life insaturated soil conditions.

Peat is sedentarily9 accumulated materialconsisting of at least 30%10 (dry mass) ofdead11 organic12 material.

A peatland is an area with or withoutvegetation with a naturally accumulated peatlayer at the surface13.

A mire is a peatland where peat is currentlybeing formed14.

A suo15 is a wetland with or without a peatlayer dominated by a vegetation that mayproduce peat.

Wetlands and suos can occur both with andwithout the presence of peat and, therefore,may or may not be peatlands. In ourdefinition, a mire is always a peatland16.Figure 2/1 illustrates the relationship betweenthe concepts.

Figure 2/1 Relationship between mire, suo,wetland and peatland

25MIRES AND PEATLANDS

2.2 PEAT FORMATION

The cycling of matter in most ecosystems isrelatively fast and complete. In contrast, miresare characterised by an incomplete cyclingresulting in a positive carbon balance.Because plant production exceeds decay, acarbon surplus is accumulated as peat. Peataccumulation generally takes place as a resultof limited decay (decomposition) of plantmaterial17. An important factor for peataccumulation is the chemical and structuralcomposition of the organic material,determining the “ability to decay”. The abilityto decay varies with species (e.g. Phragmitesversus Typha), plant parts (e.g. rhizomsversus flowers), and substances (e.g. waxesversus sugars)18. This means that some plantspecies, organs, and substances are moreinclined to accumulate peat than others. Alarge number of plant species that occur inmires can contribute to peat formation, suchas sedges, grasses, Sphagnum and othermosses, and woody plants. Consequently awide variety of “botanical” peat types19 exist.

Water is the most important external factorlimiting decay. Because of its large heatcapacity water induces lower than ambienttemperatures20. The limited diffusion rate ofgasses in water leads to a low availability ofoxygen21. Both factors inhibit the activitiesof decomposing and decomposition-facilitating organisms, leading to a decreasedrate of decay of dead organic material and,consequently, to the accumulation of peat22.

Mires have been developing on Earth sincewetland plants first existed. Peat from thetropical mires of the Upper Carboniferous (320- 290 million years ago) and the sub-tropicalmires of the Tertiary (65 - 3 million years ago)is currently found as coal and lignite23. Thegreat majority of present-day peatlandsoriginated in the last 15,000 years. Sincedeglaciation, mires have developed intounique organic landforms with hydrological,biogeochemical, and biological links to

upland and aquatic ecosystems. It isestimated that 4 million km2 on Earth (some3% of the land area) is covered withpeatlands. The largest known concentrationsare found in Canada and Alaska, NorthernEurope and Western Siberia, Southeast Asia,and parts of the Amazon basin, where morethan 10% of the land area is covered withpeatlands24. Mires store about one third ofthe soil carbon in the world (see §2.5 below),and contain some 10% of the global liquidfresh water resources25.

2.3 MIRE AND PEATLAND TYPES

There are many different ways of classifying26

wetlands, peatlands and mires that varyaccording to the purposes of theclassification27. It is not possible to describethem all in this document. The typologiesdescribed here are those appropriate to thediscussion in the rest of the document.

Historically peatlands were distinguished onthe basis of their situation and the after-useof the remaining land, leading to theidentification of:● bogs, raised above the surrounding

landscape. After peat extraction, which wasnormally carried out under dry conditionsfollowing drainage, a mineral subsoilsuitable for agriculture often remained.

● fens, situated in depressions. After peatextraction, which was carried out bydredging, open water remained.

These ‘pre-scientific’ terms were adopted andadapted (on different conceptual bases) byvarious scientific disciplines, which has ledto much confusion. More recently28, mireshave been classified into two mainhydrogenetic types: ombrogenous mires thatare fed only by precipitation, and geogenousmires29 that are also fed by water which hasbeen in contact with the mineral bedrock orsubstrate30.


All water on land ultimately originates fromrain and other forms of atmosphericprecipitation. Precipitation water is poor innutrients and somewhat acid. In contact withthe geosphere, the quality of the waterchanges. Depending on the chemicalproperties of the catchment area (determinedby climate, bedrock, soil, vegetation, and landuse) and the residence time of the water(determined by the extent, bedrock, and reliefof the catchment), the electrolyte and O2concentrations, nutrient richness, pH, andtemperature of the water change. Theresulting differences in water quality lead tomire habitats with differences in nutrientavailability (trophic conditions), basesaturation (acidity), and characteristic plantspecies. These differences form the basis ofthe ecological mire types (cf. Table 2/1).

Most mire and peatland typologies are basedon water conditions, reflecting the central roleof water in peat formation. A distinction ismade between “terrestrialisation”, whenpeat develops in open water, and“paludification”, when peat accumulationstarts directly over a paludifying mineralsoil31. This distinction has been furtherdeveloped into a system of seven basichydrogenetic mire types, which is based onthe processes underlying peat formation32.

Hydrogenetic mire types: Water levelfluctuations and water flow play an importantrole in peat and mire formation. Water levelfluctuations influence, through redox-processes, the turn-over rate and solubilityof chemical substances (nutrients, poisonoussubstances), and in that way the vegetationand eventually the composition of thedeposited peats. Water level fluctuationsfurthermore condition the rates of oxidativedecomposition, that lead to a change fromcoarse into fine plant particles and to adecrease in the porosity of the peat.Consequently as the hydraulic propertieschange the peats become less permeable towater (which decreases water flow) and they

can store less water (which increases thewater level fluctuations, Figure 2/2). Becauseof the strong relationship between water,vegetation and peat, hydrologiccharacteristics constitute one of theappropriate bases for classifying mires.

Hydrogenetic mire types are defined by therole of water in peat formation and by the roleof the mire in landscape hydrology. Thefollowing hydrogenetic mire types aredistinguished:

Terrestrialisation mires (Verlandungsmoore),formed by peat formation in ‘open’ water, canbe divided into schwingmoor mires (floatingmats, e.g. Papyrus swamp islands) andimmersion mires in which peat accumulatesunderwater on the bottom after the water bodyhas become shallow enough to allow peatproducing plants to settle (e.g. manyPhragmites stands). The accumulation ofterrestrialisation peat ends when the water iscompletely filled with peat.

Water rise mires (Versumpfungsmoore)result when the water level rises over a driersurface so slowly that no open water (lake,pool) is formed. A rise in the groundwaterlevel may be caused by an increase in watersupply (by changes in climate or land use) ora decrease in run-off (by sea level rise, beaverdams, the origin of water stagnating layers inthe soil, etc.).

Flood mires (Überflutungsmoore) are locatedin areas that are periodically flooded by rivers,lakes or seas. Flood mires with a substantialpeat thickness only occur under conditionsof rising water levels (rising sea water level,rising river beds, etc.). As such they arerelated to water rise mires. The difference isthe mechanical action of periodic lateral waterflow and associated sedimentation ofallogenic clastic materials such as sand andclay.


Table 2/1: Ecological mire types in Northern Germany and their characteristic plant species(after Succow 1988). This table is included as an example.

Table 2/1: Ecological mire types in Northern Germany and their characteristic plant species (after Succow 1988). Thistable is included as an example.

ecological mire type

species

oligo-trophic

acid

meso-trophic

acid

meso-trophic

sub-neutral

meso-trophiccalca-reous

eu-trophic

saltinfluence

Ledum palustre, Vaccinium myrtillus, V. uliginosum, Calluna vulgaris,Empetrum nigrum, Erica tetralix, Melampyrum pratense ssp. paludosumCalla palustris, Juncus bulbosus, J. filiformis, Ranunculus flammula,Veronica scutellata, Salix aurita, Luzula pilosa, Deschampsia flexuosaScheuchzeria palustris, Andromeda polifolia, Drosera intermedia,Lycopodiella inundata, Rhynchospora alba, Eriophorum vaginatumDactylorhiza majalis ssp. Brevifolia, D. incarnata, Liparis loeselii, Carexappropinquata, C. diandra, C. dioica, Juncus acutiflorusMenyanthes trifoliata, Carex lasiocarpa, C. echinata, C. nigra, C.canescens, Dryopteris cristata, Eriophorum angustifolium, Juncusacutiflorus, Calamagrostis stricta, Potentilla palustris, Viola palustrisDrosera rotundifolia, Pinus sylvestrisTetragonolobus maritimus, Schoenus ferrugineus, Primula farinosa,Dactylorhiza majalis, Cladium mariscus, Utricularia vulgaris, Pinguiculavulgaris, Parnassia palustris, Eriophorum latifolium, Juncus alpinus,Ophrys insectifera, Gymnadenia conopsea, Polygonum bistortaPolygala amara, Betula humilis, Carex buxbaumii, C. flacca, C. hostiana,C. pulicaris, Laserpitium prutenicum, Juncus subnodulosus, Dianthussuperbus, Epipactis palustris, Serratula tinctoria, Briza media, Linumcatharticum, Selinum carvifolia, Succisa pratensis, Salix repensHammarbya paludosa, Carex limosa, Drosera longifoliaCarex panicea, Galium uliginosum, Lychnis flos-cuculi, Potentilla erecta,Cardamine pratensis, Cirsium palustre, Rumex acetosaMolinia caeruleaCircaea x intermedia, Senecio paludosus, Cicuta virosa, Carex cespitosa,C. gracilis, C. paniculata, C. vesicaria, Hottonia palustris, Lathyruspalustris, Oenanthe fistulosa, Teucrium scordium, Thalictrum flavum,Lemna minor, Phalaris arundinacea, Typha angustifoliaAlnus glutinosa, Calamagrostis canescens, Juncus effususRanunculus lingua, Stellaria glauca, Carex disticha, C. acutiformis,Typha latifolia, Caltha palustris, Iris pseudacorus, Myosotis palustris,Ranunculus lingua, Rumex hydrolapathum, Sium latifoliumLysimacia thyrsiflora, Thelypteris palustris, Equisetum fluviatile, Salixcinerea, Agrostis stolonifera, Cardamine palustris, Lycopus europeus,Lythrum salicaria, Mentha aquatica, Peucedanum palustreCarex elataBlysmus rufus, Oenanthe lachenali, Plantago maritima, Ruppia maritima,Samolus valerandi, Triglochin maritimum, Aster tripolium, Centauriumlittorale, Eleocharis uniglumis, Festuca rubra ssp. littoralis, Juncusgerardii, Salicornia europaea, Bolboschoenus maritimusEleocharis quinqueflora, Triglochin palustre, Carex viridula,Schoenoplectus tabernaemontaniPedicularis palustris, Valeriana dioica, Juncus articulatusPhragmites australis

species restricted to one ecological mire type ecological amplitude of the species comprises two ecological mire types ecological amplitude of the species comprises three ecological mire types ecological amplitude of the species comprises four ecological mire types


Mires of all the types listed in the previousparagraph are “passive”, that is, they liehorizontally in the landscape, their basinsfill gradually with peat, but their influence onthe hydrology of their catchment areas islimited.

Mires with a substantial water flow (in peator vegetation) behave differently. The miresurface shows a slope34 and a significantamount of water is lost through lateral flow.This flow is retarded by the vegetation andthe peat. Vegetation growth and peataccumulation thus lead to a rise in water tablein the mire and often also in the catchmentarea.

Percolation mires (Durchströmungsmoore)are found in landscapes where water supplyis large and evenly distributed over the year.As a result, the water level in the mire is almostconstant. Dead plant material reaches thepermanently waterlogged zone quickly, istherefore subject to fast aerobic decay for ashort time, and the peat mostly remains weaklydecomposed and elastic(‘schwammsumpfig’35, Figure 2/3a). Becauseof the large pores and the related highhydraulic conductivity, a substantial waterflow occurs through the whole peat body36.

Figure 2/2. Positive and negative feedback between water table and hydrauliccharacteristics in a system consisting of organic matter and having significant lateralwater flow33.

The peat’s ability to oscillate makesconditions for peat formation at the surfaceincreasingly stable. Whereas at the startpercolation mires are susceptible to waterlevel fluctuations37, with growing peatthickness any fluctuations in water supplyand water losses are increasinglycompensated by mire oscillation(Mooratmung).

When water supply is periodically exceededby evapotranspiration and run-off, the waterlevel drops and oxygen penetrates the peat.The resulting strong decomposition (seeFigure 2/2) causes the water to increasinglyoverflow the peat, and surface flow mires(Überrieselungsmoore) result. Also thesemires can only endure if oxidative losses aresmall, i.e. if the water level only rarely drops.Surface flow mires are therefore only foundin areas with almost continuous water supply,or hardly any water losses (in particular dueto evapotranspiration). Because of the smallstorage coefficient of the peat the rare watershortages still lead to relatively large dropsin water level (Figure 2/3b). Because of theirlow overall hydraulic conductivity and largewater supply, surface flow mires can occuron and with steep slopes. Typical miresbelonging to this type are blanket bogs,


sloping mires (sloopy fens, Hangmoore), andmost spring mires, which are fed by rainwater,surface run-off, and groundwaterrespectively.

A third type of water flow mire is the acrotelmmire38, which accumulates organic materialthat combines a large storage coefficient(many large pores) with a limited ability todecay. The latter characteristic leads to a slowreduction in the pore size when subject toaerobic decay. As the deeper, older materialhas been prone to oxidation for longer, adistinct gradient in hydraulic conductivitydevelops in the upper part of the peat (Figure2/3c). In times of water shortage, the waterlevel drops into a less permeable range andrun off is retarded. Evapotranspiration stillleads to water losses, but because of the largestorage coefficient of the peat resulting fromits relatively large pores, the water level dropsonly to a small extent. In this way, the deeperpeat layers are continuously waterlogged,even under fluctuating water supply. Globallythe raised bog is the only acrotelm mire typeso far identified. In the raised bogs of thenorthern hemisphere, a handful of Sphagnumspecies39 combine a limited ability to decay 40

with favourable external (nutrient-poor andacidic) conditions. The world-wide

Figure 2/3: Hydraulic characteristics related to depth in different types of mire withsubstantial water flow. ———— = lowest water level (lasting for short durations only).

distribution of raised bogs illustrates theeffectiveness of this peat formation strategy.

The peat formation characteristics mentionedabove can be combined with a classificationbased on the origin of water (see Table 2/2).The catchment area to a large extentdetermines the quantitative and qualitativecharacteristics of the input water. Underequal climatic, geological andgeomorphologic conditions the amount,duration and frequency of water supplyincrease from

(a) ombrogenous – stemming solely fromprecipitation water; to

(b) soligenous – stemming fromprecipitation water and surficial run-off; to

(c) lithogenous – also stemming from deepgroundwater.

Nutrient and base richness usually increasesimilarly. A tight correlation between quantityand quality of water and its origin is, however,not possible over larger areas. A continuouswater supply not only occurs under spring-fed conditions: it can also be found in areaswith very frequent rainfall. Ombrogenouswater may show large differences in chemicalcomposition41. When the substrate is inert,lithogenous water can to a large extent have


the same qualities as rain water.Thallasogenous water (sea water) showslarge differences in salt content (e.g. Baltic,North, and Dead Sea).

At a regional level, a correlation betweenquantity, quality and origin of water can moreeasily be made. Within a region, plant speciesare bound to certain water characteristicsand, based on their material composition andhydraulic characteristics, to a large extentdetermine the peat formation strategy.Regionally therefore, strong correlationsbetween abiotic conditions, vegetation, andhydrogenetic mire type can be found.

Under different bio-geographic conditions,different plant species can form equalhydrogenetic mire types. For instance, in thenorthern hemisphere ombrogenous surfaceflow mires (blanket bogs) are largely built fromPoaceae (grasses) and Cyperaceae (sedges)whereas in New Zealand and Tasmania theyare built from Restionaceae42.

Percolation mires are normally found asgroundwater-fed mires, because only largecatchment areas can guarantee a large andcontinuous water supply in most climates.The raised mires of the Kolchis area in trans-Caucasian Georgia, however, are Sphagnum-dominated ombrogenous percolation mireswhich exist under conditions of over 2000mmrain per year43. Also in SE Asia, in areas wherethe climate is extremely even and wet overthe year, forested mires44 form peats with veryhigh hydraulic conductivity45 and may alsobelong to this mire type. Ombrogenousterrestrialisation and water rise mires can befound in larger complexes of ombrogenousacrotelm or overflow mires.

Table 2/2 gives an overview of combinationsof the peat formation strategy and origin ofwater with examples (as far as they are known).Some types thus far remain unidentified (andremain therefore without examples).

As a result of complex interactions ofvegetation, water, and peat (“self-organisation”), mires may develop variousmorphological types, consisting of acharacteristic landform (cross-sectionalprofile, Grossform) combined withcharacteristic configurations ofmicrotopographic surface-elements(Kleinform)46.

As well as such internal processes, externalmechanisms may also be important in theconfiguration of peatland macro- and micro-structures. Frost activity may lead to featuresthat also exist in mineral soils but which, incase of peat-covered areas, give rise tospecific morphologic peatland types.

Parallel to polygon formation in mineralsoils47, “polygon mires” are formed in areaswith continuous permafrost, especially in theArctic48, but also in the east Siberianmountains as far as northern Mongolia49. Thedevelopment of the polygon walls restrictswater run-off during the short Arctic summer,which provides enough water for peatformation50. Eventually such polygons maydevelop into “high centre polygons”51.Parallel to pingo formation in mineral soils52,a local growth of ice nuclei may give rise tothe origin of “palsa” (frost mound) mires and“peat plateau”53 mires, that often start todevelop because of the insulating capacityof Sphagnum and that “grow” because ofthe hygroscopic effect of ice. As this moundformation leads to changes in localhydrological conditions, such ice core miredevelopment leads to a change and often toan end to peat formation on the mound54.

In mire types with water flow ice developmentleads to a stronger differentiation between,and a more explicit arrangement of, positiveand negative microrelief elements (hummockand hollows, strings and flarks etc.)55, whichresults in the development of “ribbed fens” /“aapa” mires and concentric and eccentricbogs56.


Tabl

e 2/

2: H

ydro

gene

tic m

ire ty

pes

leve

l wat

er le

vel m

ires

incl

inin

g w

ater

leve

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rise

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ion

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m

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us

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l pe

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nt

freq

uent

co

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uous

M

ire sl

ope

Non

e no

ne

Non

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ne /

smal

l sm

all /

larg

e sm

all

smal

l In

tern

al w

ater

stor

age

Larg

e m

ostly

larg

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one

smal

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Effe

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wat

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stor

age

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orag

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stor

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< st

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(>?)

st

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stor

age

> st

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ombr

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Om

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Sc

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ombr

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es

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crot

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m

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th

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thal

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th

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ac

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us

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ion

mire

s

See

foot

note

29

re g

eoge

nous

mire

s.


2.4 EXTENT AND LOCATION OFMIRES AND PEATLANDS57

There is a general lack of comprehensive andcomparable data on the extent and locationof mires and peatlands58. Because of differentcriteria used for definition (footnotes 10 and13) in different countries and differentdisciplines the available data do not comparelike with like. However, in the absence of betterinformation, the available data have beenused here (see Appendix 1).

Subject to these caveats, this section setsout the most recent data on the former andpresent-day extent and distribution of mires,peatlands, and peat. Although manyinventories of peatland resources exist59, thestatus of mires has not hitherto beenassessed systematically. Data were gatheredfrom a wide variety of published sources andby consulting peatland experts, but a furtherinventory is certainly required60.

The peat formation process is stronglyinfluenced by climatic conditions. Mires arepredominantly northern ecosystems,especially abundant in continental boreal andsub-arctic regions, but they are also found inthe tropics. The occurrence of mires and

peatlands is strongly related to topography,with the greatest abundance found on flatland areas, such as western Siberia, theHudson Bay Lowlands, SE Asian coastalplains, and the Amazon Basin. Figure 2/5 atthe end of this Chapter outlines globalpeatland distribution61.

The total area of boreal and sub-arctic miresis estimated to be 3,460 -103 km2.62 The globalpeatland area is about 4 million km2 63, butthese estimations remain uncertain owing todifferent typologies in different countries.

Within the non-tropical world (Table 2/3) lessmires have survived in continents with fewresources (Africa, South America) than incontinents with abundant resources (NorthAmerica, Asia). Europe has suffered thelargest losses, both absolutely and relativeto its former mire extent. Approximately 80%of both the original tropical and non-tropicalmires are still in a largely pristine condition64.In 25% of these pristine mires, both inpermafrost and in tropical peatlands, net peataccumulation may have stopped because ofnatural processes and recent climatechange65. But even then, peat is still activelyaccumulating on 60% of the former global mireextent.

Table 2/3: Former extent of mires in the non-tropical world and losses by human activities66.

Former Current extent ofextent of mire lossesmires andpeatlands

000 km2 000 km2 %

Europe 617 322 5 2

Asia 1070 9 0 8

Africa 1 0 5 5 0

North America 1415 6 5 5

South America 2 5 5 2 0

Australia p.m. p.m.

Antarctica p.m. p.m.

Total > 3137 > 487 1 6


Outside the tropics, human exploitation hasaltered 500,000 km2 of mires so severely thatpeat accumulation has stopped completely.Peat has been and continues to be extractedto be used for the purposes outlined in § 3.4in Chapter 3. Currently new peat extractioncommences each year on some 10 km2 ofmire67. The available water, nutrients, organicsoils, and space make mires also attractivefor agriculture and forestry. 80% of globalmire losses are attributable to the latter twotypes of land use (cf. Table 2/4). Prior to 1992,the global rate of mire destruction for forestryamounted to 4,500 km2, that for agriculture to1,000 km2 per year68. These rates are an orderof magnitude larger than the mean annual mireexpansion rate during the Holocene. As aresult, the global mire resource is decreasingby approximately 0.1% net per year69.

1000 km2 %Agriculture 250 50Forestry 150 30Peat extraction 50 10Urbanisation 20 5Inundation 15 3Indirect losses 5 1(erosion, other)Total 490 100

Table 2/4: Causes of anthropogenic mirelosses in the non-tropical world70.

Its long history, high population pressure,and climatic suitability for agriculture havemade Europe the continent with the largestmire losses (Table 2/3). Peat has ceased toaccumulate in over 50% of the former mirearea. Almost 20% of the original mire area nolonger exists as peatland. In many Europeancountries ¶1 % of the original resourceremains (Table A1/1). Denmark and theNetherlands succeeded in destroying adominant landscape type almost completely.Only Latvia, Liechtenstein, Norway, Russia,

Sweden, and Ukraine still have more than halfof their original mire area left (Table A1/1).

The European experience shows clearly thatan abundance of mires is no guarantee of theirlong-term survival. Finland has lost 60% ofits formerly extensive mire area, largely bydrainage for forestry since the 1950s71.Ireland, where mires originally covered 17%of the country, has lost 93% of its raised bogand 82% of its blanket bog mire resource72.The mires of Polesia in Belarus and Ukraine,one of the largest continuous mire areas ofthe former Soviet Union have largely beendrained in the 1970s and 1980s73.

Tables A1/1 to A1/5 in Appendix 1 give theestimated peatland/mire area where the peatis more than 30 centimetres thick (> 30 cmpeat) and contains more than 30% organicmaterial (> 30% organic material). The areasare given in km2 per country or regiongrouped by continent. Total area (1998) ofeach country or region is given according toEncarta.

2.5 RATES OF PEAT ANDCARBON ACCUMULATION74

Global interest related to rising atmosphericCO2 content has led to numerous attempts toascertain the role of peatlands in the globalcarbon (C) cycle as sinks for organic C 75. Peatdeposits are characterised by a high Ccontent, about 50% of the dry organic matter.A high abundance of peat thus signals asignificant net transfer of C to the soil.

In a natural state, mires accumulate C becausethe rate of biomass production is greater thanthe rate of decomposition. The accumulationof peat involves an interaction between plantproductivity and C losses through theprocess of decay, leaching, mire fires anddeposition of C into the mineral soil beneathpeat layers.


Most peat-forming systems consist of twolayers: an upper aerobic layer of highhydraulic conductivity, the acrotelm, in whichthe rate of decay is normally high; and thepredominantly anaerobic underlying layer,the catotelm, of low hydraulic conductivitywith a lower rate of decay76. The boundarybetween these layers is approximately at themean depth of the minimum water table insummer, about 10-50 cm below surface77,depending on the mire type and the micro-sites of the mire area. Carbon is added to thesurface of the peat through net primaryproduction, the acrotelm takes in CO2,converts it to plant material, and finally passesit on to the catotelm. About 5-10% of thebiomass produced annually ends up aspeat78. Most of the C loss occurs relativelyquickly and with increasing age, decay slowsconsiderably79. Thus, the catotelm is the truesite of peat accumulation, where slowanaerobic decomposition results in additionalC loss. Generally, as peat accumulates therate of loss from the whole catotelm increases,because there is more peat to decay.

The recent rate of C accumulation normallyrefers to young peat layers some hundredsof years old. Depending on the mire typeand decay rates, the recent C accumulationcan range from 10 to 300 g m-2 yr-1 in borealregions80. The long-term apparent rate of Caccumulation (LORCA) throughout theHolocene is relatively easy to calculate oncea profile of dry bulk density from surface tothe bottom of the mire and a basal date havebeen obtained. Analysis of 1302 dated peatcores from Finnish mires gives a LORCA of18.5 g m-2 yr-1 for the entire Finnish undrainedmire area81, indicating great C loss comparedto the recent average C accumulation rates.Generally, bogs have a higher averageLORCA than fens. In Russian Karelia, theLORCA for the whole Holocene can becalculated as 20 g m-2 yr-1, 82 19.4 g m-2 yr-1 incontinental western Canada83, and 17.2 g m 2

yr-1 in West Siberian84 mires85. In Arctic andsubarctic regions the LORCA normally rangefrom 1.2 to 16.5 g m-2 yr-1.86

It is important to emphasise that LORCA canbe misleading simply because of the ongoing

Figure 2/4: Relationship of three different commonly used measures of “peat accumulationrate”. The slope at the origin is p, the rate at which dry matter is added to the system; thechord from the origin to the present is LORCA, the long term apparent rate of carbonaccumulation.; the slope at the present time is ARCA, the true rate of carbon accumulation.In the inset these three rates are compared. The numerical values are always, for T>0, in theorder p>LORCA>ARCA. It is often assumed (wrongly, if there is any decay) that p =LORCA = ARCA91.


decay in the catotelm. However, LORCAprovides insight into the balance betweenlong-term input and decay. The true net rateof C accumulation (ARCA) can be determinedby peat accumulation models87, and has beenestimated as 2/3 of LORCA88. Therelationship of these three different measuresof peat accumulation rate is illustrated inFigure 2/4. The differences between thesethree different measures increase with time.

The mineral subsoil under mires is anadditional C sink that may account forapproximately 5% of the unaccounted C inthe global carbon budget89.The present-day sequestering rate of C inglobal mires is estimated to be 40-70 ·1012 g y-

1 (= 40 – 70 million tonnes C y-1) 90.

270-370·1015 g of carbon (C) is stored in thepeats of boreal and sub-boreal peatlandsalone92. This means that globally peatrepresents about one third of the total globalsoil carbon pool (being 1395·1015 g)93. Itcontains an equivalent of approximately 2/3of all carbon in the atmosphere and the sameamount of carbon as all terrestrial biomasson the earth94.

Peat extraction is presently responsible foroxidative peat losses of approximately 15·1012

g of carbon per year95, while agriculture andforestry consume 100 – 200 ·1012 g C per year96.As global peat accumulation is about 40 - 70·1012 g C per year, the world’s peatlands havechanged from a carbon sink to a carbonsource, with an annual global loss of the peatcarbon resource of about 0.5‰97.

2.6 CHARACTERISTICS OFMIRES AND PEATLANDS

The essential features of mires and peatlands– peat accumulation and peat storage – areassociated with a number of othercharacteristics98 that distinguish them frommost other ecosystem types. As peatlandslargely consist of water99, hydrological

characteristics play a central role. Therefollow four characteristics or processes whichlie at the basis of many peatland-specificconflicts. They are therefore especiallyrelevant to the rest of this document. (Thecharacteristics of mires and peatlands thatrelate directly to “benefits”, “resources” and“services” are dealt with in extenso inChapter 3).

i) Their principal characteristic is that thewater level should - on average in thelong-term - be near the surface100 for amire to exist, i.e. to make peataccumulation possible.

Water levels which are too low101 and toohigh102 are detrimental to peat accumulation.This means that activities which substantiallylower or raise the water level in peatlands,including their use for many production andcarrier functions, negatively affect their peataccumulation capacity and the associatedfunctions.

ii)Oxidation processes103 change thephysical, chemical, hydraulic, andbiological properties of peats and peatsoils, and these changes are oftenirreversible104.

Drainage of mires brings about changes inthe properties of the peat and hence in thefunctioning of the peatland ecosystem.Processes induced by drainage includeamong others105:● subsidence, i.e. the lowering of the surface,● shrinkage and swelling, and increased soil

loosening by soil organisms,● increased mineralisation (conversion of

organic material to mineral substances).

As peat largely consists of water106, drainageof peatlands leads to subsidence107 and peatoxidation108 and compaction. Consequentlythe hydraulic properties109 (those whichgovern water movement) of the peats change.This may decrease the peatland’s capacities


for water storage and regulation110. Theseprocesses also take place in deep tropicalpeats111. The shrinkage and swelling of thepeat as a result of increased water levelfluctuations cause the formation of verticaland horizontal fissures, particularly in drierclimates. These impede upward (capillary)water flow and lead to a more frequent anddeeper drying out of the soil112. Throughincreased activity of soil organisms, drainedpeat soils become loosened and fine-grainedand may eventually become unrewettable113.

Aeration leads to oxidation and mineralisationof the uppermost peat layers. It also producesremobilisation of formerly fixed substances,and increased emissions of greenhousegasses114 and nutrients115. The dry peatfollowing drainage can result in dust stormsand fires below the surface116. Subsidenceand oxidation lower the peatland surface117,necessitate a continuous deepening ofdrainage ditches (the “vicious circle ofpeatland utilisation”118), and make drainageincreasingly difficult119.

These processes take place world-widewherever the protective natural vegetationof peatlands is removed and the peat isdrained. They are accelerated by tillage120.Most types of peatland agriculture showoxidation rates ranging from some millimetresup to several centimetres of peat per yeardepending on the microclimate121. In generalthe addition of lime, fertilisers and mineral soilmaterial increases the rate of mineralisationin drained peatlands. In the case of agriculturethese processes frequently lead to theabandonment of peatlands122.

iii) In mires, very close relationships existbetween the vegetation type, the peattype occurring at the surface, and thehydrologic properties of the site (waterlevels, water level fluctuations, waterquality).

Because of this intimate interaction, changesin one of these components lead to changesin the properties of the other components. Achange in mean water level of somecentimetres in a mire may lead to a change inthe vegetation123 and consequently tochanges in the peat that is formed124.

iv) Water flow connects the catchment areawith the peatland125 and various parts ofa peatland with each other126.

A change in the water flow of the catchmentor of part of the peatland may, therefore,influence every part of a peatland127. Suchinterconnections may function over manykilometres128.

2.7 PEATLANDS AS HABITATSAND ECOSYSTEMS

Mires and peatlands are generallycharacterised by extreme conditions, whichcall for special adaptations of the species thatlive there.

The high water level and the consequentscarcity of oxygen in the root layer129 requiresfrom mire plants adaptations in■ physiology, to deal with the toxic

substances130 that originate underanaerobic conditions,

■ anatomy, such as aerenchyms, planttissues that lead oxygen from the partsabove ground to the root system131, and/or

■ growth form, including aerial roots thatprotrude above ground or (paradoxically)xeromorphy (morphological adaptation todry conditions) that reduces watermovement in the soil zone around the rootsby restricting evapotranspiration lossesand so increases the time available for theoxidation of phytotoxins132, or that enablesplants to root solely in the uppermost peatlayers.

Peat accumulation in mires results in animmobilisation of nutrients in the newly


formed peat and a consequent scarcity ofnutrients. Nutrients may further fail becauseof limited supply (as in ombrogenous mires)or inaccessibility (as in calcareous mires,where all phosphates are bound to calcium133).Mire plants therefore generally show variousadaptations to nutrient shortage:■ Moss species have cation exchange

mechanisms, that enable them to exchangethe rare cations in the water for self-produced hydrogen ions. This mechanismis particularly well developed inSphagnum134;

■ Trees often show stunted growth, e.g.conifers and Nothofagus species135;

■ Many species have large rhizome and rootsystems that function for several years136;

■ Dwarf shrubs are slow-growing and oftenhave perennial or “xeromorphic” (small andthick) leaves, which reduce their need fornutrients, e.g. Ericaceae, Empetraceae,Betulaceae, Salicaceae, Rosaceae,Myrtaceae;

■ Monocotyledon137 herbs often haveperennial or thin, blade-like leaves, e.g.Cyperaceae, Poaceae, Juncaceae,Juncaginaceae, Scheuchzeriaceae,Iridaceae, Restionaceae138;

■ Various dicotyledon vascular plants onmires are parasitic and have developedspecialized organs to “steal” nutrients fromother plants, e.g. Scrophulariaceae,Santalaceae;

■ Other herbs are carnivorous139 and catchinsects for food, e.g. Droseraceae,Lentibulariceae, Sarraceniaceae,Cephalotaceae, Nepenthaceae;

■ Many higher plants live in symbiosis withfungi or bacteria that help them to retrieverare nutrients140 (e.g. Orchidaceae,Ericaceae141) or that fix atmosphericnitrogen (e.g. in Alnus, Myrica, andFabaceae142).

A third complicating factor for plant growthis the continuous cover by accumulating peatand the constantly rising water levels143.Perennial plants must be capable of

continuous upward growth and must be ableto develop new roots every year on a higherlevel144. Few tree species are able to makenew roots on the stem145 leading to a generalscarcity or stunted growth of trees intemperate and boreal bogs.The growth of tall and heavy trees is alsohampered because the surface-rooting treeseasily fall over or, in mires with a spongy peatstructure such as percolation andschwingmoor mires, drown under their ownweight.

Peats generally conduct heat poorly, causinga relatively short growing season for vascularplants in boreal areas. The prevalence ofwater and the limitations to tree growthprovide mires with a climate that is generallycooler and more extreme than that of itssurroundings146, which leads to ecosystemfeatures which are not typical of the climatezone. In forested boreal and temperate areas,open mires represent tundra-like conditionsand often harbour “ice-age relicts” anddisjunct147 species and communities148.

The acidity caused by cation exchange andorganic acids, especially in the case ofSphagnum-dominated mires149 and theproduction of toxic organic substances150 formadditional handicaps to organisms.

As a result of these extreme conditions, miresin general are relatively poor in species ascompared with mineral soils in the samebiographic region. This is true for temperate,boreal and tropical mires151. Many peatlandspecies are, however, strongly specialised andnot found in other habitat types.

The fauna of mires is also generallyinfluenced by the scarcity of water nutrientsand ions, the acidity of the water, the relativecoolness, and (in the case of non-forestedmires) the strong temperature fluctuations.Sphagnum-dominated mires in particular arecharacterised by poor nutrient availabilitybecause “almost nothing eats Sphagnum”152.


Figure 2/5. Extent and location of global mires and peatlands. From Lappalainen 1996.



The scarcity of ions in the mire water requiresconsiderable energy to maintain the chemicalconcentration in the body water (threatenedby osmosis), which probably causes thepigmy forms of many mire organisms. In acidmires, Gastropoda (snails), Bivalvia(molluscs) and Crustaceae (crayfish) aregenerally absent, because of the scarcity ofcalcium carbonate. The radiation intensityand temperature fluctuations cause amelanismus (dark colour)153.

Their inaccessibility and peacefulness havefrequently made mires the last refuges ofspecies that have been expelled fromintensively-used surroundings154. In thismanner the peat swamp forests of Borneo andSumatra are among the last refuges for orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus) in themidst of intensively-logged forests onmineral soils155. Similar phenomena are alsoknown in Europe and North America156.

Various mire types develop sophisticated self-regulation mechanisms over time157 andacquire an exceptional resilience againstclimatic change158. As a result such mireshave characteristics similar to a livingorganism and are thus almost ideal examplesof ecosystems. Related features are theinherent tendency of mires to developcomplex surface patterning159 and ecosystembiodiversity160 (see Table 3/20).

1 This section has benefited from critical commentsfrom John Jeglum and Juhani Päivänen.

2 Cf. Guidelines for Global Action Plan for Peatlandstheme 1. Every international approach in peatlandscience and policy is complicated by the multitudeof terms, the inconsistencies in their definition,and the different concepts behind similar terms indifferent languages and disciplines (Overbeck1975; Fuchsman 1980, Andrejko et al. 1983;Zoltai & Martikainen 1996). Multilingual lexiconsand their precursors (e.g. Früh & Schröter 1904;Mali 1956; Masing 1972; Bick et al. 1973;Overbeck 1975; Gore 1983; International PeatSociety 1984) have paid too little attention tothis problem. Many concepts have further beenconfused by uncritical translation of terms, evenin translations of important handbooks (Joosten

1995a). Some illustrations: the English “moor”,the German “Moor”, the Dutch “moer”, theSwedish “myr” and the English “mire” do nothave the same meaning and cannot be (but toooften are) translated one into the other. The sameaccounts for the German “Torf”, the English“turf” and the Dutch “turf”, although the meaningof the latter is somewhat similar to that of theIrish “turf”. In one and the same language, themeaning of words is ambiguous and may change intime (cf. Wheeler & Proctor 2000) or may differfrom discipline to discipline. In some languagesthe words commonly used for the type oflandscapes we want to discuss do not differentiatebetween areas with and without peat (cf. the English“moor”, the French “fagne” and “marais”, theFinnish “suo”, the Russian “áîëîòî (boloto)”,the Georgian “tsjaowbi”), between peat formingor not peat forming (cf. the German “Moor”, theDutch “veen”, the English “bog” and “fen”), oronly indicate the presence of an economicallyextractable volume of peat (cf. “tourbière”,“torfeira”, “turbera” in Romance languages).

3 Communication takes place by means of terms(words, names) that represent concepts (contents,objects, ideas, notions). The concrete form of aterm is of minor importance. Communicationproblems arise out of confusion about ordisagreement on connections between terms andconcepts (Hofstetter 2000a), as everybody(supported by valid semantic, etymologic, andhistorical arguments) prefers his or her own wayof connecting terms and concepts. In internationalsoil classification, this problem has been solvedby introducing artificial terms (FAO-UNESCO1988). This approach - for scientific purposes -has also been proposed for peatlands (Hofstetter2000b). In this document, existing terms are usedbecause they make possible an easier associationwith the subject (even where they also cause someconfusion). The terms used are for the purposesof this document and their definitions are notintended to pre-empt further discussion.Definitions are only provided of terms andconcepts that are essential for this document.Other than in quotations the document refrainsfrom using confusing words such as “swamp” and“marsh”.

4 For an extensive review of definitions of “wetland”,cf. Tiner 1999. The definition presented here isbased on the Ramsar definition modified withwording derived from the US Amy Corps ofEngineers definition.

5 Of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether naturalor artificial, permanent or temporary (cf. Ramsardefinition)

6 Up to a depth of six metres at low tide (cf. Ramsardefinition).

7 Surface or groundwater, static or flowing, fresh,brackish or salt (cf. Ramsar definition).

8 And that under normal circumstances does support(cf. US Army Corps of Engineers definition).

9 “Sedentary” (cf. Von Post 1922) is used in thisdocument to mean formed on the spot and nottransported after its formation and death. Peat


differs in this respect from organic sediments likegyttjas and folisols (Blattmudde, “Waldtorf”),which originate from organic matter “falling” fromabove (planktonic material, resp. leaves andbranches) (cf. Pakarinen 1984). Peat may have asedimentary component (e.g. derived from algaein hollows, seeds and leaves, or in case of springand flood mires consisting of mineral material),but a strict sedentary component derived fromnon-aquatic plants should always be present (cf.Succow & Stegmann 2001a).

10 Varying with country and scientific discipline, peathas been defined as requiring a minimal content of5, 15, 30, 50, 65% or more (dry mass) of organicmaterial (cf. Andrejko et al. 1983, AgricultureCanada 1987, Driessen & Dudal 1991, Succow &Stegmann 2001b). The organic matter content isof importance for the use of peats. The differentapproaches, however, probably do not lead tostrongly different global volumes of “peat”(Joosten 1999a). The definition used here isproposed so as to provide this document with aconsistent term. The 30% is a value oftenencountered in definitions of peats and organicsoils in international literature.

11 Peat may contain living organisms and (livingand dead) biomass, even in deep layers, includingmicro-organisms, spores, and living roots (Cf.Belanger et al. 1988), but these do not dominate(Joosten & Couwenberg 1998).

12 By “organic” is meant that the material resultsfrom carbon chemical biosynthesis. Organicmaterials belong to the larger group “organogenic”materials, which include all substances that haveoriginated from organisms. For example, coralsare organogenic, but not organic, sedentates(Joosten & Couwenberg 1998).

13 Varying with country and scientific discipline,peatlands have been defined as having a minimumthickness of 20, 30, 45, 50 or 70 cm of peat. Thisquestion is discussed in detail in work on soilclassification – for example in Agriculture Canada1987. See also Joosten & Couwenberg 1998. Thedefinition used here is proposed so as to providethis document with a consistent definition. Itshould be noted that – to provide a uniformstandard – the inventories in §2.4 and Appendix 1use a minimum peat depth of 30 cm to which allavailable data were recalculated.

14 Cf. Sjörs 1948. It is difficult to test in practicewhether or not peat is accumulating. Thedominance in the vegetation of species, whoseremains are also found in peat, can together withthe incidence of almost permanent waterloggedconditions, be taken as good indicators of peatformation.

15 Some concepts of “mires” (e.g. the Finnish “suo”,the Russian “áîëîòî” (boloto), and the miredefinition of Löfroth 1994) in fact refer to whatwe here call “suo”.

16 Mires are wetlands, as peat is largely formed underwaterlogged conditions. Approximately half ofthe world‘s wetlands are peatlands (Mitsch et al.1994, Lappalainen 1996). Peatlands where peataccumulation has stopped, e.g. following drainage,

are no longer mires. When drainage has beensevere, they are no longer wetlands.

17 Clymo 1983, Koppisch 2001.18 Koppisch 2001.19 Cf. Succow & Stegmann 2001a. Peat types are

furthermore distinguished on the basis of theirdegree of decomposition (cf. black peat, grey/white peat - Von Post scale), nutrient content,acidity, ash content/content of organic material(cf. Halbtorf, Volltorf, Reintorf), pedogenicalteration (cf. the German Ried, Fen, Mulm), fibre

content (fibric, hemic, sapric), and othercharacteristics (cf. Fuchsman 1980, Andriesse1988, Succow & Stegmann 2001b).

20 Ball 2000.21 Denny, M.W. 1993.22 Moore 1993, Freeman et al. 2001.23 Demchuk et al. 1995, Lyons & Alpern 1989,

Cobb & Cecil 1993.24 Lappalainen 199625 Cf. Turunen et al. 2000a, UNESCO 1978.26 Classification comprises the sorting and grouping

of things into classes (“classi”-fication) on thebasis of their similarities and dissimilarities. Theclassification procedure results in a typology: asystem of categories (“types”, cf. “typ”-ology)on the basis of logical principles and functionalinterests. Classification is the process, typologyis the result. Cf. Joosten 1998.

27 Cf. Overbeck 1975, Gore 1983a, b, Moore 1984a,Eurola & Huttunen 1985, National WetlandsWorking Group 1988, Brinson 1993, Finlayson& Van der Valk 1995, Wheeler & Proctor 2000,Succow & Joosten 2001, http://www.imcg.net/docum/greifswa/greifs00.htm.

28 Dau (1823) was the first to acknowledge that bogsare fed “by merely rain and dew of heaven.”

29 Based on the origin of water, geogenous mireshave been further subdivided into topogenous andsoligenous mires. According to the originaldefinitions (Von Post 1926) topogenous miresdepend on topographic conditions and arerelatively independent of climate, because they“develop in terrestrialising lakes or river valleys,or at springs”. In soligenous mires, peat formationis not only induced and continued by directprecipitation, but “also by meteoric water runningoff from the surrounding terrain” (Von Post &Granlund 1926). See Table 2/2 below. In laterpublications the term “soligenous” has often beenused differently to mean “originated underinfluence of streaming groundwater” (cf. Sjörs1948) which a.o. leads to a typological switch ofspring-fed mires from “topogenous” to“soligenous”. To make the confusion even larger(cf. footnote 2), the term “soligenous” has alsobeen used to describe solely spring mires (cf.Masing 1975, Wolejko 2000).

30 Cf. Sjörs 1948.31 Weber 1900, Gams & Ruoff 1929. Kulczyñski

1949 contributed to the development of ahydrological mire typology by pointing out theimportance of water movement (Cf. Bellamy1972, Moore & Bellamy 1974, Ivanov 1981).

32 Succow 1981, 1983, 1999; Succow & Lange 1984,


Joosten & Succow 2001.33 Adapted from Couwenberg & Joosten 1999.34 Sjörs 1948.35 Cf. Succow 1982.36 Cf. Wassen & Joosten 1996, Sirin et al. 1997,

1998a.37 Joosten 1997.38 Sensu Couwenberg & Joosten 1999.39 Joosten 1993.40 Johnson & Damman 1991.41 Cf. Wolejko & Ito 1986, Damman 1995.42 Agnew et al. 1993, Shearer 1997, personal

communication from Ton Damman.43 Kaffke et al. 2000.44 Rieley & Page 1997.45 Cf. Driessen & Rochimah 1976; pers. comm.

Herbert Diemont 1998.46 Examples include plateau bogs, concentric bogs,

eccentric bogs, aapa fens etc. The origin anddevelopment of these striking patterns is stillsubject to considerable debate, particularly withregard to the processes that control them (seereviews in Glaser 1999 and Couwenberg & Joosten1999).

47 Alexandrova 1988.48 Cf. Tarnocai & Zoltai 1988, Glooschenko et al.

1993.49 Jeschke et al. 2001.50 Polygon mires are therefore a subtype of the

water rise mire type.51 Tarnocai & Zoltai 1988, Glooschenko et al. 1993.52 For a review, see MacKay 1998.53 Åhman 1977, Zoltai et al. 1988, Glooschenko et

al. 1993.54 Blyakharchuk & Sulerzhitsky 1999.55 Initial ice formation in surficial peat leads to an

initial raising of the surface, because ice has morevolume than a similar mass of water. As the moreelevated elements get a thinner snow cover theyare consequently less insulated in winter, and theice nuclei thus get colder and expand. The driersurficial moss layer of the elevated elementinsulates the ice core against thawing in summer(Glooschenko et al. 1993). The formation of icein the elevated elements also decreases theirhydraulic conductivity (Glooschenko et al. 1993)and has a similar effect on pattern formation tothat of stronger decomposition (cf. Couwenberg& Joosten 1999).

56 Glooschenko et al. 1993, Jeschke et al. 2001.57 See also Appendix 1. Methodological remarks:

See Joosten 2002 for a detailed presentation anddiscussion of the basic data. For internationalcomparison, existing data have been adjusted to auniform standard. In this inventory (cf. §2.1)‘peatlands’ are areas with a minimum peat depthof 30 cm; peat consists of at least 30% (dryweight) organic material; ‘mires’ are peatlandswith actual peat accumulation. The first criterion(depth of 30 cm.) excludes many (sub)arctic areaswith a shallow peat layer, the second criterion isconsistent with common definitions and does notgreatly affect the inventory results. Because everypeatland is or has been a mire, the formeroccurrence of mires have largely been reconstructed

from the extent of peatlands and peat soils. Forthe ‘original occurrence’, the maximum mireextent in every region during the Holocene hasbeen used. Applying a fixed time slice would havebeen complicated, as mires were already beingdestroyed in some regions, very early andextensively, while still expanding in other places.There are no indications that a substantial area ofmires disappeared naturally since the Holocenemaximum. Anthropogenic losses (losses due tohuman activity) also include indirect effects, e.g.consequent hydrological changes outside the mirearea itself. Peat subsidence, oxidation, and erosionfollowing human activities have changed manyformer peatlands into mineral soils according togeological or pedological definitions, excludingthem from recent inventories. These sources oferror have been corrected for by taking historicland use intensity into account. Human activitieshave not only led to a destruction of mires, butalso to their origin and expansion (Moore 1975,Törnqvist & Joosten 1988). It is difficult to judgeto what extent these processes would have takenplace without human interference (cf. Moore1993). For this reason these possible ‘constructive’activities have not been balanced with those of a‘destructive’ nature. National borders have beenchanging considerably in the 20th century,particularly in Central Europe, complicating theuse of older inventories. The figures of lossespresented here are to a large extent“guesstimates”, as adequate data are not availablefor the majority of countries. Available data arelargely out-of-date, inconsistent, and difficult tocompare. This applies to peatlands in general, butespecially to mires. Little doubt can, however,exist about the order of magnitude and the trendof the changes. Data for different types of miresare even more difficult to obtain on a global scale,because of non-compatible classification systemsand typologies.

58 “Many of the data on peat resources are publishedon the basis of undisclosed modes of computation.Field mapping, coring, and analyses are ofteninadequate or wholly lacking, so that the publishedvalues for such cases should be considered as well-intentioned speculations rather than as reliablegeological data.” (Fuchsman 1980).

59 Most recent world-wide overview Lappalainen1996. See also Rubec 1996, Zoltai & Martikainen1996.

60 The absence of reliable data on the actual mireand peatland resource and its recent changesunderlines the necessity for further inventory, asrecommended by the 6th and 7th Conferences ofthe Contracting Parties of the Ramsar Conventionand the Global Action Plan for Peatlands Theme1.

61 The map is taken from Lappalainen 1996.62 Gorham 1991.63 Lappalainen 1996. Tables A1/1 to A1/5 in

Appendix 1.64 Joosten, 1999, Safford and Maltby, 1998.65 Vitt and Halsey 1994, Oeckel et al. 1993, 1995,

Malmer & Wallén 1996, Vompersky et al. 1998,


Sieffermann et al. 1988.66 Adapted from Joosten 1999. N.B.: these older

data may not be fully compatible with the newerdata in Tables A1/1 to A1/5 in Appendix 1.

67 Guesstimate based on production figures correctedfor extraction on already-drained areas.

68 Immirzi et al. 1992. Additional contemporaryinformation is sought on this figure. It is likelythat the order of magnitude of the combined figureremains valid, given recent large projects in SouthEast Asia.

69 Additional contemporary information is requiredto verify this figure.

70 Joosten 1999.71 Paavilainen & Päivänen 1995.72 Foss 1998.73 Bambalov 1996, Belokurov et al 1998.74 Based on information from Jukka Turunen.75 E.g. Botch et al. 1995; Kauppi et al. 1997; Clymo

et al. 1998; Turunen et al. 1999; Vitt et al. 2000;Turunen et al. 2000.

76 Ingram 1978; Clymo 1984.77 Ivanov 1981; Clymo 1984.78 Clymo 1984; Gorham 1991; Warner et al. 199379 Tolonen et al. 199280 Tolonen & Turunen 1996.81 Turunen et al. 2000a.82 Elina et al 1984.83 Vitt et al. 2000.84 Turunen et al. 2000b. These data concern old

watershed ombrotrophic mires in the middle taigazone. New research gives LORCA values for thesouth taiga zone of West Siberia of 41.2±12 (SE)(n= 14), with values ranging from 24.9 to 56.4 gm-2 yr-1 (pers. comm. Elena Lapshina, cf.Lapshina et al. 2001).

85 These new estimates are lower than earlierestimates of 26-30 g m-2 yr-1 for boreal and sub-arctic regions, e.g. Gorham 1991; Botch et al.1995; Tolonen & Turunen 1996; Clymo et al.1998. The difference in LORCA estimates ismainly due the fact that shallow mires have beenunder-represented in previous studies. There hasalso been great uncertainty in average dry bulkdensities of peat layers. The bias of data towardsdeeper peat deposits is also evident through theclassification of mires in northern latitudes basedon the minimum thickness of peat deposits, asnoted in Note 13 above. For example, theminimum thickness for geological mires in Finland,Canada and Russia is 30, 40 and 70 cm (Lappalainen& Hänninen 1993, Zoltai et al. 1975, Botch andMasing 1979), respectively.

86 Summarised by Vardy et al. 2000.87 Clymo 1984, Clymo et al. 1998.88 Tolonen & Turunen 1996.89 Turunen et al. 1999.90 Gorham 1991, Clymo et al. 1998, Turunen et al.

2000a.91 After Clymo et al. 1998.92 Turunen et al. 2000a. The large range of these C

storage estimates reflects the uncertainty in thedepth and dry bulk densities of global peat deposits.

93 Post et al. 1982.94 www.wri.org/climate/carboncy.html, Houghton et

al. 1990.95 This figure does not include carbon emissions from

peat oxidation in peatlands drained for and byextraction.

96 Immirzi et al. 1992.97 See also Armentano & Menges 1986, Botch et al.

1995, Lappalainen 1996, Vompersky et al. 1996,Joosten 1999.

98 See also §§ 2.2, 2.3, and 2.7. The characteristicsoutlined in this chapter are principally thoserelevant to the functions discussed in Chapter 3.

99 Undrained peatlands contain between 85% and95% water, making them often “wetter” thanunskimmed milk. Undrained peatlands can oftenbe regarded as “mounds of water kept togetherby some organic material”.

100 = just below, at, or just above the surface, cf.Edom 2001a.

101 See §2.2, Ivanov 1981, Koppisch 2001.102 Because of erosion and the lack of oxygen and

carbon dioxide, c.f. Ivanov 1981, Ingram & Bragg1984 Alexandrov 1988, Sjörs 1990, Lamers etal. 1999.

103 Resulting from aeration or input of specific ions(e.g. nitrates, iron, sulfates) (Edom 2001a,Koppisch 2001).

104 Kløve 2000, Edom 2001a, Stegmann & Zeitz2001, Pozdnyakov et al. 2001. Similar changesalso result from the imposition of weight.

105 Schmidt et al. 1981.106 Moisture contents of undrained peats of 90 - 95

% are not uncommon (cf. Segeberg 1960).107 Subsidence is the lowering of the peatland surface

level as a result of decreased water pressure. Alowering of the moisture content of peat from95% to 90%, for example, halves the volume ofthe water in the peat, and affects substantiallythe height of the mire (Segeberg 1960). Five yearsafter drainage, the height of a bog in Germanyhad already decreased by more than 2 metres(Baden 1939). Construction of a road throughClara Bog (Ireland) lowered the surface in thecentre of the remaining mire by possibly 4 metres(Van der Schaaf 1999).

108 See Figure 2/2 and §2.3.109 Including porosity, storage coefficient, and

hydraulic conductivity (Edom 2001a).110 Edom 2001b. See also §3.4.3 (o).111 Suhardjo & Driessen 1977, Maltby 1986, Stewart

1991.112 Cf. Brandyk & Skapski 1988.113 Stegmann & Zeitz 2001.114 See §3.4.3 (m), Tables A2/7 and A2/8 and Fig.

A2/2.115 Including nitrates and phosphates, which may

cause water eutrophication (Gelbrecht et al. 2000).116 Maltby 1986.117 Long-term observations show height losses of up

to 4 metres in 130 years, c.f. Hutchinson 1980,Eggelsmann 1990.

118 “Teufelskreis der Moornutzung”, c.f. Kuntze 1982.119 Gravity drainage becomes increasingly difficult

as the water level difference with the maindrainage canal (river, sea) becomes smaller. When


water level differences - as in case of many fens- become negative, the instalment of polders -including dike construction and maintenance andcontinuous pumping - becomes necessary.

120 See §3.4.1 (ea).121 Eggelsmann 1976, 1990; Dradjad et al. 1986,

Stegmann & Zeitz 2001.122 The rate of surface lowering in Florida peatlands,

for example, is 2.5 cm per year, even with carefulmanagement. It is estimated that market gardencrops can only be grown on an area for about 20years (Stewart 1991). Oxidation can eventuallylead to the loss of the entire peat profile and theexposure of underlying nutrient-poor substrateswith waterlogged, potentially toxic (acid sulphate)soils. In sub-coastal situations this may be followedby marine inundation (Page & Rieley 1998). Acombination of socio-economic changes,drainage problems, and soil deterioration hasrecently led to a massive abandonment ofagricultural peatland areas in Central Europe(Succow & Joosten 2001).

123 Ivanov 1981, Davis et al. 2000. Small hydrologicchanges may hence induce large losses inbiodiversity.

124 Changes in the vegetation and consequently thepeat by century-long mowing of sedge mires inmany parts of Europe is possibly, next to shallowdrainage of peatland and catchment, one of theprime reasons for scrub encroachment afterabandonment of these originally open species-rich fens (cf. Wassen & Joosten 1996).

125 E.g. Wassen & Joosten 1996, Edom 2001b.126 E.g. Glaser et al. 1997, Couwenberg & Joosten

1999, Edom 2001b.127 Kulczyñski 1949, Ivanov 1981.128 Cf. Schot 1992, Joosten 1994, Van Walsum &

Joosten 1994, Glaser et al. 1997, Wetzel 2000.129 Cf. Hook & Crawford 1978.130 Including possible high concentrations of sulphides

and reduced iron and manganese (cf. Sikora &Keeney 1983).

131 Cf. Grosse et al. 1992.132 Armstrong 1975133 Boyer & Wheeler 1989.134 Clymo 1963, Clymo & Hayward 1982.135 Roosaluste 1982.136 Bliss 1997137 The flowering plants are subdivided into two large

groups: the monocotyledons and the dicotyledons.In dicotyledons the embryo sprouts twocotyledons, which are seed leaves that serve toprovide food for the new seedling.Monocotyledon embryos only have one suchcotyledon. The two groups differ in a number ofways. Dicotyledons have floral organs (sepals,petals, stamens, pistils) in multiples of four orfive, monocotyledons generally in multiples ofthree. The leaves of dicots have a netlike veinpattern, while those of monocots have parallelveining.

138 Tüxen 1982.139 Givnish 1988140 Marschner 1995. See also Keddy 2000 who points

to the fact that compared to other habitatsmycorrhizae are relatively uncommon in wetlandsand soil nutrient gradients may therefore be evenmore important in wetlands than in terrestrialhabitats.

141 Burgeff 1961.142 Hall et al. 1979, Chartapaul et al. 1989.143 Cf. Van Breemen 1995.144 Grosse-Brauckmann 1990, Malmer et al. 1994.145 Picea mariana in North America is an important

exception.146 See also §3.4.3 (n).147 Disjunct species are related, through ancestors,

to populations found in distant locations fromwhich they have been separated by time andgeologic events. Arctic/alpine disjunct species,for example, occur in the Arctic and in variousalpine areas outside the Arctic, but not in between.Their distribution was fractured by climaticchange.

148 Peus 1932, 1950, Burmeister 1990, Masing 1997,Schwaar 1981.

149 Ross 1995, Van Breemen 1995.150 Verhoeven & Liefveld 1997, Salampak et al.

2000.151 Rieley 1991, Page et al. 1997, Rieley et al 1997.152 Clymo & Hayward 1982.153 Burmeister 1990.154 Burmeister 1990.155 Page et al. 1997. See also the long list of

endangered mammal, bird, and reptile species thatfind a refuge in Southeast Asian peat forests inPage & Rieley (1998).

156 Cf. for example Van Seggelen 1999 and §3.4.1(d).

157 Cf. Ivanov 1981, Joosten 1993.158 Couwenberg et al. 2000.159 Cf. various papers in Standen et al. 1999.160 Couwenberg 1998, Couwenberg & Joosten 1999.

See also §3.4.4 (u).

45VALUES AND FUCTIONS OF MIRES AND PEATLANDS

CHAPTER 3.

VALUES AND FUNCTIONS OF MIRES AND PEATLANDS

This chapter sets out the types of values that human beings use in making choices betweenalternative benefits. It sets out the different benefits which are derived from mires and peatlands.A substantial number of experts have contributed material for this chapter.

3.1. WHAT ARE VALUES?1

Solving conflicts between different uses ofmires and peatlands (for example, betweeneconomic utilisation and environmentalconservation) in a rational way presupposesan understanding of the various values2 atstake. There are at least three fundamentallydifferent approaches to what values are3:

■ In the idealistic approach, based on ancientGreek philosophy, values are regarded asideal and objective, independent of the realworld. It is assumed that these values areknown through a special “intuitus”.Followers of this approach are currentlyrare4.

■ In the naturalistic approach, values areregarded as objective properties of anentity5, independent of the person makingthe valuation. Things in the real world areconsidered to have value, just as they havemass or velocity. Several world religionsand contemporary environmentalphilosophers defend this approach6.

■ In the preference approach, values areregarded as properties assigned by avaluer, resulting from the preferences of theperson making the valuation. “Absolute”values do not exist. Each person is free tovalue entities as he or she feels about them.Consequent on the many different resultingpreferences, a great variety of value-standards exist. None of these value-standards can be considered “better” or

“worse” than the others except when otherpremises make them so. Most experts invalue theory (axiology) currently supportthis preference approach.

Values are generally divided into twocategories:● Instrumental values are clear means to an

end (“instruments”). Instrumental value isequal to function7: the beneficial effect ofan entity on another entity. Instrumentalvalues can be studied systematically byscience and are therefore more objectivethan intrinsic values.

● Entities that are to be respected as such,i.e. independent from everything else, aresaid to have intrinsic moral value (or“moral standing”).

The existence of intrinsic moral values islogically included in the idea of a mean-endrelationship, when a chain of means(instrumental values) is considered to cometo an end at something which has value assuch (intrinsic value)8. Consequently eventhe preference approach has ultimately toidentify objects with “intrinsic value”, i.e. thatdeserve moral respect for their own sake,independent of whether we prefer it or not.9

It is therefore a central question to identifywhich entities have such intrinsic moral value,to which entities we have moral obligations,and for what reasons.

46 VALUES AND FUCTIONS OF MIRES AND PEATLANDS

3.2 POSITIONS WITH RESPECTTO INTRINSIC MORAL VALUES

Anthropocentrism10 represents the positionthat human beings, and only human beings,i.e. individuals of the biological species Homosapiens, have intrinsic value. In its firstprinciple “Human beings are at the centre ofconcerns for sustainable development”, theRio Declaration (UNCED 1992) takes a clearanthropocentric starting-point. TheUniversal Declaration on Human Rights11

attaches intrinsic moral value to all humanbeings, wherever they are12. “Sustainabledevelopment” in seeking to meet “the needsof the present without compromising theability of future generations to meet their ownneeds”13 also attaches intrinsic moral valueto human beings in the future. From theanthropocentric standpoint, all humanresponsibilities with regard to non-humanbeings are based solely on the realisation ofhuman happiness.

To justify the anthropocentric position it isnecessary to argue which characteristics ofhuman beings are morally relevant. Non-anthropocentrists argue that any set ofmorally relevant characteristics which areshared by all human beings will not bepossessed by human beings only. Theyfurthermore appeal to consistency: if humanbeings value a state (such as freedom frompain) in themselves, it is arbitrary and“speciesist” (as in racist, sexist) not to valueit also in non-human beings. In this way,different people attach intrinsic value todifferent groups of beings with differentjustifications (see Table 3/1).

Although intrinsic value is normallyattributed to individual persons, intrinsicmoral value can also be attached to groupingsor systems, a position called holism. Suchgroupings or systems may includeinstitutions (the “party”), nations (patriotism),the “land”, forests, species, ecosystems, and

Table 3/1: Positions with regard to which beings possess intrinsic value.

Position Intrinsic Presumed Groups or persons Remarksvalue relevant who support thisattached to characteristics position (examples)

Noo- all rational Reason, self- Immanuel Kant Excludes the mentallycentrism beings consciousness disabled, the severely

mentally ill, and babies14, butcovers some animals (greatapes15, dolphins16)

Patho- all sentient The capacity the Jewish sa’ar Pain is presumed to be bad, sincecentrism beings to experience ba’alê hayyîm17, every creature seeks to minimise

pleasure and Arthur it. Their capacity for pleasurepain Schopenhauer, gives sentient beings the right to

Jeremy Bentham, pursue whatever pleasures arePeter Singer natural to beings of their kind.

Bio- all living Being alive Hinduism, Jainism, Sentiency is considered as acentrism beings Buddhism, means to another end: life. The

Muhammad, Albert position appeals to our intuitionsSchweitzer, Paul that life is “something special”18.Taylor

Eco- all beings Being part of Buddhism, Johncentrism the (natural) Muir

whole


even the whole biosphere. In some of theseholistic approaches, individuals are notvalued as such and may be sacrificed for thesake of a whole (e.g. species conservation innature conservation). The Convention onBiological Diversity (UNCED 1992) explicitlyacknowledges “the intrinsic value ofbiological diversity” and consequentlyattributes intrinsic value to both species (taxa)and ecosystems. (See also §4.10 below.)

People who cannot draw a boundary betweenentities with and without moral standing musteither attribute intrinsic value to every being(ethical holism)19, or to no being at all(nihilism).

Apart from the non-anthropocentristarguments mentioned above, various otherarguments with strong metaphysical premisesare used to attribute intrinsic moral value tonon-human entities (Table 3/2).20

Except for nihilists, everyone can agree thatintrinsic value exists and that there are morallyrelevant characteristics, but different groupsof people identify different characteristics asmorally relevant.

As intrinsic values normally cannot becompromised, the different positionsregarding which entities have intrinsic moralvalue will have an over-riding impact on howconflicts are judged, and may themselves be

the main cause of conflict.22 If someparticipants in a conflict assume that theintegrity of non-human beings is of intrinsicmoral value (for example, a sacred cow), theywill not accept solutions which otherparticipants, who only look at the instrumentalvalue of these entities (e.g. a cow as aprovider of milk and meat), would interpret asfair and well-balanced compromises23.

In spite of differences on the level of ethicaljustification, there is some convergence atthe level of practical conclusions and politicalrecommendations, as similar conclusions canbe reached from different premises24. Mostpeople at least agree that all human beingshave intrinsic moral value. Enlightenedenvironmentalists and economists will agreethat environmental and economic decision-making should take all kinds of valuesseriously into account.

The following section analyses theinstrumental values of mires and peatlandsfor human beings.

3.3 TYPES OF INSTRUMENTALVALUES

Instrumental values (functions, services,resources) can be subdivided into materialand non-material life support functions withvarious subdivisions (see Table 3/3).

Table 3/2: Other arguments used to attribute intrinsic moral value to non-human entities.

Position Argument ExamplesTheism All entities are God, in the image of God, or Many world and native religions

created to glorify GodNature The intuitive feeling of humanity’s unity with Pythagoras, Francis of Assisi,mysticism all nature Baruch Spinoza, Herman Hesse,

Rosa Luxemburg, Guido Gezelle,John Muir, Henry Thoreau

Holistic This world is the “best” of all possible worlds, Plato, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnizrationalism with a maximum economy of premises and

fundamental laws, a maximum diversity ofresulting phenomena, and its consistency, order,or “harmony”21


Material life support functions contributeto the maintenance of physical health. Theyare usually divided into production, carrier,and regulation functions25. Productionfunctions relate to the capacity to provide(individualisable26) resources, ranging fromwater, food, and raw materials for industrialuse to energy resources and geneticmaterials. Carrier functions relate to thecapacity to provide space and a suitablesubsoil for human habitation, industry, andinfrastructure, cultivation (crop growing,animal husbandry, aquaculture), energyconversion, recreation and nature protection.Regulation functions relate to the capacityto regulate essential (non-individualisable27)ecological processes and life-supportsystems, contributing to the maintenance ofadequate climatic, atmospheric, water, soil,ecological and genetic conditions.

The non-material life support functions28

cover a large and diverse range of benefitsthat can be subdivided into two large classes:

Proxy functions include all sensations thatare experienced as pleasant, agreeable orbeneficial, but whose material advantagesare not always immediately obvious. Theirreal benefits (and genesis) lie deeper29.Proxy functions are largely consumedunconsciously. They are shaped andmodified by learning, but they do havesome genetic, hereditary basis. Behaviouralpatterns related to these functions may,therefore, long remain the same, even whenthe conditions have changed and theformer benefits have disappeared30.

Identity functions serve to identify one’sposition in the world. They are limited toself-conscious beings31 who are able tothink abstractly32. The capacity toconsume (and create) these kinds offunctions must also have had anevolutionary advantage, e.g. byconsolidating group behaviour and the

development of conscious altruism(solidarity).

The significance of these non-material lifesupport functions for human beings isindicated by the large amounts of money thatare spent in such areas as team sports,recreation, arts, religion, history, speciesconservation, and pure science.

All these functions have a future aspect asoption or bequest functions, which refer towhat this generation will leave to futuregenerations. Transformative / educationalfunctions lead to a change of preferences orvalue standards. They only make sense,however, for those who believe that one setof preferences or standards is better thananother.

3.4 FUNCTIONS OF MIRES ANDPEATLANDS FOR HUMAN

BEINGS

This section outlines the beneficial functionsof peatlands, and their significance in global,regional and local terms. Table 3/4summarises these functions, and is followedby explanatory text on each function.

3.4.1 Production functions

(a) Overview of peat extraction33

Peat is extracted from peatlands and usedprincipally in horticulture, agriculture,domestic heating and energy generation.Peat is either cut from the peatlands as sods,or macerated and formed into sods, or milledon the surface to form crumb. Peat extractionincludes the drying of wet peat and thecollection, transport and storage of the driedproduct. The drying process is in two phases:● a substantial proportion of the water

content is taken away by drainage;● moisture content is then further reduced

by solar and wind drying on the surface ofa production field.


Table 3/3: Types of instrumental values

Future aspects(see §3.4.5)

Materiallifesupportfunctions

Non-materiallife supportFunctions(§3.4.4)

(= infor-mational functions)

Presentdayaspects

1. Production functions (see §3.4.1)2. Carrier functions(see §3.4.2)

3. Regulation functions (see §3.4.3)

4. Proxy functions

5. Identityfunctions

4a. social-amenityfunctions

4b. recreation functions

4c. aesthetic functions

4d. signalisationfunctions

ExamplesProviding water, food, raw materials,energy, labourProviding space and substrate forhabitation, cultivation, energygeneration, conservation, recreationRegulating climatic, water, soil,ecological, and genetic conditionsProviding company, friendship,solidarity, erotic contact, cosiness,respect, home, territory, employmentProviding opportunities for recreation,recuperation, stress mitigationProviding aesthetic experience (beauty,arts, taste)Providing signals (indicator organisms,status, monetary price, taste)Providing embodiments of otherfunctions (mascots, status symbols,money)Providing reflection and spiritualenrichment (religion, spirituality)Providing notions of cultural continuity(history, heritage, descent, ancestors)Providing notions of ecological andevolutionary connectednessProviding opportunities for cognitivedevelopment (satisfaction of curiosity,science)Providing a change of preferences,character buildingProviding insurance, heritage

5a. symbolisationfunctions

5b. spiritualityfunctions5c. historyfunctions5d. existencefunctions5e. cognition

6. transformation (= educational) functions7. option (= bequest) functions

Restricted to self-conscious beings not restricted to self-conscious beings

Because of this dependence onmeteorological conditions, annual peatproduction volumes in an enterprise orcountry may fluctuate considerably.

A mire or peatland is suitable for industrialpeat extraction if■ the peat is of sufficient depth.■ its area is sufficiently large and of

appropriate shape,

■ the quality of peat is adequate for theintended purpose,

■ access to the consumer can be achieved ata reasonable price.

Accurate information on the extent of peatextraction is not available. In particular, littleis known about the volumes of private, non-industrial peat extraction that remainsimportant for local energy provision in


3.4.1 Production functions:(a) Peat extracted and used ex situ as/for

(aa) Humus and organic fertiliser in agriculture(ab) Substrate in horticulture(ac) Energy generation(ad) Raw material for chemistry(ae) Bedding material(af) Filter and absorbent material(ag) Peat textiles(ah) Building and insulation material(ai) Balneology, therapy, medicine, and body care(aj) Flavour enhancer

(b) Drinking water(c) Wild plants growing on mires and peatlands for/as

(ca) Food(cb) Raw material for industrial products(cc) Medicine

(d) Wild animals for food, fur, and medicine(e) Peat substrate in situ for

(ea) Agriculture and horticulture(eb) Forestry

3.4.2 Carrier functions: space for(f) Water reservoirs for hydro-electricity, irrigation, drinking and cooling water,

and recreation(g) Fish ponds(h) Urban, industrial, and infrastructure development(i) Waste deposits / landfill(j) Military exercises and defence(k) Prisons(l) Transport and herding

3.4.3 Regulation functions:(m) Regulation of global climate(n) Regulation of regional and local climates(o) Regulation of catchment hydrology(p) Regulation of catchment hydrochemistry(q) Regulation of soil conditions

3.4.4 Informational functions:(r) Social-amenity and history functions(s) Recreation and aesthetic functions(t) Symbolisation, spirituality, and existence functions(u) Signalisation and cognition functions

3.4.5 Transformation and option functions

Table 3/4: Overview of functions of mires and peatlands for human beings


countries like Ireland, some central Asianrepublics34, and China35. The latest availableinformation on industrial peat extractionvolumes is contained in the Tables in thesections dealing with peat in horticulture (ab)and for energy (ac).

(aa) Peat as humus and organic fertiliserin agriculture36

Peat has been used as an organic raw materialin the production of organic fertilisers andcombined organic-mineral fertilisers and inthe improvement of degraded soils by addinghumus. Practice in this area differs greatlybetween different countries.

The most important value of organic ororgano-mineral fertilisers produced with peatis in their organic matter containingbiologically active substances. Organicsubstances enrich the soil with trace elements,improve the physical properties of the soil,its pH level, and its productivity.

Peat was used as an organic fertiliser in greatquantities in agriculture in the years 1950-1980 (Fig. 3/1). During this period differentmixtures, including composted mixtures, wereprepared, especially in the Soviet Union.Excavated peat, both raw and dried, was mixedwith sandy or loamy soils. This improvedthe physical properties of the soils but didnot change plant nutrition. In the SovietUnion, Ireland, France and Polandconsiderable research was carried out intothe liquid ammonia treatment of peat (15-35kg NH4OH/Mg peat), used in agriculture in10-40 Mg/ha doses. These experiments didnot give positive results. Mixtures of peatand different mineral fertilisers had thenutrient value of the fertilisers only.Composts produced using peat with stablemanure, sewage sludge, faecal substances,liquid manure and different organic municipaland industrial wastes in 1:1-2:1 ratios wereexpensive to produce and were not effective.

The results obtained from the use of peatpreparations have not shown any significantcorrelation between inputs and either thechemical properties of plants or their yield.Since the political changes in the formerSoviet Union, the volume of peat extractedfor agricultural purposes has substantiallydiminished (cf. Fig. 3/1 and Table 3/5).

It is possible that in the future peat couldhave an economically effective role in theremediation of degraded soils and as topsoilreplacement in the regeneration of areas usedin open-cast mining.

(ab) Peat as a substrate in horticulture38

After its use for energy generation (ac), themost common current use of peat is forhorticulture (cf. Tables 3/5 and 3/6). Theproduction of greenhouse and containercrops involves the integrated managementof water, fertilisers, pesticides and growingmedia. Of these probably the most importantis the type of growing media used. Due tothe limited volume of a pot, container or traymodule, growing media must provide theappropriate physical, chemical and biologicalconditions for plant growth. In countries witha modern horticultural industry peat hasemerged as the foremost constituent ofgrowing media. The production andprocessing of peat-based growing media hasbecome a precondition for horticulture. The‘John Innes Composts’, the ‘Einheitserde’and the ‘Torfkultursubstrat’ have beenmilestones in the development of peat-basedgrowing media.The use of standardised peat-based growingmedia in horticultural plant productiondeveloped for reasons of economics andbecause of technological advances.Industrially processed peat-based growingmedia have widely replaced growers’ self-made mixes. Continuous research andincreasing knowledge of the properties of theconstituents of growing media show thatgrowers run considerable risks if they apply


Table 3/5: Production of peat used in horticulture and agriculture (in millions of cubicmetres)39

Country 1990 1997 1998 1999Belarus 10.9 0.3 0.4 0.8Russia 24.0 2.5 0.8 1.1Ukraine 9.8 0.1 0.2 0.3Czech Rep 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.2Estonia 0.0 3.5 1.0 3.5Finland 1.5 1.6 0.3 2.4Germany 6.6 9.0 9.6 9.5Hungary 0.1 0.1 0.2Ireland 2.0 2.8 3.2 3.2Latvia 13.2 0.7 0.0Lithuania 2.0 0.4 0.8Poland 0.3 0.7 0.7 0.8Sweden 0.0 0.6 0.6 1.4Norway 0.1 0.1Denmark 0.5U.K. 1.4 2.5 1.9 2.5U.S.A. 1.2 2.2 1.4 1.4Canada 6.6 7.0 8.8 10.3N Zealand 0.0 0.1TOTAL 79.9 33.8 30.3 38.5

Figure 3/1: Annually extracted volume of peat in the Russian Federation in million tonnesat standardised moisture content37.


the wrong materials or the wrong quantitiesof materials. The major advantages ofSphagnum peat as a constituent of growingmedia include:● its cellular structure ensures good water

holding ability;● its low pH and nutrient status allow easy

adjustment by the addition of crop-specificfertilisation and liming;

● it is free from pathogens, pests and weeds;● it is easy to handle, process, grade and

blend;● peat products are available on a world-wide

basis;● ‘alternative’ growing media work best when

they contain an element of peat.

Peat substrates are used particularly inglasshouse horticulture for the cultivation ofyoung plants, pot plants and for the growingof crops such as bedding plants andvegetable plants in containers40. It is alsosold to amateur gardeners as a soilconditioner. In Europe, approximately 90%of all growing media for the professional andamateur markets are peat-based. In countriessuch as Finland, Germany, Ireland, Swedenand the U.K. domestic peat resources providehorticultural enterprises with peat-basedmedia for growing crops. Countries such asBelgium, France, Italy, the Netherlands andSpain depend on imports of peat and peat-based growing media to support and sustaintheir horticultural business. The export ofpeat from the Baltic States to Western Europeis increasing. In North America the same istrue of exports from Canada to the U.S.A.41

Peat is used as a component of mushroomcasing for commercial production of ediblemushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) and oystermushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), and as acarrying medium for rhizobial inoculants forvegetable production (e.g. soybeans)42.

Although peat has maintained its position asthe leading material for growing media, and isthe preferred product among amateur

gardeners, ‘alternative’ materials haveemerged as substitutes for peat where feasibleand safe for use (Table 3/6). These materialsinclude coir43, wood fibre, composted barkand composted biogenic waste.Environmental awareness, increasingknowledge of the interactions of mediaproperties and product diversification havehelped introduce these alternative materials.The peat industry is now participating inresearch into ‘alternative’ materials and isintroducing products containing thesematerials. In spite of these developments,there is not at present any alternative materialavailable in large enough quantities andequally risk-free which could replace peat inhorticultural crop production.

(ac) Peat for energy generation45

Within Europe, peat is an important local orregional energy source in Finland, Ireland andSweden. It also continues to be important inthe Baltic States46 and in Belarus and Russia(Table 3/7). In Asia, peat is also used forenergy purposes in parts of China47 andIndonesia, but reliable volume estimates arenot available. A small amount of sod peat isproduced for energy purposes in themountain regions of Burundi in Africa.

The global use of peat for energy is estimatedto be 5 to 6 million tonnes of oil equivalent(Mtoe) (Table 3/8).

In Finland, peat is used mainly in co-generation (combined heat and power, CHP)and in heating facilities. It is an importantfuel for district heating in regions where othersources of energy are not readily available.The total installed capacity is over 750 MWeand 1500 MWth, and includes 60 districtheating plants, 34 CHP facilities, 30 industrialplants and one condensing power plant. InIreland peat is used for power generation incondensing power plants, and also as a fuelfor domestic heating. The older generationof pulverised fuel power plants is being


Table 3/6: Estimated amounts of materials used for the production of growing media inGermany and the Netherlands for the professional and hobby market in 199944

MATERIAL GERMANY NETHERLANDSm ³ % m ³ %

Black peat 6,000,000 63 1,500,000 39White peat 3,000,000 32 1,600,000 42Wood fibres 190,000 2 5,000 <1Clay (fresh and dried) 170,000 2 / /Composted biogenic waste 90,000 1 / /Composted bark / Bark 30,000 <1 40,000 1Mineral wool 20,000 <1 500,000 13Perlite 9,000 <1 50,000 1Sand 8,000 <1 / /Coir (fibres and dust) 5,000 <1 100,000 3Rice hulls 3,000 <1 10,000 <1Pumice 400 <1 20,000 <1Expanded clay 400 <1 20,000 <1Others (lava, vermiculite,synthetic-organic material, etc.) 7,000 <1 5,000 <1

TOTAL 9,522,800 100 3,850,000 100

Table 3/7: Production of peat for energy (in million tonnes)48

Country 1990 1997 1998 1999Belarus 3.4 2.7 2.0 3.1Russia 6.0 2.9 1.9 3.7Ukraine 1.3 0.6 0.6 0.5Estonia 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.6Finland 5.8 10.1 1.5 7.5Ireland 7.5 4.0 4.3 4.7Latvia 0.3 0.1Lithuania 0.8 0.1 0.2 0.4Sweden 0.0 1.4 0.2 1.1TOTAL 25.1 22.0 11.0 21.6


phased out and will be replaced by threefluidised-bed-based plants with a combinedcapacity of 370 MWe. In Sweden peat is usedin 35 heating plants, the largest of which islocated in Uppsala. Small-scale space heatingapplications and the manufacture of peatbriquettes for use in domestic heating aretypical in Ireland, the Baltic countries andBelarus, among others.

Country Energy Peat Use (Mtoe a-1)

Finland 1.90Ireland 1.20Sweden 0.30Belarus 0.55Russian Federation50 0.55Ukraine 0.12Estonia 0.35Latvia 0.11Lithuania 0.03

Table 3/8 Consumption of peat for energy(in million tonnes of oil equivalent peryear)49

Peat as a source of energy is most beneficialin areas where there is an absence of otherfuels, and where energy supply entailstransportation of conventional fuels over longdistances. As an energy source peat closelyresembles wood, and the two are often usedtogether in co-fired applications. Both thecalorific value and the carbon content of peatare lower than those found in brown coal(lignite) or in bituminous coal, but theproportion of volatiles in peat is higher. Thesulphur content varies with location, but istypically less than 0.3% on a dry mass basis.In the past, grate firing (sod peat) andpulverised firing (milled peat) have been thedominant technologies; but from the 1980sonwards larger scale applications have beenbased on fluidised-bed combustion which

has resulted in higher efficiencies, loweremissions and multi-fuel capabilities.

Overall, energy generation is the mostimportant current use of peat. Looking to thefuture, peat is expected to remain an importantsource of energy in rural and isolated regionsof countries with abundant peat reserves. Ona global scale, it is not anticipated that theuse of peat for energy will increase greatly,although there is scope to substitute peat forcertain imported fuels in some of the BalticStates. Given its high volatile content peat issuitable for gasification, and the maturationof integrated gasification combined cycle(IGCC) technology may lead to even moreefficient peat use for energy in the future.

(ad) Peat as a raw material forchemistry51

Peat organic matter is a valuable raw materialfor chemistry. Chemical peat-processing iscarried out by hydrolysis, pyrolysis,extraction and chemical modification. Thechemical processing of peat to obtain aspecific type of organic compound alsoproduces new substances as a side effect.

Peat wax extraction is one of the indispensablestages in extraction techniques. The widespectrum of valuable properties of wet peatwax has made it possible to find differentapplications (such as moulds for precisioncasting in machine-building, protective andpreservative materials for engineering).

Peat dye imparts a uniform nut-brown colourto wood, enhances its texture and, comparedto other dyes, raises considerably less nap52,does not diffuse into finishing materials, isnot toxic and is characterised by high lightdurability. It is easy to mix with syntheticdyes and thus to obtain a range of differenthues.

Specific examples of the use of peat inchemical processing include:


1. Water soluble humic preparations havebeen found to be effective in thepurification of metallic surfaces fromradioactive substances. They were usedsuccessfully in the Chernobyl zone in1986– 1987 for the purification oftechnological equipment. It is consideredthat they may have potential in thepurification of technological equipment inactive nuclear power stations.

2. Humic preparations which are soluble inacids have been used for the extraction ofvaluable metals from raw materials,especially in underground extraction.

3. Activated carbon from peat is effective ina number of applications including thepurification of soil and water from organiccontaminants, for example from pesticides53.

4. Peat has been found to be an inhibitor ofcorrosion. Special preparations for thetransformation of rust into metal have beenwidely used in Belarus, for example toremove rust from automobiles.

The total amount of peat used in the chemicalindustry is not great. For example, in Belarusthe amount used is not more than 10,000tonnes per year. Globally approximately138,000 tonnes of black peat per year are usedto produce some 15,000 tonnes of activatedcarbon54.

(ae) Peat as bedding material55

Slightly humified sphagnum peat (“whitepeat”, “peat moss”) was used as a litter instables in enormous amounts from ca. 1885until 1919. This use was the basis for theexplosive development of the peat mossindustry in countries such as Germany,Sweden and the Netherlands.

The main users were armies, transportcompanies, railways, mining companies andindustrial enterprises where horses wereemployed. For example, the CompagnieGénérale d’Omnibus in Paris had 13,500horses. If the amount of peat used per horse

per day is estimated at 4 to 5 kilos, this onecustomer needed about 22,000 tonnes peryear.

Dry peat moss can absorb about ten times itsown weight in liquids, reduces unpleasantsmells and has a favourable effect on thehealth of the animals. These were majoradvantages compared to straw. Anotheradvantage was the after-use of the peat asmanure for local vegetable-growers.

Peat moss was later used for the same purposefor poultry and cats. In the Netherlands andGermany it was even recommended for babies,although the cot had to be adjusted to usethis uncommon material.

The use of peat as litter continues to-day56.

(af) Peat as a filter and absorbentmaterial57

Peat functions as a filter and absorbentmaterial both in situ (see §3.4.2 (i)) and exsitu. The pollution treatment capabilities ofpeat materials include:

1. Physical filtration2. Chemical adsorption/absorption3. Biological transformation.

Because of the high cation exchange capacity,porosity, surface area and absorption abilityof peat, all of the above treatment charac-teristics occur simultaneously within a peatmaterial whether used for water/wastewateror gaseous treatment.

Firstly, the peat filters out suspended solidsand microbiological contaminants. Secondly,chemical components are adsorbed orretained within the peat. Finally biologicalinactivation occurs as a result of theproliferation of a microbial populationindigenous to the peat.


Numerous environmental uses have beenidentified for peat materials (and by-products)58 which are currently beingscientifically validated. These include the useof peat as a microbial carrier, the use ofyounger Sphagnum peat as an oil spillabsorbent, and, finally, the removal of heavymetals from trade effluents.

These pollution treatment qualities of peathave been successfully commercialised by anumber of peat extraction companies.

(ag) Peat textiles59

Under the long-term influence of humus andhumin substances, the basal sheaths ofcottongrass (Eriophorum vaginatum) in peatundergo a change into brown, 5-20 cm longfibres, which are soft enough to be used fortextiles. These fibres are warmer than woolbecause of their cavity-like, air-filledstructure, which makes them also very light.Peat textiles are thus especially suitable forthose who need extra warmth, such as infants,the elderly and rheumatism sufferers. Thefibres easily absorb and release liquids andhave the ability to absorb the secretions ofthe skin including perspiration and salts, inaddition to absorbing smells. They do notacquire an electric charge and burn poorly,like wool.

Early experiments in the 1890s to producetextiles from these fibres failed because theproducts were too expensive. During the FirstWorld War interest in peat textiles wasrekindled for a short while, especially inGermany, where they were used for horseblankets, soldiers’ clothing and evenbandages in hospitals because of theantiseptic and therapeutic properties of peat.After the war this interest ceased.

Since the late l960s peat textiles have beenproduced in southern Sweden, carded on a50/50 basis of cottongrass fibres with wooland used for bedclothes or spun into yarn

for knitwear or fabrics. Since 1992 someproduction has also taken place in Finlandwhere small firms produce felt clothes suchas hats, coats and loose soles as well asknitwear and woven textiles out ofcottongrass fibres and wool. Fibres arebought from Finnish peat mills where theyare screened out of the peat as beingunsuitable for horticultural use.

Peat has also been used to produce paper. Itis thought that the experiments in using peatfor paper accelerated the discovery of itspotential for peat fibre and as an insulatingmaterial60.

(ah) Peat as building and insulationmaterial61

Peat was used in many countries as a buildingmaterial. In Ireland, the Netherlands andGermany, the very poor also built their homesfrom sods of turf62. Peat has been used inGermany as an insulation material in woodencottages: in this usage peat is packed in largesheet-form bags and placed along the wall ofthe building. Sod peat was (and still is) usedin constructing the banks of Irish canals. Insome parts of Finland sod peat is used as afoundation material on the roads in place ofgravel. In Norway compressed peat baleshave been used as foundation for rail tracksin areas prone to soil movement from frost63.In Russia and Belarus peat has been widelyused as an insulation material in the form ofdry pressed sheets, for example in industrialrefrigerators, or as peat boards in poultrystables64. It is understood that sod peat hasbeen used as insulation material for missilesilos in the former Soviet Union.

(ai) Peat in balneology, therapy, medicineand body care65

In many countries there is a long tradition ofusing mud for human and veterinarytherapeutic purposes. By chance peat wassubstituted for mud, and from 1802 (first in


Eilsen Spa, near Hanover, Germany and laterin Nennodorf and Marienbad - MariánskeLázné in the Czech Republic) thisbalneological speciality spread across CentralEurope and later to some other Europeancountries including Estonia, the Ukraine andPoland.

The material used is mainly strongly humifiedsphagnum peat (“black peat”), but youngersphagnum peats as well as lacustrine muds(“Mudde, Gyttja, Sapropel”) are in use insome places.

The fields in which peat is indicated for humanmedical treatment are:

● gynaecology (illnesses of the femaleurogenital system)

● illnesses of the locomotion system (the so-called rheumatic field)

● dermatology● interior illnesses● ophthalmology

The application is done by peat pulp baths(42-45o C.), poultices, peat kinesitherapy, andpeat kneading. In some cases cryo-therapeutic use is to be recommended. Peatpreparations are also used.

The effect of peat therapy arises fromthermophysical and biochemical mechanisms.Peat baths are, by their heat radiation, able tocause overheating effects, favourable tochanges in the digestive system; they act asa relaxing medium because of their buoyancyforces, which are favourable to the spinalsystem. As peat contains biologically activesubstances, of which humic acids are themost important, peat influences the immunesystem positively, and is effective againstbacteria, viruses and inflammation.

Peat chemical processing has resulted in thedevelopment of a number of preparationswith growth-stimulating, fungicidal andbactericidal properties. Hydrolysates of peat

contain a wide spectrum of amino, carbonicand uronic acids, humic substances and othercompounds which can activate or inhibitvarious biological processes. Peat oxidatehas been found to be helpful in the treatmentof skin diseases. Compounds combiningvolatiles with water steam have been used inthe treatment of eye diseases.

Peat has also been successful in veterinarymedicine. In Central and Eastern Europe(Belarus, Poland, Russia, Ukraine) peatpreparations were used in the large-scalerearing of cattle, pigs and poultry as growthpromoters and as medicine, immunologicalstabiliser, nutrient yeast, carbohydrate fodderadditives, and absorbents of harmfulsubstances.

Peat preparations have also been used in plantproduction as growth promoting, fungicidaland bactericidal substances. Peat oxidateshave been used as a treatment formicrobiological diseases of agricultural crops,for example with phytophtorose of potato andtomato.

Because of its absorptive properties, peat isalso used in nappies (diapers) and in femininehygiene products66.

(aj) Peat as a flavour enhancer67

The term whisky is derived from the Gaelicuisge-beatha meaning water of life, a spiritproduced by the distillation of beer. Twodistinct types of whisky, malt and grain, areproduced in Scotland. Single malts aredistilled in simple copper pot-stills from amash derived entirely from malted barley.Grain whisky is produced by continuousdistillation in a patent or ‘Coffey’ still and theraw material contains a proportion of non-malted cereal.

The first stage in malting is to steep screenedbarley in water for two to three days until thegrain becomes soft and swollen. It is then


spread on special floors to germinate undercontrolled conditions for about two weeks.The “green malt” is then dried slowly over asmouldering peat fire. The more prolongedthe kilning and the more intensive the peat“reek”, the richer the peaty flavour of theproduct.

Kilning and curing are arts passed down fromgeneration to generation and each distilleryor malting maintains strict security over theprocesses involved. Thus, little informationis available on the importance of peat qualityand quantity in the malting process. Ingeneral, highly decomposed peat, knownlocally as blue or black peat, seems to bepreferred.

Despite the disadvantages associated withsmall-scale production units, some distilleriesand individual maltings still select, cut andharvest their own peat supplies annually.More recently the use of air-dried peat sodsto fuel open fires in the traditional maltingprocess is being superseded by thecombustion of peat pellets in special burnersresulting in better overall control andefficiency and a significant reduction in thequantity of peat required.

In China the flavour from burning local peatis used for making “weisky wine”68.

(b) Drinking water69

The role of peatlands in the provision ofdrinking water is important both in areaswhere catchment areas are largely coveredby peatlands, and in drier regions wherepeatlands indicate a rare but steadyavailability of water.

Significant areas of the British uplands aresecured by the various Water Authorities,that supply water to distant urban centres,e.g. Welsh water to Liverpool andBirmingham, and Lake District water toManchester. Haworth Moor of “Wuthering

Height” fame, for example, was owned byNorth West Water70. In case of YorkshireWater, some 45% of the water for publicsupply is obtained from reservoirs drainingpeatland areas. The water company owns alarge area of the catchment and manages itfor water quality improvement by preventingpollution, limiting erosion, reinstalling highwater tables, and restoring moorland speciessuch as Sphagnum71. Often this use isassociated with the construction of waterreservoirs (see also §3.4.2 (f)).

Mires may fulfil an essential role as sourceareas for rivers; especially in maintaining lowflows during dry periods. New techniquesusing long horizontal rather than vertical wellsshow that they can provide significantamounts of groundwater withoutcompromising ecosystem quality.

Where or when existing water resources arerare, mires and peatlands can be important assources of water72, for examples in KwaZulu-Natal73 and in Sarawak74.

The water quality in peatlands is usually verygood; the frequently abundant humic acidsresponsible for deep brown colouring caneasily be removed75.

(ca) Wild plants growing on mires andpeatlands for food76

One of the oldest and most widespreadutilisation of wild plants in peatlands is theiruse as straw and fodder for domestic animals.In Europe, Asia, and North America, fenpeatlands have been intensively cut for hayin the past. In the last decades this type ofuse has decreased, but it is still importantlocally in Central Europe. Peatlands are alsoimportant as wild pasture for domesticanimals in many areas of the world, such asfor cattle on Argentinian pampas and Lesothoand Kyrgistan mountain peatlands77, forsheep and red deer in the Scottish blanketpeatlands, and for water buffalo in Georgiaand Kalimantan78.


A second important use - especially in thetemperate and boreal zones of Eurasia - is thecollection of a wide variety of wild edibleberries and mushrooms that are preserved anddried and provide substantial food andvitamins in the winter period. With 100 mg inevery 100 g of berries, cloudberry (Rubuschamaemorus) has for centuries been animportant source of vitamin C for theinhabitants of Fennoscandia and helped tokeep them free of scurvy. Other edible berriescommon on mires and peatlands includecranberries (Oxycoccus), a whole range ofblueberry (Vaccinium) species, crowberries(Empetrum), raspberries and brambles(Rubus) and currants (Ribes). In good berryyears, about 12 million kilogrammes of berriesare picked from mires in Finland (7.8% of thebiological yield). It has been estimated thatin a normal year the monetary value of wild

berries collected from Finnish peatlands isUS$ 13.4 million.

Before the emergence of rice, wild sago(Metroxylon sagu) was the main source ofsustenance for the inhabitants of the Malayarchipelago region. Desiccated productsmade from sago starch can be stored forexceptionally long periods and enabled theearly inhabitants of the Malay archipelago totravel far and to colonise many islands79.

Wild rice (Zizania aquatica) was an importantstaple crop gathered by native Americans.Currently most production takes place inregular agriculture (see § (ea) below).

In Europe the peatland species Menyanthestrifoliata, Acorus calamus, and Hierochloeodorata are used for flavouring drinks80

Table 3/9: Examples of biomass utilisation from undrained peatlands (demand for quality:+ = high. 0 = medium, - = low87)

Utilisation Vegetation Harvest QualityIn Mowing, Wet meadows, reeds Early summer +agriculture fodder

Grazing Wet meadows, reeds Whole year +Litter Carex-meadows, reeds Summer -Compost Wet meadows, reeds Late summer -Pellets Wet meadows, reeds Early summer +

Industrial Roofing Reeds Winter +materialForm-bodies Wet meadows, reeds Autumn/winter 0Paper Phalaris-reeds, Winter 0(cellulose) Phragmites reedsBasket-wares Willow (Salix) Autumn +Furniture/timber Alder (Alnus) swamps Frost +Chemicals Reeds Early summer +

Energy Pyrolysis Alder swamps, willow Winter 0Direct firing Alder swamps, reeds Autumn/winter -Fermentation Wet meadows, reeds Early summer 0


(cb) Wild plants as raw material for non-food products81

Peatland plants are harvested for human andanimal food, and also as raw material forindustrial products and energy generation82

(Table 3/9). For many centuries Sphagnummoss has been used as a building andinsulation material to fill the chinks betweenlogs and planks in log-cabins and in boats.The Lapps in northern Fennoscandia usedpeatmoss in children’s cots.83

Commercial harvesting of live Sphagnummoss from peatlands for horticulture,including the cultivation of orchids andbromelias, currently takes place in NorthAmerica, Australia, and Chile84.

Harvesting and use of reeds from peatlandstakes place all over the world. The use ofPhragmites85, Cladium, and Cyperuspapyrus86 is important for constructionpurposes, e.g. for thatching and matting, andfor making paper.

Biomass with commercial potential can beharvested from both undrained and re-wettedpeatlands, which makes possible an economicexploitation combined with the conservationof many natural mire functions88. Phragmitesaustralis reeds, for example, represent thenatural vegetation of eutrophic flood andimmersion mires89. In such mires thick layersof reed peat can be found. Similar Phragmitesreeds with peat-forming potential maydevelop spontaneously or can be establishedartificially after rewetting of degradedpeatlands.

In a number of countries the demand for reedas a roofing material and for the productionof mats cannot be satisfied by native reedharvests and imports90 are needed to meetcurrent demand. In addition to thesetraditional products, new products made frompeatland biomass91 are becomingeconomically interesting, e.g. form bodies as

packaging material92 and vegetation- andplaster-porter mats93, insulation material andconstruction sheets94, pulp for paperproduction95, the bio-refinement of plant sapsfor the production of biotechnological rawmaterials96.

(cc) Plants for medicine97

Mire plants are widely used for medicinalpurposes in all parts of the world, principallyin areas with large numbers of mires98. Thenumber of mire/wetland plants used formedicine on a world-wide scale can beconservatively estimated at some thousandspecies. The majority is used by local andindigenous peoples, and a few hundred plantspecies are more widely applied on anindustrial scale. This number may increaseas more knowledge about mire/wetland plantsfor medicine in tropical areas becomesavailable.

Sphagnum plants – as excellent absorbentswith antiseptic properties99 - were usedsuccessfully as a substitute for cotton insurgical dressings in the Napoleonic andFranco-Prussian Wars100, by the Japanese inthe 1904 – 1905 war with Russia, andextensively by both sides during World WarI101.

In the former USSR about 40% of medicineswere made from medicinal plants, half of themfrom wild plants. 234 wild species were usedon an industrial basis, including 29 mire/wetland species (Table 3/10)102.

About 230 medicinal preparations areproduced world-wide from Sundew (Drosera)species104. Quantities of various Droseraspecies on the European market are estimatedto range from some hundred kg year-1

(Drosera intermedia, D. peltata) to 7-10tonnes year-1 (Drosera madagascarensis)105.In the period 1981-1994, the quantity ofDrosera rotundifolia collected annually from


natural peatlands in Finland increased from100 kg to 2100 kg106.

In Canada Labrador Tea (Ledumgroenlandicum) is used as a medicinal plant.

In countries where there has been destructionof mires the extent of local collection of mireplants for medical purposes has decreased.This leads to increased imports of mire plantproducts from countries where large areas ofmires remain, which increases the pressureon the resources in those countries.

(d) Wild animals for food, fur andmedicine107

Many fur-bearers such as coyote, racoon,mink and lynx and game species such asgrouse, ducks, geese and moose are oftenfound in peatlands. In North America, blackbears, which are used for food and fur, aswell as in traditional medicine (bladders), arealso frequently found in peatlands. Whilethese species do not depend on peatlandsfor their survival this habitat may contributesubstantially to their continued presence inpopulated regions where few areas other thanpeatlands provide safe havens away fromdirect human disturbance.

Peatlands may also be significant for fisheries.In tropical peatlands, fish provide importantproteins to local communities108. Manycoastal tropical fish are highly dependent onmangroves for nursery, feeding, andspawning grounds.

Table 3/10: Order of magnitude of annually collected mire plant material for medicine in theformer USSR (in 103 kg year-1)103.

Vascular plant species 103 kg year-1

Menyanthes trifoliata, Polygonum bistorta, Arnica montana 10 - 100

Acorus calamus, Althea officinalis, Frangula alnus, Nuphar lutea,Ledum palustre, Valeriana officinalis 100 - 1000Vaccinium myrtillus, Vaccinium vitis-idaea 1000 - 10000

(e) Peat substrates in situ

Some carrier functions (forestry, agriculture,horticulture) have been included underproduction functions because in their case itis difficult to separate the production andcarrier functions.

(ea) Agriculture and horticulture in situ109

The capacity of peatlands for agriculturalproduction depends on a number of naturaland socio-economic factors. The naturalfactors include■ climatic conditions,■ the landscape position of the peatland,■ the type of peat deposit,■ the water and oxygen content of the soil,■ the physico-chemical properties of the soil,■ vegetation.

Climate: Climatic conditions impose thebasic limitations on peatland agriculture.Cultivated plants require an adequately longvegetation period and a minimum amount ofheat energy. Consequently the temperatureconditions that are determined by themacroclimate of the region and modified bythe microclimate of the peatland are decisive.The following factors make cultivationdifficult or impossible:– too short a growing period,– a mean annual temperature which is too low,– excessive variation between the mean

temperatures of the warmest month (July)and the coldest month (January),

– excessive variations in temperaturebetween day and night,


– frequent ground frosts,– temperatures in the growing period which

are on average too low.

Peatlands have a specific microclimate110.Compared with the surrounding area, apeatland has a greater variation intemperature, a higher frequency of frostoccurrence and higher air humidity. Thereason is that peatlands are usually found interrain depressions (valleys, hollows) intowhich cooler air flows. As a consequence,the soils of both pristine and reclaimedpeatlands are significantly cooler in summerthan mineral soils, and the air temperature isalso lower. The microclimate of peatlandsthus creates significantly more severe climaticconditions for agricultural plants than themicroclimate of the surrounding mineral soils.This results in agriculture on peatlands in thenorthern hemisphere taking place in moresouthern latitudes than similar agriculturalactivity on mineral soil. Cooler climaticconditions are more favourable for trees andshrubs and for meadows and pastures.

Landscape position: Depending on thelocation of the wetland in the surroundingterrain, the excess of water may be removedby gravity drainage or pumping. The drainagenetwork is more intensive in deposits with agreater depth of peat and where there is springwater. Additional difficulties occur in floodedriver valleys and in depressions. The moredifficult and expensive the maintenance ofthe required ground water depth and of themoisture in the root layer of cultivated plants,the smaller the possibility of a permanentutilisation of the peatland.

Type of peat deposit: In the majority ofEuropean countries the utilisation ofpeatlands as arable land was thought to beadvisable only on shallow (<1.0 m) and veryshallow (<0,5 m) deposits, or as sand-covercultivation. In Belarus, arable land wasestablished on deep peatlands, and shallowareas were designated for use as grassland.

Each country developed different methodsfor the drainage, fertilisation and use ofpeatlands.

In Europe, east of the Elbe river, agriculturaluse has been developed on fens whichdominate in that area. In countries with amaritime climate, agriculture has beendeveloped both on fens and raised bogs. Inthe Netherlands and Germany numerousmethods of agricultural utilisation ofpeatlands were developed that involved apartial or total reconstruction of the soilprofile (sand cover cultivation, deepploughing). These methods usually led to anequalising of the air and water conditionsthroughout the soil profile, to an increasedcarrying capacity of the surface, to animprovement in the microclimatic conditions,and consequently to a significant increase inthe yield of cultivated plants. These methodswere used in the Netherlands and in north-west Germany on an area of over 300,000hectares. As a result, the peatlands ceasedto exist and in their place a specific type oforganic soil developed.

In parts of Britain the practice of ‘warping’transformed estuarine lowland peatlands intoagricultural land by allowing sediment-richwater to flood peat-covered areas for extendedperiods, eventually covering the peat with amineral soil layer. The result of this processcan be observed in the Humberhead Levelsof the Humber Estuary in the east ofEngland111.

Water and oxygen content: The air-waterregime of a peatland soil plays a fundamentalrole in agricultural use. The peat-accumulation process can only be continuedby maintaining a groundwater level close tothe surface. The use of a peatland for meadowand pasture generally requires a lowering ofthe groundwater level to a depth of 0.4-0.8metres below the surface. Its use as arableland requires the water level to be an evendeeper 1.0-1.2 metres below the surface.


Physico-chemical properties: The physicaland chemical properties of soils are mostimportant in the surface layer of the peatland(to a depth of 0.3 metres) where the majorityof roots of cultivated plants are found. Theseproperties depend on:● peat type,● degree of peat decomposition,● ash content,● peat reaction (pH),● peat fertility (nutrient content),● industrial contamination of the soil.The first three factors determine the physicaland water properties, the remaining factorscontrol the conditions of plant growth andthe quality of the yield.

Relatively favourable conditions foragricultural production are present in fenswith a low or medium ash content and a smallor medium degree of decomposition. Neutraland slightly acid reaction (pH 5.5-7.0), highersoil fertility and absence of industrialcontamination (heavy metals, persistentorganic pollutants) are commonly regardedas beneficial for agricultural production.

Sediments under the peat may containsignificant amounts of sulphur (East England,Indonesia), or carbonates (Hungary, Poland).In shallow organic soils the reduction in thedepth of the organic layer by mineralisation(see § 2.6[ii]) results in the rapid deteriorationof plant growth conditions as the roots ofcultivated plants do not usually penetrate tothe very acid or alkaline soil layers.

● Europe: Approximately 14% of Europeanpeatlands are currently used foragriculture. Large areas of peatlands usedfor agriculture are found in Russia ,Germany, Belarus, Poland and Ukraine(Table 3/11). In Hungary (98%), Greece(90%), the Netherlands and Germany (85%),Denmark, Poland and Switzerland (70%) themajority of peatlands are used foragricultural purposes. In these countriesthe high population density required that

wetlands be used for food production.Proportional to the total area of peatlands,the use of peatlands for agriculture is smallin Fennoscandia, the Baltic countries,Russia and the British Isles. The greatmajority of peatlands used for agriculturein Europe consist of meadows andpastures. The area of agricultural peatlandshas decreased steadily in recent years foreconomic reasons and due to increasingnature protection.

● Tropical agriculture113: While the peat innorthern temperate regions is formedlargely from grasses, sedges and mosses,tropical peat generally consists of a rangeof organic debris including trunks, branchesand roots of trees.

Indigenous peoples have had longexperience in the reclamation and utilisationof peatlands for agriculture, particularly inthe cultivation of horticultural crops. Inareas which remain under tropicalinundation beneficial products can beextracted from sago and other palms.

Approximately 313,600 hectares, or 32% ofthe peat areas in Peninsular Malaysia, arebeing utilised for agriculture, largely forestate crops114. In Indonesia large areas ofpeatlands have been cleared foragriculture-based transmigrationsettlement and for the expansion of estatecrops.

Lowland peat soils can be productive forwetland rice115. Good levels of productivitycan be achieved with horticultural cropswith intensive management. On smallholdings (which in Indonesia, for example,vary from 0.6 to 2 hectares), an integratedsystem of animal husbandry (pigs, cattle,poultry) and horticultural crops canprovide subsistence. Sago palms grownaturally on peat and are simple to cultivateand need little maintenance116. Sarawak isnow the world’s largest exporter of sago


Country (References) Total Peatland area currently usedpeatland area for agriculture

km2 (km2) %Belarus – (Bambalov) 23 967 9 631 40Czech Rep.+ Slovakia (Lappalainen) 314 ca 100 ca 30Denmark (Aaby) 1 420 ca 1 000 ca 70Estonia ( Orru) 10 091 ca 1 300 13France ( Lappalainen) ca 1 100 ca 660 ca 60Finland (Vasander 1996) 94 000 ca 2 000 2Germany (Steffens) 14 200 ca 12 000 85Great Britain (Burton) 17 549 720 4Greece (Christianis) 986 ca 900 ca 90Hungary (Toth1983) 1 000 975 98Iceland (Virtanen) 10 000 ca 1 300 13Ireland (Shier) 11 757 896 8Latvia (Snore) 6 691 ca 1 000 15Lithuania (Tamosaitis et al) 4 826 1 900 39Netherlands (Joosten 1994) 2 350 2 000 85Norway (Johansen) 23 700 1 905 8Poland (Ilnicki et al.) 10 877 7 620 70Russia (Kosov et al.) 568 000 70 400 12Spain (Lappalainen) 383 23 6Sweden (Fredriksson) 66 680 3 000 5Switzerland (Küttel) 224 ca 160 ca 70

Ukraine (.Zurek) 10 081 ca 5 000 ca 50

Total 880 196 124 490 14

Table 3/11 Peatland used for agriculture in some European countries. 112

(largely cultivated on mineral soils),exporting annually about 25,000 to 40,000tonnes of sago products to PeninsularMalaysia, Japan, Taiwan, Singapore andother countries117. Palm oil trees, whichhave a shallow root system and need ahigher soil nutrient level than sago118, aresuccessfully cultivated119. Otheragricultural activities which can be carriedout include buffalo farming and thegrowing of native species of fruit trees,

pineapple, rubber, coconut, coffee andspices.

The greater part of Southeast Asian coastalpeats have marginal physical properties forplant growth and, without carefulmanagement, crop yields are on average low.

● North America: Extensive areas ofpeatlands in North America are cultivatedfor agriculture. In Canada it is estimatedthat 40 000 hectares of peatland are under


cultivation. The principal uses arevegetable production and pastureland.Cranberries are produced in BritishColumbia, wild rice is grown in Manitobaand peatlands in Newfoundland are usedto grow forage crops120. Over 230 000hectares of fen peatlands are cultivated inthe Florida Everglades, including largeareas of sugar cane and rice. Other cropsproduced in the U.S.A. include vegetables,grass sods for use in lawns andcranberries121.

The commercial production of cranberrieson peatlands in North America122 is - with aproduction of 6 million barrels123 - a majorbusiness enterprise124. This form of mono-cropping involving removal of wetlandvegetation, re-profiling and periodic flood-harvesting, is very different from the wildberry collection from intact mires describedin §3.4.1(ca) above. With the industry’sintensive use of water and the applicationof fertilisers and pesticides in a wetenvironment, impacts on streams and lakescan be more direct than for otheragricultural operations125. Theconsumption of cranberries is promoted fortheir medicinal values126. Expansion ofcranberry cultivation on peatlands in otherareas of the world127 is currently beingexplored.

(eb) Forestry on mires and peatlands128

Intensity levels of utilisation: There are threeintensity levels of the utilisation of mires forforestry (Table 3/12):

● In some parts of the world wood harvestingis practised on pristine peatlands. Thistype of utilisation is called ‘exploitation’129

but is referred to here as transitorycollection forestry. As a consequence thetree growth and regeneration possibilitiesmay be hampered due to a rise in thegroundwater level after tree harvesting,leading to decreasing yields. At the same

time, however, the functioning of the mireecosystem may continue.

● Conserving management forestry(‘sustainable forest management’) aims atmaintaining the forest resource by applyingproper natural regeneration of the treestands on the sites which have beenharvested.

● Progressive management forestry aims atincreasing the forest resource byameliorating the growing conditions in thesite by drainage and fertilisation and bytaking good care of the tree stand by propersilvicultural measures. This man-madedisturbance in the peatland ecosystem hasto be maintained if the increased levels ofwood production on the site are to bemaintained130.

The forms of peatland utilisation for forestryvary from country to country depending onsuch factors as demand for raw wood,silvicultural management practice andtradition and infrastructure of thecountryside. In some countries peatlandforestry may still be at the ‘transitorycollection forestry’ stage although theimportance of ‘conserving managementforestry’ is generally admitted. In countrieslike Finland the approach to the utilisation ofpeatlands for forestry has for decades beennot only ‘conserving’ but ‘progressivemanagement forestry‘, minimising harmfuleffects on the site and on stream water.

Forest on pristine mires: On pristine miresseveral factors (climate, excessive water,deficiency of nutrients) may restrict theproductivity of tree species. However, someforested mire sites support commercial-sizetree stands. In a typical pristine-mire treestand the number of stems is high in smalldiameter classes and decreases abruptly withincreasing diameter. The result is that onpristine mires the tree stands have an unevenage structure. There is also some variation inthe density of the tree stands.


In Fennoscandia nutrient-rich mire sites areusually dominated by Norway spruce (Piceaabies), although the proportion ofhardwoods, mainly pubescent birch (Betulapubescens), may be considerable. In nutrient-poor mire sites Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris)predominates and in ombrotrophic sites it isthe only tree species. In the boreal zone ofNorth America black spruce (Picea mariana)is the predominant tree species on mires andoccurs alone or mixed with tamarack (Larixlaricina) or eastern white cedar (Thujaoccidentalis). In western parts of Canada,lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) is also ofeconomic importance on mires132.

Forest management on pristine mires:Forest management on pristine mires belongsto the categories of ‘transitory collectionforestry’ or at its best ‘conservingmanagement forestry’ (Table 3/12). Tomaintain a continuous yield the cuttingsshould be “light”, to prevent the site frombecoming wetter due to a rise in thegroundwater level. Pristine forested miresmay be one of the few cases wheremanagement to promote uneven-aged standstructure might be recommended (so-called

Forestry type Industry term Forest management Wood resource /activities yield

Nature None wood resource notconservation usedTransitory Exploitation Tree harvesting without continuous woodcollection adequate care taken of yield reducedforestry regenerationConserving Sustainable forest Tree harvesting with continuous woodmanagement management proper natural or yield maintainedforestry artificial regenerationProgressive Progressive Site amelioration continuous wood yieldmanagement management (drainage, fertilisation), increasedforestry forestry (afforestation),

thinnings, ditch cleaningetc., final harvest, andregeneration

Table 3/12 Intensity levels of mire utilisation for forestry131.

single-tree selection for continuous cover).Very little commercial tree harvesting is carriedout on pristine forested mires in Fennoscandiawhich are dominated by Norway spruce(Picea abies) or Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris),because single-tree harvesting is noteconomic133. A private landowner may,however, harvest trees from his wetlandproperty to be used for fuel or constructionon his own farm.

In North America harvesting andregeneration of black spruce (Picea mariana)is significant, especially in Ontario andQuébec, Canada. It forms a major source offibre for the pulp and paper industry. A largeproportion of black spruce comes fromforested mires, in which it is important tominimise damage to the soil because of thelack of forest drainage. The preservation ofadvanced growth134, mainly black sprucelayerings135, is an essential feature ofregeneration of forested mires. On siteswithout sufficient advanced growth goodresults have been achieved with both seed-tree groups136 and clearcut strips137.

It is typical of the peatland forestry in Ontario


that intermediate (“thinning”) cuttings andtending of young stands are seldompractised. However, Canadian forestry isgradually changing from ‘transitorycollection forestry’ towards a plannedutilisation of forest resources (‘conservingmanagement forestry’)138.

Tropical forestry: The natural vegetation oftropical peatlands is mainly forest. InSoutheast Asia tropical forest coversextensive tracts of peatlands, mainly betweencoastal mangroves and the terrestrial rainforest. Most of the tree families of lowlandrainforest are found in peatland forests butwith fewer species. Peatland forest has alower and more open tree canopy thanterrestrial rainforest. It consists of aconnected series of forest types whichreplace each other from the peatlandperimeter to its centre139. It includessubstantial quantities of commercial treespecies and yields some of the most valuabletropical timbers. Ramin (Gonystylusbancanus) and agathis (Agathis dammara),for example, contribute almost 10% ofIndonesia’s exports of forest products140.Although peat swamp forests produce asmaller number of large trees per hectarecompared to other lowland forests, severalcommercially important timber species, suchas ramin and some meranti (Shorea spp.), arerestricted to this forest type141. Peatland forestis exploited in much the same way asterrestrial forest, but allowing for the lowerbearing capacity of the soil. There are twotypes of exploitation – transitory collection(even destructive) forestry; and conservingmanagement forestry142.

The most frequent destructive loggingoperations have been concentrated inpeatland forests earmarked for agriculture143.In other areas such forest has been damagedby logging concessions issued withoutdetailed environmental assessmentsconducted in advance, and by illegal logging.

A conserving management forestry form ofselective timber extraction is carried out usingminimal mechanisation under assumptions asto the regeneration cycle of commercialspecies. An example of such cropping is inSarawak. Oldgrowth peatland forest isworked on a harvesting period of 45 years.Each group of permanent forest areasconstitutes a unit managed under a RegionalManagement Plan. An annual cut isprescribed for each area. Logging is carriedout manually. Damage to land is minimised.Silvicultural treatments are carried out afterlogging. While the felling cycle is set at 45years the time of subsequent cuts isdependent on the rate of re-growth of theforest144.

Forest drainage: On a global scale theproportion of the total terrestrial wetland(including peatland) area drained for forestryis about 3%. The area under forest utilisationwithout drainage has not been estimated. Thecurrent practice and extent of drainage(‘progressive management forestry‘) indifferent countries varies considerablydepending on the potential wetland area, thestructure of land ownership, the demand forraw wood and national economicconsiderations145 (Table 3/13).

In maritime climates such as those of theBritish Isles, drainage and afforestation withlodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and Sitkaspruce (Picea sitchensis) is a commonpractice on treeless mires. The long-termprospects for forests on drained peatlandsare reported to be good. Yields from thesecond rotation seem to be even higher thanfrom the first146. In Fennoscandia peatlandafforestation is nowadays restricted to cut-away peatlands and abandoned farmland onpeat soil147. Drainage of new areas in Russiahas practically stopped148.

Most of the drainage in Fennoscandia, Russiaand the Baltic states has been of naturallytree-covered mires. The profitability of


drainage is dependent on the fertility of thesite, the volume of the tree stand capable ofresponse at the time of draining, thegeographical location of the site, and the priceof wood. In general, drainage becomes moreprofitable with increasing site fertility, with alarger volume of original tree stand, and (inthe Northern Hemisphere) the further souththe site is located. On over 1 million hectaresof the drained area in Russia, the drainagecanals no longer function because of neglect,the activities of beavers, or infrastructure(such as roads and pipelines) which disruptdrainage. As a result this land is currently re-paludifying149.

An attempt has also been made to estimatethe profitability of forest drainage bycalculating the inputs (all cost factors) andoutputs (the increase in volume of wood cutmultiplied by the price of wood). On this basisthe internal rate of return on Finnish forestdrainage activity would lie somewhat above5%150. Canadian calculations show thatdrainage of an existing stand is economical ifit can reduce the rotation age by 30 years ormore151. Forest drainage has been shown tobe profitable only if directed towardsappropriate sites. This man-made disturbancein the peatland ecosystem has to bemaintained if it is wished to maintainincreased levels of wood production on thesite.

Based on figures for Finland, some 20% ofwood harvested on peatlands is used forfurniture and construction, the remainder asraw material for pulp and paper mills. A verysmall proportion goes to energy wood152.

km2

Finland 59,000Russia 38,000Sweden 14,100Norway 4,200Estonia 4,600Latvia 5,000Lithuania 5,900Belarus 2,800Poland 1,200Germany 1,100United Kingdom 6,000Ireland 2,100P.R. of China 700USA 4,000Canada 250Total 148,950

Table 3/13 Estimates of terrestrial wetlands(incl. peatlands) drained for forestry153

3.4.2 Carrier functions

The carrier functions of mires and peatlandsinclude all those functions for which theyprovide space and/or a suitable substrate.Because they lie in basins and are veryextensive many mires and peatlands providesuitable locations, or bases, for waterreservoirs and pisciculture. Their locationand size and the fact that they are largelyuninhabited can make them suitable forestablishing towns, roads and harbours; assites for waste disposal; and for militaryexercises.

(f) Water reservoirs (for recreation, hydro-electricity, drinking water)154

Reservoirs created for the production ofhydro-electric power now cover extensive


areas. Reservoirs cover 1.5 million km2

globally, of which 0.9 million km2 occur intemperate, boreal and subarctic regions155.

Many of these temperate, boreal and subarcticreservoirs have flooded substantial areas ofwetlands and peatlands, because theyoccupy the lower-lying positions in thelandscape and because wetlands andpeatlands cover a large proportion of thelandscape in these regions. Water reservoirsin Belarussian Polesye, for example, coversome 400 km2 of largely peat-covered areas156.It is estimated157 that the 20,000 km2 ofreservoirs in Canada may have flooded 7,500km2 of wetlands and peatlands. In Finlandapproximately 900km2 of peatland are coveredwith reservoirs158. Before inundation, thesepeatlands were generally sinks of carbondioxide and sources of methane to theatmosphere. There is evidence that floodingconverts peatlands from a sink to a source ofcarbon dioxide and increases the emission ofmethane to the atmosphere. See §§ 2.5 and3.4.3(m).

(g) Fish ponds (Pisciculture) 159

Peatlands have been inundated forcommercial fish farming particularly in centralEurope and China160. In Belarussian Polesye200 km2 of fishponds have been createdlargely on peatlands161. In what is now theCzech Republic fish ponds covered an areaof 1,600 km2 at the end of 16th century. Manyponds were later converted into agriculturalland. The total area nowadays is 500 km2, ofwhich 15% is mostly situated on peatland.Fish species like Perch (Perca fluviatilis),Powan (Coregonus lavaretus), Peled(Coregonus peled), Brook Trout (Salvelinusfontinalis), and Trout (Salmo trutta) toleratea relatively low pH and are suitable forcultivation in such ponds with a peat bottom.As water which is too acid can kill the fishstock, lime is often applied in places wherewater from surrounding bogs flows into thepond.

Liming, discharges from agricultural ditches,and sewage can result in a fast decompositionof peat, resulting in a high consumption ofoxygen, a release of phosphorus and othernutrients from the decomposing anaerobicpeat, and a vigorous growth of algae. Whendense stocks of fish are present, the euphoticzone (the upper layer of water that receivessufficient light for the growth of green plants)becomes shallow (0.5 – 0.1 m) and anaerobicconditions in and above the bottom prevail.The oxygen deficits may lead to sudden fishkills. West Lake near Hangzhou (East China)is an example of peat degradation after thedischarge of non-treated waste water fromthe town (1 million inhabitants) into the lake(560 ha), which was known as a nationalbeauty spot. The bottom has becomeanaerobic, Cyanobacteria (“blue greens”)develop, and H2S and methane are releasedfrom a 0.5 – 1 metre layer of decomposingpeat on the bottom.

Large stocks of carp combined with limingand organic fertilising change a peat pondecosystem poor in plant nutrients into a fishpond with excess nutrients, one that is onlysuitable for carp production.

Fishing lakes have been excavated fromcutaway peatland in Ireland and are in activeuse for recreational fishing162.

(h) Urban, industrial and infrastructuraldevelopment163

Substantial peatlands and mires are locatedin coastal areas, where over 50% of the world’spopulation lives. Major cities like Amsterdamand St. Petersburg are largely build on peat.Location near to coastlines makes it temptingto convert mires and peatland to provideinfrastructure for towns, roads and harboursso that these areas can become triggers forthe development of regions and countries.Mires and peatlands which representextensive areas of largely uninhabited land


and whose value as real estate is low areobvious targets for land-use planners anddevelopers.

Blanket peatlands in Ireland and Britain164 arein use for wind farms. Large tracts of peatlandsin North America and West-Siberia are usedfor oil and gas exploitation infrastructure165.The Great Vasyugan Mire (Novosibirsk andTomsk Oblast, Russia) is designated as a dropzone for rocket stages from the Baykonurspace launching facility in Kazakstan.

(i) Waste deposits / landfill166

The vast quantity of domestic and industrialwaste produced daily and its concentrationin urban areas creates major disposalproblems. Transport is expensive and it isdesirable for municipal authorities to disposeof waste close to its source. However landvalues in urban areas are usually inflated andspace is at a premium. Wetlands, especiallypeatlands, often in estuaries close to urbanareas (as is common in the Pacific North Westof the USA and Canada), are often the lastareas to be developed given the high costand technical difficulty of building in suchwet areas. They also have lower landpurchase costs. These factors make themobvious targets for waste disposal. The formof ‘landfill’ most commonly employed hasbeen to place refuse on top of the mire surfacecompressing the peat and forcinggroundwater to discharge from the waterbody. This is effectively ‘pre-stressing’ aspractised in most forms of construction onsoft or wet land. A direct result is often localflooding, and longer-term results can includecontamination of ground and surface waterby landfill leachates. Poor understanding ofthe dynamics of water movement in mires hasled in many cases to the conclusion that theyare absorbent ‘sinks’ and that any leachateswill be contained within the site - which isnot the case. Peat soils have often beenproposed as natural barriers for the disposalof sewage sludge, mine tailings leachate etc,

because of their high absorption capacity inparticular for heavy metals. See also §3.4.3(p).

In terms of more modern forms of wastedisposal (including segregation, re-cycling,composting, incineration and landfill in sealedunits) peatlands (both pristine and industrialcutaway) have three advantages:● they often are very extensive in area (and

thus can cope with the volumes involved),● they tend to be in more remote areas, with

only sparse human habitation in the vicinity(thus avoiding some of the conflicts withlocal communities), and

● they often constitute borders betweenpolitical/administrative areas (being seen,therefore, as nobody’s responsibility).

(j) Military exercises and defence167

Military training grounds necessarily coverlarge expanses of land. The potentiallydangerous nature of military exercisesrequires them to take place in remote areassuch as peatlands which are away fromcentres of population. This is especially thecase in upland areas where rugged terrainmake them ideal locations for military traininggrounds.

Areas which have been reserved entirely formilitary exercises often include peatlands ofhigh conservation value. These areas areunlikely to have been drained to improveagricultural potential, overgrazed or utilisedfor peat removal, so that in various denselypopulated countries many of the best andmost intact mire sites are found within suchreserves168. The main differences betweenthese sites and surviving mires outside ofmilitary zones are severely restricted access;limited development or habitat alteration; andminor disturbance mainly in the form ofabandoned ordnance. Restricted access hasin many cases protected sensitive sites fromdisturbance, and damage by vehicles is oftenlimited as wet areas are generally avoided.


The difficulty in accessing peatlands and theirimpenetrability to heavy equipment havealways given them an important role in militarydefence. The present Groote Peel NationalPark (the Netherlands) was saved fromcomplete land reclamation in the 1930sbecause the bog wilderness constituted a partof the Peel-Raam defence line betweenBelgium and the river Meuse169. Similarly inthe 1952 Soviet plan for draining the Pripjatmarshes, the significance of the area as afactor against possible future invasion fromthe west was taken into consideration, andcontingency provisions for emergency re-flooding of the area were included in theplan170.

(k) Prisons

Because of their inaccessibility and isolatedlocation, peatlands have often been used tosite prisons and labour camps. Examplesinclude Veenhuizen in the Fochtelo peatland(the Netherlands), the Nazi concentrationcamps Dachau and the Esterweger Dose/Papenburg complex (Germany), Dartmoor(Britain) and various camps of the GulagArchipelago (Soviet Union).

(l) Transport and herding171

Frozen mires in northern countries are usedfor the transport of forestry products. Theyare also used by nomadic peoples to herdreindeer to and from summer grazing grounds.Because of their natural openness, peatlandsare also favoured areas for cross-countryskiing.

3.4.3 Regulation functions

The term ‘regulation function’ summarises allthe processes in natural and semi-naturalecosystems which contribute to themaintenance of a healthy environment byproviding clean air, water and soil172. Theprocesses involved can be of biological,biochemical or physical origin. Peatlands

have a function in the regulation of essentialenvironmental processes and life supportsystems; i.e. in the maintenance of adequateclimatic, atmospheric, water, soil, ecologicaland genetic conditions. They may provideclean water, regulate water flow, recycleelements and affect both local and globalclimates.

(m) Regulation of the global climate173

Although carbon dioxide emissions fromhuman activities make up only a small fractionof the carbon that cycles annually among theatmosphere, terrestrial plant and animal life,and oceans, these emissions account for theunwanted build-up of atmospheric CO2.Reducing the emissions associated withenergy production and land use shouldmoderate the rate and reduce the ultimatemagnitude of climate change174.

Mires act as sinks of atmospheric carbondioxide and peatlands constitute largereservoirs of carbon and nitrogen. Bothpristine mires and re-wetted peatlands emitmethane and nitrous oxide. Drained peatlandsemit carbon dioxide. Because of their extentand the large volumes of carbon stored intheir peat, mires and peatlands play a majorrole in the global carbon balance. This sectiondiscusses how peatlands and their use mayinfluence the global climate. It is a summaryof material in Appendix 2. The statements inthis section are supported by the text, tables,figures, and references in Appendix 2. Thesection is based on information as it is knownat the time of writing of this document. Futureresearch will add to this knowledge.

Introduction: The peat formation process isstrongly influenced by climatic conditions,but mire ecosystems themselves also affectthe global climate. The natural effect of climateon mires and mires on climate occurs throughthe so-called greenhouse gases which miresabsorb and emit, and the carbon they store.


Like a window pane in a greenhouse, a numberof gases in the atmosphere allow solarradiation (visible light) to pass to the surfaceof the earth while trapping infrared (heat)radiation that is re-emitted by the surface ofthe earth. This trapping of heat radiation,that would otherwise escape to space, isreferred to as the greenhouse effect. Gasesthat influence the radiation balance are calledradiatively active or greenhouse gases(GHG)175.

Greenhouse gases fall into three categories:■ radiatively active gases such as water

vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone(O3), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),and the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) whichexert direct climatic effects,

■ chemically/photochemically active gasessuch as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogenoxides (NOx), and sulphur dioxide (SO2)which exert indirect climatic effects throughtheir influence on the atmosphericconcentrations of hydroxyl radicals (OH),CH4 and O3, and

■ aerosols: 10-6 - 10-2 mm large fluid or solidparticles dispersed in the air.

Even without human interference the naturalgreenhouse effect keeps the Earth’s surfacesome 300 C warmer than it would be if all solarradiation were transferred back to space.Water vapour, carbon dioxide and cloudscontribute roughly 90 percent to the naturalgreenhouse effect; and naturally occurringozone, methane and other gases account forthe remainder. The emission of greenhousegases resulting from human activities causesa change in the radiation balance of the Earth(radiative forcing).

Carbon exchange: A major characteristic ofmires is that they sequester, or capture,carbon dioxide from the atmosphere andtransform it into plant biomass and eventuallypeat. Mires and peatlands also emitgreenhouse gases. The type of gases thatmires and peatlands thus exchange with the

atmosphere is not always the same. Differentmire types emit different amounts andproportions of gases. In the course of theirlong-term development, some mire typesbecome spontaneously wetter and theproportion of emitted methane consequentlyincreases. Peatland drainage generallyincreases carbon dioxide emissions anddecreases those of methane, and peatlandagriculture additionally increases emissionsof nitrous oxide. As all these gases have adifferent radiative forcing, their effect on theradiation balance of the atmosphere differswith the type of mire or peatland and the typeof exploitation176.

Carbon stores: The other important aspectof mires and peatlands is their function asstores of carbon. This is carbon that isexcluded from short-term (e.g. annual) carboncycling. Stores are only important when theirvolumes change. The increase ofatmospheric carbon dioxide in the recent pasthas been caused principally by burning long-term carbon stores (fossil fuels such as coal,lignite, gas, and oil). The felling and burningof tropical rainforest increases carbon dioxideconcentrations in the atmosphere because ofthe mobilisation of the carbon stored in forestbiomass, not because plant productivitydecreases.The carbon store in peatlands can besubdivided into three components:■ the carbon store in the biomass,■ the carbon store in the litter, and■ the carbon store in the peat.Each of these components may behavedifferently under different managementoptions (such as agriculture, forestry,extraction, in fires, and under re-wetting).

To understand the integrated effects ofpeatlands on climate, and the consequencesfor climate of human impact, it is thereforenecessary to consider both■ the types, volumes, and proportions of

greenhouse gases exchanged, and■ the carbon stores in peatlands.


The role177 of pristine mires: As statedabove, mires sequester carbon dioxide fromthe atmosphere and transform it into plantbiomass that is eventually stored as peat.Peat accumulation in mires is the result ofvarious processes including carbonsequestration by plant photosynthesis(primary production), direct carbon lossesduring litter decomposition, decompositionin the acrotelm, and decomposition losses inthe catotelm. Only about 10% of the primarilyassimilated carbon is sequestered in the peatin the long term. Annual long-term carbonaccumulation of the world’s mires isapproximately 1% of the carbon emitted byglobal fossil fuel consumption in 1990, or 10%of the carbon emitted by USA electricityutilities in 1998.

In the long run, mires withdraw enormousamounts of carbon dioxide from theatmosphere and store it as peat deposits. Atpresent approximately the same amount ofcarbon is stored in the world’s peatlands asin the whole atmosphere. The decreasingatmospheric concentrations of carbondioxide during interglacial periods as a resultof peat formation, and the consequentsteadily reducing greenhouse effect, is seenby some scientists as a major cause of theorigin of ice ages.

Pristine mires affect the global climate bothby the sequestration of carbon dioxide fromthe atmosphere and by the emission of othergases, especially methane and nitrous oxide.

Methane is the second most importantgreenhouse gas after carbon dioxide and isexpected to contribute 18% of the totalforeseen global warming over the next 50years, as opposed to 50% attributable tocarbon dioxide. Furthermore methaneparticipates in tropospheric ozone formation.Global methane production is dominated bynatural wetlands, rice paddies, and animallivestock. Methane emissions in mires arehighly variable, but are generally higher inpristine fens than in pristine bogs.

Nitrous oxide is a greenhouse gas and alsocauses destruction of stratospheric ozone.Nitrous oxide emissions from pristine miresare low. Occasionally such mires may evenconsume nitrous oxide due to the reductionof nitrous oxide to dinitrogen (N2) underconditions of severe oxygen deficiency.

Because all gases have a different lifetime inthe atmosphere and a different “globalwarming potential”, the combined effects ofall three gases together depend on the timehorizon chosen. On a 100-year horizon, forexample, Finnish undisturbed mires increasethe greenhouse effect, whereas on a 500-yearhorizon they decrease it. This is due to thechanging impact of methane emissions (cf.Table 3/14).

Recent general overviews indicate that overa short time-scale (cf. Table 3/15) pristinemires contribute to the greenhouse effect

Chemical Atmospheric Global warming potential (mass basis) (time)species lifetime (years) 20-year horizon 100-year horizon 500- year horizonCO2 variable 1 1 1CH4 12 ± 3 56 21 6.5N2O 120 280 310 170

Table 3/14: The atmospheric lifetime and the IPCC (1996) accepted global warmingpotentials over different time horizons of radiatively important gases178.


with respect to their carbon dioxide, methaneand nitrous oxide balance. Over a 500-yeartime-scale pristine bogs have a negativeglobal warming potential and fens a smallpositive potential.

Although it should be recognised that thereare large uncertainties in these calculations,we may provisionally conclude that

■ under the present climatic conditions,■ on a time scale relevant for current

civilisation, and■ with respect to the combined effects of

carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxideexchange,

pristine mires play an insignificant role withrespect to global warming. In this respect,mires do not differ from virgin tropicalrainforests and other types of “climax”ecosystems that are in equilibrium withclimate. Similar to these other ecosystemtypes that have a large carbon store in theirbiomass, mires and peatlands have aconsiderable climatic importance as stores ofcarbon, especially in their peat.

Recently it has been acknowledged that manyother greenhouse gases are emitted by miresincluding

■ Hydrocarbons that may significantlyimpact ozone, methane and carbon

bogs fensCO2 sequestration (kg C ha-1 year-1) -310 -250CH4 emission (kg C ha-1 year-1) 53 297N2O emission (kg N ha-1 year-1) 0.04 0.1Global Warming Potential 20 years 723 5524Global Warming Potential 100 years 45 1724Global Warming Potential 500 years -233 173

Table 3/15: Global Warming Potential (GWP in kg CO2-C-equivalents ha-1 year-1) of pristinemires using different time scales179.

monoxide in the troposphere. Plants,primarily trees, emit an amount equivalentto all methane emissions. As the emissionsare sensitive to temperature, the emissionsfrom peatlands in North America andEurasia are expected to significantlyincrease under global warming.

■ Dimethyl sulfide (DMS CH3SCH3), an “anti-greenhouse gas” that enters thetroposphere and is oxidised there to sulfateparticles, which - as cloud condensationnuclei - influence cloud dropletconcentrations, cloud albedo andconsequently climate.

■ Methyl bromide (CH3Br) and methylchloride (CH3Cl) that have a cooling effectthrough their ability to destroystratospheric ozone.

No quantitative information is available onthe global climatic effects of thesesubstances.

The role of drainage - agriculture: Whenvirgin peatlands are converted to agriculture,the natural biomass is replaced by cropbiomass. This may result in substantialchanges in the biomass carbon store, e.g.when tropical forested peatlands areconverted to vegetable or rice fields. Achange of non-forested virgin peatland tograsslands and arable fields will generally notlead to such large biomass or litter changes.


The dominant effect of peatland drainage foragriculture is that the peat is exposed tooxygen which leads to peat mineralisation.This causes a decrease in the peat carbonstore and an increased emission of carbondioxide, especially in summer.

Under tillage, peat mineralisation isaccelerated as compared to grassland due tomore intensive aeration. Carbon dioxideemissions in arable fens are higher than inbogs.

Methane emissions from drained peatlandsare generally very low though someemissions have been observed in bogs.Drained fens emit less methane than bogsand function more frequently as net sinks foratmospheric methane.

Nitrous oxide emissions from bogs are lowdue to the low pH and low total nitrogencontent. In the more nutrient-rich fenssomewhat higher nitrous oxide emissionshave been observed. Nitrous oxide emissions

depend on the available nitrogen andtherefore on nitrogen fertilisation. It isassumed that 1% of the nitrogen applied asfertiliser is emitted as nitrous oxide.

Figure 3/2 gives an overview of the globalwarming potential of drained peatlands underdifferent forms of agricultural use. Carbondioxide is by far the most relevant gas,contributing between 85 and 98% of thecumulative global warming potential of allgreenhouse gases. Intensively used boggrasslands have a similar warming potentialto that of tilled bogs. Fertilisation and limingof grasslands strongly increases peatmineralisation.

The role of drainage - forestry: The effectof peatland drainage for forestry180 is morecomplicated than that of agricultural drainage,as various processes with contrasting effectsoccur simultaneously and the integratedeffects differ considerably over different time-scales.

Figure 3/2: Rough estimates of the global warming potential of fens and bogs (in kg CO2-C-equivalents ha-1 y-1) under different types of land use (compiled by Heinrich Höper 2000).


As in agriculture, increased aeration of thepeat after forestry drainage results in fasterpeat mineralisation and a decrease in the peatcarbon store. In the boreal zone this aerationmay be accompanied by a decrease in peatpH and a lower peat temperature, which mayagain reduce the rate of peat mineralisation.

As water-logging in mires generally preventsan economic level of wood production,peatland drainage aims to increase the woodyield (see § 3.4.1 [eb]). After drainage, forestvegetation (such as trees and shrubs) takesthe place of the original mire vegetation andthe peatland biomass carbon store (bothabove and below ground) increases quickly.This store would eventually reach a newequilibrium much higher than that of theformer mire vegetation. Before this stage isreached the wood is harvested and thebiomass store reduces substantially again.

Peatland drainage for forestry also leads tochanges in the litter carbon store. The moistlitter in the mire’s acrotelm is generallyconsidered as part of the peat carbon storeas it gradually passes into the catotelm peat.The litter in a drained forest181 is of differentquality and can be considered as a separatecomponent. The accumulation of litter leadsto an increase in the litter carbon store. Asthis litter accumulates under aerobicconditions, the litter carbon store eventuallyreaches an equilibrium and the netaccumulation stops. Depending on thepeatland type and the cutting regime of theforest, it might take centuries before thisequilibrium is reached.

Peatland drainage for forestry therefore leadsto

■ a steady decrease of the peat carbon store,■ a rapid initial increase of the biomass carbon

store, the harvesting of which leads to asubstantial reduction, and

■ a slow initial increase of the peatland littercarbon store which eventually, after somecenturies, reaches an equilibrium.

Thus, the peatland carbon store, being thecombined effect of these processes, variesstrongly in time. In the first period afterdrainage, the increase in biomass and litterstores may strongly exceed the losses fromthe peat carbon store. As the biomass andlitter stores tend to an equilibrium, but thepeat carbon losses continue182, thecumulative carbon losses from peat oxidationprevail in the long run.

With respect to gas exchange, the drainageof peatlands for forestry generally leads toan increase in carbon dioxide emissions, asubstantial decrease in methane emissionsand, depending on peatland type and type ofland use (fertilisation), to a sometimes drasticincrease in nitrous oxide emissions.

Peat extraction: The effect of peat extractionand subsequent oxidation is similar to that ofburning fossil fuels183. The peat carbon storeis largely transformed into carbon dioxide.Efficient drainage in the extraction areas maymaintain high rates of carbon dioxideemissions while methane and nitrous oxideemissions remain fairly low.

Integrated effects: Detailed national balanceswith respect to peat carbon stores andradiative forcing are available only forFinland. In Finland both undisturbed andforestry drained peatlands currently have apositive carbon balance, the former becauseof peat accumulation, the latter because ofan increase in root biomass and litter carbon.Table 3/16 presents the integrated effects ofvarious greenhouse gases on radiativeforcing. The strongly time-dependent effectof undisturbed mires is striking, because ofthe decreasing effect of methane. Estimatingthe effects on a 500-year horizon is even morespeculative than doing so on a 100-yearhorizon, and does not take into accountchanges in hydrology and temperatureresulting from global climate change.

Peatland fires: In many areas of the worldnatural fires ignited by lightning strikes were


normal phenomena in peatlands. Today fireis most frequently the result of humanactivities. Peatland fires may lead to theignition of the peat layers, especially afterdrainage. Such fires are difficult to extinguishand may last for many months despiteextensive rains. The depth and extent of suchfires depend on the oxygen availability, themoisture content, and the presence of cracksin the peat.

Emissions from biomass and peatlandburning represent a large perturbation ofglobal atmospheric chemistry. In the 1982-3drought and fire in East Kalimantan, the areaaffected by fire included 5500 km2 of peat-swamp forest. In 1997 and 1998 land clearanceactivities in Indonesia combined with anextended dry season created several monthsof forest and peatland fires. Two of the mostintensive sources of smoke and particulatematter were fires on the peatlands ofKalimantan and Sumatra. Both the surfacevegetation and the underlying peat wereignited. In Kalimantan some 7500 km2 of peat-swamp forest was destroyed with a loss ofsurface peat of between 0.2 and 1.5 metres.Total emissions of carbon as a result of thefires are estimated to be equal to 10% of theglobal annual emissions from fossil fuelconsumption.

Peatland inundation and re-wetting:Peatlands are inundated for rice cultivation,water reservoirs (especially for hydro-electricity), and mire restoration. Higher watertable depths generally lower the carbonmineralisation rate. Nevertheless inundationand re-wetting do not necessarily result inlower emission rates.

Rice paddies are among the most importantmethane emitters in the world. Inundation ofpeatlands to create water reservoirs leads tosignificant emissions of both carbon dioxideand methane. Emissions from Canadianwetlands due to flooding are estimated torepresent 5% of Canada’s anthropogenicemissions.

The re-wetting of degraded peatlands wouldalso be expected to lead to a decrease incarbon dioxide and nitrous oxide emissions.In practice, however, re-wetting of fengrasslands often leads to increased methaneemissions, while carbon dioxide emissionsmay remain continuously high. This couldbe caused by the rapid decomposition ofyoung plant material and is probably atransient phenomenon. Water levelfluctuations on such plots may cause a majorincrease in nitrous oxide emissions.

Table 3/16: Summary of radiative forcing of Finnish peatlands under different land-useforms using different time horizons.

Radiative forcing (in 1012 g CO2 equivalents)

Land use area in 1000 ha 100 year horizon 500 year horizonUndisturbed peatlands 4000 + 8.40 ± 0.15 + 0.54 ± 0.15Forest drained peatlands 5700 - 5.28 ± 5.5 - 7.61 ± 5.5Agricultural peatlands 250 + 6.63 ± 2.57 + 6.12 ± 2.45Peat extraction and stockpiles 63 + 0.71 ± n.d + 0.69 ± n.dPeat combustion 77.5 ± 7.3 PJ y-1 + 8.51 ± 0.75 + 8.32 ± 0.71Totals + 18.97 ± 8.97 + 8.06 ± 8.81


Re-wetting of drained alder forests leads toincreased emissions of methane, but todecreasing nitrous oxide emissions.

Climate change: The distribution of miresand mire types over the globe clearly reflectstheir dependence on climate. As mires areconcentrated in humid or cool regions, achanging climate can be expected to seriouslyaffect their carbon balance and radiativeforcing.

Most climate models suggest that thenorthern regions, which contain most of theworld’s peatlands, will become significantlywarmer in the 21st century - continental areas(though this is less certain) becoming drierand oceanic areas becoming wetter. Sinceboth net primary production anddecomposition are closely related to moistureand temperature, significant alterations in thecarbon dynamics of peatlands may result.

Some researchers stress the importance ofalterations in the water table level, which mightincrease carbon accumulation in northernpeatlands but might create a greater sourceof carbon dioxide in the more southernpeatlands. Others stress the importance of arise in temperatures and suggest that a netloss of carbon will take place in northern fensbut a net gain in northern bogs.

The behaviour of permafrost peatlands willalso be important, as both decomposition andnet primary production are acceleratedfollowing permafrost melt. In general,methane emissions from peatland ecosystemswill decrease with drying. Increasedtemperatures and thaw depth in wet tundraecosystems could, however, also increasemethane fluxes, especially when, as climatemodels indicate, precipitation at northernlatitudes increases.

It may be concluded that there are still toomany uncertainties in the magnitude and thedirection of potential changes to arrive at a

final conclusion on the reaction of mires andpeatlands to global warming.

Conclusion: The atmosphere and the ocean,and the interactions they have with livingthings constitute a complex dynamic systemwith many interconnections and feedbacks.This complexity explains the uncertainty andcontroversy about greenhouse gases andclimate change184. Most scientists believethat small changes in the “inputs” to theclimate system will result in small changes tothe resulting climate and that climate changewill take place gradually over a period of manydecades. If change is gradual, the overalleconomic impact on wealthy countries willprobably be modest. Because of thefeedbacks, the response of the climate to anincrease in greenhouse gases could, however,also be “nonlinear” meaning that a smallchange in an input might produce a majorchange in climate, such as might be broughtabout by a sudden change in the generalpattern of ocean circulation. If that happens,the economic costs to wealthy countriescould be very large, as much new investmentmight be needed in a very short period oftime.

Whether it is fast or slow, climate change islikely to have greater economic impacts onpoor countries than on rich countries,because poor countries have less capacityto adapt to changes and because traditionallife styles depend more directly on a specificclimate. In the long run, if sea levelscontinued to rise, even developed countriesmight begin to experience serious costs, asmany of the world’s largest cities are in low-lying coastal locations.

Because of this small but realistic risk of largeand negative effects of climate change, aprecautionary policy185 should take intoaccount the climate regulatory function ofmires and peatlands, especially their role asmajor long-term stores of carbon.


(n) Regulation of regional and localclimates

Mires have a specific microclimate, whichoften differs from that of their immediatesurroundings. Their microclimate ischaracterised by a greater variation intemperature, higher air humidity, greater fogfrequency and greater risk of night frostscompared with that of mineral soils. Thereare slight differences between the maximumtemperatures and pronounced differencesbetween the minimum temperatures of mirescompared with surrounding mineral areas186.

Peatlands are by nature wet landscapes andare usually situated in terrain depressionsinto which cooler and heavier air flows(“Kaltluftseen”). This stimulates fog and dewformation187. As a consequence, the soils ofboth pristine and reclaimed peatlands aresignificantly cooler in summer than mineralsoils, and the air temperature is also lower.Forested tropical peatlands have lower meanand maximum temperatures than those thathave been deforested188.

Mires and peatlands strongly depend on theprevailing climate. On the other hand, theyalso influence the regional and local climatethrough evapotranspiration and associatedalteration of heat and moisture conditions.This influence is larger in warmer or drierclimates and smaller when the regional climateis colder or more humid. In areas withextensive peatlands the regional climate isconsequently more humid and cool189.Drainage of mires in the boreal zone leads toa reduction in the minimum temperatures anda shortening of the yearly frost-free period, aprocess that is reversed by subsequentafforestation190.

(o) Regulation of catchment hydrology

Traditionally, peatlands were generally seenas reservoirs or “sponges” storing waterduring wet periods and releasing it slowly

during ensuing dry spells. In this way theywere believed to reduce flooding followinghigh precipitation and sustain water flowduring times of low precipitation andconsequently to have a “buffering” effect oncatchment hydrology. This traditional viewcan, however, no longer be upheldunconditionally191.

With respect to the hydrologic reservoir orwater storage function of peatlands it isnecessary to distinguish between a static anda dynamic storage component192. The staticcomponent is the water in the permanentlywater-saturated peat layers (the catotelm) andthe water that is physically or chemicallybound into the uppermost peat layers whichare periodically exposed above the waterlevel. Depending on their thickness andextent, peatlands may have a very large staticwater store as undrained peat consists of 85- 95% water. In general this water either doesnot move or moves only slowly and thereforescarcely participates in the annual watercycling and regional water regulation.

The dynamic storage component consists ofthe rapidly exchangeable water volumes inand over the uppermost peat and vegetationlayers (the acrotelm), or, in drained peatlands,the uppermost soil. It is composed of(drainable) soil pore water, water cushions inand under the peat, water in peatland hollowsand pools, and inundation water. Thesedifferent fractions imply that different miretypes may have completely different dynamicstorage characteristics.

As peat accumulation requires high waterlevels at the mire surface during most of theyear, the dynamic storage capacity of mostmire types is limited. In times of abundantwater supply the available storage is rapidlyfilled and the surplus water drains quickly.Peat-covered areas therefore generally showconsiderable surface run-off, directlyconsequent on precipitation, and littlebaseflow193.


Only mire types of which the peat layer canshrink and swell with changing water supply(such as percolation mires and to a lesserextent schwingmoor mires - see §2.3), or thatcombine a large storage co-efficient with alimited hydraulic permeability (such asacrotelm mires and patterned surflace flowmires including aapa mires) have a “buffering”effect on catchment hydrology.

Other mire types, such as immersion, waterrise, and flood mires and most types ofsurface flow mires, do not bring about similareffects. The fact that flood mires in rivervalleys may play an important role in floodmitigation194, is not related to their peatlandor wetland character but to the fact that theylie in or near the valley. Mineral wetlands ordry land with similar topography wouldfunction in exactly the same way.

After drainage the water movement andstorage characteristics of peatlands changeconsiderably. Generally they start to resembledrier mineral soils: peak discharge is stronglyreduced because the peat layer is no longercompletely saturated and the dynamic storagecapacity is increased195. In other cases, opendrainage – as associated with afforestationand agriculture – increases peak charge rates,because the increased storage capacitywithin the peat afforded by the lowering ofthe water table is of lesser importance thanthe higher density of open channels in thedrained areas196. Similar effects result fromsoil degradation in drained fens, which leadsto decreased infiltration of rainwater in thepeat body and increased surface run-off197.

Mires also influence the hydrology of theirsurroundings because of theirevapotranspiration characteristics. In fens(which are also fed by mineral soil water)evapotranspiration often exceedsprecipitation, leading to a decrease in run-off198.

Groundwater charge from peatlands, i.e. thequantity of water flowing downwards throughthe peat into the groundwater of theunderlying bedrock, is generally small199. Inthe long run the accumulation of peat in thelower parts of the catchment may lead to arise in the regional groundwater level200. Thereverse may happen in the cases of peatlanddrainage and peat extraction.

(p) Regulation of catchmenthydrochemistry201

Ecosystems are linked with their neighbouringsystems and continuously exchange matter,energy and information. Ecosystems regulatethe flow of an in-flowing substance throughtransformation, buffering or storage(accumulation) resulting in a change inchemical concentrations in the outflow202.

Mires accumulate carbon, nitrogen,phosphorus and other nutrients when annualproduction exceeds annual aerobic andanaerobic microbial decay. First, thevegetation transforms inorganic substances,e.g. CO2, NO3 or NH4, via biochemicalprocesses into organic components (Corg;Norg). Then the dead plant material undergoesseveral deformation processes collectivelycalled decomposition, decay or humificationresulting in the formation of peat.

The decay of organic matter in mires isdetermined by many factors including oxygenconcentrations in the acrotelm and catotelm,the temperature regime, the chemicalcomposition of the plant material, and pH.An important factor for the rate of peataccumulation is how long litter stays in theacrotelm before the anoxic conditions (lackof oxygen) in the catotelm peat layer reach it.The relation between aerobic conditions inthe acrotelm and anaerobic conditions in thecatotelm is highly sensitive to changes in thehydrological conditions caused by climaticor human factors. Lowering of the water levelincreases the oxygen in the soil and fosters


fast aerobic decay. Under these conditions,carbon and nutrients are not longeraccumulating, but are released from the peat.

Mires and peatlands have diverse effects onthe chemical composition of the water in acatchment depending on their position withinthe catchment, the wetland water balance, thewater source, and the related biological,chemical and physical processes203. Miresreceive water of different quality fromdifferent sources. Water pathways includerainwater, surface run-off, lower groundwater,deeper groundwater, or river water inflow dueto over-flooding.

Bogs by definition derive their water only fromprecipitation. Bog mires act as sinks forcarbon and nutrients by accumulatingcarbon, nitrogen and other nutrients in theirpeats. The water flowing out of bogs ischaracterised by low pH and highconcentrations of humic substances andammonia204. Bogs therefore act as localsources for carbon and nitrogen in acatchment. The concentrations of humicsubstances, nitrogen and phosphorus in therun-off water can rapidly increase after bogdrainage depending on land use practice, e.g.fertilisation, chalking, agriculture, forestry.

Groundwater-fed fens like spring mires orpercolation mires have a high potential forthe transformation of inflowing substancestransported with the groundwater. At theinterface between mineral substrate and peatdenitrification leads to a decrease in the nitrateconcentration of the inflowinggroundwater205. Additionally, the inflowingnutrients are partly stored through peataccumulation. Groundwater fed fens are ableto improve the water quality in a catchment.Drainage and agricultural intensification bothin the fen and in the catchment affect thisfunctioning. Due to increased nutrientconcentrations in the groundwater followingfertiliser application in the catchment, thetransformation potential can be over-used,

resulting in an increased nutrient availabilityin the fen and decreased biodiversity.Drainage activities change the waterpathways and therefore the mixing of differentwater sources. As a result, groundwaterinfluence decreases and rainwater influenceincrease which affects the vegetationcomposition in the fen.

In flood mires and many terrestrialisation206

mires, freshwater inflow is the main watersource. These mire types foster processeswhich reduce chemical concentrations, suchas denitrification, sedimentation or plantuptake. These wetlands act as sinks fornutrients in the catchment when theoutflowing load has decreased compared tothe inflowing load207. In the nitrogen cycle,denitrification is quantitatively the mostimportant transformation pathway. Theefficiency of such fen types in removingchemicals is related to the hydraulic retentiontime (the length of time the water is retainedin the mire) and the inflowing water quality.High ammonia or Norg concentration will notbe reduced significantly in small wetlands withlow detention time. In some wetlands theinflowing nitrate, which is removed bydenitrification, is replaced in the outflow bymobilised ammonia concentration. The netquantification of nitrogen and phosphorusretention in wetlands is therefore still acomplex task. In addition to assessing theinflow and outflow concentrations ofchemical substances it requires anexperimental approach for the quantificationof internal nutrient transformation rates208.

Mires and peatlands have diverse effects onthe hydrochemistry of a catchment. Miresreceive water of different quality fromdifferent sources, including rainwater, surfacerun-off, lower groundwater, deepergroundwater, or river water inflow due to over-flooding. Specific regulation functions ofcertain mire types include:● Bog mires which derive their water only

from precipitation act as sinks for carbon


and nutrients by accumulating carbon,nitrogen and other nutrients in their peats.They therefore act as local sources forcarbon and nitrogen in a catchment.

● Groundwater-fed fens have a high potentialfor the transformation of in-flowingsubstances transported with thegroundwater. They are able to improve thewater quality in a catchment.

● In flood mires and many terrestrialisationmires, freshwater inflow is the main watersource. These mire types foster processeswhich reduce chemical concentrationssuch as denitrification, sedimentation orplant uptake. These wetlands act as sinksfor nutrients in the catchment.

Because of these properties, peatlands havea capability for the advanced treatment ofsecondary municipal wastewaters. Resultsfrom several systems indicate reduction inB.O.D., suspended solids, nitrogen and tosome extent phosphorus.

(q) Regulation of soil conditions

The peat blanket of mires protects theunderlying soils from erosion. With respectto adjacent soils209, undrained peatlandsprevent concentrated/preferential water flowwhich would erode these soils. The insulationcapacity of peat retains permafrost far outsidethe zone of continuous permafrost, e.g. inparts of China and Mongolia.

3.4.4 Informational functions

(r) Social-amenity and history functions

Social-amenity functions include attachmentto place and interactions with other people.The attachment to place is “the mostimportant and least-recognised need of thehuman soul”210. Human beings have alwaysbeen in close contact with wetlands andpeatlands. Ancestral hominids and earlyhuman beings appear to have lived at andaround wetland sites. The 1.5-million-year-

old Turkana Boy, the most complete skeletonever found of Homo erectus, was excavatedin what had been a lagoon near the edge of alake or an oxbow of a river211. Bog bodies,tools, ornaments, weapons, and otherarchaeological remains found in abundancein peat testify to the long and intenserelationship between people and mires212.

This relationship was not unambiguous:peatlands were simultaneously seen as life-bringing and life-taking, as repelling andinviting, as “water and fire”213. In early 17thcentury England, fens were described as:“The air nebulous, grosse and full of rottenharres; the water putred and muddy, yea, fullof loathsome vermine; the earth spuing,unfast and boggy...” But other voices of thattime recognised their value in providingfodder for horses, cattle, and sheep, as storeof “osier, reed and sedge”, and as “nurseriesand seminaries” of fish and fowl, from whichthousands of people gained theirlivelihood214.

Relatively few people lived or live entirelyfrom and in wetlands and peatlands215. Formany more people, peatlands were and arepart of their home area: the community theyshare with other human beings, with plantsand animals, and with familiar topography216.

This notion of identity and continuity isexpressed in many poems217, novels218, myths,fairy tales and fiction219, songs220, films221, andother works of art222, in a myriad of booksand documentaries on local and regionalpeatland history223, in language andexpressions associated with peatlands224, innames225, in museums226, and on postagestamps227 and on banknotes228. The veryremnants of mires and peatlands,anthropogenic peatland patterns, andcontinued traditional exploitation techniquesand folklore are reminders of former socio-economic conditions229, and reflect some ofthe history functions of mires and peatlands.


Their limited accessibility has often turnedmires into political, cultural, and languageborders230.

As part of their social-amenity functionspeatlands may act as a bringing-togetherpoint for social contacts, places where peoplemeet and acquire company, friendship,solidarity, and self-respect231. In some areas,these social aspects of employment (“keepingthe rural area alive”) have constituteddecisive reasons for peat extraction, forexample in the midlands of Ireland and centralFinland.

Data on employment in peatland agriculture,peatland forestry, and mire conservation arenot available on a global scale232. In directindustrial peat extraction (Tables 3/17 and3/18), employment has been declining duringthe last decade, because of decreasingproduction volumes233 and the introductionof more labour-efficient productiontechniques234. No data are available on

indirect employment but a 1993 report235

estimated the multiplier effect (therelationship between direct and combineddirect/indirect employment) at between 1.15and 1.25.

(s) Recreation and aesthetic functions

Mires and peatlands have recreation valuein that they provide opportunities forrecreation. The limited accessibility of miresand peatlands (“too wet to drive, too dry toboat”) does not make them particularly suitedfor mass recreation. Where facilities236 areavailable, however, large numbers of peoplemay visit these open, often softly undulatinglandscapes with their endless skies andmirror-like water surfaces, their wealth ofextraordinary species, their historicaldimension, and their treacherous, mysteriousbut exciting character237 (Table 3/19). Manymore mires are used for low-intensityrecreation by amateur hunters, anglers,gatherers of berries and mushrooms, hikers,

Sometimes Johan Clemme would ponder whether he had done right in opening thiswilderness for man. He loved the land because of its sadness and its poverty. He lovedit because of the secrets of its soil, the sunken world of plants, trees, and animals. Heloved the land because of its wide heaven. After them, all generations who lived there,he loved. He knew that among them were many who could only live in the bog andwould be unhappy everywhere else. In their silent faces he recognised himself.

Aar van der Werfhorst 1945

Table 3/17: Labour force in the global peat industry in man-years

1990 1998 1999Average Peak Average Peak Average Peak

Eastern Europe 89 900 91 200 25 900 26 400 25 600 26 400Western Europe 8 100 11 000 8 400 15 200 8 300 13 800North America 2 500 3 600 3 100 3 900 3 200 4 000Total 100 500 105 800 37 400 44 800 37 120 44 500

(IPS questionnaire 2000, preliminary data, supplemented by estimates)


skiers, boaters, and by other people lookingfor wilderness, quietness, and remoteness.

Aesthetic functions attach to the appreciationof beauty. The awesome beauty of mires andpeatlands has inspired artists since AlbrechtDürer250. The openness, patterns, andsymmetry of many peatland landscapes areaesthetically fascinating251, their blaze ofcolours varying from pastel and melancholicto deep green and bright red, and the delicatesymmetry of specialised groups of micro-organisms252. Special conferences haverecently been devoted to the aesthetics ofmires and peatlands253. Some wild peatlandorganisms are specifically protected (andcollected and marketed) for their beauty, suchas orchids and ornamental blackwater fish254.

Table 3/18: Peak labour force in various countries in man-years

1990 1998 1999Belarus 12 000 7 500 7 000Russia 56 000 12 500 13 500Ukraine 18 600 4 200 2 700Estonia 300 1 200Latvia 4 000 1 100 1 200Finland 3 000 4 400 3 400Sweden 1 200 1 200 1 200Poland 600 800 800Germany 3 500 2 500 2 600Ireland 3 900 3 800 3 300United Kingdom 500 500 500U.S.A. 1 200 900 900Canada 2 400 3 000 3 100Total 105 600 45 000 44 100

(IPS questionnaire 2000, preliminary data, supplemented by estimates)

(t) Symbolisation, spirituality, andexistence functions

Symbolisation, spirituality, and existencefunctions play an important role in the self-identification and group-identification ofhuman beings. Symbolisation functions arethose attaching to things which act assymbols of other values. Large conspicuousorganisms, often mammals or birds255, moreseldom plants256, and landscapes257 may havesuch symbolisation value258 for individuals,organisations and nations. Examples of theformer are hunting trophies259 (of peatlandanimals like moose (Alces alces), bear (Ursussp.), grouse (Lagopus lagopus scotticus,Lyrurus tetrix), snipe (Gallinago gallinago),crocodiles (Crocodilia) and tiger (Pantheratigris). Some peatland organisms have awider symbolisation value, includingEagles260, Beavers261, Crocodiles andAlligators262, Cranes263, Storks264, and


Herons265, Pelicans266, Larks267, the CommonLoon (Gavia immer)268, and the Blue Iris (Irisversicolor)269.

Spirituality functions involve an entity’s rolein religion and spirituality. In former times,mires were seen as mysterious and played animportant role in religion and spirituality. Thisis illustrated by the sacrifices, which tookplace from the Neolithic age to the middleages, that are found in peatlands270. Many ofthese were of precious goods or even ofhuman beings.

Nowadays, existence functions, providingthe notion of ecological and evolutionaryconnection, that we share this world withother entities with which we are related andfor which we have a responsibility, are aconsiderable motive for natureconservation271. The “naturalness” of miresis a major source of interest, as mires oftenconstitute the last terrestrial wildernesses,regionally and also globally272. The

Table 3/19: Annual number (mostly in visitor days) of recreational visitors in selected mire/peatland nature reserves

significance of such existence functions isillustrated by the widespread support forefforts to conserve species and ecosystemsin other parts of the world, i.e. which most ofthose who support their preservation maynever see in practice273.

(u) Signalisation and cognition functions

The cognition functions of mires andpeatlands are their functions in providingopportunities for the development ofknowledge and understanding. One of thecharacteristic qualities of human beings istheir curiosity274 and the consequent pursuitof knowledge. Identifying, classifying andunderstanding patterns and processes innature offers people a challenging andaccessible means of developing intellectualcapacities, including knowledge,computation, application, analysis, synthesisand evaluation275. Mires provide special,even unique, forms of information276. Theyconstitute ecosystems with an incomplete

Mire/peatland reserve Number (‘000)Burns Bog (Canada)238 50Everglades NP (USA)239 1 141Kushiro Shitsugen NP (Japan)240 740Exmoor NP (UK)241 220Snowdonia NP (UK)242 6 600North York Moors NP (United Kingdom)243 9 500Peatlands Park (Northern Ireland)244 80Connemara National Park (Ireland) 78The Broads (United Kingdom)245 3 000Groote Peel NP (Netherlands)246 165Spreewald Biosphere Reserve (Germany)247 4 000Hautes Fagnes (Belgium)248 350Miscou Island (New Brunswick)249 6


cycling of material and a consequentcontinuous accumulation of organicmaterial277. They record their own history andthat of their wide surroundings in systematiclayers, making them particularly suited to thereconstruction of long-term human andenvironmental history278. The data stored inthe peat archives include macro-remains ofpeat-accumulating plants279, pollen andspores of plants, including those from thewider surrounding areas280 and all sorts ofmaterials and substances that one way oranother got into the mires. Some recentdevelopments in peatland palaeo-ecology281

include the detailed reconstruction of humanlife282, of volcanic emissions283, of theatmospheric deposition of heavy metals284

and nitrogen285, of atmospheric CO2concentrations286, and of climatic change287

and the associated role of solar forcing288.These recent developments illustrate that thesignificance of peatlands in this respect willincrease in future289.

Mires and peatlands are generallycharacterised by extreme conditions, whichrequire special adaptations of the specieswhich live there. These conditions includethe scarcity of oxygen in the root layer, thepresence of toxic substances, continuouscover by peat accumulation and rising waterlevels, the immobilisation and resultingscarcity of nutrients (especially in case ofombrogenous and calcareous mires), and theazonal climatic conditions290.

Various mire types develop sophisticated self-regulation mechanisms over time291 andacquire an exceptional resilience againstclimatic change292. This means that such

mires are model examples of ecosystemswhose long-term development canfurthermore be studied with relative ease.Related features are the inherent tendency ofmires to develop complex surfacepatterning293 and ecosystem biodiversity294

on various spatial and organisational levels(see Table 3/20). The extent to whichbiodiversity is influenced by mire size raisesquestions regarding the management andpolitical level at which decisions on mires aretaken: some types of biodiversity require(very) large areas295.

Signalisation functions include the functionof acting as a signal or indicator298. Asaccumulating ecosystems, i.e. as “self-registering witnesses”, mires have animportant signalisation value. The recentenvironmental impact of human activities canbe assessed by comparing the informationstored in recent peat deposits with that ofdeeper, older peat layers, where informationon the pre-human situation is stored. Aswildernesses that have been spared fromdirect human activities for a long time, miresmay offer the necessary natural “zero”references that historical cultural archivescannot provide299. Ombrogenous mires havea particular value in this respect, since theydepend solely on precipitation and aretherefore well suited to studies of changes in– atmospheric deposition (e.g. “acid rain”)– climatic conditions,– conditions in the cosmosphere (e.g. cosmic

radiation, sun spot cycli).

Special adaptations of mire plants to acquirethe necessary nutrients make these plantsuseful as environmental indicators, e.g.

“We need the tonic of wildness, - to wade sometimes in marshes where the bittern andthe meadow-hen lurk, and hear the booming of the snipe; to smell the whisperingsedge where only some wilder and more solitary fowl builds her nest, and the minkcrawls with its belly close to the ground.”

Henry David Thoreau 1854




Sphagnum species as indicators ofatmospheric pollution300 or as indicators ofgeological resources301.

3.4.5 Transformation and option functions

Transformation functions concern thepossibility of modifying and changingpreferences, e.g. the development of newtastes, the improvement of social skills, andthe growing awareness of existencefunctions302. These are important aspects ofpeatland educational programmes303.Outdoor experiences (“survival”) in peatlandsare increasingly used to develop social andmanagement skills in civil servants, youngcriminals, and business executives304.

Experience of wild species and pristineecosystems is a major advantage indeveloping a consistent and rational worldview, one that fully recognises the place ofthe human being in the universe as a complexorganism whose existence depends upon

Mire Name of Synonyms for that level as Indication Exampleorganisational that level* used in different literature of sizelevel references (m2)297

0 level - - 10-8 Plant tissue, non tissue1st level - Elementary particle, 10-2 Single plant, moss

Nanoform clone, open water2nd level Nanotope Mire-microform, feature, 10-1 – 101 Hummock, hollow, pool

element3rd level Microtope Mire-site, facies, element, 104 – 106 Hummock-hollow

segment, mikrolandšaft complex, pool4th level Mesotope Mire-complex, massif, 105 – 107 Raised bog (as a whole)

synsite, unit, mesolandšaft5th level Macrotope Mire-system, complex, 107 – 109 Stormosse (Sjörs 1948);

coalescence, makrolandšaft Red Lake Peatlands(Glaser 1992).

> 5th level Supertope Mire-region, zone, district, > 109 Regional zoning ofprovince mires (Gams & Ruoff

1929, Ruuhijärvi 1960

*proposed at the IMCG Workshop on Global Mire Classification, Greifswald, March 1998.

Table 3/20: Mire biodiversity on various spatial and organisational levels296.

other living beings and functioningecosystems. Such experience may inform andchallenge existing frames of reference: howto exist in a limited world, how to understandthat world, and what value to place on it? Itcan promote the questioning and rejection ofworld views that lead to overly materialisticand consumerist preferences. Mires, aseconomical, stable and self-organisingminiature-worlds that provide importanthistoric references, may play an important rolein this respect305.

Option functions relate to the importancepeople place on a safe future, either withintheir own lifetime, or for future generations.The prospect of a safe future is a normalhuman need, and the perception that thisprospect might be weakening has a negativeeffect on welfare. Option functions of miresinclude the future assurance of theirproduction, carrier, regulation andinformational functions, and of the benefitsthat still have to be discovered306. The ability


of genetic and other biodiversity to evolveand to adapt to changing conditions isimportant, as it may provide future humanitywith new genetic and ecosystem resources.The adaptations of peatland organisms toexcess water and lack of nutrients aresignificant in this respect; they make possiblerelatively high productivity under extremeconditions and low intensity management307.The future archive function of peatlands isalso of special importance: it is guaranteedby continued peat accumulation. Culturalarchives only record what contemporarycivilisation thinks will be important in future.Future generations will, however, requireinformation from the perspective of thatfuture, not from that of the time when theinformation is recorded: nobody records whatdoes not change, and when a change hastaken place it is difficult to reconstruct theformer situation. This implies that requiredinformation often cannot be found in culturalarchives and that one has to resort to naturalarchives308. Mires are therefore of utmostimportance as systematic, unbiased devicesrecording information on a changing society,one that our successors will want to look atfrom a different perspective to that oftoday309.

3.4.6 The values of conservation andeconomics

This leads finally to the consideration of“conservation” and “economic” values,which most often feature in environmentalconflicts310. These values are derivationsfrom and combinations of variousinstrumental values, and, in the case ofconservation, also of different approachesto intrinsic values. They are often expressedas complex concepts. Employment, forexample, represents income311 which makes itpossible to fulfil various needs and wants. Italso leads to a wide variety of social-amenitybenefits, which may be even more important.Similarly “conservation” involves a widerange of motives with respect to instrumentaland intrinsic values, as becomes apparentwhen considering the motives for creatingprotected areas312, e.g. for assigning RamsarListed Sites (Table 3/21). For a systematicanalysis of Wise Uses of mires and peatlandsit is necessary to be aware of these complexrelationships. Table 3/22 gives an overviewof the relationships between value types andconservation and economic values, andillustrates that the same value type may oftenoperate in favour of both conservation andexploitation.

Table 3/21: Ramsar Listed Sites containing peat as at June 2000313.

Ramsar Listed Sites Number % of sites Ha % of Ramsarwith peat Sites Area

Total Ramsar Sites 1 028 — 78 195 293 100Sites with peat 268 100 27 213 484 35Sites with peat 118 29 7 883 161 10with recorded threats(peat extraction,drainage, mining, etc.)


Value types “Conservation” motives “Economic” motivesD N I E

Production Protection of genetic + commercial exploitation + +diversity of current of various resourcesproduction species

Carrier Securing space for + + securing space for + +natural processes and production and habitationpatterns and its commercial

exploitation314

Regulation Protection of + + use and commercial +regulating capacities exploitation of regulating

capacitiesSocial-amenity Protection of home + employment to guarantee +

area, “roots” company, friendship,and respect

Recreation Use for recreation, + use and commercial +recuperation, exploitationof stressstress mitigation mitigation capacities

Aesthetics Protection of beauty + use and commercial +exploitation of this value or position315

Signalisation Protection of general + + use and commercial +indicator function exploitation of indicators

(e.g. monetary benefits)Symbolisation Protection of symbols + creation, use, and +

commercialexploitation of symbols

Spirituality Protection of + + use and commercial +reflective and exploitation of this valuespiritual properties or position

History Conservation of + use and commercial +cultural and natural exploitation of this “monuments” value or position

Existence Conservation of + + use and commercial +processes, species, exploitation of this valueand ecosystems or position

Science Conservation of + + use and commercialsources of cognitive exploitation of knowledge +development

Transformation Securing the + + use and commercial + +potential for exploitation oftransformation transformational(education) properties

Option Protection of genetic + + protection and saving + +diversity and of non-renewable resourcesevolutionary processes for future use

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1 This chapter has benefited greatly frominformation provided by, and discussions with,Konrad Ott, Martin Gorke, and Anne-JelleSchilstra.

2 Different people attribute worth to differentqualities. Some may value a mire for its beauty,others for its scientific value, yet others for thepeat which can be extracted from it. Others againconsider the mire to be of value just because itexists. This last view may seem extreme topragmatic minds but they must understand thatsuch views do exist.

3 Prior 1998.4 But cf. Taoism and Pirsig 1974.5 “Entity” is used in this document as meaning

anything which exists whether physically orconceptually (cf. Latin “ens”).

6 Cf. also Table 3/1.7 In this document the term function is used to

express an action of an entity that positivelyaffects the object of that action (i.e. is useful).Function is the complement of use, i.e. the sameaction (relation, factor) can be seen as a function(from the perspective of the provider) or as a use(from the perspective of the beneficiary).

8 Outside nihilism, it is illogical to imagine a uni-directional chain of means without any final ends.Mean-end relationships, however, can also beregarded as a network in which the interconnectedstrands of the web form infinite circular lineswithout final ends. In such a view a cleardistinction between means and ends disappears (see

Value types “Conservation” motives “Economic” motivesD N I E

Noocentrism316 Protection of all + use and commercial +rational beings exploitation of thisand their positionenvironment317

Pathocentrism Protection of all + use and commercial +sentient beings and exploitation of thistheir environment position

Biocentrism Protection of all + use and commercial +living beings and exploitation oftheir environment this position

Ecocentrism Protection of all + + use and commercial +/ holism beings and systems exploitation of this

and their environment position

Int

rins

ic v

alue

s

also §4.10).9 Cf. the difference between axiological objectivism

and meta-ethical objectivism in Birnbacher 1996.10 From the Greek ανθρωποσ, oi ανθρωποι, man,

mankind.11 UN General Assembly 1948.12 Cf. Declaration of the UN Conference on the

Human Environment, Stockholm, 16 June 1972:“5. ..of all things in the world, people are themost precious.”

13 World Commission on Environment andDevelopment 1987.

14 Although some of them are “brought back in”again by referring to their potential rationality.

15 Cavalieri & Singer 1993, Parr 2001.16 Reis & Marino 2001, Tschudin et al. 2001.17 “Sympathy for life”.18 Cf. The World Charter for Nature (UN General

Assembly Resolution 37/7 and Annex, 28 October1982): “Every form of life is unique, warrantingrespect regardless of its worth to man, and, toaccord other organisms such recognition, manmust be guided by a moral code of action.”, and“General principles. 1. Nature shall be respectedand its essential processes shall not be impaired.”.

19 This does not necessarily mean that all beingsare considered to have equal value. See also §4.10and §5.8.

20 Some essentially instrumental positions can comeclose to attributing intrinsic moral value to non-human beings by:● assigning them the right not to be unnecessarily

Does not use/exploit the values as such, but only the people who value these values.

D = diversity, patterns; N = naturalness, wildness, processes; I = Income, monetary profit; E =employment, social benefits.

Table 3/22: Relevance of focal points of “conservation” and “economic” motives of peatlandland use with respect to various value types.


violated, in the interests of decreasing thesuffering of human beings who suffer whennon-human beings are violated (thesentimental argument);

● acting as though they also have intrinsic value,to avoid the possibility that some people willtreat human beings in the same way as non-human beings are sometimes treated - thepsychological prudential argument. (“Peoplewho delight in the suffering and destruction ofinferior creatures, will not … be verycompassionate, or benign, to those of theirown kind.” John Locke, 1693).

● considering them together with human beings,as interdependent and inseparable parts ofecosystems (the ecological argument) (Watson1979).

21 Similar concepts include the “balance of nature”,“nature knows best”, and “Gaia” inenvironmentalism, and the free market ideologyin political economy.

22 See also §4.9.23 Example: Conferring intrinsic moral value on

great apes (the “easiest” non-anthropocentricposition, because these animals are self-consciousand able to think abstractly) implies that theirnatural habitats must be taken into moralconsideration, e.g. the orang-utan mires inSoutheast Asia. This is not because these rarespecies have an instrumental (e.g. informational)value for human beings, but because the individualapes have intrinsic value, in the same way ashuman rights have to be respected, not becauseHomo sapiens is a rare species, but becauseindividual human beings have intrinsic value.

24 Cf. Norton 1991.25 De Groot 1992, Naveh 1994.26 Resources which can be divided between

individuals.27 Resources which are common to all and cannot

be divided between individuals.28 Jointly called “informational functions” by De

Groot 1992. To a large extent, these valuesinclude what some philosophers call“eudaimonistic values” (after ευδαιμονιαeudaimonia) = Greek “good life”) that generallyenrich life and that are experienced as “good inthemselves” (Seel 1991).

29 Some examples: We enjoy company (social-amenity values) because during human evolutionco-operation (and therewith its direct individualdriving force: the pleasure in social contact) hasbeen more effective for survival and propagationthan individualism (Callicott 1988, Diamond1991, Maynard Smith & Szathmáry 1995).Similarly lying in the sun (recreation values) isenjoyable, as it enables our skin to produce theindispensable vitamin D. We like outdoorexperiences because of the resulting stressmitigation (Hartig et al. 1991, Kellert 1993).Aesthetics can be seen as a rapid and integratedordering and evaluation of a complex set ofproperties (Berlyne 1971, Kellert 1997). Ourpredisposition to see beauty in savannah-likelandscapes, sunsets, quiet waters, and contained

fires goes back to the human past as hunter-gatherers, when these experiences were associatedwith food and water availability, safety, andsecurity (Ulrich 1993, Heerwagen & Orians 1993,White & Heerwagen 1998). In the same way,human beings are genetically averse to snakes (afear and fascination we share with African andAsian monkeys and apes), dogs, spiders, enclosedspaces, running water, blood, and heights (Ulrich1993). We are quick to develop fear and evenphobias with very little negative reinforcement(Öhman 1986). Few modern artefacts are aseffective - even those most dangerous, such asguns, knives, automobiles, and electric wires(McNally 1987, Wilson 1993, Kellert 1997). Ourerotic preferences instinctively focus - via subtleolfactory sensations (smells)- on people withcomplementary immune systems (Wedekind etal. 1995, Wedekind & Furi 1997, Cutler 1999).We like salt and fat because in our pre-humansavannah past it was beneficial to swallow thefull supply of these rare goods whenever theywere available (Shepard 1998). Bodily symmetryand beauty seems to indicate health (Cf. Manninget al. 1999, Scheib et al. 1999, Thornill &Grammer 1999). Flowers signal future availabilityof fruits and honey (being the evolutionarybackground to giving flowers to sick people andhosts, Heerwagen & Orians 1993), animalsscanning the countryside or a startled expressionon a person’s face alert to dangers (Heerwagen &Orians 1993, Darwin 1998) (signalisation values).

30 An unlimited consumption of sun and fat forexample may lead to skin cancer and cardiacdiseases.

31 Symbolisation values might be considered the “self-conscious” offshoots of indicator values; spiritual,existence, and history values as the offshoots ofsocial and amenity values; cognition values asthose of aesthetic values.

32 In contrast to proxy functions, identity functionsare not only “consumed” but also to some extent“produced” by human beings themselves (“identi-fication“) . Our “world-views” not only rest on“objective” observations, but also on subjectiveinterpretations and projections. This applies forexample for history (cf. Walsh 1967, Harmsen1968, Marwick 1989), science (cf. Popper 1959,Kuhn 1984, Bartels 1987), and spirituality andreligion (Midgley 1996, Wilson 1998, cf.Xenophanes 6th century BC in Fairbanks 1898:“But mortals suppose that the gods are born (asthey themselves are), and that they wear man’sclothing and have human voice and body. But ifcattle or lions had hands, so as to paint with theirhands and produce works of art as men do, theywould paint their gods and give them bodies inform like their own - horses like horses, cattlelike cattle.”).

33 Based on information from Timo Nyronen.34 Joosten 2001.35 Xuehui & Yan 1994.36 Based on information from Piotr Ilnicki. Cf. also

Lishtvan 1996.37 From Sirin & Minaeva 2001. This Figure includes


all extracted peat but is given here to illustratethe dramatic fall in extraction which is due inpart to the reduction in the use of peat inagriculture.

38 Based on information from Gerald Schmilewski.Cf. also Schmilewski 1996.

39 Source: IPS 2000 Survey. These figures may notbe consistent as different moisture contents maybe used. However, the purpose of the table is toindicate trends.

40 Van Schie 2000.41 Joosten 1995.42 Turner 1993.43 Coir fibre dust is a by-product of the coconut

processing industry.44 Van Schie 2000. The table requires interpretation

since a substantial part of the peat reported to beused in Germany is exported to the Netherlandsand again included in the figures for theNetherlands.

45 Based on information from Charles Shier. Cf.also Asplund 1996.

46 Leinonen et al. 1997.47 Cf. Changlin et al. 1994, Xuehui & Yan 1994.48 Source: IPS 2000. The figures are not strictly

consistent, as different countries estimate tonnesin relation to different moisture contents. Inaddition, the table combines milled and sod peatat different moisture contents. However, thepurpose of the table is to indicate trends. It isclear that production of peat for energy hassubstantially reduced in the countries of theformer Soviet Union and in Ireland.

49 For 1999 or earlier years, depending on theavailability of information. Based on the workof the Energy Peat Working Group ofCommission II of the IPS.

50 First National Communication to the UNFCCC1995. Interagency Commission of the RussianFederation on Climate Change Problems, Moscow.

51 Based on information from Nikolai Bambalov.For an extensive overview cf. also Fuchsman1980, Lishtvan 1996.

52 A soft surface on fabric or leather.53 Zagwijn & Harsveldt 1973.54 Gerding 1998. The peak production was in 1975

when 230,000 tonnes of peat were used to produce25,000 tonnes of activated carbon.

55 Based on information from Henk van de Griendt.56 O’Gorman 2002.57 Based on information from Eugene Bolton. Cf.

also Mutka 1996.58 Viraraghaven 1991, Viraraghaven & Rana 1991.

See also many other contributions in Overend &Jeglum 1991.

59 Based on information from Marjatta Pirtola. Cf.also Pirtola 1996.

60 Kelleher 1953.61 Material compiled by Raimo Sopo and Donal

Clarke. Cf. also Fenton 1987.62 Feehan & O’Donovan 1996.63 Turner 1993.64 Moore & Bellamy 1974.65 Based on information from Gerd Lüttig and

Nikolai Bambalov. Cf. also Korhonen & Lüttig

1996, Lishtvan 1996, Lüttig 2000.66 Turner 1993.67 Based on information from Allan Robertson. See

also Robertson 1975.68 Xuehui & Yan 1994.69 Cf. Safford & Maltby 1998. Cf. UNESCO 1978.70 http://www.gn.apc.org/eco/resguide/2_20.html71 Butcher et al. 1995.72 Cf. Saeijs & Van Berkel 1997.73 Grundling et al. 1998.74 Ong & Mailvaganam 1992, Lee & Chai 1996,

Page & Rieley 1998.75 Personal communication from David Price,

Institute of Hydrology, Scotland, 2000.76 Cf. Salo 1996.77 Joosten 2001.78 Dent 1986.79 h t tp : / /www.econ .upm.edu .my/~pe ta / sago /

sago.html; Stanton & Flach 1980.80 Personal communication from Lenka Papackova.81 Based on information from Wendelin

Wichtmann. Cf. also Wichtmann 2000.82 Björk & Granéli, 1978, Brenndörfer et al., 1994,

Schmitz-Schlang, 1995, Schäffer et al. 1996,Kaltschmidt & Reinhardt, 1997; Michel-Kim,1998, Schäfer et al., 2000.

83 Sjörs 1993.84 Elling & Knighton 1984, Whinam & Buxton

1997, Whinam et al. 2000, www.losvolcanos.com85 Rodewald-Rodescu 1974, Thesinger 1964, Hawke

& José 1996, Schäfer 1999, Weijs 1990, Yuqin etal. 1994, Scott 1995.

86 Denny 199387 Wichtmann et al. 2000.88 E.g. Schäfer & Degenhardt 1999.89 Succow 1988. For mire types, see §2.3.90 E.g. imports from South- and East-European

countries and from Turkey into Germany, cf.Schäfer 1999.

91 Including reed (Phragmites australis), cattails(Typha spp., Theuerkorn et al. 1993, Wild et al.2001, sedges (Carex spp.) and grasses (e.g.Phalaris arundinacea), alder (Alnus, Lockow1997).

92 Wichtmann et al. 2000.93 Wichtmann, 1999b.94 Wild et al. 200195 Rodewald-Rodescu 1974, Landström & Olsson

1998, Nilsson et al. 199896 Lange 1997, Soyez et al. 1998.97 Based on information collected by Thomas

Heinicke. For information on plants in tropicalpeat swamp forests used for medicinal purposessee Safford & Maltby 1998.

98 Cf. Van Os 1962, Simkûsite 1989 Elina 1993,Fuke 1994, Rongfen 1994, Hämet-Ahti et al.1998, Safford & Maltby 1998.

99 Williams 1982, Verhoeven & Liefveld 1997.100 Varley & Barnett 1987.101 Porter 1917, Nichols 1918a, b, Thieret 1956.102 Chikov 1980.103 After Chikov 1980.104 McAlpine & Waarier Limited 1996.105 Kirsch 1995.

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106 Galambosi et al. 1998, 2000.107 North American information based on material

from André Desrocher. European informationbased on material from Alexandr Mischenko andTatiana Minaeva.

108 Page & Rieley 1998, Ali 2000.109 Based on information from Piotr Ilnicki. Cf. also

Okrusko 1996.110 See also §3.4.3 (n): Regulation of regional and

local climates.111 Based on information provided by Charlotte

McAlister.112 These original data, compiled by P. Ilnicki, are

not fully compatible with those in Table A1/1.113 Dent 1986, Radjagukguk 1991, Mutalib et al.

1991, Rieley 1991.114 Leong & Lim 1994.115 Cf. Shulan et al. 1994.116 Stanton & Flach 1980.117 h t tp : / /www.econ .upm.edu .my/~pe ta / sago /

sago.html118 Matsumoto et al. 1998.119 See for a cost-benefit analysis of sago and oil

palm cultivation on peatlands: Kumari 1995 andh t tp : / /www.econ .upm.edu .my/~pe ta / sago /sago.html

120 Rubec & Thibault 1998, Zoltai & Pollett 1983.121 Lucas 1982,Stewart 1991.122 Based on material from Charlotte McAlister.123 www.wiscran.org/whatshta.html124 Luthin 2000, Lochner 2000;

www.oceanspray.com; www.cranberries.org;www.northlandcran.com; www.wiscran.org; http:// o m e g a . c c . u m b . e d u / ~ c o n n e / m a r s h a /cranintro.html;

125 www.library.wisc.edu/guides/agnic/cranberry/dnrpaper.html

126 www.oceanspray.com/uti_info.htm127 E.g. in Estonia (www.loodus.ee/nigula/kuremari/

kuremari_e.html) and the Far East of Russia(www.iscmoscow.ru/engl ish/main/ r fe_tgp/projects/sg2-03.htm). It has proved to becommercially unsuccessful in Ireland due to themildness of the climate and lack of sunshine – GMcNally).

128 Based on information from Juhani Päivänen.129 Because the words ‘exploitation’ and ‘sustainable’

are used in this document with defined meanings(see Glossary) different terms to those used inthe industry have been used in this section.

130 Päivänen & Paavilainen 1996.131 Changed after Päivänen & Paavilainen 1996.132 Paavilainen & Päivänen 1995, Päivänen 1997.133 Paavilainen & Päivänen 1995.134 “Advanced growth” consists of almost mature

trees growing beneath the forest’s canopy.135 http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/

Volume_1/picea/mariana.htm.136 Areas cleared of trees except for small groups of

seed-bearing trees.137 Strips cleared of trees. Jeglum & Kennington 1993.138 Jeglum & Kennington 1993.139 Anderson 1983.140 Laurent 1986.

141 Page & Rieley 1998, 1999.142 Rieley 1991, Rieley et al 1997.143 Ibrahim & Hall 1991.144 Lee 1991.145 See also Paavilainen & Päivänen 1995.146 Pyatt 1990147 Kaunisto 1997, Sundström 1997148 Konstantinov et al. 1999149 Konstantinov et al. 1999. Vomperskij (1999)

even states that half of the ca. 6 million hectaresdrained for forestry is currently re-paludifying.

150 Heikurainen 1980.151 Payandeh 1988.152 Personal communication from V Klemetti;

Annual Report of Vapo Oy 1998, p.9. J Päivänen(personal communication) states that there areno statistics dividing cutting removals betweenmineral soil and peatland. The actual cuttingremoval from all Finnish forests in 2000 was61.5 million cubic metres, of which about 47 %was raw material suitable for sawn timber (FinnishForest Research Institute 2001, p. 153). It hasbeen estimated that the maximum sustainableremoval (million m3 per year) for mineral soilsites is 58.3 and for peatlands 9.7 for the periodof 1996-2005. That would mean that 14.3 % ofthe total removal could be harvested frompeatlands. The percentage estimated to comefrom peatlands is estimated to increase heavilyto 24.3 % in the period 2016-2025.(Nuutinen etal. 2000).

153 After Paavilainen & Päivänen 1995.154 Based on information provided by Tim Moore.

See also Rubec & Thibault 1998.155 St. Louis et al. 2000.156 Pikulik et al. 2000.157 Roulet 2000.158 Virtanen & Hänninen 2000.159 Based on information from Jan Pokorny.160 Rongfen 1994.161 Masyuk 2000, Pikulik et al. 2000.162 Information provided by Gerry McNally.163 Based, inter alia, on information from Herbert

Diemont.164 Butcher et al. 1995.165 Radforth & Burwash 1977, Meeres 1977.166 Based on information from Charlotte McAlister

and Gerry McNally.167 Based on information from Charlotte McAlister.

See also Gorissen 1998, Baaijens et al 1982,Karofeld 1999.

168 Examples: Within two military training groundsin the North of England (RAF Spadeadam andOtterburn Training Area), ‘notified’ mires includea Ramsar site, Sites of Special Scientific Interest(a UK classification), National Nature Reservesand Special Areas of Conservation (a EuropeanUnion designation) covering several thousandhectares (personal communication fromCharlotte MacAlister). The most extensiveremaining largely intact bog area in CentralEurope is the Tinner Dose, since 1876 a militaryterrain (Gorissen 1998). Similarly one of the bestbog remnants in the Netherlands, the Witterveld,is situated in a military exercise area (Baaijens et


al. 1982).169 Hamm 1955, Joosten & Bakker 1987, Michels

1991.170 Kazakov 1953.171 Based on information provided by Reidar

Pettersson.172 De Groot 1992.173 Based on information supplied by Heinrich Höper.174 http://www.wri.org/climate/sinks.html175 Because the concentrations of natural greenhouse

gases and those caused by human activity aresmall compared to the principal atmosphericconstituents of oxygen and nitrogen, these gasesare also called trace gases.

176 As defined in the Glossary.177 References to ‘role’ in this and the paragraphs

which follow are to role in the regulation of theglobal climate.

178 Crill et al. 2000.179 Heinrich Höper (see Appendix 2).180 The complexities associated with peatland

drainage are excellently reviewed for the borealzone in Crill et al. 2000, (cf. also Joosten 2000),on which this subsection is largely based.

181 In the boreal zone consisting of remains ofconifer needles, branches, rootlets, forest mossesetc.

182 Provided that the forest management continuesand the peatland remains sufficiently drained.

183 In case of agricultural and horticultural use, thepeat is oxidised more slowly.

184 http://www.gcrio.org/gwcc/toc.html185 See also §5.4 (11).186 Heathwaite 1993. See also §3.4.1 (ea).187 Edom 2001b.188 Takahashi & Yonetani 1997.189 Edom 2001b.190 Yiyong & Zhaoli 1994, Solantie 1999.191 See e.g. Goode et al. 1977 for a good review.192 Edom 2001b.193 Burt 1995, Edom 2001b.194 Cf. Mitsch & Gosselink 2000.195 Edom 2001b.196 Richardson & McCarthy 1994, Burt 1995.197 Edom 2001b.198 Edom 2001b.199 Edom 2001b.200 Kulczyñski 1949.201 Based on information from Michael Trepel.

Hydrochemistry is the chemistry of water.202 Mitsch & Gosselink 1993.203 Bedford, 1999.204 E.g. Heikkinen 1994.205 Blicher-Matthiesen & Hoffmann 1999, Haycock

et al. 1993.206 I.e. immersion and schwingmoor mires, cf. §2.3.207 E.g. Devito et al. 1989; Verhoeven & Meuleman

1999. See for a practical regional exampleByström et al. 2000.

208 Cf. Lamers 2001.209 Stewart & Lance 1983.210 Weil 1971211 Coles 1990, Leakey & Lewin 1992.212 Glob 1965, Moore 1987, Coles & Coles 1989,

Müller-Wille 1999.

213 Cf. Baaijens 1984, Blankers et al. 1988.214 Wheeler 1896, Pursglove 1988.215 Examples include the former Fen Slodgers in the

English Fenlands (Wheeler 1896), the MarshArabs (Ma’dan) of Southern Iraq (Thesinger1964), and the Kolepom people in Irian Jaya(Serpenti 1977).

216 An aspect often referred to in nature conservationas representativity.

217 Poems inspired by peatlands, a.o. from ThomasMoore 1779-1852, Anette von Droste-Hülshoff1797 - 1848, Nikolaus Lenau 1802–1850, HenryWadsworth Longfellow 1807–1882, Edgar AllanPoe 1809–1849, E. Pauline Johnson(Tekahionwake) 1861–1913, Hermann Löns1866 - 1914, Frans Babylon (1924–1968), VictorWesthoff (1916–2001), Irving Feldman (1928–). See also Barlow 1893, Shane 1924, MacCormaic1934, Cook 1939.

218 Some examples include novels on daily life inpeatlands (e.g. Brontë 1847, Crocket 1895, Maas1909, Diers n.y., Coolen 1929, 1930, Carroll1934, Laverty 1943, Van der Werfhorst 1945,Macken 1952, Selbach 1952, Ehrhart 1954,Kortooms 1951, 1959, Kortooms 1949 (afterthe bible the most sold book in the Netherlands,de Werd 1984), Wohlgemuth 1962, Lepasaar1997, Seppälä 1999, Vasander et al. 2000, bookson the role of peatlands as refugia for fugitiveslaves, as Nazi concentration camps, and ascentres of anti-Nazi resistance (e.g. Beecher Stowe1856, Langhoff 1935, Kortooms 1948, Melez1972, Perk 1970), anthologies (Juhl 1981,Murphy 1987, Sýkora 1987, Ludd 1987, Blankerset al. 1988), peatland biographies (Smits 1987,Veen 1985, Aardema 1981, Van Dieken n.y.),

219 E.g. Garve 1966, Kluytmans 1975, Stebich 1983,Schlender 1987, Talbot 1986, Conan-Doyle1902,

220 E.g. the classic anti-fascist ‘Song of the PeatbogSoldiers’ (Langhoff 1935), the modern GermanRock group Torfrock, the Dutch pop groupRowwen Hèze.

221 E.g. the Dutch television series “Het Bruine Goud”(“The Brown Gold”), Irish films “Eat the Peach”and “I went down”.

222 See footnote below under (s) Recreation andaesthetic functions.

223 E.g. Van der Hoek 1984, Gerding 1995, Müller-Scheesel 1975, Gailey & Fenton 1970, Ahlrichs1987.

224 E.g. Crompvoets 1981.225 Of places (e.g. Veenendaal, Veendam,

Ballynamona, Coolnamona), persons (ThomasMoore, John Muir, Otto Veen, Jean Marais,Gunnar Myrdal, Andres Kuresso), pop groups (theGerman Torfrock, the Chicago band Peat Moss),and even a country (Finland / Suomi).

226 E.g. the peatland museums and visitor centres inGalway (Ireland), Peatlands Park (N. Ireland),Vinkeveen and Bargercompascuum (Netherlands),Hautes Fagnes (Belgium), Oldenburg (Germany),Sooma (Estonia). “Pete Marsh” (Lindow Man)is the second most visited exhibit in the British

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Museum London (pers. comm. Richard Lindsay).227 E.g. recent issues from Denmark, Estonia,

Germany, and Ireland.228 E.g. the Estonian EK25 note, the Canadian $5

note.229 Cf. Sestroretskoje boloto near St. Petersburg

where Lenin hid from the tsarist police; Joosten1987, Moen 1990.

230 Cf. Hueck n.y., Weijnen 1947, 1987, Overbeck1975, Crompvoets 1981. Cf. the border betweenTomsk Oblast and Novosibirsk Oblast (W. Siberia)running through Vasyugan, the largest mirecomplex in the world.

231 Cf. Etzioni 1998, who stresses that group values,though “pleasant”, are not ipso facto “good”and should be judged by external criteria.

232 Because most agricultural, silvicultural andconservation statistics do not differentiatebetween peatlands and other types of lands.

233 E.g. in the former Soviet Union, Cf. §3.2.1 above.234 Sopo & Aalto 1996.235 Bord na Móna 1993.236 E.g. in peatland national parks with visitor

centres, boardwalks, and/or specialised vessels.237 Masing 1997.238 Estimate furnished by Gerry Hood.239 http://www.nps.gov/ever/current/ever99.pdf.240 1998 data. Based on information from Hiroe

Nakagawara, Kushiro International WetlandCentre 2000.

241 Based on information from Exmoor NP TouristAuthority 2000.

242 1994 data. Based on information from Liz JenkinsSnowdonia National Park 2000.

243 1998 data. Based on information from Jo HearneNorth York Moors National Park 2000.

244 Based on information from Michael MorgenPeatlands Park 2000.

245 h t tp : / /www.pan tm.co .uk / r epor t s /pu rbeck /CombinedChapters.pdf

246 2000 data. Based on information fromStaatsbosbeheer Groote Peel.

247 Based on information from Dana Kühne TVbSpreewald e.V. 2000.

248 Based on information from Cecile Wastiaux.249 Based on information from Randy Milton and

Gerry Hood.250 “Der Weiher” (1495) of Albrecht Dürer (1471–

1528) is the first known painting of a naturalmire. Other artists inspired by mires andpeatlands include a.o. Jacobus Sibrandi Mancadan(1602–1680), Meindert Hobbema (1638–1709),Jan Luyken (1649–1712), Joseph Mallord,William Turner (1775–1851), John Crome(1768–1821), John Constable (1776–1837), CarlBlechen (1798-1840), Martin Johnson Heade(1819–1904), Frederic Edwin Church, (1826-1900), P.J.C. Gabriëls (1828-1903), Carl Krüger(1834–1880), Vasilij Polenov (1844–1927),Bernhard Willibald von Schulenberg (1847–1934), Victor Vasnetsov (1848–1926), FiodorVasil’ev (1850–1873), Elena Polenova (1850–1898), Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890, cf.Schmidt-Barrien 1996), Isaac Levitan (1860–1900), Gerhard Bakenhus (1860–1939), Richard

tom Dieck (1862–1943), Alexej von Jawlensky(1864–1941),Valentin Serov (1865–1911); theWorpswede artists Carl Vinnen (1863–1922),Hans am Ende (1864–1918), Otto Modersohn(1865–1943), Fritz Mackensen (1866–1953),Fritz Overbeck (1869–1909), the father of thefamous peatland scientist Fritz Overbeck,Overbeck 1975), Heinrich Vogeler (1872–1942),Paula Becker (1876–1907), Walter Bertelsmann(1877–1963), R. Stickelmann, H. Saebens, (cf.Weltge-Wortmann 1979, Busch et al. 1980, Riedel1988); William Turner (1867–1936), WilliamHoetger (1874–1949), William Krause (1875–1925), Wilhelm Schieber, (1887–1974), JohnBauer (1882–1917), Fryco Latk (1895–1980),Marius Bies (1894–1975), Sepp Mahler (1901–1975, cf. Konold 1998), Gerrit van Bakel (1943–1984), Bremer 1992), Jerry Marjoram (1936–), Nikolaus Lang (1941), Anne Stahl, Hans vanHoek (1947–), Etta Unland (1959, see alsoStadtmuseum Oldenburg 1993, Janssen 1999);bogwood sculptors in Ireland including MichaelCasey and the Celtic Roots studio.

251 E.g. of excentric, concentric, and radiating bogs,aapa mires, palsas, and polygon mires, cf. Wrightet al. 1992, Aaviksoo et al. 1997, Standen et al.1999.

252 E.g. Testacea amoebae, Desmidiaceae, Diatoms.253 e.g. Hakala 1999.254 Ng et al. 1994, Lee & Chai 1996.255 E.g. eagles as national symbols, that have triggered

the founding of nature conservation movementsin many countries (Masing 1997), the GiantPanda in nature conservation (WWF).

256 E.g. the olive tree as a symbol of peace, the“flower of Scotland”, the Maple Leaf.

257 Mitchell 1994, Schama 1995.258 Cf. Lawrence 1993.259 Cartmill 1993.260 Masing 1997. All around the world, the eagle,

the king of birds, is strongly associated with thesun, fire, air, life, sky, sun gods, and Resurrection.The eagle is believed to enjoy staring directlyinto the sun, which is equated with the ability ofthe pure in heart to see God and discern divinetruths; Cf. http://ww2.netnitco.net/users/legend01/eagle.htm

261 As a symbol of diligence, chastity, asceticism,and the willingness to sacrifice, cf. http://ww2.netnitco.net/users/legend01/beaver.htm.The Canadian Beaver (Castor canadensis) is theofficial symbol of the sovereignty of Canada, cf.http://www.users.fast.net/~shenning/beaver.html

262 As a symbol of silence, deceit, and wisdom, cf.h t t p : / / w w 2 . n e t n i t c o . n e t / u s e r s / l e g e n d 0 1 /crocodi.htm

263 As symbols of happiness, justice, diligence, purity,loyalty, piety, filial gratitude, beauty, love,vigilance, contemplation, self-knowledge,wisdom, longevity, immortality, and Resurrection,but also as an evil omen, cf. http://ww2.netnitco.net/users/legend01/crane.htm. TheJapanese Crane (Grus japonensis) is an importantsymbol of Japan (Iwakuma 1996).

264 As fertility symbols and associated with


springtime, birth, and good fortune. It wasbelieved that the souls of unborn children livedin wetlands. Since storks frequented such areas,they were thought to fetch the babies’ souls anddeliver them to their parents. Because they arerumoured to feed their elderly parents, storks area symbol of filial piety or gratitude. They areemblems of immortality and longevity.

265 As symbols of contemplation, vigilance, divineor occult wisdom, and inner quietness.

266 Exemplifying the sacrificial love of a parent forits offspring.

267 As symbol of freedom, ardour, joy, youth,happiness, and the desire to be happy.

268 E.g. in Minnesota and Canada (Cf. the Canadian$20 note).

269 The national flower of Québec.270 Cf. the extensive review in Müller-Wille 1999.271 Cf. Gorke 1999. In all cultures and major

religions, there is a latent premise of the worthof life, indicating an underlying core of ethicalvalues common to all people (Skolimowski1990).

272 Cf. Joosten 1999a. A related concept to“wilderness” is that of “integrity”, which a.o.played a role in the resistance against large-scalepeatland forestry in the Scottish Flow Country(cf. Stroud et al. 1987, Lindsay et al. 1988).

273 Note the importance of the efforts of suchinternational NGOs as the Worldwide Fund forNature (WWF), the International Union for theConservation of Nature (IUCN), WetlandsInternational (WI), and the International MireConservation Group (IMCG). Note also theefforts of many states, including those made inthe framework of international conventions,especially the Wetland (Ramsar) Convention. Aninteresting example of frontier-crossingcommitment is the Dutch Foundation for theConservation of Irish Bogs.

274 Illustrating the neotenous character of humanbeings, in which infantile characteristics areprolonged into maturity. Other characteristicsof neoteny include the great size and long-continued growth of the brain, the tendency toplay (cf. Huizinga 1938), spontaneity, opennessto new impressions, and the capacity for widelyextended sympathy (Midgley 1983).

275 Kellert 1997.276 Information is strongly related to the concepts

of difference and diversity (Joosten 1998). For areview on biodiversity values in peatlands, seeJoosten 1996, 1999b.

277 See §2.2 in Chapter 2. Mires share this characterwith lakes, oceans, and corals, i.e. they are theonly terrestrial accumulating ecosystems and,together with corals, the only long-termsedentarily accumulating ecosystems.

278 For an overview of the palaeo-ecological valuesof peatlands and the importance of long-termstudies: Overbeck 1975, Birks & Birks 1980,Godwin 1981, Frenzel 1983, Berglund 1986,Franklin 1989, Barber 1993, Joosten 1995.

279 The first palaeo-ecologic reconstructions ofvegetation and climate based on macro-remainsin peat date back to de Chamisso 1824, Dau 1829

and Steenstrup 1842.280 Systematic pollen and spore analysis (palynology)

of peats started with Von Post (1916). For arecent overview cf. Moore et al. 1991.

281 The reconstruction of human and environmentalpast.

282 Brothwell 1986, Coles & Coles 1989, Fansa1993, Turner & Scaife 1995.

283 Pilcher et al. 1995, Dwyer & Mitchell 1997.284 Cf. overview in Shotyk et al. 1997.285 Cf. Malmer et al. 1997.286 Wagner et al. 1996, 1999.287 E.g. Mauquoy & Barber 1999, Barber et al. 2000.288 By way of analysis of cosmogenic isotopes in

peat, cf. Van Geel & Renssen 1998, Van Geel etal. 1998.

289 By the development and application of newanalytic techniques and knowledge a.o. in palaeo-physiology, organic and isotope geo-chemistry,palaeomorph-morphology (incl. phytoliths,fungal and moss spores, algal remains, spongegemmoscleres, chrysophyte cysts, soot particles,rare pollen types, macrofossils), research in little-known geographical areas, and by an increasedtemporal and spatial resolution.

290 Conditions not typical of the surrounding climatezone. Cf. §2.7.

291 Cf. Ivanov 1981, Joosten 1993.292 Couwenberg et al. 2000.293 Cf. various papers in Standen et al. 1999.294 Couwenberg 1998, Couwenberg & Joosten 1999.295 E.g. large mire patterns, large macrotopes, large

predators, and migratory birds. See also Joosten1999b.

296 After Couwenberg & Joosten 1999.297 For lay readers it may be helpful to state by way

of illustration that 10-2 = 0.01, 104 = 10,000, 106

= 1.000.000.298 As, for example, in “economic indicators”.299 Joosten 1986, 1995, During & Joosten 1992.300 Wandtner 1981.301 Äikäs et al. 1994.302 Norton 1984, 1987.303 See §5.6.3 (8) below. Cf. Irish Junior Certificate

syllabus (see O’Cinnéide and MacNamara 1990,pp 195 – 199); and IPCC (Irish PeatlandConservation Council) programmes in Ireland.

304 E.g. Kirsamer 2000.305 Joosten 1997, Couwenberg & Joosten 1999.306 Cf. the “serendipity value” of De Groot 1992.

Cf. the recent discovery of the role of mires inthe greenhouse effect, and the discovery of thefiltration capacity of peatlands.

307 Cf. Keddy 2000.308 A good example is the current greenhouse effect.

Although the effect of greenhouse gases on worldtemperature has been supposed since SvanteArrhenius 1896, see special issue Ambio 26/1(1997), continuous cultural records of CO2concentrations in the atmosphere only exist since1953. For the reconstruction of greenhouse gasconcentrations before that date, natural recordsin natural archives, e.g. peatlands (cf. Wagner etal. 1996, 1999), are required.

309 Joosten 1986.


310 See also Chapter 4.311 Money as such has a signalisation function as an

embodiment of human labour or of cornequivalents (classical economics) or as anindication of human gratification (neo-classicaleconomics).

312 According to IUCN (1994), the main purposesof conservation management are: scientificresearch, wilderness protection, preservation ofspecies and genetic diversity, maintenance ofenvironmental services, protection of specificnatural and cultural features, tourism andrecreation, education, sustainable use of resourcesfrom natural ecosystems, and maintenance ofcultural and traditional attributes. Variousmanagement categories are based on combinationsof these objectives (cf. EUROPARC & IUCN1999). See §5.6.3(7) and Appendix 8.

313 Based on information from Scott Frazier andDoug Taylor (Wetlands International).

314 In this Table, and elsewhere in the document, theword “exploitation” is used in the sense of derivingbenefit from, without any pejorative intent.

315 E.g. in tourism or in advertisements for othercommercial products, cf. De Groot 1992.

316 Cf. §3.2.317 “Their environment” means here: all relevant

values (cf. the range of anthropocentricinstrumental values) that are instrumental in thewellbeing of these beings.

101VALUES AND CONFLICTS: WHERE DIFFERENT VALUES MEET

CHAPTER 4.

VALUES AND CONFLICTS: WHERE DIFFERENTVALUES MEET

This chapter analyses types of conflicts, and how such conflicts arise in relation to mires andpeatlands.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The concept of “Wise Use”1 incorporatescomplex environmental, economic and socialconcerns that require integrated decision-making. Different values may be intertwinedin a complicated way. Values may be mutuallyincompatible, and - when compatible - thedistribution of the benefits can be a matter ofdispute. To make sound decisions,incompatible values have to be identified,conflicting claims have to be weighed againsteach other, and norms have to be establishedfor assigning priority to one over another2.

There are serious limitations to the extent towhich values and claims can be compared.Many values can be compared only if we takefairly extreme cases (one value at stake in asmall way, another in a big way). Alternativelyvalues may lack attributes that allow additionand subtraction. But in general3, competingclaims can be weighed to such extent (“thisis more valuable than that”) that sensiblejudgements can be made or workablesolutions can be found, at least between thosewho share the same “world-view”4.

Under democratic conditions, acceptednorms take the character of “mutual coercionset by mutual agreement”5: guidelines,

conventions, and laws. This presupposes asetting in which people - in an open debatebased on all the information and reasoningavailable - agree freely to restrictions on therealisation of individual preferences. Suchagreements are made from the perspective ofcitizens who take a moral interest in publicaffairs while the coercion itself (norms, laws)restricts the behaviour of private persons andinterest groups who try to satisfy theirpreferences and economic interests.

In the rest of this chapter these generalstatements are analysed in more detail,starting from a position that considers humanbeings as the prime focus of concern6.

4.2 NEEDS, WANTS ANDRIGHTS

As a preamble to a discussion of conflicts, itis important to discuss the difference betweenneeds and wants.

(i) Needs: According to John MaynardKeynes, absolute needs (necessities/primary goods/basic interests) are thosethat can be fully met: there is a physicalmaximum to what a person can consume ofdrink, food, sex, company, information, etc.

102 VALUES AND CONFLICTS: WHERE DIFFERENT VALUES MEET

(ii) Wants: The satisfaction of wants(amenities/commodities/peripheralinterests) is a comparative concept7: it islargely based on what others in the socialsurrounding possess8. “Keeping up withthe Joneses” 9 is to some extent obligatory,as it co-determines social acceptance and

respect10: a social being cannot behavealtogether differently from others11. This“mimetical desire”12, however, has nomaterial upper limits13. The distinctionbetween needs and wants is complicatedby the fact that the same product maysatisfy both needs and wants14.

Table 4/1: Overview of the causes of conflicts between human beings.

Conflictsdealingwithfacts

Conflictsdealingwithchoices

Conflict causeDifferent understanding ofterms and concepts(miscommunication,insufficient informationexchange)

Different judgements as tothe means most suited toachieving a particular end.

Different preferences asbetween differentinstrumental values

Attaching differentprecedences20 to differentinstrumental or intrinsicvalues

Different priorities21 withrespect to instrumental orintrinsic values

Different positions withrespect to which entitieshave intrinsic moral value

Examples* one person using the term “mire”meaning the Finnish “suo” versus anothermeaning the German “Moor”* agreeing on “sustainability”, butattributing different meanings to thatconcept (cf.§ 4.7)* disagreeing on the best managementoption for peatlands to reduce thegreenhouse effect* conflicts on how to maximise monetaryprofits* preference for cultivated orchids in avase versus wild orchids in a mire* preference for cloudberry19 liquor versusa winter living room temperature of 22o C.* conservation of a medically importantglobally threatened species versus miredrainage to prevent disease in an adjacentvillage* vital local versus vital global humaninterests* reducing malnutrition amongcontemporary human beings versus long-term environmental impacts on humanbeings* nature conservation (oriented on species)versus animal protection (oriented onindividual organisms)* anthropocentric versus non-anthropocentric position: “But the pine isno more lumber than man is, and to be madeinto boards and houses is no more its trueand highest use than the truest use of a manis to be cut down and made into manure”22.

1

2

3

4

5

6


In the Universal Declaration on HumanRights, the global community has identifiedthe needs that human beings can rightfullyclaim (Table 4/3). These claims are defined asan individual’s rights and are “boundaryconditions” that may not be violated, even ifthat would result in a greater good of the samecategory for others15. The UniversalDeclaration implies that needs have to besatisfied. Permissible16 wants and valuesystems do not have to be actively satisfiedor supported, but their pursuit may not behindered or violated17.

As between needs and wants, the satisfactionof needs prevails over that of wants18.

4.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OFCONFLICTS

Conflicts can be subdivided into conflictsdealing with “facts” (true / not true), andconflicts dealing with “choices” (agree / notagree) (Table 4/1). Conflicts of the first kindare relatively easy to solve. Conflicts of thesecond kind are more complicated becausethey are based on different weightings whichdifferent persons place on particular valuesand they concern options for actions that aremutually exclusive.

4.4 CONFLICTS DEALINGWITH FACTS

Conflicts arising from differentunderstanding are common, but also thesimplest to solve: their solution only requireseffective communication23 and sufficient

information exchange to create a commonbase of knowledge. It will then become clearthat there is no real conflict, rather there ismisunderstanding and talking at cross-purposes24.

Conflicts arising from different judgementsof mean-end relationships (the means mostsuited to achieving a particular end) shouldtake into account the principles of rationalchoice (Table 4/2). They can in principle alsobe solved factually. Which alternative is tobe chosen is again a matter of optimalinformation exchange and best professionaljudgement. The correctness of the decisioncan be tested. When more than one “means”are tested, a quantitative solution can bereached: “this means is better than that”.When only one alternative is tested, aqualitative answer can be given: “this meansdoes / does not achieve the aim”.

4.5 CONFLICTS DEALING WITHPREFERENCES

In this subsection the relationships betweendifferent preferences are surveyed (Table4/1). Preferences pertain to things that canbe replaced by something else26. Conflictsbetween preferences relate to balancing whatone party gains against what the other loses.A central question therefore is: is there a wayto rank or value different preferences, do sometypes of wants prevail over others?

Both ethics and economics try to address thisquestion by reducing the complexitiesconcerning value to a single measure, for

The principle of effective means: That alternative should be adopted whichachieves the end in the best way.

The principle of the greater Preference should be given to the alternative likelihood: which is more likely to give the desired outcome.The principle of inclusiveness: Preference should be given to the alternative

which achieves all of the direct aims and one ormore further aims in addition.

Table 4/2: The principles of rational choice25.


example by trying to extend monetarised cost-benefit analysis to all aspects of impactassessment. By using one weighting factorto express each individual’s change in utility,it is intended to reflect the overall benefitsfor society. In principle27, instrumentalvalues and preferences can indeed bemonetarised28. The instrumental value ofhuman beings is, for example, expressed inthe wages for labour, the price of tickets for apiano concert, or the cost of safety provisionsin a truck that guarantee the futureproductivity of the driver.

This partial monetarisation of instrumentalvalue should, however, not be mistaken for afull determination of total (comparative)value29. A gothic cathedral may bring $xxx ayear to a city from visitors, but may at thesame time have an inestimable artistic value.A wetland can be said to have a value of$yyy for the purification of sewage, becauseit makes technical provisions with the sameeffect unnecessary, but its total value can notbe estimated. Many issues can not bemonetarised completely (see §4.8).Monetarisation is useful to get a minimumvalue, not for getting the value. Furthermore,the weighting of preferences does not solvethe central question of how such weightingswould be allocated30.

If there is no single set of concepts orprinciples by which to value every situation,it is sensible to view cases in different ways31.Different perspectives can reveal thingswhich are overlooked when only a singleperspective is used. As well as comparingthe costs and benefits of specific actions, forexample, we may also take more explicitly intoconsideration the costs and the renouncedbenefits of the status quo32. By adopting sucha pluralist stance, we not only do justice tothe complexity of real situations, but we canalso seek ways in which different modes ofvaluing and ways of responding can be linkedtogether to provide a more comprehensivesolution to a situation.

In the absence of other premises, nopreference can be considered better or worsethan others33. In making choices, otherpremises34 may give rise to the followingconsiderations:1. All means of meeting wants should be

distributed equally unless an unequaldistribution of any or all of these goodsand services is to the advantage of the leastfavoured35.

2. In the grey area between clear needs andclear wants, those preferences more relatedto needs (i.e. things that are more essential)prevail over those more related to wants.

4.6 CONFLICTS DEALINGWITH PRECEDENCES

In contrast to conflicts between preferences,conflicts dealing with precedences can notbe solved by balancing pros and cons.Conflicts between different precedences(Table 4/1) deal with conflicting rights (see§4.2) of beings with an intrinsic value, i.e. withbeings that fall in the same value category 36.They involve the precedence to be accordedto one right over another and include conflictsbetween “me” and “you”, “those here” and“them there”, and “some few” and “thosemany”37. Even though we accept the equalityof all people we continuously hesitatebetween the extremes of a “charity begins athome” and a St. Martin who showed - bygiving half his cloak to a poor stranger - thatthe stranger’s well-being was as important tohim as his own38.

The human character resists altruism whichis entirely disinterested39. People give moreweight to their own interests than to those ofothers. In doing do they must respect therights of others, as illustrated in Table 4/3:“the greatest good of the greatest number”43

furthermore implies that people have a dutyto sacrifice their interests for the sake of largerbenefits to others44. They do not, however,need to accept great losses to secure a smallincrease in the aggregate good45.


As a help in resolving conflicts between therights of different persons or different groups,John Rawls has formulated a set of principlesand priority rules46:

The principle of liberty: Each person has anequal right to the most extensive system ofequal basic liberties47 compatible with asimilar system of liberty for all.

The principle of just inequality: Social andeconomic inequalities are to be arranged sothat they are both:(a) to the greatest benefit of the least

advantaged48, and(b) attached to offices and positions open to

all under conditions of equality ofopportunity.

The priority of liberty: Liberty can berestricted only for the sake of liberty:(a) a less extensive liberty must strengthen

the total system of liberty shared by all;

Right toSubsistence

Liberty

Autonomy

Valid claim• not to be violently harmed• to the physical needs of

survival: food, water, shelter,clothing, basic health care

• to protection from those whomight do physical harm

• to freedom from positive externalconstraints upon the pursuit ofpermissible1 wants

• to protection against deprivationof this freedom

• to a self-directed life accordingto one’s own value system(moral position)2

Duty of others• not to violently harm• not to actively deprive others of

these needs• not to expose others to

unacceptable risks• to protect against such harm• to provide these needs• not to restrict this freedom

• to secure this freedom

• not to impair (the development of)self-determination

• to help the development,strengthening, and preservationof this autonomy

Veto duties are stronger than prescription duties veto duty prescription duty

(b) a less than equal liberty must beacceptable to those with lesser liberty.

The priority of justice over efficiency andwelfare:(a) an inequality of opportunity must enhance

the opportunities of those with the lesseropportunity;

(b) an excessive rate of saving must onbalance mitigate the burden of thosebearing this hardship.

General conception:All social primary goods - liberty andopportunity, income and wealth, and thebases of self-respect - are to be distributedequally unless an unequal distribution ofany or all of these goods is to the advantageof the least favoured.

Table 4/3: Overview of the most important human rights and duties1.


4.7 CONFLICTS DEALING WITHPRIORITIES49

Intergenerational justice: Since theBrundlandt Report50, intergenerational justice,i.e. a balance between the well-being ofpresent-day and future generations, is acentral point of concern to the globalcommunity. Sustainability is based on twopremises:● the present generation is morally obliged

to abstain from exploiting the Earth’sresources to the detriment of futuregenerations. Rather, it must shareresources with future human beings so thatthey are allowed to have a standard of lifenot substantially lower than that enjoyedtoday;

● it is possible to define the needs of futuregenerations in order to take practical stepsfor the achievement of sustainability.Duties towards these future generationsmust not only be expressed in principle,but also in concrete terms. What are weobliged to do, from what else are we obligedto abstain?51

The first point is not seriously contested.Some may believe that it is unnecessary tocare for future needs, either because theEarth’s resources are sufficiently abundantor because science, technology, and themarket will automatically provide for futureresource availability52. But almost nobodywill argue that it is morally permitted toseriously damage the prospects of futuregenerations53. The second point is morecontroversial. Agnostics hold that nobodyknows the needs of the future54. Theysubstantiate this by pointing to the past,where many economic decisions “for the sakeof future generations” have been provenwrong. Others argue that the fundamentalphysical and social needs of the humanspecies will not change. “Of course, we don’tknow what the precise tastes of our remotedescendants will be, but they are unlikely toinclude a desire for skin cancer, soil erosion,

or the inundation of low-lying areas as a resultof the melting of the ice-caps”55. Again othersstate that the concerns of the presentgeneration should not be for the physicalpreconditions56 for the well-being of futuregenerations, but the well-being itself57. Evenwhen some resources are irreversibly lost,cannot the life of future generations be fullysatisfactory without them?

Different concepts of sustainability58: Thesedeliberations reflect two different conceptsof sustainability59:● weak sustainability permits the depletion

of natural resources if natural or artificialsubstitutes can be found and if the profitsare invested rationally. If, for example, theeconomic benefits of peat extraction areinvested in infrastructure, humanknowledge, technologies, and other capital,the well-being of future generations maybe greater even if this should include theglobal extinction of some mire species;

● strong sustainability casts doubts onthese substitutability premises and arguesfor keeping the stock of different types ofresources intact separately. Natural andartificial capital are seen ascomplementary.60

The position of strong sustainability cannotbe held indiscriminately for every type ofresource. The present generation cannot takecare of every detail that may be relevant tofuture generations. It is not realistic for thepresent generation to concern itself with thewhole range of problems its descendants maycome across during their lifetimes. What canbe done is to ensure that options are keptopen and that they have available to themopportunities, chances which they can seize.The present generation should also doeverything possible to avert serious evil inwhich its actions might result.

Discounting61: In a world with perpetualeconomic growth in which present-day andfuture values are weighted equally, the aim of


“the greatest good of the greatest number”62

would force early generations to excessivesaving to allow later generations to live aluxurious life. Intergenerational justicefavours a more egalitarian development63

which requires the discounting of futurevalues64. This can be done by way of● discounting of well-being (utility

discounting), in which future well-being isgiven less weight than present well-being,or

● financial discounting, in which not thewell-being itself, but the monetary costsand benefits which determine future well-being, are discounted65.

The discounting of well-being solely becauseit lies in the future (“myopic behaviour”) is awidespread phenomenon: people generallyprefer enjoying something now to enjoyingit later; we prefer to go to the dentist tomorrowinstead of today. Similarly, problems for futuregenerations are considered as less importantthan problems right now. Our “defectivetelescopic faculty”66 makes us believe thateven very important things becomeunimportant once the distance to them in timeis long enough. Important things, however,do not become unimportant in time: theyremain important for those affected by them.No smoker will consider lung cancer in 20years equally important to a cold tomorrow.Myopic behaviour is contrary to the conceptof sustainable use, because it treats theinterests of future generations as being ofless value than similar interests of the presentgenerations. If a civilised society ischaracterised by its respect for the weak, itshould respect the interests of futuregenerations even more than those of thepresent, because - unlike contemporaries -future generations are powerless against theharmful actions of the present67.

The importance attached to some thingsdoes, however, change with time. A boy ofeight years, for whom a ditch is too difficultto cross, can be confident that after ten years

he will have grown and will be able to jumpacross it easily. Similarly, economic,technological, scientific, and moral growthcan be acceptable justifications fordiscounting future costs and pains. If futuregenerations are better-off than the presentgeneration, it will be easier for them to copewith the problems being caused by the latter.This approach is not universally applicable:people in the19th century would have beencorrect in discounting the future paininvolved in a visit to the dentist, because thepain involved in dentistry has been reducedsubstantially since. But they would havebeen much less justified in discounting thepain caused by cancer, as this disease haslost none of its malignity. Thus, it is essentialfor any sensible resource planning to developsound expectations as to what will becomeeasier tasks in the future and what will not.Future generations cannot blame the presentgeneration if it errs in such decisions afterdue reflection but they can attach blame ifthe present generation does not reflect to thebest of its ability68.

Normal and vital functions: Taking thefuture into account therefore requires that we:● identify vital functions (= essential and

non-substitutable) which, to the best ofpresent knowledge, will remain equallyimportant and regarding which it cannotbe prudently assumed that progress willsolve the problems associated with theirdecrease or disappearance69. Their effectin the future must therefore receive thesame attention from us as their presenteffect. For these issues no form ofdiscounting is applicable.

● apply some routine valuation procedure forall other normal functions (non-essentialor substitutable), allowing for flexibility,adaptation, substitution, progress, andgrowth. This valuation can imply anelement of discounting, based on theexpectation (which must be well-founded)that the provision of these concreteservices or resources will be of a lower


importance to future generations due toadvances in problem-solving capacities.Often, these will be problems that can behandled by “money” and investment (see§4.8).

Uncertainty and risks: Any considerationregarding the future involves uncertainty.The question “what decision to take?” is,however, not only a matter of assessingprobabilities but also an ethical question70.Imposing risks on others, even future others,has as a direct consequence that they areexposed to a potential danger, i.e. a directchange for the worse71. A good reason isrequired to permit the creation of situationswhich involve risks to others, and to discountthese risks in order to increase our own netpresent value.

The simplest way to avoid risks would be notto interfere at all. But in practice we prefer totake a small chance of a great disaster in returnfor the high probability of a modest benefit72:e.g. we fly in order to save some time. If anact involves a risk of negative consequencesthis is a reason to avoid it. If theconsequences are extremely negative, evena small risk of producing them is a reason toavoid the act and to accept some costs indoing so.

Vital functions of mires and peatlands: Vitalfunctions are resources and services that areessential to human life and reproduction, andthat are prudently expected to be non-substitutable within any reasonable humantimeframe73.

Essential functions relate to● the physical needs of survival (food, water,

shelter, clothing, basic health care)● the liberty to pursue permissible wants, and● the autonomy to live according one’s own

moral position (see Table 4/1).

With respect to mires and peatlands such vitalissues may include:

● the maintenance of general problem-solving capacities (cf. conservation ofglobal biodiversity for maintainingproduction, regulation, existence,indication, and cognition options, seeTable 3/22)74,

● global climate regulation (cf. UNFramework Convention on ClimateChange) especially with respect to carbonstorage (see §3.4.3),

● the maintenance of food productioncapacity (e.g. preventing soil erosion),

● the availability of drinking water (relatedto climate change, large-scale drainage, andpollution),

● the availability of habitable land (e.g.preventing climate change and theassociated sea level rise),

● health conditions (e.g. preventing damageto the ozone layer and spread of diseasesresulting from climate change),

● all developments that severely affectpeoples’ value systems (e.g. preventingdecrease in biodiversity).

4.8 THE MONETARISATION75 OFPEATLAND VALUES

Making wise decisions depends onadequately valuing all the aspects involved.The easiest way to resolve conflicts wouldbe to set out what one party gains againstwhat the other loses. As there are many typesof values (cf. Chapter 3), such balancingwould require a single and one-dimensionalmeasure by which all values could be equallyexpressed. The measure most used in normallife is the “market price”, the amount of moneyone has to pay for a product or service. Themarket price makes it possible to compare andexchange such divergent products andassets as sugar, shoes, land, and knowledge.

The market does not assign monetary valueto everything76. Some experiences andservices have no price as a matter of tradition.We do not pay for a friendly greeting on thestreet (although artificial friendliness is


effectively used in commerce). Traditions,however, change with time. In many countriesit has become normal to pay for the care ofthe elderly, a practice unthinkable in formertimes. Other experiences and phenomenahave no price, because they are neitherproduced nor have a clearly definedownership. Most of the regulation and non-material-life-support functions (see Tables3/3 and 3/4) are such “collective goods”. Thetechniques for monetarising these functionsare generally underdeveloped77. Someecosystem functions can not be valued,because their precise contribution is notknown and indeed unknowable until theycease to function78. Other functions cannotbe monetarised because there is nothingequivalent to be put at their place: intrinsicvalues are by definition without price79.Consequently, any weighting can only bepartial and whole ranges of values, benefitsor disadvantages escape monetaryevaluation (i.e. they are regarded as “freegoods”)80.

Freely functioning markets are based onnarrow self-interest. The upstream polluterhas no incentive to account for the cost heimposes on a downstream user of the river.The non-consideration of such“externalities” – the third party costs – maylead to decisions that are “wise” for theindividual now, but “unwise” for societyas a whole81 (and that may eventually alsobe harmful to the individual)82. This is amarket failure.

Similarly government interventions in themarket, for example to serve some socialpurpose, may be accompanied by an under-appreciation of environmental benefits.Examples include financial incentives fordeforestation or peatland drainage, theunderpricing of water resources, and manyagricultural subventions83. This is anintervention failure.

Some regulation and information functionsexceed national boundaries, e.g. themaintenance of global biodiversity or thepeatland carbon store84. But if the country inquestion receives no financial or otherresources to pay for these global externalbenefits, it will have no incentive to look afterthese resources85. This is a globalappropriation failure86.

Correction of these failures is necessary tobetter reflect the value of ecosystem servicesand natural capital in national accounting.Various methods have been and are beingdeveloped for that purpose87, includingmethods applicable to wetlands88. Suchmethods attribute monetary value either bydirectly asking people to state their strengthof preference for a proposed change (e.g.“willingness-to pay” for enjoyment of a naturereserve) or by indirect comparison withactual, observed market-based information(e.g. by assessing the costs of travel to anature reserve, or the costs of substitutingthe natural water purification function bysewage treatment plants). In this way,Costanza et al. (1997) estimated the servicesthat nature provides at between $16 and $54trillion per year89. Such attributed monetaryvalues can then be fed into a comprehensivecost-benefit analysis (CBA)90. Table 4/4presents some figures related to wetlands andpeatlands that were assessed in this way.Even though economic value can only relateto preferences, there are several reasons whya complete monetarisation and cost-benefitanalysis may be difficult or impossible126:■ Every determination of monetary value is

marginal, i.e. only refers to small parts of alarger available total127.

■ The order of peoples’ preferences is notconstant but changes with environmentalconditions128, income levels and budgetavailability129, knowledge andtechnologies, availability of substitutesand alternatives, personal circumstances130

and public policies131. It is subject tohysteresis-effects132, and dependent on a


in 1000 US$ km-2 yr-1

Production functions

water supply from a marsh and swamp area in Massachusetts (1978)92 3,943

water supply of global swamps and floodplains (1994)93 882

water supply of global wetlands (1994)94 441

habitat for harvested species of global swamps and floodplains (1994)95 51

wood, fish, and animal fodder from Danube floodplains (1994)96 10

food production of global swamps and floodplains (1994)97 5

renewable raw materials from global swamps and floodplains (1994)98 6

Regulation functions

service value of coastal Louisiana wetlands99 2,000 – 3,700

ecological value of mangroves in China100 21

gas regulation of global swamps and floodplains (1994)101 31

disturbance regulation of global swamps and floodplains (1994)102 840

flood control in a marsh and swamp area in Massachusetts (1978)103 1305

water regulation of global swamps and floodplains (1994)104 3

waste treatment of global swamps and floodplains (1994)105 192

nutrient removal in a marsh and swamp area in Massachusetts (1978)106 962

nitrogen and phosphorous removal by Danube floodplains (1994)107 21

Information functions

recreational value of coastal wetlands in Louisiana (1983)108 1 – 2

recreational value of wetlands in Louisiana (1986)109 11

recreational value in the North York Moors National Park U.K.110 35

recreational value of Danube floodplains (1994)111 18

Recreational value of global swamps and floodplains (1994112) 57

Recreational value of a marsh and swamp area in Massachusetts(1978)113 122 – 2,196

increased privacy for those whose property is bordered by a marsh andswamp area in Massachusetts (1978)114 6 – 19

existence and recreational value of a German floodplain forest115 52

Informational/cultural value of global swamps and floodplains (1994)116 204

Aggregate values

total value of global swamps and floodplains 2,271

total value of global wetlands (1994)117 1,715

total value of global tropical forests (1994)118 233

total value of global temperate/boreal forests (1994)119 35


person’s role at a specific moment133. Evenwithin a single role a person’s order ofpreferences may rapidly change with theirstate of mind – for example, a preferencefor a type of landscape.

■ Non-egocentric anthropocentrism134

requires that the value of specific functionsfor future generations be taken intoaccount. Such determination might bepossible with respect to fundamental needswhich are not expected to change135, butnot with respect to the more subtle wantsand preferences136. The same accounts forlong-term effects, such as climate change,that will affect future generations more thanthe present generation and shouldtherefore - to get a complete view - also beevaluated by those future generations,which is impossible.

“Normal” problems of the future are likelyto be soluble through investment. With aneconomic growth rate of some 1.6% per year,a technical solution that would cost 100million in 100 years requires an investment of20 million now, if the rate of technologicalchange remains constant. If technologicalprogress were to increase by a similar rate,the cost of a similar future solution would beonly 4 million now.139 “Normal problems” arethose that can be solved by progress. Thequestion is how to measure this progress, i.e.which discount rate140 should be applied, asnothing influences long-term assessments

Table 4/4: Monetary values (in 1000 US$ km-2 yr-1) of some peatland (and related wetland)functions for the year 200091.

Environmental costs of peatland drainage

N emissions from drained fens to water in Sweden120 15 – 1,736

Greenhouse gas emissions from drained fens in NE Germany121 1.5 – 26

Restoration costs122

general wetland restoration123 120 – 420

replanting mangroves in Thailand124 6

restoring shrimp ponds to mangroves125 83

and cost-benefit analyses more than thediscount rate.141 Discounting can make thenon-sustainable use preferable to thesustainable use. If the rate of interest onmonetary capital is higher than the rate ofreproduction of a renewable resource, thiscould push the use of that resource to thepoint of extinction142.

It is unlikely that the current rate ofexponential economic growth can continueindefinitely143. In the case that contemporaryeconomic growth is replaced by biophysicalequilibrium, the market rate of interest willgive fundamentally misleading signals to anycurrent generation.144 The rate of technicalprogress, if it can be measured in an unbiasedway, would provide a more appropriatediscount rate.

Future generations will probably be better offonly in some respects, so we are permitted todiscount with regard to these respects alone.Complex patterns of increasing scarcity andgrowing abundance will be more likely to occurthan an overwhelming pattern of diminishingscarcity in all respects145. It is thereforemisleading to treat goods whose scarcity willprobably increase irreversibly in the same wayas goods whose scarcity will probablydiminish146.


4.9 CONFLICTS DEALING WITHMORAL POSITIONS

Conflicts arising from different positionsconcern which entities have intrinsic moralvalue and to which moral obligations exist.Any moral obligation can only be over-riddenby another moral obligation of higherimportance (for example we may hurt a personin order to save his or her life), not by a non-moral consideration, such as a preference.

Conflicts with respect to intrinsic valuecannot be solved through compromise, as

Should we monetarise ecosystem services at all?137

The idea that “we should not price the environment” keeps coming up138. While themany sides of this line of reasoning can be appreciated, ultimately the argumentdenies the reality that we already do, always have, and cannot avoid doing so in thefuture.

Even people are constantly monetarised. When the European Union introduced adrinking water norm of a maximum of 50 mg nitrate per litre, it compromised betweenthe increased costs of a lower maximum norm and the extra death of some (anonymous,statistical) bottle-fed babies and elderly people, thereby implicitly pricing humanlives.

Similarly, we (both as individuals and as a society) make choices and trade-offs aboutecosystems every day. When we preserve a natural area and this limits its economicuse, this decision is generally made on the basis of values other than market prices.But the decision will result in a different set of prices for many things, and consequentlyto an implicit economic value for the natural area. We do not have to know theimplied price in advance, but it is still interesting to know what prices are implied byour choices. They may be higher or lower than we would have guessed, and can serveas a cross-check on the reasonableness and consistency of our political decisions.

The exercise of monetary valuation does not preclude or supercede other ways ofapproaching the problem or other forms of valuation. But one has to communicatewith people in the language they understand (while also perhaps teaching them anew language), and utilise the tools at hand (while at the same time developing new,more appropriate tools). If we are to avoid uneconomic growth we must be sure thatthe value of the natural services sacrificed is not greater than the value of the man-made services gained. Even a crude “total economic value” approach has significantpotential to change decisions in nature’s favour.

they deal with the fundamentals of people’svalue systems147. Whereas other world-viewsmay represent a position fundamentallydifferent from the prevailing anthropocentricview, they are held by many people in theworld148 and may be fully consistent149. Thereare many ways of being objective and rationaland it is neither necessary nor possible tohave reduced all competing claims to acommon measure150, or to see them as fallingunder a single hierarchy of principles.

Conflicts between different world-views canonly be mitigated by acknowledging and


respecting the other’s position, - so long asthe positions do not fundamentally clash. Anatheist or agnostic without any religiousconviction can nevertheless accept thesanctity of a church or other place of worshipto avoid the suffering of religious believersshould the place of worship be violated.

Moral pluralism allows that living decentlyinvolves many kinds of principles and varioussorts of responsibilities. It recognises thatfeelings and responses to situations aredrawn from many sources and cannot besimplified without distortion. “It remains truethat a pluralist perspective will not be easy touse. If many different sets of values are inplay when environmental issues are beingdiscussed, the role of the policy-makerbecomes much more complicated. But life iscomplicated, and we will not make progressin tackling the grave difficulties we face unlesswe learn to avoid shallow thinking and simplesolutions151.”

4.10 NON-ANTHROPOCENTRICAPPROACHES

The non-anthropocentric approachesreferred to in the previous section are worthexploring further. They allow theinvestigation of alternative views in moralphilosophy and more extended valuesystems. These may add additionalsophistication to the discussion in thisdocument. The difficulty of motivatingpeople for sustainability, in the light ofcomplex and unknown relations anddiscounting over time, may favour the use ofnon-anthropocentric positions, as an easyapproach152. Furthermore, the right to liveaccording to one’s own value system (Table4/1) implies that such positions have to beconsidered when brought forward in specificconflicts.

Non-anthropocentric positions do notexclude human beings, but treat them as partof the elements under consideration. As an

example we present the moral philosophy ofMartin Gorke153, one of the most extreme andmost consistent forms of ecocentrism andholism154.

Any moral position must be founded on aworld-view of certain basic, empirically-derived assumptions, e.g. on our knowledgeof the position of human beings in theuniverse. Astronomy, evolutionary biology,and ecology show that humanity is neitherthe pivotal point nor the final end of the world.Nature, including inanimate nature, does notexist solely for human beings. If humanitycan no longer be seen as the centre of theworld, then ethical anthropocentrism must bequestioned: ethics can no longer be regardeda priori as something that is restricted torelationships between human beings.

While the intrinsic value of non-humanentities is usually demonstrated by selectinga particular “decisive” quality (e.g. thecondition of having consciousness or thatof being alive, cf. Table 3/1), Gorke starts froma different point of view. In his view we areforced, as a fundamental of morality, to makean “original decision” between two basicoptions: “egoism” and “a moral (i.e. non-egoist) standpoint”. If one opts for the latter,any selection of entities not worthy of moralconsideration is an act of egoism, because Idetermine whom I will respect, when andunder what circumstances. If having a moralstandpoint is taken seriously, moralconsideration has to be extended to all otherentities.

Advocates of more restricted concepts ofmorality will object that it is by no meansegoism to exclude certain entities of naturefrom the moral community but simply a rationaland objective assessment of circumstances.In Gorke’s analysis of the concept of morality,however, they carry the burden of proof. Theymust convincingly demonstrate that the lackof certain qualities makes exclusionnecessary. Anthropocentrism, patho-


centrism, and biocentrism155 do not achievethat. Wherever a logical relationship betweena moral consideration and some empiricalquality has been claimed, a naturalisticfallacy1561 is always involved. And whereverthe claim is based solely on plausibility, theevidence appears to be arbitrary. Anecocentric, holistic position appears to be theonly logical conclusion.

In practice, the differences with a (non-egoistic) anthropocentric position appear tobe not so much in the fundamentally differenttypes of conflicts, but rather in the much largernumber of conflicts to which such holisticethic leads. Regarding the way human beingshave to deal with nature in general, Gorkeadvocates with Albert Schweitzer thatharming other entities always involves asmaller or larger quantity of guilt, dependingon how necessary the intervention is. Thismeans that for evaluating environmentalconflicts, an ethical “black/white” approach(allowed/forbidden) should be replaced by agraduated concept (the less harm thebetter)157.

1 Cf. §1.2.2 “The assignment of weights is an essential and

not a minor part of a concept of justice. If wecannot explain how these weights are to bedetermined by reasonable ethical criteria, themeans of rational discussion have come to anend. An intuitionist conception of justice is, onemight say, but half of a conception. We should dowhat we can to formulate explicit principles forthe priority problem, even though the dependenceof intuition cannot be eliminated entirely.” Rawls1971.

3 See Brennan 1992, and below.4 Cf. Rawls 1971, Taylor 1986, Attfield & Dell

1996. See also §3.2.5 Hardin 1968.6 Following the Universal Declaration of Human

Rights (UN General Assembly 1948) and theconcept of sustainable development (WorldCommission on Environment and Development1987), cf. §3.2. While the framework in thisdocument is based on an anthropocentricposition, it nontheless recognises (§§ 3.2, 4.10and 5.8) that many people believe in the moralright of animals, plants, ecosystems and

landscapes to exist, i.e. that these entities haveintrinsic value.

7 Frank 1985, 1999.8 Satisfaction of needs is the removal of shortage,

satisfaction of wants is the removal ofdissatisfaction.

9 Science Action Coalition & Fritsch 1980. Humanbeings share this characteristic with many otheranimal species. The display of affluence functionsas an indication of good prospects for thesuccessful raising of offspring, and attractspotential reproduction partners. Once thismechanism functions, competition for matingrapidly results in the evolution of exaggeratedforms, as is shown by peacock tails, large antlers,fat bellies, even to the extent that the initialadvantage changes into a disadvantage (e.g. giantdeer).

10 Cf. the “trickle-down-effect” of Simmel 1905.This inclination is actively exploited bycommerce by creating trends and ridiculing peoplewho do not follow them (Mishan 1967).

11 At relatively high levels of income, personalhappiness depends on one’s income orexpenditure relative to the mean income orexpenditure of some reference group. At reallylow levels of income happiness is not associatedwith income (Gupta 1999).

12 Achterhuis 1988.13 Increased information exchange in the “global

village” has on the one hand enormously enlargedthe circle of reference for mimetical desire(everyone in the world can know what everyoneelse possesses). On the other hand it has removedthe spatial obstacles for group formation, makingpossible - more than in the past - the free choiceof social surroundings.

14 A villa, for example, satisfies the basic need forshelter, but additionally satisfies many “wants”.The same applies to food, drink, clothing, healthcare, social contacts etc.

15 Rawls 1971. If, for example, the only way tosave the life of five patients is to kill an innocentperson and divide his/her organs among them bytransplantation, the killing is wrong even though,by saving five lives at the expense of one, it hasoverall “better” consequences. Saving life is not“equivalent” to killing (Harris 1975, Hurka 1993,Prior 1998).

16 I.e. that do not violate the rights of others.17 It should be noted that the concept of Human

Rights is essentially an individualistic approach.In other societies more “holistic” approaches(see §3.2) may prevail, that pay more attentionto the societal “whole” and less to the individualsconstituting that whole. The caste system inancient Hindu society, for example, ecologicallystabilised society by reducing competition amongvarious people for limited natural resources(Dwivedi 1990).

18 Cf. “Live simply that others may simply live”,Salleh 1990.

19 Rubus chamaemorus20 A precedence is a measure of importance in space

within the same value category (e.g. finding “me”


more important than “you”, finding a personhere more important than a person somewhereelse, finding two human beings more importantthan one human being).

21 A priority is a measure of importance in time(e.g. short-term versus long-term).

22 Thoreau 1864 (in: Homan 1991).23 Being reliant on both sender and receiver.24 A consensus can, for example, easily be reached

on questions like “peatland forestry leads toincreased peat accumulation” (cf. Crill et al. 2000,Joosten 2000) or “peatland biodiversity leads topeatland stability” when– all parties involved really want to know the

right answer,– agreement exists on the content of the terms

(“peat”, “biodiversity”, “stability”, etc.) andthe period of time and location and area underconsideration, and

– all available information on the subject isexchanged.

25 Rawls 1971.26 I.e. things that have a “price” and can be

exchanged for a set of alternatives; Cf. Kant1785: “In the realm of aims, everything haseither a price or a dignity. For what has a price,something can be put as an equivalent at its place;what on the contrary is above all price, andtherefore allows no equivalent, has a dignity.”The equivalency may be based on theaccomplishment of the same aims (e.g. peat orwood for energy generation) or on indifferencein utility (e.g. a bottle of whisky versus an orchidin a vase). Preferences apply to both needs andwants The Universal Declaration of HumanRights recognises the right to pursue wants solong as this does not violate the rights of others(see Table 4/3). This means that the wants ofone party can never prevail over the needs andbasic liberties of others. See §4.6.

27 Apart from unsolvable practical problems, seebelow.

28 For an in-depth discussion on possibilities,methods and restrictions of monetarisation, seeGrönemann & Hampicke 1997, on which muchof the following is based.

29 Somebody can be equally happy with theexistence of a close relative and without a milliondollars as without the existence of that relativeand with a million dollars. For that person, theexistence of the relative only has an instrumentalvalue and a price, however no intrinsic value, i.e.no “dignity”. It is impossible to monetariseintrinsic value.

30 Attfield & Dell 1996.31 Although the fulfilment of an individual’s wants

is not necessarily beneficial for him or her, theright to liberty (see §4.6) requires that we respectthese choices as long as no rights of others areviolated. The choices may only be influenced byinformation and education: these may transformpreferences.

32 including the aspects of reversibility, cf. Joosten1997.

33 See §3.1.

34 See the needs and wants discussion, and theGeneral Conception of the Principles of Justiceof Rawls (1971) in §4.6.

35 In order to provide genuine equality ofopportunity, society must give more attentionto those with fewer native assets and to thoseborn into less favourable social positions (Rawls1971). The policy of positively weighing thegains and losses of those at a low level of well-being is consistent with most notions of socialjustice, and may also be justified in that actingthus makes a greater beneficial difference, andsatisfies desires which are more crucial and morepervasive. The weights to be attached to theutility of different parties at different levels ofwell-being must be settled by politicians; butdecision-making can only claim to be rationalwhere it is based on the foreseeable consequencesfor all affected parties, and where the sameweights are used consistently throughout (Attfield& Dell 1996).

36 Intrinsic value is an absolute concept: somethingeither has (+) or lacks (0) it. Instrumental valuesare generally comparative, i.e. more or less suited(+1, +2, +3, ...) for a specific purpose.

37 Possible obligations to future generations are dealtwith in §4.7.

38 Cf.Hampicke 2000. This problem results fromthe dilemmas of being a rational social being. Allanimals distinguish between “group members” and“non-group members” and must treat thesedifferently (otherwise all predators would eat theiroffspring). Social beings have an extendedsympathy that includes other beings than thedirect offspring, i.e. that exceeds direct egoism.Rational beings are aware of the existence of thisboundary between “in” and “outside” the circle,and - driven by the (social) tendency towardsextended sympathy - question the rationale ofthe boundary (Midgley 1983). This has in historyled to extending moral circles, as, for example, isapparent in the development of U.S.A. legislationthat subsequently extended rights to Americancolonists (Declaration of Independence 1776),slaves (Emancipation Proclaration 1863), women(Nineteenth Amendment 1920), nativeAmericans (Indian Citizenship Act 1924),Labourers (Fair Labor Standards Act 1938), andblacks (Civil Rights Act 1957), cf. Nash 1989.

39 “We have no choice but to be especially interestedin ourselves and those close to us.” (Midgley1996).

40 UN General Assembly 1948, modified after Taylor1986.

41 I.e. that do not violate the rights of others.42 In so far as it does not compromise other people’s

rights.43 Cf. McGee W. J.: “Conservation is the use of

natural resources for the greatest good of thegreatest number for the longest time.” (Herfindahl1961).

44 Cf. Crocker 1990, “Live simply that others maysimply live”, Salleh 1990.

45 Hurka 1993.46 Rawls (1971) argues that the correct principles


of justice are those that would be agreed to byfree and rational persons, placed in the “originalposition” behind a veil of ignorance: not knowingtheir place in society; their class, race, or sex;their abilities, intelligence, or strengths; or eventheir conception of good. In contrast to theUniversal Declaration on Human Rights, that islargely founded on a western metaphysicalconcept of rights, Rawls’ principles follow theKantian approach of rationality anduniversalisation (the “categorical imperative”):Act only on a rule that you wish to see generallyfollowed by everyone. Accordingly, he derivestwo principles of justice to regulate thedistribution of liberties, and of social and economicgoods.

47 Basic liberties include: political liberty (the rightto vote and to be eligible for public office) togetherwith freedom of speech and assembly; liberty ofconscience and freedom of thought; freedom ofthe person along with the right to hold (personal)property; and freedom from arbitrary arrest andseizure as defined by the concept of the rule oflaw (Rawls 1971).

48 To deal with intergenerational relations, Rawlsintroduced the concept of “just savings”, implyingwhat is reasonable for members of succeedinggenerations to expect from one another bybalancing how much they would be willing to savefor their immediate descendants against what theywould feel entitled to claim of their immediatepredecessors.

49 This section draws substantially on the ideas ofHampicke (2000).

50 World Commission on Environment andDevelopment 1987.

51 Howarth 2000.52 Some technological optimists, for example,

expect that the science of ecology will eventuallyprovide sufficient understanding of ecologicalprocesses and relationships to enable an effectivecontrol of ecosystems and natural resources. Thisbelief disregards the fundamental scientificlimitations to ecological knowledge: theenormous complexity of ecosystems, theunpredictability of their dynamics due to chaosand contingency, their uniqueness which precludesfar-reaching generalisations, and the limitedpossibilities of quantifying their qualities (Gorke1999).

53 Hampicke 2000.54 Cf. Alexander Solzhenitsyn (1968): “Happiness

is a mirage – as for the so-called “happiness offuture generations” it is even more of a mirage.Who knows anything about it? Who has spokenwith these future generations? Who knows whichidols they will worship? Ideas of what happinessis have changed too much through the ages. Noone should have the effrontery to try and plan itin advance.”

55 Barry 1977.56 I.e. the material life support functions.57 Dasgupta, 1995.58 “Almost every article, paper or book on

sustainability bemoans the fact that the concept

is broad and lacks a broad consensus; this is usuallyfollowed by the authors’ own preferred definitionswhich in turn add to the lack of consensus!” (Bell& Morse 1999).

59 Neumayer 1999.60 The distinction between weak and strong

sustainability is similar to that of the distinctionbetween the “sustainability of the means to anend” and the “sustainability of the end” (Bell &Morse 1999). E.g. “sustainable peatland forestry”generally refers to the sustainability of forestryon that spot, not to the sustainability of peatland,as the peat may eventually disappear as a resultof drainage (cf. Päiväinen 1997, 2000).

61 See also §5.6.5 (2) below.62 I.e. the maximisation of the well-being of all

present and future humankind.63 This is also expressed in the Ramsar definition of

sustainable utilisation: “the greatest continuousbenefit to present generations while maintainingits potential to meet the needs and aspirations offuture generations”.

64 Cf. Dasgupta 1995.65 See §5.6.5 (2) below. If, for example, society in

100 years will need a specific sum of money tomitigate the consequences of climatic change, amuch lower sum can be invested today and thissum will increase to its final size 100 years fromnow, according to the laws of compound interest.

66 Pigou 1978.67 Hampicke 2000.68 Hampicke 2000.69 This does not exclude the possibility that advances

towards solving these problems or substitutingthe concrete services and resources might be madeat some time in the future.

70 Ott 2000.71 Rehmann-Sutter 1998.72 Sober 1985.73 Those who consider their loss acceptable should

indicate how they are substitutable. There canalso be discussion regarding whether a particularfunction is essential or substitutable.

74 In considering which part of biodiversity is vital,it can be asked from the anthropocentric pointof view on which this document is based, whetherwe have to preserve all mires, all mire speciesand all peat? To what extent is their maintenancenecessary for maximising human happiness (orminimising human suffering)? To what extent istheir abundance redundant and useless?The probability of an unknown property of aspecies being directly useful for humankind infuture is low, because it is the product of two lowprobabilities: (i) that the species indeed is useful,and (ii) that its use will be discovered (Norton1987). In a world with tens of millions of species,the loss of a currently useless species maytherefore be of negligible importance. It is,furthermore, irrational to defer some real andknown benefit in favour of a theoreticallypossible but still unknown use of certain species(“a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush”).Contrary to what ecologists thought in the 1970s,species diversity is no longer regarded as a


guarantee for stability. Many species, particularlyrare ones, are probably even “useless” forecosystem functioning (cf. review in Gorke1999). The loss of others will in general not ruinan ecosystem, because ecosystems are, contraryto what is often suggested, not “wheel-works”but “networks”. They do not collapse, theysimply adjust (During & Joosten 1992, Hargrove1987), because they normally contain a complexof mutually substitutable negative-feed-backmechanisms (cf. Ivanov 1981, Joosten 1993).There is, however, insufficient knowledge ofinterdependence to judge which concrete speciesare and will be redundant in this respect(Lovejoy1988, cf. Naeem 1998). Furthermore,“useless” species play a role in shaping theevolutionary template of other species (cf. Brownet al. 2001). Therefore it is wise to preserve thewhole taxonomic and ecosystem biodiversitypool (see also Naeem 1998).In terms of the global biosphere, westerncivilisation and the functioning of regionallandscapes some mires were and are inessential.Because there are so many mires, the likelihoodthat the destruction of the next mire will producea disaster is low. Each destruction, however, willincrease the chance that a positive feed-backmechanism which ultimately disastrousconsequences is initiated (cf. Joosten 1993,Couwenberg & Joosten 1999). That thisprobability is initially low and the effects areinitially limited encourages the notion that theabsence of disaster so far is evidence that disasterwill never come (Norton 1987, cf. Ehrlich &Ehrlich 1981: “The Rivet Poppers”). The limiteddirect effect may lead to a destruction of themajority of mires and peatlands, especially inareas where a seeming abundance leads to thefalse conception that an endless resource isavailable (Joosten 1997, 1999).If we accept the central assumption that everyspecies and ecosystem may have great but non-quantifiable value, species and ecosystems shouldbe saved as long as the costs of doing so aretolerably low. In the face of high costs societymight choose a small risk of serious negativeconsequences (Norton 1987).Because there is much we do not know, and muchmore that we do not understand, we should notirreversibly destroy extensive areas of the world’sremaining mires and peatlands. At the same timewe can not exclude mankind from all the benefitsof developing mires and peatlands.

75 The attribution of monetary value to entities orservices which are not normally seen to have afinancial or commercial value.

76 Grönemann & Hampicke 1997.77 This is not only a problem in the valuation of

regulation functions of nature, but also in valuingsimilar indirect “means” such as infrastructure,time-saving in traffic, security against floods etc.(Grönemann & Hampicke 1997).

78 Vatn & Bromley 1993.79 See footnote 29 and §3.1. Also, transformation

values can not be valued because their impact on

people’s preferences is unpredictable and variesfrom person to person (Brennan 1992).

80 Brennan 1992.81 Cf. Goetz 1997, who shows that from a private

economic perspective a farmer should use hisagricultural peatland intensively, which would leadto rapid and complete loss of the peat soil. Seealso Van Vuuren & Roy 1993.

82 Hardin 1968.83 Hanley et al. 1998, Hodge & McNally 2000.84 A hectare of Malaysian tropical forest may be

“worth” US$3000 on the basis of its soil-protecting, gene maintaining, and possiblemedicinal properties (Pearce 1993). But that cashis “virtual” because these services are not ownedby anyone in particular. The same Malaysianhectare is worth US$ 300 – 500 “cash in thebank” when the timber is felled and sold on theJapanese market. The two sets of dollar valuesare simply not the same (O’Riordan & Voisey1998).

85 This failure does not arise from the functioningof markets, but from the fact that the marketsare not there at all. They are “missing markets”(Pearce & Moran 1994).

86 Note that all these failures can occursimultaneously: they are not mutually exclusive(Pearce & Moran 1994).

87 See for reviews Pearce & Moran 1994, Georgiouet al. 1997, O’Neill 1997, Pimentel et al. 1997,Hampicke 2000b, and http://management.canberra.edu.au/~gkb/benefit.html.

88 Cf. Barbier, 1994, Gren et al. 1995, Söderqvist etal. 2000 and the special issue of EcologicalEconomics 35 : “The values of wetlands:landscape and institutional perspectives.”

89 Cf. the global gross national product being US$18trillion per year (Costanza et al. 1997).

90 See, however, Pearce 1998.91 Original data recalculated to year 2000 US$ using

the US consumer price index: http://stats.bls.gov/cpihome.htm. Other currencies are recalculatedin US$ using the exchange rates of July 2001.Attention: The data may contain double countingin the aggregate values (cf. Turner et al. 1998).

92 Thibodeau & Ostro 1981.93 Costanza et al. 1997.94 Costanza et al. 1997.95 Costanza et al. 1997.96 Gren et al. 1995.97 Costanza et al. 1997.98 Costanza et al. 1997.99 Farber 1996.100 Han et al. 2000.101 Costanza et al. 1997.102 Costanza et al. 1997.103 Thibodeau & Ostro 1981.104 Costanza et al. 1997.105 Costanza et al. 1997.106 Thibodeau & Ostro 1981.107 Gren et al. 1995.108 Costanza et al. 1989.109 Bergstrom et al. 1990.110 77 visitor days ha-1 y-1 (http://www.pantm.co.uk/

reports/purbeck/CombinedChapters.pdf) at $4.50


person-1 yr-1 (White & Lovett 1999).111 Gren et al. 1995.112 Costanza et al. 1997.113 Thibodeau & Ostro 1981.114 Thibodeau & Ostro 1981.115 Hampicke & Schäfer 1997.116 Costanza et al. 1997.117 Costanza et al. 1997.118 Costanza et al. 1997.119 Costanza et al. 1997.120 Using $2 – 35 kg-1 N (Gren 1995, Byström 1998)

and emission rates of 7,540 – 49,600 kg N km-2

y-1 (Gelbrecht et al. 2000).121 Using $5 - 25 t-1 C (Tol 1999a) (with ratios

between the marginal costs of CO2 and those ofCH4 and N2O equal to the global warmingpotentials of these gases, cf. Tol 1999b) and acumulative radiative forcing of 2,928 – 10,334CO2-C-kg-equivalents ha-1 y-1 (Augustin 2001).The aggregated monetarised damage due toclimate change has been estimated at 1.5 to 2.0percent of World GNP; the OECD would lose 1.0to 1.5 percent of GDP; the developing countries2.0 to 9.0 percent. These figures are notcomprehensive and are highly uncertain. Recentstudies increasingly emphasise adaptation,variability, the rate of change, extreme events,other (non-climate change) stress factors, andthe need for integrated assessment of damages.As a result, differences in estimated impactsbetween regions and sectors have increased, themarket impacts in developed countries havetended to fall, and non-market impacts havebecome increasingly important.Whether it is fast or slow, climate change is likelyto have greater economic impacts on poorcountries than on rich countries. On the whole,market impacts fall relative to economic growthwhile non-market impacts rise relative to growth(http://www.gcrio.org/gwcc/toc.html).

122 Capital investment costs recalculated to annualcosts using an interest rate of 6%.

123 IPCC 1996.124 Primavera 2000.125 Primavera 2000.126 See also discussions in Costanza et al. 1997.127 Cf. the exclamation “my kingdom for a horse”

in Shakespeare ’s King Richard III, V, iv, 7. Theanswer to the question: “How can you monetarise‘nature’, ‘biodiversity’, or ‘the environment’ “is simply: “you cannot”. The same answer,however, also applies to everyday necessities suchas food, drinking water, or shelter. To ask thequestion how much poorer the world would bewithout any food or without biodiversity is absurd(cf. Costanza et al 1997). In daily practice,however, a loaf of bread, a litre of water, and ahouse is replaceable and hence does have a price.Similarly a peatland can have a monetarised valuefor tourism, for education, for energy generation,etc., a price that is dependent on demand andscarcity (Mitsch & Gosselink 2000).

128 Cf. the recent discussions of the role of peatlandsin climate change (Gorham 1991, Franzén 1994,Crill et al. 2000).

129 Cf. MacGillivray 1998, who shows that even indepressed areas there is a strong appreciation thatthere is more to happiness, welfare or quality oflife than cash income. This appreciation includesa recognition of the value of such qualities ashealth, security, standard of living, education, andenvironment.

130 For example, one might accept the killing offarmed rabbits for eating while not accepting thekilling of a child’s pet rabbit. Cf. Brennan 1992.

131 Norton 1987.132 I.e. in general, people dislike losing a benefit more

than they like gaining the same benefit.133 Brennan 1992. There may, for example be large

differences between the perspective of a personas a consumer and of the same person as a citizen,for example in her attitude towards rules andregulations. The decision to have or not to havepeat extracted in a country concerns the politicalquestion of what limits should be placed on thesatisfaction of consumer preferences. The decisionto buy a bag of compost containing peat, when itis available on the market, concerns merely thesatisfaction of individual preferences within theselimits (Cf. Norton 1987).A person in her role as palaeo-ecologist mayprefer the view of a bog while it is being exploited,because the exposure of peat profiles allowsoptimal access to stratigraphical information (cf.Casparie 1972, Barber 1981). The same personin her role as conservationist may prefer to seepristine bogs.

134 See §3.2.135 Cf. §4.7.136 Cf. the large sums currently spent on mire

restoration in West and Central Europeancountries which clearly show that present daysociety values things different from society only30 years ago.

137 Based on Costanza et al. 1998 and Hampicke2000b.

138 Cf. Rees (1998): “…at this critical stage of worlddevelopment, we must regard many of nature’sservices as we would an expensive yacht. If wehave to ask the price, we probably can’t affordit.”

139 Fear that “intermediate” generations might“hijack” the funds is no reason to refrain fromproviding them, because– our duty to mitigate the consequences of our

actions exists, independent of what futuregenerations may do. If they abuse the funds,they are responsible for the ensuing suffering.If we do not start to invest, we are;

– instead of in bank accounts, we may as wellinvest in technical progress. This mightimprove the capacity to solve problems moreefficiently and is less reversible than thestockpiling of money (Hampicke 2000).

140 cf. Tol 1999b. See §5.6.5 (2).141 The decision on the correct method of

discounting is independent of whether the presentgeneration is actually going to pay for futuredamages or not. If it appears after thoroughcalculation that the present costs are relatively


small compared to the wealth of futuregenerations, we may well feel that theythemselves should pay for the problems we havecaused, a situation that we face with respect toproblems that former generations have left tous. Calculating the results of a hypotheticaltransfer helps estimate what can be expected fromfuture generations without being unjust(Hampicke 2000).

142 Cf. Clark 1973.143 Cf. Hubbert 1976. Cf. Daly 1990: “When

something grows it gets bigger. When somethingdevelops it gets different. The earth ecosystemdevelops (evolves), but does not grow. Itssubsystem, the economy, must eventually stopgrowing, but can continue to develop. The term‘sustainable development’ therefore makes sensefor the economy, but only if it is understood as“development without growth” – i.e. qualitativeimprovement of a physical economic base thatis maintained in a steady state by a throughput ofmatter-energy, that is within the regenerativeand assimilative capacities of the ecosystem.Currently the term “sustainable development” isused as a synonym for the oxymoronic“sustainable growth”. It must be saved from thisperdition. … Even “green growth” is notsustainable. There is a limit to the population oftrees the earth can support, just as there is a limitto the population of humans and of automobiles.To delude ourselves into believing that growth isstill possible and desirable if only we label it“sustainable” or colour it “green” will just delaythe inevitable transition and make it morepainful.”

144 As long as there is general growth, there are nolosers: the investor who borrows money does notbecome poorer by paying interest if she investsthe loan in such a way that, allowing for theinterest, she is richer than before. In a societywhich is not physically growing it is impossiblefor everyone to gain by saving at compoundinterest. In those circumstances interest onlyfunctions as a mechanism of redistribution: themoney-lender is getting richer, but not society atlarge (Hampicke 2000).

145 Ott 2000.146 Price 1993.147 See §3.2.148 Even the United Nations General Assembly

adopted a non-anthropocentric approach whenaffirming that “Every form of life is unique,warranting respect regardless of its worth to man”(World Charter on Nature 1982).

149 Cf. §3.2.150 See also §4.5.151 Brennan 1992.152 Gorke 1999.153 Gorke 1999, 2000154 See also §3.2.155 See Table 3/1 in §3.2.156 A “naturalistic fallacy” means deriving a moral

conclusion from a factual premise, i.e. derivingan “ought” statement from what is no more thanan “is” statement. Naturalistic fallacies are

common in environmental argumentation. Someexamples:

● “For 5000 years there was much more forest andmuch less mire. Therefore we have to changemires into forests again.” This conclusion wouldonly be valid when combined with a value premise,e.g. “in former times everything was better”.

● “This mire contains the only population ofAquatic Warbler in the region and should thereforebe protected”. This conclusion is only valid whencombined with a value premise like “we mustprotect all species diversity in this region”.

157 Such an approach could be made operational indaily practice by adapting the (originallybiocentric) principles of Paul Taylor’s Respectfor Nature. See also §5.8.

120 FRAMEWORK FOR WISE USE

CHAPTER 5.

FRAMEWORK FOR WISE USE

Chapter 3 outlined the values and uses of mires and peatlands. Chapter 4 described theorigins and types of conflicts. This chapter sets out a Framework within which conflictsbetween different values and uses of mires and peatlands can be resolved.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Wise Use of peatlands can be described asthe uses of peatlands for which reasonablepeople now and in the future will not attributeblame. This document sets out to provide acontext for, and parameters within which,Wise Use decisions can be taken in relationto mires and peatlands. It proposes aFramework for the Wise Use of Mires andPeatlands.

The development of such a Framework muststart from values, as outlined in Chapter 3.This proposed Framework is based on theanthropocentric premise that human beingshave intrinsic moral value, the premise onwhich the Universal Declaration of HumanRights is based. Accepting the definition that“Sustainable development” is seeking to meet“the needs of the present withoutcompromising the ability of futuregenerations to meet their own needs1” theseGuidelines attach intrinsic moral value tohuman beings in the future. They are furtherbased on the statement that “Human beingsare at the centre of concerns for sustainabledevelopment2.”

Chapter 3 described the values and functionsof mires and peatlands. Chapter 4 outlined

the types of conflict which can arise. Inparticular conflicts arise between■ different positions with respect to intrinsic

moral values,■ the interests of human beings now and

human beings in the future, and■ the different preferences of different people.The rational resolution of such conflictsinvolves a structured framework for theexamination of all the elements relating to aconflict or a decision concerning mires orpeatlands.

The proposed Framework includes twostages:1. The arrival at a decision in principle through

answering the series of questionscontained in the decision tree in Tables 5/1and 5/2 as summarised in Figure 5/2, andby examining the application of a numberof general considerations (§5.3) to thesituation;

2. The examination of the decision in principleto see if its implementation

■ will be consistent with a series of guidanceprinciples (§5.4);

- which in turn may be modified by time andplace (§5.5); and

■ will involve the use of instruments inarriving at or implementing the decision(§5.6).

121FRAMEWORK FOR WISE USE

This consistency can be evaluated throughthe use of checklists. These checklists areintended to be taken in the context of thedocument as a whole. Each checklist only hasvalue as part of the framework illustrated inFigure 5/1. They are not intended to be takenout of context and should not be used assimplistic ‘ticking boxes’. The checklists canbe used to establish codes of conduct (§5.7).Agreed codes of conduct make it easier tojudge if a national or regional authority, or anenterprise, takes decisions in a mannerconsistent with the Framework.

This Framework is intended to be consideredas a whole, and is illustrated in the followingdiagram (Figure 5/1). If a decision comesthrough the ‘decision in principle’ processwith a clear ‘yes’ then it can be examinedfurther under the elements of the‘implementation decision’ column. If it comesthrough with a ‘no’ it should be establishedif the ‘no’ is a genuine stopper or more areason to be cautious.

It is unlikely that any proposal would achieve100% ‘yes’ under the ‘implementation

Figure 5/1 Framework for making decisions on interventions in peatlands

Test against Tables5/1 & 5/2 –Figure 5/2

Test againstGeneralConsiderationsTable 5/3

Test against theGuidance Principles –Checklist in Table 5/4

Are there Modifiersapplicable which wouldchange any of theprinciples ?

Is the proposedintervention in acountry which hasInstruments in placeas in Table 5/8 ?

Does the enterprisewhich proposes tomake the interventionmake use of theInstruments inTable 5/10 ?

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▲

▲

▲

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Decision in Implementation principle decisions


decisions’ process. In most cases a proposalwill emerge either preponderantly positive orpreponderantly negative. It is to be decidedin the circumstances of each case whetherthe negative elements are ‘stoppers’ or not.For example, in some cases a record of poorcorporate governance would be a stopper. Inother cases it might cause the authorities tosay ‘yes’ but to impose a code of conduct.

In applying the Framework it should berecalled that Wise Use is not simple orsimplistic and cannot be reduced to formulae.

5.2 DECIDING IN PRINCIPLE IFAN INTERVENTION IS

ADMISSIBLE

Overall, the major - anthropocentric - conflictswhich arise with respect to peatland use arebetween those who wish to develop miresand peatlands for their production or carrierfunctions, and others who wish to preservethem for their regulation and non-material life-support functions.

In dealing with peatland conflicts, theapproach of moral pluralism discussed earlier(§4.5 and §4.9) is relevant - differentconsiderations apply in different cases: it isnot possible to reduce all complexities tosimple principles or single measures.

With respect to conflicts relating to humanneeds and wants, two aspects have to beconsidered:● the effect of the proposed use3 on the

function itself: does the interventionnegatively affect the further provision ofthat function4

● the effect of the use on other functions:does the intervention negatively orpositively affect other functions.

This section provides some assessmentcriteria for dealing with these questions.

5.2.1 The effect of a use on the functionitself

The effect of the intervention on the functionitself5 has to be judged using the criteria inTable 5/1.

Table 5/1: Criteria and decision tree for assessing the admissibility of an intervention withrespect to its effects on the function itself.

Criterion Question Answer Consequence1. Advantage Will the proposed intervention have a No No intervention

positive effect on the satisfaction of human Yes Go to 2needs and wants?

2. Essentiality Are the resources or services to be provided Yes Interventionessential for the maintenance of human life6 agreedand non-substitutable? No Go to 3

3. Self- If the proposed resource use or service is Yes Go to Table 5/2maintenance implemented will the continuous provision No Go to 4

of the same quantity and quality of resourcesor services remain possible?

4. Abundance Are the peatland resources or services Yes Go to Table 5/2to be consumed by the proposed intervention No No interventionabundant and will they remain abundant?


Some examples may illustrate these criteria:● If the maintenance of human life is at stake,

it is not unwise to use an non-substitutableresource to the point of exhaustion. Onecannot be blamed for killing the last bear ifit is the only way to stay alive7.

● If the use of the resource keeps the quantityand quality of that resource intact, there isno reason not to use the resource. Evenwhen the supply is decreasing, the use canbe continued as long as the resource isabundant.

● If the resource is not abundant and gettingrare, it is wise not to use the resource tothe point of exhaustion, in case theresource might be needed for more urgent(and presently unknown) purposes infuture (option value).

In all but 2 a positive answer is conditionalon the effects the intervention has on otherservices and resources (see Table 5/2).

5.2.2 The effect of a use on other functions

The use of a peatland for a specific purposemay have considerable side-effects. Theseeffects on all other functions8 must be takeninto account in the full assessment of

admissibility of an intervention. To judge theimpact of the intervention, the criteria in Table5/2 can be applied.

With respect to the side-effects, anintervention is considered permissible inprinciple when:● no negative side-effects occur, OR● the affected resources and services remain

sufficiently abundant, OR● the affected resources and services are

easily (and completely) substitutable, OR● the impact is easily reversible.

In all other cases an integrated cost-benefit-analysis has to be carried out that involves athorough weighing of the pros and cons ofthe intervention, taking the considerationsof Chapter 4 into account.

The two tables 5/1 and 5/2 are combined inthe flow chart of Figure 5/2.

In deciding on the preservation or destructionof pristine mires, we have to be aware of ourlimited knowledge, the possibly high risksarising from development, and the long-termbenefits and drawbacks of either preservationor development. Tables 5/1 and 5/2 and the

Table 5/2: Criteria and decision tree for assessing the effect of an intervention with respectto other functions.

Criterion Question Answer Consequence1. Impact Will the proposed intervention have Yes Go to 2

negative effects on other functions? No Consider approval2. Essentiality Are the negatively affected functions Yes No intervention

non-substitutable and essential for the No Go to 3maintenance of human life?

3. Abundance Are the negatively affected functions Yes Consider approvalsufficiently abundant to guarantee No Go to 4their adequate future provision?

4. Substitut- Are these negatively affected functions Yes Consider approval ability easily substitutable or are the negative No Do an integrated

impacts easily reversible? cost-benefit analysis


flow chart of Figure 5/2, combined with asystematic evaluation of the peatlandfunctions and values as dealt with in Chapter3, provide a good start for a Wise Useassessment. Other elements to be consideredin coming to a decision are provided in therest of this Chapter. These are the componentsof the ‘implementation decisions’ column inFigure 5/1.

5.3 GENERALCONSIDERATIONS

Some general considerations also form partof the ‘decision in principle’ process. Thefollowing General Considerations are takenfrom parts of Chapter 4:

1. All human beings have rights, boundaryconditions that may not be violated. Inresolving value conflicts, and conflictsbetween rights, the satisfaction of essentialneeds take priority over the satisfaction ofdesirable wants. (§§ 4.2, 4.5)

2. In taking decisions an egalitarian principleshould apply: a smaller amount of goodequally distributed should be preferred toa larger amount of good disproportionatelyshared (including taking future people intoaccount). Preference in such decisionsshould be given to those with fewer nativeassets and less favourable social positions.(§§4.2, 4.6)

Fig. 5/2: Flow chart for assessing the permissibility of interventions in mires and peatlands.


3. There is no single set of concepts orprinciples which can govern everysituation. Different considerations applyin different cases: it is not possible toreduce all complexities to simple principlesor single measures. (§4.5)

4. The first stage in taking any decision is todescribe the issue or issues to be resolved.The rules to be then taken into accountinclude:● The alternative which achieves the

desired end in the best way should beadopted.

● Preference should be given to thealternative which is most likely to achievethe desired outcome.

● Preference should be given to thealternative which achieves all of the directaims and further aims in addition. (Table4/3)

As an illustration of how such generalconsiderations can be helpful a checklistfollows (Table 5/3). A negative answer doesnot necessarily mean that a use / interventionshould be excluded. Not all the generalconsiderations lend themselves to use in achecklist.

5.4 GUIDANCE PRINCIPLES FORWISE USE

The following guidance principles are set outas an aid to resolving issues which arise indecisions relating to interventions in thefundamental properties of peatlands andmires.

1. The principle of clarity9: concepts shouldhave clear content; terms should be clear andconsistently applied.

2.The principle of public access toinformation: the public should have adequateaccess to information regarding proposeddecisions10. The information should betransparent and understandable.

3. The principle of public participation:interventions should follow a consultationprocess in which all stakeholders11 canactively and effectively participate12.

4. The principle of motivation: interventionsshould be motivated by the prospect ofgreater advantage13 for society14.

5. The principle of careful decision-making:decisions should be made on the basis of thebest available information15.

Table 5/3. Checklist against the General Considerations - Elements to be considered whendecisions arise as to the use of a mire or peatland

What are the aims of the proposed intervention; will the proposedintervention achieve them; and will it achieve them in the best way.Does the proposed intervention interfere with a fundamental humanright. OrDoes the proposed intervention reinforce a fundamental human right.Do the aims of the intervention relate to genuine needs, or merelyto wants.Will the benefits accrue in an egalitarian manner, not just to a privilegedfew (including taking future people into account).


Are the relevant concepts clear: is everyone talking the same language.Has adequate information been made publicly available.Has adequate public consultation taken place.Will the proposed intervention produce a greater advantage than not intervening.Is the decision based on the best possible information.Have the implications for other entities and other parties indirectlyaffected been taken into account.Do all those participating in the decision acknowledge thatother valid points of view may exist.Will the proposed intervention result in its benefits being distributedequitably unless an unequal distribution would advantage theleast favoured.Is the intervention located where it will cause least impact -could it or should it be moved elsewhere.Is the proposed intervention limited to the minimum necessary.Will any damage consequent on the intervention be* prevented* controlled* reduced* repaired or* compensated for.Will the cost of these measures be borne by the responsible party.Is the user required to restore the mire/peatland after use to a wetland,a suo or a mire: or is alternative afteruse planned.Is the intervention consistent with the precautionary principle.Is the intervention adapted to the natural characteristics andconstraints of the mire or peatland.Is every effort being made to preserve the ecologicalprocesses necessary for the survival of species.

Table 5/4. Checklist against the Guidance Principles - Elements to be considered whendecisions arise as to the use of a mire or peatland

6. The principle of responsibility: Anydecision should take into account its effectson other individuals and entities. Decisionsat one level should reflect the interests ofother levels16.

7. The principle of plurality: Participants in adecision should accept that cases can belooked at from different perspectives and thata pluralist stance can be the best means ofdealing with complex situations.


8. The principle of distributive justice: allmeans of meeting wants should bedistributed equally unless an unequaldistribution is to the advantage of the leastfavoured.

9. The principle of minimum intervention: ifinterventions have to take place, they shouldbe limited to the minimum necessary.17

10. The principle of re-location: thoseactivities that are harmful, and cannot beavoided, should be relocated to areas wherethey will cause least impact.

11. The precautionary principle: where it isanticipated that the effects of an interventioncould be seriously damaging, measures toprevent this damage18 should not be avoidedbecause of lack of full scientific certainty19.

12. The principle of avoidance: theexploitation of mires and peatlands shouldbe adapted to the natural characteristics andconstraints20 of the mires and peatlandsconcerned.

13. The principle of species integrity: theecological processes responsible for thesurvival of mire and peatland species shouldbe protected and the habitats on which theirsurvival depends maintained.21

14. The principle of compensation22: whenthe fundamental properties of mires and

peatlands and their hinterlands are violated,other than in accordance with theseprinciples, the cost of measures to prevent,control, reduce, repair, and compensate forany damage should be borne by theresponsible party23.

5.5 MODIFIERS

Guidance principles are general in nature andmay be modified in practice24. Factors whichmodify principles are defined here asModifiers. An example of a modifier takenfrom law and morality would be:

Principle: Thou shalt not kill.

Modifier: Special circumstances - for exampleself-defence.

The main modifiers for the guidanceprinciples outlined in §5.4 above are SPACEand TIME (Table 5/5).

Thus, the conditions for Wise Use will differin different regions, countries and areas.Wise Use in one particular peatland may notbe Wise Use in another. Similarly, theconditions for Wise Use will differ at differentpoints and over different periods of time. WiseUse under one particular circumstance maynot be Wise Use under other circumstancesand changes over time may alter Wise Use tounwise use.

Table 5/5 Illustrations of Modifiers of Space and Time

Modifier Aspect ExplanationSPACE Location What might be relevant in Africa might not be at all

relevant in Australia.Spatial scale What might apply at national level might not apply

at village level.TIME Point of time What might be wise in 1980 might not be wise in 2020.

Period of time Wise over a decade may not be wise over a year.


Examples of Principles combined withModifiers would be :

a. The principle of re-location: thoseactivities that are exceptionally harmful tothe fundamental properties of mires andpeatlands and their hinterlands, andcannot be avoided, should be relocated toareas where they will cause less impact.

Modifier: SPACE

Example of combination: A small operatorat local level may have no opportunity tore-locate: she cannot follow the principlewithout wiping herself out. She cannot beblamed for this if she has no alternative.Thus she has to take the decision to remainin the location. At a national level, agovernment could intervene and make analternative location, or compensation,available.

b. The “polluter pays” principle: The cost ofmeasures to prevent, control and reducedamage to the fundamental properties ofmires and peatlands should be borne bythe responsible party.

Modifier: TIME.

Example of combination: In a case whereimmediate compensation could bankrupt anenterprise, it might be better to wait until

the enterprise had sufficient means tocompensate adequately.

5.6 INSTRUMENTS

Instruments are mechanisms which facilitatethe application of the modifiers of time andplace to the guidance principles. There areinstruments at a variety of levels, including(but not limited to) atinternational level,- regional level involving groups of countries,- national25 level,- sub-national level involving provinces orregions,- the level of the enterprise26, and- the level of the individual.Decisions as to what is and what is not WiseUse have to be taken at all these levelssimultaneously.

5.6.1 Instruments at an international level

(1) International law: International law is abody of rules of conduct accepted byparticipating countries and which regulaterelations between them. International law ismost frequently embodied in internationalagreements and conventions such as theRamsar Convention and the Convention onBiological Diversity. A list of environmentalconventions and agreements relevant to miresand peatlands is given in Appendix 7.

Table 5/6. Checklist against the Modifiers - Elements to be considered when decisionsarise as to the use of a mire or peatland

In this decision do the General Considerations or Guidance Principlesneed to be modified

– because of the place regarding which the decision is taken– because of the spatial scale of the area regarding which the decision is taken– because of the time/date/era of the decision– because of the period over which the decision will have consequences.


(2) International co-operation: Formalchannels of co-operation exist in the UnitedNations and its constituent bodies; in otherinternational organisations; and through andbetween NGOs27. It is through such co-operation that agreement can be reached onglobal plans, structures for co-operation, andmonitoring progress. It can also lead tointernational standardisation of terminology,compilation of comparable data, and agreedcriteria for attaching importance to mires andpeatlands.

The organisations sponsoring this documentshould take the lead in implementation byputting in place a mechanism whereby theactions at international level are (i) initiated,(ii) given target time-scales forimplementation, and (iii) monitored.

(3) Guidelines for Global Action onPeatlands28 (GGAP): A specific example ofan instrument in international co-operationis the “Guidelines for Global Action onPeatlands (GGAP) (§1.4). The principal“themes” identified in the GGAP aresummarised in Chapter 1.

(4) Certification: Other industries includingforestry and hydropower have drawn upsystems for encouraging environmentallyacceptable ways of conducting theirbusiness. In the case of hydropower29 a setof ethical considerations, recommendationsand guidelines has been compiled. In thecase of forestry30 a system of certification hasbeen established. The essential elements ofthe forestry system are a set of Principles andCriteria to be followed in harvesting forestryproducts; the establishment of certifyingorganisations; and a Forestry StewardshipCouncil to accredit certifying bodies.

The system gives assurance to consumersthat if they buy certified products these havebeen produced or harvested in accordancewith accepted environmental principles. Itgives assurance to wholesalers and retailers

that they will not be subjected to negativepublicity or campaigns. It gives the industrya context within which it can operate withpredictability. It gives those interested inprotecting the environment a way of usingmarket forces to control or eliminatedestructive processes and to change the wayof thinking of the industry. The negatives ofsuch a system include (a) for industry thecost; (b) for environmentalists the fact that itcontrols but may not eliminate the harvestingof virgin forests or the flooding of valleys;and (c) there remain markets in whichuncertified products can be sold. Eco-labelling can be used as part of such a system.Eco-labelling is a process by which an agreedauthority certifies that a product has beenproduced in an environmentally friendly way.

The peat industries, including extraction,agriculture and forestry might or might notlend themselves to certification systems.Such a system is, however, an availableinstrument to be considered.

5.6.2 Instruments at regional levelinvolving groups of countries

A number of regional bodies have been setup by groups of countries in different partsof the world. They have available to themsimilar instruments to those available atinternational and national levels. For exampleregional international law can be establishedby treaties between these countries, theycould agree on common licensing systemsand they could co-operate on theestablishment of protected areas.

5.6.3 Instruments at a national level

(1) Public policy and administration: Eachcountry should provide a context of nationalpolicies within which Wise Use decisions canbe made. National policies should coverenvironmental protection, land use planning,the development of industry and agriculture,property rights and other relevant matters.


Action Name of organisation Status of Action takentaking lead responsibility

Establishment of structuresfor co-operation32

Establishment of structuresfor monitoring progressDevelopment andapplication of standardisedterminology andclassification systems.Establishment of a globaldata base of mires andpeatlands.Establishment of criteria toattach internationalimportance to individualmires and peatlandsDetecting changes andtrends in the quantity andquality of the peatlandresourceDevelopment andimplementation of peatlandeducation and publicawarenessEnsuring that policy andlegislative instruments arein placeDevelopment and use ofwise use guidelinesPut in place researchnetworks, regional centresof expertise andinstitutional capacityEstablish communicationand co-ordinationmechanisms forimplementation andsupport.

Table 5/7. Checklist to follow up on action at international level31.


National policies should, in general, beimplemented through legislation, stimulation(incentives), and education. There shouldbe an adequate public administration functionto administer these instruments in regard tomires and peatlands, and to carry out thenecessary regulatory functions.

Relevant national policies33 should, inter alia,include

1. promoting the formulation andimplementation of a Wise Use strategy formires and peatlands, including a peatlandsconservation strategy;

2. increasing knowledge and promoting publicawareness of peatlands and their valuesthrough education and the mass media;

3. carrying out an inventory of peatland indifferent categories (classes and degreesof use or degradation),

4. applying an internationally agreedclassification system for peatland types;

5. placing responsibility for peatlands withina transparent administrative system andestablishing or strengthening mire- andpeatland-related institutions;

6. supporting research into mires andpeatlands.

(2) Legislation34: The Wise Use of mires andpeatlands should, in each country, take placein a context of legislation. Legislation shouldcover such areas as● Land-use planning● Protection of wildlife, of habitats and of

specific areas35

● Environmental protection, including thelicensing of industrial, agricultural andservice activities likely to impact on theenvironment.

International agreements (including, but notrestricted to, the Ramsar Convention and theConvention on Biological Diversity) shouldbe incorporated into domestic legislation.

(3) Land-use planning: Land-use planningis a process or procedure to plan the use of

land for the common good. It is carried out,as appropriate, by State, Regional or LocalGovernment authorities. Land-use planninginvolves● The preparation and updating of a

development plan for each area, setting outthe overall strategy for the planning of thearea. Such a plan provides for the zoningof land for particular uses; the provisionfor infrastructure; conservation andprotection; integration with the social,community and cultural requirements of thearea and its population; the preservationof the character of a landscape; and thecontrol of building and other development.

● A system of controls by the PlanningAuthority which controls the carrying outof any works in, on, over or under land inaccordance with the area plan. It involvesthe Planning Authority giving or refusingpermission for the use or development ofland, and the setting of conditions for thatuse or development.

● Public access to, and participation in, theplanning process.

Planning laws normally provide for the useof Environmental Impact Assessments(EIAs), whereby the probable or possibleimpact on the environment of a proposedproject is assessed. An Environmental ImpactStatement (EIS) is a written documentsubmitted by, or on behalf of, a developer toa Planning Authority. It is a public document,part of a process of public consultation andparticipation36. It is advisable for land-useplanning officials to be aware of the valuesand functions of peatlands.

(4) Licensing: All development of peatlandsshould take place within a nationalenvironmental licensing system. Such asystem should be enshrined in law andshould govern the licensing and regulationof industrial and agricultural processes onmires and peatlands as part of an overalllicensing system. The purpose of a licensingsystem is to prevent or eliminate


environmental pollution, or where that is notpracticable, to limit, abate or reduce it. Thesystem should seek to control emissions ofpollutants into the air, and the discharge ofsolid or liquid effluent into water or theirdeposit on or in the ground, and the disposalof waste. Such legislation normally involvesthe establishment of an independent agencyto carry out the licensing and to monitor theimplementation of licence conditions.

In the case of developments on peatlands, alicence should govern the emission of dustinto the air, the release of particulates intowatercourses, noise disturbance fromoperations, and other relevant matters.Licences should ensure the responsibleplanning of the after-use of cutawaypeatlands.

(5) Property rights and compensation: Inany country the legal basis for ownership,and the pattern of ownership of mires andpeatlands, is fundamental to theimplementation of any Wise Use guidelines.For example, in Canada large areas of miresand peatlands are owned by the State, whichcan decide on whether or not to allow a mireor peatland be developed. In Ireland bogownership is divided between small plotsused for the extraction of sod peat fordomestic heating: a decision, for example, tocease development on a bog would haveserious income implications for large numbersof people. In Finland and Sweden mires andpeatlands are owned by landowners, wholease them to forestry developers or extractioncompanies and who naturally expect a say inwhat happens to their property. In LowerSaxony in Germany the fact that the greatmajority of peatland was in private ownershiphas dictated its distribution betweenagriculture, peat extraction and pristine mires.In Kalimantan in Indonesia the lack of definedproperty rights has left to the governmentthe power to designate/permit rights ofusage.

The property and other rights of landownersand the rights of all those with an interest inland37 should be well-defined and secure.Landowners and others with an interest inland should be fully compensated if publicpolicy interferes with their rights. Moredetailed information on patterns of propertyownership in some selected countries is givenin Appendix 4 to this document.

(6) Rehabilitation of degraded peatland:The type of after-use which is appropriatefor peatlands after they cease to be used foragriculture, extraction, or forestry will varyaccording to the extent of the resource in acountry, drainage patterns and hydrologicalregime, sub-soil type and nutrient status, andsocio-economic conditions. In each locationand in each country the appropriate form ofrehabilitation should be made a licensingcondition for any new development on miresor peatlands.

(7) Establishment of Protected areas:Governments can provide legal protection38

to mires and peatlands. Legislation variesfrom country to country as do its terms anddesignations. A designation available in allsignatory countries is that of Ramsar site.Among the various terms used are “SpecialAreas of Conservation” and “NaturalHeritage Areas” in the EU; “Nature Reserves”in Norway; “National Parks” and “NaturalMonuments” in Japan39; “Nature Reserves”(zapovedniks) and “Wildlife Refuges andother resource areas” (zakazniks) in Russia40;“National Park” in Poland41; “ManagedResource Area” in Lesotho42. The level oflegal protection varies. Some categories ofprotected sites are set aside and activelysupervised and managed to preserve themas they are. The protection given to othersites, for example, allows licensed activitiesto take place there. Notes on the sixmanagement categories agreed by IUCN arecontained in Appendix 8.


(8) Education and Awareness43: Educationis critical for promoting sustainabledevelopment and improving the capacity ofpeople to address the conservation anddevelopment issues relevant to mires andpeatlands. Education programmes related tomires and peatlands should follow theprinciples of environmental education.

Environmental education is education thathelps people to understand the forces (bothnatural and man-made) which determinehuman behaviour in relation to theenvironment. Peatland education shouldinclude a broad base of understanding,experience and skills, that enable people toanalyse and evaluate their own relationshipto mires and peatlands on both a local andglobal scale. People also need to be taughtskills that enable them to take part in decision-making and in actions as consumers andproducers which will lead to a sustainableuse of this resource.

Such a programme of education is life-longand aimed at all sectors in society - citizens,communities, business and industry. It maybegin in schools but will also require aconsiderable re-design of professional andoccupational training in higher education andin-service training.

The following are guidelines for suchprogrammes of mire and peatland education:

1. They should be targeted at citizens,communities, industry and the non-institutional sector.

2. Support should be given for thedevelopment and dissemination of multi-disciplinary resources which are linked tothe official curriculum and which focus onmires and peatlands as a topic forenvironmental education.

3. Every institute for further and highereducation should be encouraged toproduce a policy for the integration of mireand peatland education and Wise Use

within all relevant courses.4. Educators should be actively encouraged

to make use of new resources through in-service training programmes.

5. A network of centres for mire and peatlandeducation should be established, whichwould promote good mire and peatlandeducation practice.

6. Communities, industry and the non-institutional sector should be empoweredto prepare mire and peatland sites foreducational use.

7. Citizens should be provided witheducational materials that will enable themto make informed choices concerninglifestyle and consumer behaviour.

(9) Socio-economic policy: Some countries(or wider political bodies such as the EU)have socio-economic policies. Such policiesoften include a commitment to promotingeconomic activity or employment in particularregions. In some cases these policies mayinvolve the utilisation of peatlands with aview to social benefits. For exampleemployment44 provided by Bord na Mona p.l.cin the midlands of Ireland and by Vapo Oy inthe interior of Finland enables small farmersto earn enough money to keep their farms,and provides the possibility of widereconomic activity in small towns and ruralareas. Such socio-economic policies areusually incidental to energy or economicpolicies.

5.6.4 Instruments at sub-national levelinvolving provinces and regions

(1) Integrated catchment management45:Integrated catchment management (ICM) isthe management of rivers and the surroundingcatchment or basin as a whole. Even remoteecosystems can be affected by the demandsfrom distant urban areas. ICM is useful inidentifying and solving such basin-wideproblems, resolving sectoral conflicts andcross-boundary questions in the managementof a water resource. It is particularly useful in


In relation to a particular country, has it or does it -Ratified the principal international environmental conventions and has itincorporated relevant international legislation into domestic legislationHave in place national policies relevant to mires and peatlandsHave a body of relevant legislation governing land use planning andenvironmental protection.Have an adequate public administration function to administer legislationgoverning mires and peatlands.Have a comprehensive and participative land-use-planning system.Operate a system of licensing for the commercial development ofpeatlands.Have clear property laws where mires and peatlands are concernedincorporating a legal framework which protects the rights ofindividuals and communities over landRequire the appropriate rehabilitation of mires and peatlands after use.Established sufficient protected areas according to internationallyaccepted criteriaHave a policy for increasing knowledge and promoting public awarenessof peatlands and their values through education and the mass media.Encourage the exercise of civic responsibility in regard, inter alia,to mires and peatlands.Play an active role in stimulating wise use policies at the international levelOperate any incentives to develop mires and peatlands within thecontext of overall coherent economic and social policies.

Table 5/8. Checklist of actions to be taken at national level.

Ensure that mires and peatlands are seen in the context of integratedcatchment management.Apply the Ecosystem Approach to catchment management.

Table 5/9 Checklist of actions to be taken at sub-national regional or local governmentlevel


the management of mires and peatlandsbecause they are sensitive to problemsarising elsewhere in a catchment, and canadversely affect large areas outside theirimmediate vicinity when they are developedinappropriately.

(2) Ecosystem Approach46: The EcosystemApproach is a strategy for the integratedmanagement of land, water and livingresources that promotes conservation andsustainable use in an equitable way. Theprinciples involved are contained inAppendix 3 to this document.

Depending on the legislative system in aparticular country some of the instruments atnational level apply instead at the sub-national level.

5.6.5 Instruments at the level ofenterprises47

(1) Corporate Governance and commercialstrategy: Corporate governance is thesystem by which commercial companies andinstitutions are directed and controlled48. Itis normal practice for boards of directors tobe appointed in companies and institutionsand for these boards to be responsible fortheir governance. The responsibilities of theboard include setting the company’s orinstitution’s strategic aims, providing theleadership to put them into effect, supervisingthe management, and reporting on theirstewardship to their shareholders (in the caseof companies) or to their sponsors (in thecase of institutions).

Where management, or development wheresuch is permitted, of a mire or peatland is inthe hands of a company or institution withstrong and ethical corporate governance it isfar more likely that the management and/ordevelopment will be carried out in aresponsible manner. Where such bodies havewell-thought-out commercial strategies theywill only contemplate the development of a

mire or peatland if it makes long-termcommercial sense (cf. the principle ofmotivation at § 5.4 above). Good corporategovernance combined with sound commercialstrategy are unlikely to lead to piecemeal orshort-term destruction of mires.

(2) Cost-benefit analysis49: Cost-benefitanalysis (CBA) is a comparison of theestimated costs of an action with theestimated benefits it is likely or intended toproduce. It is a technique to evaluate theworth of an idea or project; a measure of theextent to which the overall benefits outweighthe overall costs, and with how muchcertainty; and a comparison of alternatives -a Cost-benefit analysis of a single course ofaction cannot be carried out.

In summary, a Cost-benefit analysis should:

● describe the issue to be resolved;● set out the proposal, the alternatives, the

benefits and costs, the risks50;● calculate the Net Present Value51 of the

proposal and the alternatives;● outline who will enjoy the benefits and

when;● outline the options included and those

excluded; the assumptions made; and theperiod over which the analysis is calculated.

The use of cost-benefit analysis will notnecessarily ensure the best use of a mire orpeatland from an environmentalperspective52. However, it would at leastensure that only viable proposals fordevelopment were implemented.

(3) Environmental Management System: Anenvironmental management system is astructured system, integrated into the overallmanagement process, which monitors andcontrols the impact of an enterprise’sactivities on the environment. The enterprisefirst establishes an environmental policy withstringent objectives and then puts in placeprocedures to achieve conformance with


these objectives. An essential part of amanagement system is that it be audited,preferably by an external certifying authority.An example of an internationally acceptedstandard for environment managementsystems is the ISO 14001 standard. Smallerenterprises may not have the resources toaspire to a full international standard, but canimplement simple but effective systems.

(4) Rehabilitation of degraded peatland: Itis the responsibility of the exploitingenterprise to ensure the implementation ofthe type of after-use which was made alicensing condition. The appropriate form ofrehabilitation should be planned in advance.

The restoration of peatlands to peat-accumulating ecosystems has beenundertaken in, among others, Germany53,Belarus54, Finland55, Canada56 and theU.S.A57. In Finland58 and Ireland59, large areasof peatlands from which peat has beenextracted for energy use are suitable foragriculture and forestry. In Ireland60 andFinland61 wetlands have been formed fromcutaway peatland creating habitats for avariety of vegetation and wildlife. Areas ofcutaway peatland have also been allowed tore-vegetate naturally62.

In rehabilitating degraded peatland attentionshould be paid to the whole scale of potentialmire and peatland functions and values,including among others (i) restoring or re-creating habitats, (ii) the effects on the carbonbalance and (iii) the effects on local hydrologyof the chosen after-use.

(5) Education and Awareness: Theresponsibility to provide education andawareness programmes lies not only at thenational level, but also at the level of theenterprise, in accordance with the scale ofthe enterprise.

(6) Technology Improvement: Enterprisesextracting or using peat can avail of

technology improvements to reduceemissions of all kinds. Manufacturing andcombustion technologies improve all the time,and the use of these technologies, forexample, in briquette factories and powergeneration units, can greatly improveenvironmental performance. Similarly,agriculture and forestry can optimise therelationship between maximum productivityand minimum negative environmental side-effects by adapting land management,drainage and fertilisation intensities,frequencies, and techniques.

(7) Product diversification: Enterprisesextracting peat for use as a soil improver ormanufacturing peat-based growing media canalso use their expertise to manufacturegrowing media containing alternativematerials (see Table 3/6) such as green waste,coir and bark.

(8) Alternative energy: Peat extractioncompanies often have access to large areasof land, particularly cutaway, which could beused for alternative energies such as thegrowing of biomass or the establishment ofwind farms.

(9) Codes of conduct: Codes of conduct aredealt with at 5.7 below. They are can be usedas instruments at the level of the enterpriseto ensure compliance with the Framework.

5.6.6 Instruments at the level of theindividual person

(1) Civic responsibility: It is in no singleindividual’s immediate interest to moderatehis or her consumption or behaviour.However where, through internationalagreement or national policies or legislation,norms of behaviour are establishedindividuals should exercise civicresponsibility in abiding by these norms. Evenwhen such laws and agreements have notbeen established every individual has to takeresponsibility for the results of his or heractions63.


Does the enterprise conduct all activities which exploit mires orpeatlands on the basis of sound commercial strategy.Does the enterprise with responsibility for mires or peatlands operateon the basis of accepted principles of corporate governance.Are all decisions to exploit a mire or peatland taken on the basis of cost-benefit analysis.Does the enterprise operate an environmental management system.Does the enterprise have an acceptable policy on the after-use ofdegraded peatlands.Does the enterprise promote knowledge and awareness of mires andpeatlands.Does the enterprise, if involved in agriculture, horticulture or forestry onpeatlands, have a policy to minimise negative environmental side effectsby adapting land management, drainage and fertilisation intensities,frequencies, and techniques.If the enterprise extracts peat for energy generation does it have a policyof using the latest available technology with respect to impact reduction.If the enterprise extracts peat for energy generation, does it also promotethe use of alternative energies.If the enterprise extracts peat for use as a soil improver or in growingmedia does it conduct research into, and/or use, alternative growingmedia.Does the enterprise take its decisions in relation to mires and peatlandsin accordance with the criteria outlined in Tables 5/3 and 5/4.Does the enterprise play an active role in stimulating Wise Use policieson the regional, national and international level.

Table 5/10. Analysis to be undertaken at enterprise level

(2) Education and Awareness: It is notenough for countries or enterprises to makeinformation available, it is also necessary forindividuals to inform themselves and to availof the programmes which are put in place64.

5.7 CODES OF CONDUCT

Codes of conduct consist of lists of criteriato be applied to the circumstances of aparticular case. Two examples are given inthe appendices to this document:

– Appendix 5: Code of conduct which mightbe applied by a wholesale or retail companyto its suppliers of peat-based horticulturalproducts;

– Appendix 6: Code of conduct which mightbe applied by a regional or local governmentor administrative authority to a facility forthe conversion of peat to energy.

These are examples only. Actual codes ofconduct have to be drawn up by the principalsin each case. There are many other


circumstances in which codes of conductmight be drawn up - for example governingthe afteruse of cutaway peatland. An exampleof an existing document which could be usedas a code of conduct in particularcircumstances would be the list of actionsappended to the Penang Statement onTropical Peatlands65.

Codes of conduct can be drawn up to replaceparts of this Framework. For example, incountries or provinces which do not have inplace some or all of the “instruments at anational level” codes of conduct could beused in their stead.

5.8 NON-ANTHROPOCENTRICAPPROACHES66

In §3.2 the question of attributing intrinsicvalue to entities other than human beings wasraised. In §4.10 a brief outline of non-anthropocentric approaches was given.The acknowledgement of a right tosubsistence, freedom, and autonomy of non-human entities - independent of theircontribution to the fulfilment of human needsand wants - leads to competing moral claimswhen the interests of human beings and non-human entities clash67.

Conflicts between human and non-humaninterests cannot be resolved by simply givinggreater weight to human claims68 and therebyletting them override the competing claims ofnon-human entities. This does not imply thatwe may never harm other entities under anycircumstances whatever69. Any harm weinflict, however, must be justified by a validmoral reason70.

Attributing intrinsic value to non-humanentities (such as species and ecosystems)would impose additional boundaries71 tohuman behaviour72. Additional rules wouldalso be required because non-human entitiescannot defend their own position73. Whereasinformation exchange, discussion,

negotiation, and fair compromises maycontribute substantially to resolving inter-human conflicts, in conflicts between humanand non-human interests only human beingscan decide to adjust their behaviour.

Parallel to the Universal Declaration of HumanRights, a non-anthropocentric approachwould imply that no harm be done to anyentity with intrinsic value74 and that noconstraints be placed on the freedom of suchentities75. These veto duties76 would prohibitthe doing of harm, but would not prescribethe counteracting of harm that is not causedby human beings77.

Additional principles of a non-anthropocentric approach might include:

The principle of self-defence:Interventions in the basic interests of non-human entities, including their killing ordestruction, are allowed if no otherpossibility exists to save human lives fromserious threats arising from these entities.

This principle is based on the fact, that - ina situation of equal value of differententities - it can not be expected that onesacrifices oneself when another entity (e.g.an animal, a virus, a storm, a meteorite)behaves harmfully.

The principle of proportionality: Wherethere is a conflict between human interestsand those of non-human entities, basicinterests (“needs”) prevail over non-basicinterests (“wants”), no matter from whichentities, human or other, the competingclaims arise.

This principle would reflect GeneralConsideration 1 of the anthropocentricapproach in §5.3. To asses the needs ofnon-human entities, human beings canseek to understand their standpoint andjudge what is, from their point of view,important or not important for their overall


well-being. With respect to animals,ethology (behavioural studies) mayfacilitate such assessment. This principleimplies, for example, that - in case ofpathocentrism or biocentrism - it is notpermissible to kill animals “just for fun” asin recreational hunting and fishing.

The principle of distributive justice: Whenthe basic interests (“needs”) of humanbeings compete with the basic interests(“needs”) of non-human entities, bothinterests should be fairly taken intoaccount.

The principle of distributive justice wouldrequire us to devise ways of transformingsituations of confrontation between humanbeings and non-human entities intosituations of mutual accommodationwhenever possible78. Sometimes, however,the clash between basic human interestsand the basic interests of non-humanentities could not be avoided. The mostobvious case would arise from the needfor human beings to consume non-humanbeings as food. The principle ofdistributive justice entails that it is morallypermissible for human beings to kill otherorganisms for survival. For if human beingsrefrained from eating other organisms theywould be sacrificing their lives for the sakeof these other organisms. The otherorganisms are not of greater intrinsic value,so there is no obligation to further theirinterests at the cost of the basic interestsof human beings.

The principle of restitutive justice: Whennon-human rights have been infringed byhuman beings, the harm has to becompensated or repaired.

This principle parallels the anthropocentricprinciple of compensation. It should applywhenever the application of the principleof distributive justice leads to an inevitableinjustice to non-human entities. In order to

restore the balance of justice betweenhuman beings and non-human entities, thecompensation should provide an amountof good that equals (as far as can bereasonable estimated) the amount of harmto be compensated for.

This section reflects a premise of thisdocument that it is essential to listen to andconsider different points of view if conflictsare to be resolved. As mentioned in §3.2,participants in any given conflict may includeboth anthropocentrists and non-anthropocentrists. As stated in that section,convergence at the level of practicalconclusions may be reached in spite ofparticipants starting from different premises.

5.9 DIALOGUE

In the resolution of conflicts regarding miresand peatlands, the most important GeneralConsideration is that parties may havedifferent moral positions and that they havethe right to have different preferences; themost important principles are those of clarity,information, motivation, and responsibility;the modifier takes into account that aspectsof space and time may modify the principles(while recognizing that there is alsoresponsibility for the larger scale and longerterm); the most important instrument isdialogue.

One of the reasons why this document hasgone to such lengths to discuss thecharacteristics of peatlands, differentapproaches to values, and the causes ofconflicts is that understanding the otherside’s point of view is the first and essentialstep in dialogue. The decision frameworkwhich this document recommends is a rationalprocedure which, if followed, should resolveor minimise most conflicts. It can only do so,however, if it is informed by understandingand conducted through dialogue.


A Framework informed by knowledge andrationality will not remove emotion, vestedinterest or political manoeuvring fromconflicts. It will, however, provide decision-makers with a basis for deciding betweendifferent options. If the parties to a conflictcannot be brought to agree, at least thosedeciding between them have a basis for wisedecisions.

5.10 CONCLUSION

The four operative chapters of this documentoutlined

what are mires and peatlands - their maincharacteristics - how widespread they areand where they are found

why people attribute value to other beingsand things - the types of human values -the values of mires and peatlands - theirfunctions that give rise to these values

why conflicts arise - the difference betweenneeds and wants - rights - the types ofconflicts - conflicts arising from differentapproaches to values - the bases forresolving conflicts

a basis for conflict resolution to be foundin a rational decision-making process basedon an understanding of the different valuesof opposing parties - identifying in eachcase what is essential, whether resourcesare abundant, the potential negative effectsof a decision, the potential benefits, andthe circumstances and conditions whichwill apply in the case of implementation.The decision-making process issummarised again in Figure 5/3.

For this Wise Use Framework to be of valuetwo steps need to be taken -

● it should be widely disseminated andcommunicated, and

● the bodies which participated in itspreparation should continue their co-operation to establish a global data baseof mires and peatlands, standardisedterminology and classification systems,international criteria for peatland valuation,and a means of tracking changes in thepeatland resource.

It is hoped that this document will contributeto a wider understanding of mires andpeatlands and their many functions, and thatit will in practice help in avoiding or resolvingfuture conflicts. For it to succeed it will needto form the basis of continuing co-operationbetween those who have helped to create it.


Figure 5/3 Framework for making decisions on interventions in peatlands

This summary Figure outlines the structure of the Framework but does not include all theelements at each stage of the process

Criteria for decision- will the intervention satisfy human needs- are the resources to be provided essential for human life- can the resource or service be provided continuously- are the resources abundant- would the intervention negatively affect other functions.

General Considerations- would the intervention affect human rights- does it relate to needs or wants- would the benefits accrue widely or just to a privileged few- is the intervention the best way to achieve the desired aims

Principles- is everyone is talking the same language- has adequate information been made publicly available- will the intervention produce greater advantage than not intervening- other Principles ...

Modifiersshould the Principles be modified because of when or where theproposed intervention is to occur

Instruments based on countrieswill the intervention- take place in a context of national policies- be governed by land-use-planning and licensing laws- require rehabilitation after use- be governed by other instruments ...

Instruments based on enterprisesWill the enterprise undertaking interventions employ- good corporate governance and commercial strategy- cost-benefit analysis- environmental management systems- other appropriate instruments ...

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1 World Commission on Environment andDevelopment, 1987, as quoted in §3.2.

2 Rio Declaration (UNED 1992) as quoted in §3.2.3 Throughout this document the words ‘use’ and

‘intervention’ are employed to include anydecision on a peatland - be it a decision to drain amire or one to preserve it.

4 Cf. Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio deJaneiro, 5 June 1992): “Sustainable use” meansthe use of components of biological diversity ina way and at a rate that does not lead to thelong-term decline of biological diversity, ...”.

5 For example, the effect of a function (peat forhorticulture) on the function itself (peat forhorticulture). In this case question 3 might read“Does the use of this peat for horticulture enablethe continuous provision of peat forhorticulture?”. Question 4 might read “Aresphagnum peat mires abundant and do they remainabundant?” The effect of a function on otherfunctions is dealt with in Table 5/2. In this casethe questions in Table 5/2 would examine theeffect of peat for horticulture from this mire (aproduction function) on e.g. the hydrology ofthe catchment (a regulation function).

6 In the sense of the physical survival of the person.7 From a societal point of view, it might be wiser

not to do so, but that is a matter of precedenceand priority (see §4.6 and §4.7) and of differentfocal points of responsibility at differentorganisational levels (see the “principle ofresponsibility” in §5.4(6)).

8 See §3.4.9 Guideline A1 of the GAP: see §1.4 and Ramsar

2001.10 Cf. UN General Assembly Resolution 37/7 and

Annex (28 October 1982): “16. All planningshall include, among its essential elements, theformulation of strategies for the conservation ofnature, the establishment of inventories ofecosystems and assessments of the effects onnature of proposed policies and activities; all ofthese elements shall be disclosed to the public byappropriate means in time to permit effectiveconsultation and participation.”

11 In the widest sense of the word.12 Again, in the widest sense of the word.13 A greater advantage for society may consist of:

● a greater benefit for all present and futuremembers of society, or

● a greater benefit for the less favoured (cf. §4.6).14 Cf. UN General Assembly Resolution 1803 (XVII)

on Permanent Sovereignty over NaturalResources (14 December 1962): “1. The rightsof peoples and nations to permanent sovereigntyover their natural wealth and resources must beexercised in the interest of their nationaldevelopment and of the well-being of thepeople of the State concerned.”Cf. Declaration of the United Nations Conferenceon the Human Environment (Stockholm, 16 June1972): “Principle 2: The natural resources ofthe earth, including the air, water, land, flora andfauna and especially representative samples ofnatural ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the

benefit of present and future generationsthrough careful planning or management, asappropriate. ... Principle 5: The non-renewableresources of the earth must be employed in sucha way as to guard against the danger of theirfuture exhaustion and to ensure that benefits fromsuch employment are shared by all mankind.”Cf. UN Framework Convention on ClimateChange (New York, 9 May 1992): “Affirmingthat responses to climate change should becoordinated with social and economicdevelopments in an integrated matter,..., takinginto full account the legitimate priority needs ofdeveloping countries for the achievement ofsustained economic growth and the eradicationof poverty. ... Article 3.1. The Parties shouldprotect the climate system for the benefit ofpresent and future generations ofhumankind...”.Cf. the Convention on Biological Biodiversity(Rio de Janeiro, 5 June 1992): “Recognizing thateconomic and social development and povertyeradication are the first and overriding prioritiesof developing countries, Aware thatconservation and sustainable use of biologicaldiversity is of critical importance for meetingthe food, health and other needs of the growingworld population...; .“sustainable use” meansthe use of components of biological diversity ina way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity, therebymaintaining its potential to meet the needs andaspirations of present and futuregenerations .”Cf. The Rio Declaration on Environment andDevelopment (Rio de Janeiro, 13 June 1992):“Principle 3: The right to development must befulfilled so to equitably meet development andenvironmental needs of present and futuregenerations.... Principle 8: To achievesustainable development and a higher quality oflife for all people, States should reduce andeliminate unsustainable patterns of productionand consumption...” (our emphasis).

15 Cf. UN General Assembly Resolution 37/7 andAnnex (28 October 1982): “11. (b) Activitieswhich are likely to pose a significant risk tonature shall be preceded by an exhaustiveexamination; their proponents shall demonstratethat expected benefits outweigh potential damageto nature, and where potential adverse effectsare not fully understood, the activities shouldnot proceed.. (c) Activities which may disturbnature shall be preceded by assessment of theirconsequences, and environmental impact studiesof development projects shall be conductedsufficiently in advance, and if they are to beundertaken, such activities shall be planned andcarried out so as to minimise potential adverseeffects. ... 15. Knowledge of nature shall bebroadly disseminated by all possible means,particularly by ecological education as an integralpart of general education. ... 18. Constant effortsshall be made to increase knowledge of nature byscientific research and to disseminate such


knowledge unimpeded by restrictions of any kind.19. The status of natural processes, ecosystemsand species shall be closely monitored to enableearly detection of degradation or threat, ensuretimely intervention and facilitate the evaluationof conservation policies and methods.”cf. The Rio Declaration on Environment andDevelopment (Rio de Janeiro, 13 June 1992):“Principle 17: Environmental impact assessment,as a national instrument, shall be undertaken forproposed activities that are likely to have asignificant adverse impact on the environmentand are subject to a decision of a competentnational authority.”

16 As individuals we pursue self-interest, largelyheedless of the cumulative effects of our individualactions. Though the maintenance of a healthyenvironment is in everyone’s general interest, itis in no individual’s personal interest to moderatehis or her consumption. Eventually, a tragedymay result (Hardin 1968), unless the communitysets limits to individual consumption.

17 Cf. The World Charter for Nature (UN GeneralAssembly Resolution 37/7 and Annex, 28October 1982): “7. In the planning andimplementation of social and economicdevelopment activities, due account shall be takenof the fact that the conservation of nature is anintegral part of those activities. ... 10 (b) Theproductivity of soils shall be maintained orenhanced through measures which safeguard theirlong-term fertility and the process of organicdecomposition, and prevent erosion and all otherforms of degradation. (c) Resources, includingwater, which are not consumed as they are usedshall be reused or recycled. (d) Non-renewableresources which are consumed as they are usedshall be exploited with restraint, taking intoaccount their abundance, the rational possibilitiesof converting them for consumption, and thecompatibility of their exploitation with thefunctioning of natural systems. 11. Activitieswhich might have an impact on nature shall becontrolled, and the best available technologiesthat minimize significant risks to nature or otheradverse effects shall be used; in particular (a)Activities which are likely to cause irreversibledamage to nature shall be avoided. ...(c) Activitieswhich may disturb nature ... shall be planned andcarried out so as to minimise potential adverseeffects”.

18 Including if necessary a ban on exploitation.19 cf. The Rio Declaration on Environment and

Development (Rio de Janeiro, 13 June 1992):“Principle 15: In order to protect theenvironment, the precautionary approach shallbe widely applied by States according to theircapabilities. Where there are threats of seriousor irreversible damage, lack of full scientificcertainty shall not be used as a reason forpostponing cost-effective measures to preventenvironmental damage.” U.N. - Agenda 21.

20 Cf. UN General Assembly Resolution 37/7 andAnnex (28 October 1982): “11 (d).Agriculture,grazing, forestry and fisheries practices shall be

adapted to the natural characteristics andconstraints of given areas”.See also the definition of Wise Use by the RamsarConvention: “their sustainable utilisation ... in away compatible with the maintenance of thenatural properties of the ecosystem” (see §1.2).

21 Cf. The World Charter for Nature (UN GeneralAssembly Resolution 37/7 and Annex, 28October 1982): “2. The genetic viability on theearth shall not be compromised; the populationlevels of all life forms, wild and domesticated,must be at least sufficient for their survival, andto this end necessary habitats shall be safeguarded.3. All areas of the earth, both land and sea, shallbe subject to these principles of conservation;special attention shall be given to unique areas,to representative samples of all the differenttypes of ecosystems and to the habitats of rareor endangered species.. ... 10 (a) Living resourcesshall not be utilized in excess of their naturalcapacity for regeneration.”

22 Cf. Declaration of the United Nations Conferenceon the Human Environment (Stockholm, 16 June1972): “Principle 3: The capacity of the earthto produce vital renewable resources must bemaintained and, wherever practicable, restoredor improved.”cf. UN General Assembly Resolution 37/7 andAnnex (28 October 1982): “11 (e) Areas degradedby human activities shall be rehabilitated forpurposes in accord with their natural potentialand compatible with the well-being of affectedpopulations”.

23 Cf. The Rio Declaration on Environment andDevelopment (Rio de Janeiro, 13 June 1992):“Principle 16: National authorities shouldendeavour to promote the internalisation ofenvironmental costs and the use of economicinstruments, taking into account the approachthat the polluter should, in principle, bear thecost of pollution, with due regard to the publicinterest and without distorting international tradeand investment.”

24 Cf. UN Framework Convention on ClimateChange (New York, 9 May 1992): “Recognising... that standards applied by some countries maybe inappropriate and of unwarranted economicand social costs to other countries, in particulardeveloping countries. ... Article 3.1 The Partiesshould protect the climate system ... in accordancewith their common but differentiatedresponsibilities and respective capabilities....”.

25 In the case of some instruments at national level,they are agreed between groups of countries. Anexample of this is the European Union.

26 Examples: responsible implementing body,commercial company, community group, village.

27 Non-governmental organisations such as theWorld Conservation Union, the InternationalPeat Society, the International Mire ConservationGroup, Wetlands International and the Societyof Wetland Scientists.

28 Ramsar 2001.29 International Energy Agency 2000.30 www.fscoax.org


31 Based largely on the Guidelines for Global Actionon Peatlands (GGAP), Ramsar 2001.

32 Including, for example, international co-operation under the Ramsar Convention.

33 Cf. Safford & Maltby 1998.34 Cf. Shine & de Klemm 1999.35 National parks, nature reserves, areas of

conservation, heritage areas, sites of scientificinterest. See also “ (7) Establishment of ProtectedAreas” below.

36 Cf. Shine & de Klemm 1999, pp 221-225.37 E.g. rights of commonage, grazing rights,

traditional rights of indigenous peoples, huntingrights.

38 For a detailed description of the legal protectionprocess in Switzerland see Kohli 1994. A similardescription for Norway is to be found in Moen1995b.

39 Iwakuma 1995.40 Minaeva & Sirin 2000.41 Okruszko & Byczkowski 2000.42 Backéus & Grab 1995.43 Based on information provided by Catherine

O’Connell. See also Guidelines D1 to D4 of theGGAP - Ramsar 2001.

44 See §3.4.6.45 Safford & Maltby 1998.46 UNEP 2000. The Ecosystem Approach is an

instrument intended for implementation at avariety of levels. For convenience it has beenincluded at the sub-national level.

47 ‘Enterprises’ include responsible implementingbody, commercial company, community group,village.

48 Cf. Cadbury 1992.49 Jeffreys 1995; Fricker n/a. Cost-Benefit Analysis

is an instrument intended for implementation ata variety of levels. For convenience it has beenincluded at the enterprise level.

50 Elements of Life Cycle Analysis and chainanalysis should be included in the Cost-benefitanalysis and the Environmental ImpactAssessment. This is in order to take intoconsideration indirect effects such as changeselsewhere in the market caused by the action, orthe consequences of people changing the locationof their jobs.

51 Net Present Value is a method of expressing futureamounts in current terms. This is done bydiscounting an amount by a percentage for everyyear into the future.For example, an annual cost of $1,000 over 3years, discounted at a compounding discount rateof 10% would appear at present as:● 1st year = $1,000 (no discounting)● 2nd year = $900 ($1,000 less 10%)● 3rd year = $810 ($1,000 less 10%, then less

10% again)The actual Net Present Value is calculated bysubtracting the present value of all costs fromthe present value of all benefits for an option. Itcan be difficult to put a monetary value on suchbenefits as biodiversity or naturalness (cf. §4.8).

52 See discussion in §4.8.

53 Blankenburg 1996, Blankenburg & Hennings1996, Kratz & Pfadenhauer 1996.

54 Bambalov et al. 1996.55 Vasander & Roderfeld 1996.56 Boudreau & Rochefort 2000, Le Quéré & Samson

2000.57 Johnson et al. 2000.58 Vasander & Roderfeld 1996.59 O’Malley 1988.60 McNally 1996.61 E.g. Vikberg 1996.62 Rowlands & Feehan 2000.63 Cf. Joosten 1997.64 Persons who refuse to inform themselves and

thus to modify their behaviour appropriately aresaid to suffer from “invincible ignorance.”

65 Ramsar 1999.66 Non-anthropocentric approaches are highly

diverse with respect to what entities areconsidered to have intrinsic moral value andregarding the characteristics by which this valueis judged (see Tables 3/1 and 3/2). In contrast toanthropocentrism (see the Universal Declarationon Human Rights and associated judgementsystems in §4.6), hardly any generalised rules /principles / guidelines have been formulated forthe multitude of non-anthropocentricapproaches. This section illustrates the kind ofreflections that follow from a non-anthropocentric approach. It is inspired by thebiocentric considerations of Taylor (1986) anddeparts from the presumption that all entitieswith intrinsic value have equal value.

67 Not all types of conflicts identified in §4.3 canoccur between humans and nonhumans. Conflictsdealing with different understanding, differentjudgements, and different positions do not apply,because such conflicts require a high level of self-consciousness and abstraction, that is largelylacking outside the human realm. The mostcommon conflict type is the conflict betweendifferent precedences, i.e. between “me” and“you”, “those here” and “them there”, and “somefew” and “that many” in which the subjects nowalso include nonhuman entities.

68 In anthropocentrism non-human entities do notbelong to the same value category as humanbeings. Human beings are considered to have bothintrinsic and instrumental value, whereas otherentities only have instrumental value. In non-anthropocentric approaches non-human entitiesalso have intrinsic value. It is a matter of muchdebate whether value differences exist within thecategory of intrinsic value, i.e. whether someentities are intrinsically more valuable thanothers, and what characteristics would inspire suchdifferences. The acceptance of differences couldimply that value graduations have also to be madebetween human beings, i.e. that some humanbeings have to be considered as intrinsically lessvaluable than others (Gorke 1999). See also §4.10.

69 Taylor 1986; cf. §5.5.70 Cf. §4.9.


Surwold Meeting, Germany. Photo: Raimo Sopo, November 1997. (§ 1.3)

The Murnauer Moos, one of the last living mires of Germany. Photo: Michael Succow,October 1997. (§ 2.3)


Martimoaapa, a large mire complex in northern Finland. Photo: Aarno Torvinen. (§ 2.3)

Kettlehole mire on the Onega peninsula, White Sea, Russia. Photo: Michael Succow, July1997. (§ 2.3)


Peatland-lake landscape in West Siberia, Russia. Photo: Michael Succow, August 2001.(§ 2.3)

Palsa mire in the central part of West Siberia, Russia. Photo: Andrej Sirin. (§ 2.3)


Polygon mires from aircraft. Northern part of West Siberia, Russia. Photo: Ludmila Usova.(§ 2.3)

Polygon mires in the Lena Delta, Yakutia, Russia. Photo: Michael Succow, August 1997.(§ 2.3)


Marine transgression mires (left) bordering bogs (right) in the Northern Dwina area,Archangelsk, Russia. Photo: Michael Succow, June 1999. (§ 2.3)

The red Sphagnum magellanicum, one of the most abundant Sphagnum species in the world,in Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. Photo: Hans Joosten, March 2000. (§ 2.7)


Ruff (Philomachus pugnax), Finland. Photo: Markku Aikioniemi. (§ 2.7)

Sloping fen on the Onega peninsula, White Sea, Russia, with Eriophorum latifolium(Cyperaceae). Photo: Michael Succow, July 1997. (§ 2.7)


Bog prepared for milled peat extraction, Ireland. Photo: Bord na Móna. (§ 3.4.1 (a))

Vacuum harvester, Canada. Photo: Premier Tech. (§ 3.4.1 (a))


Lettuce (Lactuca sativum var. capitáda) grown in a peat-based blocking medium, Germany.Photo: Klasmann-Deilmann GmbH. (§ 3.4.1 (ab))

Litter peat used as bedding material for cattle, pigs, poultry, and horses, Finland.Photo: Vapo Oy. (§ 3.4.1 (ac))


Peat-fired power station, Edenderry, Ireland. Photo: Bord na Móna. (§ 3.4.1 (ac))

Reed canary grass (Pharalris arundinacea) for energy production, grown on cutawaypeatland sites, Finland. Photo: Vapo Oy. (Table 3/9)


Cloudberries, Finland. Photo: Aarno Torvinen. (§ 3.4.1 (ca))

Scots Pine seedlings planted on a cutaway peatland in Vasikkaneva, Finland. Photo: RaimoSopo, September 2001. (§ 3.4.1 (ea))


Cattle on a meadow established on a cutaway peatland in Valkeasuo, Finland.Photo: Raimo Sopo, July 2001. (§ 5.6.5 (4))

Cranberry field, Québec, Canada. Photo: Gerry Hood. (§ 3.4.1 (ea))


Mega Rice project drainage and irrigation channel in 1999, excavated along a tropicalpeatland watershed in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Photo: Jack Rieley & Susan Page.(§ 3.4.1 (ea))

Tropical agriculture: smallholding on tropical peat near Kalampangan, CentralKalimantan, Indonesia. Photo: Jack Rieley & Susan Page. (§ 3.4.1 (ea))


Pristine peat swamp forest, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia Photo: Jack Rieley & SusanPage. (§ 3.4.1 (eb))

Wood harvesting from a drained peatland area during summer, Finland. Photo: JuhaniPäivänen. (§ 3.4.1 (eb))


Recently excavated ditch in peat soil. Mixed tree stand (Pinus sylvestris, Betula pubescensand Picea abies), Southern Finland. Photo: Juhani Päivänen. (§ 3.4.1 (eb))

The Watervalvlei mire, an almost pristine percolation peatland in the Highveld of SouthAfrica, threatened by inundation for hydro-electricity. Photo: Jan Sliva, March 2001.(§ 3.4.2)


Fire on a pristine raised bog, central part of European Russia. Photo: Stanislav Vompersky.(§ 3.4.3 (m))

Effect of the 1997 fires on the peat swamp area near Palangka Raya, Central Kalimantan,Indonesia. Photo: Suwido Limin. (§ 3.4.3 (m))


A shallow lake formed on the bottom of a cutaway peatland in Rantsila, Finland. Photo:Raimo Sopo, September 1997. (§ 5.6.5 (4))

Dr Harri Vasander showing a sample of peat moss taken from a sod peat pit in Aitoneva,Finland about 40 years after peat cutting was finished. Photo: Raimo Sopo, June 1997.(§ 5.6.5 (4))


71 See §§ 5.3 and 5.4. These additional boundaries,or rules, would involve the adaptation of thegeneral anthropocentric considerations andprinciples to include non-human entities withintrinsic value in the objects/subjects of Tables5/1 and 5/2, the general considerations 1 and 2and of the guidance principles 4, 6, 8, 10 and 14.

72 E.g. limits on our population, habits ofconsumption, and technologies of foodproduction as current practices in these areas arebased on attributing only instrumental values toorganisms.

73 Cf. Stone 1988. In the anthropocentric realmthis also applies to mentally disabled and unbornhuman beings.

74 I.e. the “rule of nonmaleficence” of Taylor 1986.75 I.e. the “rule of non-interference” of Taylor 1986,

implying a “hands off” policy. Depending on thetype of non-anthropocentric approach, theseentities may include individual organisms, species,or whole ecosystems. A constraint is anycondition that hinders or prevents the normalactivity and development of the entity inquestion.

76 In contrast to active, prescriptive duties; cf. Table4/3.

77 That entities suffer and die does not itself callfor corrective action when human beings havehad nothing to do with the cause of that sufferingand death. Suffering and death are integral aspectsof nature.

78 Methods to accomplish this would include (1)permanent habitat allocation: the permanentsetting aside of wilderness areas where otherentities may behave “according to their own will”,independent of any human objectives and freefrom human interference; (2) commonconservation: the sharing of resources while theyare being used by both human beings and non-human entities; (3) environmental integration:the integration of human constructions andactivities into natural surroundings in a way thatavoids serious ecosystem disturbance andenvironmental degradation; (4) rotation: givingother entities their chance at deriving benefitsfrom a particular area of the Earth, after humanbeings have also benefited from that area for alimited period of time. By occupying the area atdifferent time periods, both human beings andnon-human entities can meet basic needs. (Taylor1986).

162 GLOSSARY OF CONCEPTS AND TERMS

Aapa mire Minerotrophic, sloping, and patterned mireAbiotic Non-biotic (see biotic).Absorbed Retained within the peat matrix (like a sponge).Acrotelm Upper peat-producing layer of a mire with a distinct hydraulic

conductivity gradient in which water level fluctuations andhorizontal water flow occur; the acrotelm stabilises hydraulicconditions.

Acrotelm mire A mire in which an acrotelm enables peat accumulation.Activated carbon Powdered or granular carbon used for purifying by adsorption.Aerobic Having or containing oxygen.Aerosols Extremely small particles of liquid or dust in the atmosphere.Aesthetic function The appreciation of beauty.Afforestation Establishing new forests on un-forested land.Agnostics Persons uncertain of all claims to knowledge.Air-water regime The degree of saturation of, and the amount of oxygen in, the soil.Albedo The fraction of sunlight that is reflected by earth, ice, and

clouds back into space.Allogenic Being genetically dissimilar or having another origin; allogenic

material is material that stems from outside of a system.Anaerobic Not requiring air or oxygen for life; applied especially to

microbes to which free oxygen is unnecessary.Anoxic Relating to or marked by a severe deficiency of oxygen.Anthropocentrism Moral position that ascribes intrinsic value only to human beings.Anthropogenic Resulting from human activity.Anti-greenhouse gas A gas which cools the atmosphere.Archive function Function as carrier of information about the past.Arthropods Invertebrates having jointed limbs and a segmented body

with an exoskeleton made of chitin; e.g. insects, crabs.Axiology The theory of the nature and significance of values.Azonal climatic Not fitting the general pattern of climate zones.conditions

GLOSSARY OF CONCEPTS AND TERMS

This Glossary sets out the meanings of a number of concepts described and terms used in thisdocument. The words and phrases used are for the purposes of this document. Their use hereis not intended to pre-empt further discussion on their meaning.

163GLOSSARY OF CONCEPTS AND TERMS

Balneology The use of baths for medical purposes.Bequest function Value relating to what is left for future generations.Biocentrism Moral position that ascribes intrinsic value to all living beings.Biochemical Involving chemical processes in living organisms.mechanismsBiodiversity The variability among living organisms from all sources, including,

inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems andthe ecological complexes of which they are part; this includesdiversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.(Convention on Biological Diversity)

Biogenic Produced by living organisms or biological processes, organic.Biogeochemical Involving chemical processes both in the biosphere and in the

geosphere, e.g. the circulation of elements within ecosystems(for example, the nitrogen cycle).

Biogeographic Dealing with geographic distibutional patterns of flora and fauna.Biomass a. The total mass of living matter in a given place.

b. Vegetable material used as an energy source.Biophysical A situation that is biologically and physically stable (steady state).equilibriumBiosphere The totality of living organisms.Biotic Pertaining to life.Bituminous coal Coal rich in volatile hydrocarbons which flames in burning.Blanket bog Bog which forms a blanket-like layer over the underlying mineral soil.Bog Mire raised above the surrounding landscape and only fed

by precipitation.Boreal Biogeographical zone between the temperate and the subarctic.Calcareous mires Mires rich in calcium carbonates.Carbon cycle The processes by which carbon is cycled through the environment.

Carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide, is absorbed from theatmosphere and used by plants in the process of photosynthesisto store energy. Plants and animals then return carbon dioxide tothe atmosphere through respiration when they consume thisenergy. On a much longer time-scale, carbon is also cycled intoand out of other substances including peat, coal and lime.

Carbon dioxide A gas made up of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygenwhich is produced whenever carbon-based fuels are burned (oroxidised more slowly in plants and animals). Abbreviated as CO2.

Carbonisation The process of charring or coking so as to reduce organic materialto carbon.

Catchment area The geographical area draining into a river or reservoir.Cation Positively charged ion.Cation exchange Capacity to remove cations from a solution and retain them.capacity


Catotelm Permanently water-saturated peat layer of relatively low hydraulicconductivity with a low rate of decay.

Chaos A property of some non-linear dynamic systems which exhibitsensitive dependence on initial conditions. Extremely smalldifferences in initial states lead to strongly different later states.Such systems may still be completely deterministic in that anyfuture state of the system depends only on the initial conditionsand the equations describing the change of the system with time.It may, however, require arbitrarily high precision to actuallycalculate a future state to within some finite precision.

Clastic material Material made up of fragments of pre-existing rock, like sand or clay.Clearcut strips Strips within a forest which have been cleared of all trees.Climate The average pattern of weather in a place.Co-generation Combined generation of heat and power. Also referred to as CHP.Cognition function Value related to the pursuit of knowledge.Coir The fibre of coconut husks.Commonage The right of taking profit in land in common with others, without

owning the land. The most usual forms of commonage were theright to pasture cattle, the right to extract peat, the right to fish awater, and the right to take wood.

Compost A mixture of decaying organic matter used to improve soilstructure and provide nutrients.

Conductivity Conduction between opposite faces of a cube of material.Conservation The keeping entire, the keeping unchanged, preservation. Used in

the sense of a deliberate or political decision to preserve.Conservation value All aggregate values pursued by conservation.Container crops Crops grown in sealed containers.Contingency A possible event or occurrence or result.Corporate The system by which commercial companies and institutions aregovernance directed and controlled.Cosmogenic Isotopes produced by cosmic radiation.isotopesCosmos The ordered universe.Cost-benefit A comparison of the estimated costs of an action with the estimatedanalysis benefits it is likely or intended to produce.Cryo-therapeutic Use of cold for therapeutic treatment of injuries (for example, ice packs).Cut-away peatland What is left of a peatland after all the peat which can be

economically removed has been extracted.Decomposition A complex process consisting of loss of organic matter

(= mineralisation), loss of physical structure and change inchemical state.

Deep ecology A moral position ascribing intrinsic value to all entities.


Deforestation Cutting most or all of the trees in a forested area. Deforestationcontributes to warming by releasing carbon dioxide, changingthe albedo (amount of sunlight reflected from the surface)and reducing the amount of carbon dioxide taken out of theatmosphere by trees.

Deglaciation Melting of glaciers at the end of the Ice Age.Degraded soils Soils that have lost their original instrumental (mostly

agricultural) value.Denitrification The process by which nitrates or nitrites are reduced to nitrogen-

containing gases, as by bacterial action on soil.Discount rate A measure of how cost and benefits that will happen in the future

compare to cost and benefits today. The opportunity cost ofapplying resources.

Discounting A method of estimating the present value of future cash flows.By extension, a method for estimating the present value of futureevents.

Distributional Concerns regarding the distribution of benefits to different sectionsconcerns of the population.Ecocentrism Moral position that attaches intrinsic value to all entities, i.e. to

everything that is.Ecological The principle that harmful effects on ecosystems, e.g. mires andcompensation peatlands, should be balanced by compensatory conservation

measures by the user.Ecological The moral position that every form of life has equal value.egalitarianismEcology a. The science of the relationships between organisms and

their environments.b. The relationship between organisms and their environment.

Economic value Contribution made to economic well-being.Ecosystem A dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism

communities and their non-living environment interactingas a functional unit.

Ecosystem A strategy for the integrated management of the land, water andApproach living resources of an ecosystem which promotes conservation

and sustainable use in an equitable way. It recognises that humanbeings are an integral component of many ecosystems.

Egalitarian principle The principle that one should be concerned not only with thetotal good but also with its distribution: a smaller quantity of goodthat is equally distributed is preferred to a larger total of whichsome have a disproportionate share.

Endogenous Derived or originating internally.Entity Anything which exists whether physically or conceptually.Environmental A public document assessing the probable or possible impact onImpact Statement the environment of a proposed project.


Ethical justification Motivation based on ideas of right and wrong.Eudaimonistic From eudaimonia = Greek “good life”. Values relating to thevalues enrichment of life.Euphotic Relating to the uppermost layer of water that receives sufficient

light for photosynthesis and the growth of plants.Eutrophic Nutrient-rich.Evapotranspiration Total loss of water by physical evaporation and biological

transpiration.Existence function Value related to why human beings exist; the notion of ecological

and evolutionary connection, that we share this world withother entities to which we are related and for which we havea responsibility

Exogenous Derived or originating externally.Exploitation The use for any economic purpose. The term is used without

any pejorative meaning.Feature (Synonymous with characteristic): a property that distinguish

an entity from other entities within a specific collection of entities.A feature is always a property of an entity; a property, however,is not always a feature.

Feedback The mechanism by which the result of an action influences theaction. Positive feedbacks work by stimulating the causingaction, leading to continuously increasing results. Negativefeedbacks hinder the action. In climate change, negative feedbackswork to slow down or offset warming while positive feedbacks workto speed up or amplify warming.

Fen Peatland which in addition to precipitation water also receives waterthat has been in contact with mineral soil or bedrock.

Fennoscandia Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Finland.Financial A method of estimating the present value of future cash flows. discounting A method of estimating future well-being in which not the well-

being itself, but the monetary costs and benefits which determinefuture well-being, are discounted.

Flark Usually elongated, wet and muddy depressions in string mires,may be several metres in length. The term is applied to any waterfilled or sedgy area between strings. On slopes flarks are narrow,only a few metres wide.

Flood mires Mires in which periodical flooding by an adjacent open water body(sea, lake, river) enables peat accumulation.

Fluidised-bed A two-phase system consisting of a mass of small particlessuspended in a fluid, which maintains the stability of the system.The bed acts like a fluid.

Fluvial mires Mires associated with rivers.


Fossil fuels Fuels derived from the ancient remains of plants and animals,preserved in rocks in the earth’s crust with high carbon and hydrogen content.

Function A directional action of an entity that positively affects the objectof the action (i.e. is useful). Function is the complement of use,i.e. one entity uses the function provided by another entity.

Geochemistry The chemistry of the crust of the earth.Geogenous Originating from bedrock (e.g. water feeding a mire).Geological Relating to the study of the earth’s crust from earliest time to

the commencement of the historical period.Geomorphology The science of form of the earth’s surface, including structure

and development.Geosphere The solid part of the earth, as distinct from the atmosphere,

the hydrosphere, the pedosphere, the biosphere and thenoosphere.

Greenhouse effect Warming that results when solar radiation is trapped by theatmosphere; caused by atmospheric gases that allow sunshineto pass through but absorb heat that is radiated back from thewarmed surface of the earth.

Greenhouse gases Any gas in the atmosphere that contributes to the greenhouseeffect. These include carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrousoxide, CFCs, and water vapour. Most occur naturally as well asbeing created by human activity.

Grossform German term referring to the landform or overall shape of a mireor peatland.

Growing media The media in which plants are grown, including soil, various formsof compost, rockwool, peat.

Heat capacity The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an objectby one degree Celsius.

History function Value related to cultural continuity.Holism 1. A moral position that attaches intrinsic value to groupings

or systems.2. The scientific perspective that wholes are more thanthe simplesum of their parts.

Holistic Pertaining to holism.Holistic rationalism The idea that this world is the “best” of all possible worlds, with

a maximum economy of premises and fundamental laws, amaximum diversity of resulting phenomena, and its consistency,order, or harmony.

Holocene The period since approximately 10,000 years ago (i.e. since thelast glaciation).

Horizontal mire Mire without a pronounced slope.Humic Relating to decomposed organic matter in the soil.


Humic ameliorant Soil improver based on humus.Humification The process by which organic matter decomposes to form humus

or peat.Humus Partially decomposed organic matter; the organic component of

soil.Hydraulic Factors affecting water movement and storage.characteristicsHydraulic Coefficient of proportionality describing the rate at which waterconductivity can move through an aquifer or other permeable medium.Hydrochemistry The study of the chemistry of water.Hydrogenetic Types of mires which are defined by their peat formation strategymire types as dependent on water dynamics.Hydrology The study of water movement.Hydrolysates Products of hydrolysis.Hydrolysis Decomposition of a chemical compound by reaction with water,

such as the dissociation of a dissolved salt or the catalyticconversion of starch to glucose.

Hydroscopic Having the ability to absorb water readily from the atmosphere.Hysteresis effect Being dependent on the history or on direction, e.g. that the

way back is different from the way to, or that the answer dependson whether a question – with the same factual content – isformulated negatively or positively.

Identity function The values related to the ability to identify one’s position in theworld. They are limited to self-conscious beings who are able tothink abstractly.

Immersion mire Hydrogenetic mire type in which peat is produced by plantsimmersed in open water (e.g. many Phragmites stands). Manyimmersion mires can be referred to in more familiar terms as“emergent marsh” or “reed swamp”.1

Industrial Cut-away peatlands after the extraction of peat on an industrialcut-away peatlands scale.Instrumental values Values which represent clear means to an end. Such values are

equal to functions.Integrated The management of rivers or basins and the surroundingcatchment catchment as a whole.managementIntergenerational Balance between the wellbeing of both present-day and futurejustice generations.Intermediate Silvicultural cuttings (thinning cuttings) in the stage of tree standcuttings development between young stand treatment/cleaning and

regeneration cutting (regeneration felling). A simple synonym forintermediate cutting is thinning cutting.

Intrinsic moral The value that an entity has as such, independent of everythingvalue else, i.e. independent of external valuers.


Inundation mires Flood mires.Irreversible That cannot be changed back.Isotope Atoms of the same element (having the same atomic number)

which have a different nuclear mass and atomic weight fromother atoms of the same element are called isotopes of that element.

Kettle hole mire A mire in a kettle-shaped basin. Sometimes erroneously used forself-sealing mire.

Kinesitherapy The treatment of disorders by the appropriate of muscular movements.Lacustrine muds Muds formed in lakes.Land-use planning A process or procedure to provide for the planning of the use of

land for the common good and in the interests of sustainabledevelopment.

Layering The process of rooting branches, twigs, or stems that are stillattached to a parent plant, as by placing a specially treated partin moist soil.

Licensing system A system of control to regulate the effects of an activity, forexample its environmental effects, by means of conditions attachedto permits or licences.

Lignite Brown coal.Lithogenous Stemming from the lithosphere, as in lithogenous water

(deep groundwater.)Litter a. An absorbent material, such as granulated clay or straw, for

covering the floor of an animal’s cage or excretory box.b. The uppermost layer of the soil consisting chiefly of fallen leavesand other decaying organic matter.

Living beings A term inclusive of all forms of life.LORCA Long-term apparent rate of carbon accumulation.Lysimeter An instrument for measuring evapotranspiration or water

percolation. It consists of a large cylinder filled with soil or peatthat is put into a vertical position and buried in soil so that theupper surface of the lysimeter is at the same level as the soil surface.

Macerated Made soft or separated into constituents by soaking.Macroclimate The climate in a region as a whole.Material life Values which contribute to the maintenance of physical health.support valuesMean-end How means relate to ends.relationshipsMeta-ethical Relating to the study of the meaning and nature of ethical terms.Meteoric Atmospheric.


Methane A greenhouse gas consisting of one molecule of carbon and fourmolecules of hydrogen. Methane is produced naturally fromrotting organic matter. Human sources of methane includeagricultural activities such as growing rice and raising livestock,land-fills, coal mines, and natural gas systems. Abbreviated as CH4.

Microclimate The specific climate of a small area.Milled peat Peat milled on the surface of a peatland to form crumb.Mimetical desire The instinct of human beings to imitate what those around them

do: social behaviour which mimics that of others.Minerotrophic Also supplied with nutrients by the geosphere.Mire A peatland where peat is currently being formed and accumulating.Modifiers Factors which modify principles.Monetarisation The attribution of monetary value to entities or services which are

not normally seen to have a financial or commercial value.Moral perspective Way of looking at life, an approach which aims to answer the

question of right or wrong.Moral pluralism An approach that acknowledges that various moral perspectives

are equally justifiable.Moral standing The right to be morally considered.Morphology The study of the form, structure and origin of organisms or of

the Earth’s physical features.Multiplier effect The relationship between direct and direct/indirect employment.

The factor by which one multiplies direct employment tocalculate total employment.

Myopic behaviour Attaching less value to future than to present events and thingssolely because they lie in the future.

Naturalistic Approach that regards values as objective properties of anapproach entity, independent of the person making the valuation.Naturalness The quality of not having been deliberately influenced by

human beings.Nature mysticism The intuitive feeling of humanity’s unity with all nature.Needs Things or qualities which are necessary for survival.Neoteny The phenomenon that infantile characteristics are prolonged

into maturity.Net present value A method of expressing future amounts in current terms.Nihilism A doctrine holding that all values are baseless and that nothing

can be known.Nitrous oxide A greenhouse gas consisting of two molecules of nitrogen and

one molecule of oxygen. Nitrous oxide is created when fuels areburned and may also be released during denitrification.Abbreviated as N2O.

Non-anthropocentric Moral positions that do not consider human beings as being theapproaches only entities that possess intrinsic moral value.


Non-material life A range of values relating to the mind, sensation, and the spirit.support valuesNoocentrism Moral position that ascribes intrinsic value only to rational beings.Norg Nitrogen in organic form.Normal problems Problems that can be solved by progress and/or through investment.Normative Principles of behaviour which make it possible to resolve valueprinciples conflicts in a rational way.Norms Generalised expectations of behaviour, as in guidelines,

conventions and laws.Oligotrophic Poor to extremely poor in nutrients.Ombrogenous Only receiving precipitation water.Ombrotrophic Only supplied with nutrients by the atmosphere.Option function The same as bequest functions - those relating to what is left

for future generations. Relate to the importance people place ona safe future.

Organic Material which results from carbon chemical biosynthesis.Organismic Relating to an organism as a whole.Organo-mineral Combined organic and mineral fertilisers.fertilisersOscillation Fluctuation; variation; change back and forth.Osmosis The passage of water through a semi-permeable membrane into a

more concentrated solution, ending by equalising theconcentrations on both sides of the membrane.

Oxic Containing oxygen, aerobic. Usually used in reference to amicrobial habitat.

Oxidation A reaction in which the atoms in an element lose electrons(often – but not limited to – to oxygen) See under ‘oxidativepeat losses’.

Oxidative peat Losses of peat resulting from the reaction of peat with oxygen losses (after drainage).Ozone An unstable gas in which three atoms of oxygen occur together.

Ozone is a greenhouse gas. In the atmosphere ozone occurs attwo different altitudes. Low altitude tropospheric ozone is a formof air pollution (part of smog) produced by the emissions fromcars and trucks. High in the atmosphere a thin layer ofstratospheric ozone is naturally created by sunlight. This ozonelayer shields the earth from dangerous (cancer-causing)ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Several gases (notablychlorofluorocarbons, CFCs) speed the breakdown of ozone inthe ozone layer. While serious in its own right, this is largely adifferent problem from the problem of global warming. Abbreviatedas O3.


Palaeo-ecological Values relating to the reconstruction of human andvalues environmental past.Palaeophysiology Science of the process of life in animals and plants in the past.Palsa Term of Finnish origin for a peat-covered mound with a

permafrost core; usually ombrotrophic, generally much less than50 metres across and from one to several metres high.

Palsa mire Peatland complex of the discontinuous permafrost region,with palsas,(peat plateaus) rising above the adjacent unfrozen peatland(usually fen).

Paludification The formation of waterlogged conditions: also refers to peataccumulation which starts directly over a formerly dry mineral soil.

Palynology Analysis of microscopic remains of organisms.Palynomorph- Study of the form of microscopic remains of organisms.morphologyParadigm examples Example that serve as pattern or model.Pasture Grassland used for the growing of grass to be grazed by farm

animals. Grazing land.Pathocentrism The moral position that all beings which can feel have value.Peat Sedentarily accumulated material consisting of at least 30%

(dry weight) of dead organic material.Peat extraction The excavation and drying of wet peat and the collection,

transport and storage of the dried product.Peat oxidates Substances that develop by the chemical or biochemical oxidation

of peat.Peatland An area with or without vegetation with a naturally accumulated

peat layer at the surface.Pedogenic alteration Alteration arising from processes occurring within the soil.Pedological Relating to the study of soil.Percolation mires Sloping mires in which hardly any water level fluctuations occur,

with scarcely decomposed peat with high hydraulic conductivity.As a substantial water flux occurs through the peat, percolationmires are only found in landscapes where water supply is largeand evenly distributed over the year.

Perlite A natural volcanic glass similar to obsidian but havingdistinctive concentric cracks and a relatively high water content.In a fluffy heat-expanded form perlite is used as a lightweightaggregate, in fire-resistant insulation, and in soil for potted plants.

Permafrost Ground that is permanently frozen.Physico-chemical Total of physical and chemical properties.propertiesPhotosynthesis The process in certain plants and organisms by which, using light as

an energy source, carbohydrates are synthesised from carbon dioxideand water.


Pingo An Eskimo term for arctic mound or conical hill consisting of anouter layer of soil (including peat) and vegetation, covering a coreof solid ice and which exists for at least 2 winters.

Pisciculture The rearing of fishes in ponds, lakes or fish farms.Polder An area where the water level can be artificially regulated

largely independently of the surrounding area.Polluter pays The principle that the cost of measures to prevent, control andprinciple reduce damage should be borne by the responsible party.Polygon A feature of patterned ground caused by permafrost, consisting of

a closed, roughly equidimensional figure bounded by severalsides, in peat mainly with high or low centres and ridges alongthe margins.

Praxis A model, example, or collection of examples: a practice.Precautionary The principle that where there are threats of serious damage,principle measures to prevent this damage should not be avoided because

of lack of full scientific certainty.Precipitation Rainfall, snow, hailstones, dew and frost.Preference approach Approach that regards values as only resulting from the

preferences of the person making the valuation.Prescription duties Duties to take certain actions arising from the rights of others.Pristine Which has not been disturbed by human activity.Production Values related to the capacity to provide resourcesfunctions (food, raw materials, etc.)Property Any inherent quality of an entity.Proportionality The state of being properly related in size, degree, importance,

or other measurable characteristic.Proxy functions Functions acting as substitutes for other functions. Include

sensations that are experienced as pleasant, agreeable or beneficial.Prudential Exercising prudence, good judgment, or common sense.Used

in “prudential argument”: acting as though animals and othernon-human beings have intrinsic value, so as to avoid thepossibility that some people will treat human beings in the sameway as non-humans are sometimes treated.

Public participation A consultation process in which all stakeholders can activelyparticipate.

Pulverised fuel Fuel which has been ground to a fine dust.Pyrolysis Decomposition of a substance by heat.Radiative forcing The greenhouse warming impact of an atmospheric gas.Raised bog Usually dome-shaped peatland that has its water level above that

of the surrounding mineral soil due to its moisture being fed onlyby the atmosphere.

Rational beings Beings who exercise reason or self-consciousness.Recreation function Function in providing opportunities for recreation.


Redox process A reversible chemical reaction in which one reaction is anoxidation and the reverse is a reduction: oxidation-reduction.

Reductivism An approach that tries to reduce complexities (about value) tosimple principles and single measures.

Regeneration Re-growth of a destroyed mire.Regulation Values relating to the capacity to regulate essential ecologicalfunctions and environmental processes and life-support systems, including

the maintenance of adequate climatic, atmospheric, hydrologic,pedologic, ecologic and genetic conditions.

Regulatory The regulation functions of government or public administrationfunctions ensuring that laws and regulations are observed.Resource An available supply that can be drawn on when needed.Restitution The act of making good or compensating for loss, damage, or injury.Schwingmoor mires Mires with floating mats, e.g. papyrus swamp islands.Sea level rise An increase in the average level of the ocean caused by

expansion when water is warmed and by addition of more waterwhen ice caps melt.

Sedentarily Ecosystems that accumulate organic material which is producedaccumulating on the spot and not transported after its production and death.ecosystemsSedentary Produced on the spot and not transported after its production

and death.Sedimentation Deposition of matter after transport by water or ice or wind.Seed-tree groups A method of regenerating a forest stand in which all trees are

removed from the area except for a small number of seed-bearingtrees that are left in small groups. The objective is to create aneven-aged stand.

Self-sealing mires A mire which grows by forming an impervious layer in thepreviously permeable mineral subsoil, impeding water outflow.

Sentient beings Beings with the capacity to experience pleasure and pain.Sentimental The argument that non-human beings should not be violated toargument prevent suffering of human beings who suffer when non-human

beings are violated.Sequester To remove or segregate, for example from the atmosphere.Signalization function Value related to the provision of signals and indications.Sink A place where material is removed or stored. For example, the

oceans absorb about 50% of the carbon dioxide released intothe atmosphere. Scientists refer to oceans and mires as a carbondioxide sinks.

Sloping mire Mire with a sloping surface.Social amenity value Value related to social contacts that improve the quality of life.Social role A person’s role in society.


Socio-economic Improvements to social and economic conditions, such asbenefits increases in income in an area or the creation of employment.Solar forcing Changes in the warming impact of the sun’s radiation on the

earth’s surface.Soligenous Originating from soil and surface.Speciesism The belief that a particular species (e.g. Homo sapiens) is superior

to others (cf. racism, sexism).Spirituality functions Values related to the provision of reflection and spiritual enrichment.Sporopollenine A polymer that constitutes the outer wall of spores and pollen grains.Spring mire Mire that is mainly fed by spring water.Stakeholders All persons and organisations having a direct interest.Storage coefficient The volume of water that can be stored as a proportion of the

volume of soil/peat in which it is stored.Stratigraphy The geological study of strata, or beds, of sedimentary rock.Stratosphere The upper part of the earth’s atmosphere, above about

eleven kilometres.Strong sustainability A view which does not accept substitutability and argues for

keeping the stock of different types of resources intact separately.Subsidence The lowering of the level of a mire due to drainage.Substitutability The degree to which another product can be substituted for the

product in question.Substitutable Capable of being replaced by an alternative that will achieve the

same or similar ends.Substrate An underlying layer, e.g. the substance on which a crop grows.Suo An area with or without a peat layer dominated by a normally

peat-producing vegetation.Surface flow mire Mire in which, because of strongly decomposed peat, most

water overflows the peat.Surfactant A substance capable of reducing the surface tension of a liquid

in which it is dissolved.Surficial Occurring on or near the surface of the earth..Sustainable Economic development which can meet the needs of thedevelopment present without compromising the ability of future generations

to meet their own needs.Symbolisation Functionss that provide embodiments of other functionsfunctions (like mascots, symbols, money).Taxonomic Of or pertaining to the classification of organisms in an ordered

system that indicates natural relationships (systematics).Technological Persons who expect that the science of ecology will eventuallyoptimists provide sufficient understanding of ecological processes and

relationships to enable an effective control of ecosystems and naturalresources.


Terrestrial Living or growing on land.Terrestrialisation The accumulation of sediments and peats in open water.Terrestrialisation Mire formed by peat formation in open water.mireTertiary The era from 65-3 million years ago.Thallasogenous Stemming from the sea.Theism The argument that all beings are God, the image of God, or created

to glorify God.Thinnings Trees cut at various stages in the growth of a forest to allow space

for adjacent trees to grow.Topogenous Originated as a result of the features of an area.Topography Physical features of an area.Trace element A chemical element required in minute quantities by an organism to

maintain proper physical functioning.Transformation Functions related to the provision of the possibility to modifyingfunctions and changing preferences, e.g. the development of other tastes,

the improvement of social skills, and the growing awarenessof existence values.

Transgression The spread of an open water body over adjacent land.Translocation Removal of things or activities from one place to another;Transpiration The emission of water vapour by plants (or animals).Trophic conditions Nutrient availability.Troposphere The lower portion of the earth’s atmosphere in which human

beings live.Typology Listing and explanation of types.Upper Carboniferous Era from 320-290 million years ago.Use The application or employment of an entity for a purpose. That

entity is therefore useful. Use is the complement of function, i.e.the same action (relation, factor) can be seen as a function (fromthe perspective of the provider) or as a use (from the perspectiveof the recipient). The words ‘use’ and ‘utilisation’ are usedinterchangeably in this document.

Utilisation Use in any way, including conservation.Utility discounting A method of estimating the present value of future benefits or

benefits to future generations. It assumes that future well-beingis given less weight than present well-being.

Value The worth attached to entities.Vascular plants The higher plants, characterised by the possession of true roots,

stems and leaves and through whose tissues liquids are conducted.Veto duties Duties to avoid certain actions arising from the rights of others.Vital issues Issues about which it cannot be prudently assumed that progress

will solve the problems associated with them.


Volatiles Substances that change readily to a vapour.Von Post scale A ten-point scale devised by the Swedish scientist Lennart Von

Post measuring the degree of decomposition (or humification) of peat.Wants Amenities/commodities/peripheral interests.Water rise mires Mires in depressions which result from an externally induced

rising water table that does not lead to the origin of pools or lakes.Weak A view which permits the depletion of natural resources ifsustainability artificial substitutes can be found and if the profits are invested

rationally.Weather The condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time

measured in terms in wind, temperature, humidity, atmosphericpressure, and precipitation.

Wetland An area that is inundated or saturated by water at a frequencyand duration sufficient to support a prevalence of vegetationtypically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions.

Wise Use Use for which reasonable people, now and in the future, willnot attribute blame.

World-view A person’s set of values which is based both on “objective”observations, and on subjective interpretations and projections.

Xeromorphy The total of morphological features that show adaptation todry habitats.

Acknowledgements: Geddie, W, 1959,Chambers’s Twentieth Century Dictionary,London. Water Words Dictionary, NevadaDivision of Water Planning, Department ofConservation and Natural Resources. http://w w w. s t a t e . n v. u s / c n r / n d w p / d i c t - 1 /waterwds.htm. Dictionary.com. http://www.dictionary.com/. CancerWEB’s On-lineMedical Dictionary.

The drafters would like to thank JohnCouwenberg and Tony McKenna forassistance in compiling the Glossary.

1 Words such as “swamp“ and “marsh“ areavoided in this document (see footnote 3 ofChapter 2)

178 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The drafters wish to acknowledge the contributions of the following in the compilation of thedocument:

Bambalov, Nikolai, Institute for Problems ofthe Use of Natural Resources and Ecology,Minsk, Belarus.

Bolton, Eugene, Bord na Móna EnvironmentalLimited, Newbridge, Co Kildare, Ireland.

Bonfield, Colin, Botanical Institute,University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.

Brandel, Magnus, Managing Director,Swedish Peat Producers’ Association,Sweden.

Couwenberg, John, Botanical Institute,University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.

Desrochers, André, Research Group on theEcology of Peatlands, Research Centre forForest Biology, University of Laval, Sainte-Foy, Québec, Canada.

Diemont, Herbert, Team Leader, InternationalNature Management, Alterra, WageningenUniversity and Research Centre,Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Falkenberg, Hartmut, Chief Executive,German Peat Producers’ Association,Hannover, Germany.

Galanina, Olga, Department of Geographyand Cartography of Vegetation, KomarovBotanical Institute, St-Petersburg, Russia.

Gorke, Martin, Environmental Ethics,Botanical Institute, University of Greifswald,Greifswald, Germany.

Heinicke, Thomas, Botanical Institute,University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.

Hampicke, Ulrich, Professor, EnvironmentalEconomics, University of Greifswald,Greifswald, Germany.

Hood, Gerry, President of the CanadianSphagnum Moss Peat Association, St Albert,Alberta, Canada

Hofstetter, Ronald, Department of Biology,University of Miami, Coral Gable, Florida,U.S.A.

Höper, Heinrich, Geological Survey of LowerSaxony, Hannover, Germany.

Ilnicki, Piotr, Professor, AgriculturalUniversity, Poznan, Poland.

Jaya, Adi, Faculty of Agriculture, Universityof Palangkaraya, Palangkaraya, Indonesia.

Jeglum, John, Professor, Forest PeatlandScience, Swedish University of AgriculturalSciences, Umeå, Sweden.

Klemetti, Veijo, Vapo Oy, Jyväskylä, Finland.

Larsson, Lars-Eric, geologist, Chief Executiveof the Swedish Peat Research Foundation.

Lapshina, Elena, Research Institute of Biologyand Biophysics, University of Tomsk, Tomsk,Russia.

179ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Lindsay, Richard, Department ofEnvironmental Sciences, University of EastLondon, London, England.

Lüttig, Gerd, Professor Dr., Chairman,Commission VI, International Peat Society.

Maltby, Edward, Professor, Royal HollowayInstitute for Environmental Research,University of London, England.

McAlister, Charlotte, Centre for Land Use andWater Resources Research, University ofNewcastle-upon-Tyne, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England.

McKenna, Tony, Librarian, Bord na Mónap.l.c., Newbridge, Co Kildare, Ireland.

McNally, Gerry, Land Development Manager,Bord na Móna p.l.c., Newbridge, Co Kildare,Ireland.

Meenan, Katherine, Internal Consultant, Bordna Móna p.l.c., Newbridge, Co Kildare,Ireland.

Minaeva, Tatiana, Central Forest BiosphereNature Reserve, Nelidovo / WetlandsInternational, Moscow, Russia.

Mischenko, Alexandr, Research Institute forNature Conservation, State Committee of theRussian Federation for EnvironmentalProtection, Moscow, Russia.

Moore, Tim, Department of Geography andCentre for Climate and Global ChangeResearch, McGill University, Montréal,Québec, Canada.

Nyronen, Timo, Research and DevelopmentDirector, Vapo Oy, Jyväskylä, Finland.

Ott, Konrad, Professor, Environmental Ethics,Botanical Institute, University of Greifswald,Greifswald, Germany.

O’Connell, Catherine, Education Officer, IrishPeatlands Conservation Council, Dublin,Ireland.

Päivänen, Juhani, Professor, Department ofForest Ecology, Helsinki University.

Pettersson, Reidar, former ManagingDirector, Swedish Peat Producers’Association, Färlöv, Sweden.

Pirtola, Marjatta, Taruturve, Helsinki,Finland.

Raudsep, Rein, Director General at theMinistry of Environment, Tallinn, Estonia.

Rieley, Jack, Special Professor in Geography,University of Nottingham, Nottingham,England.

Robertson, Allan, Macaulay Land UseResearch Institute, Aberdeen, Scotland.

Rubec, Clayton, Senior Advisor, HabitatStewardship, Canadian Wildlife Service,Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario,Canada.

Schmilewski, Gerald, Klasmann-DeilmannGmbH, Geeste – Gross Hesepe, Germany.

Shier, Charles, Customer Services Manager,Bord na Móna Energy Limited, Tullamore,Ireland.

Sirin, Andrej, Institute of Forest Science,Russian Academy of Sciences, Upenskoje,Russia.

Sopo, Raimo, Secretary General, InternationalPeat Society, Jyväskylä, Finland.

Trepel, Michael, Ecology Research Centre,Christian-Albrechts University, Kiel,Germany.

180 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Turunen, Jukka, Department ofBiology,University of Joensuu, Joensuu,Finland.

Van de Griendt, Henk, former director ofGriendtsveen B.V.

Wichtmann, Wendelin, Botanical Institute,University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.

Zingstra, Henk, Wetlands International,Wageningen, The Netherlands.

They would also like to thank all those whoparticipated in the various meetings andworkshops, in particular those in Freising in1999, in Heathrow in 2000, and in Wageningen2001. These participants are listed below.Warm thanks also to those who sogenerously provided written commentaries onthe various drafts. The drafters would like topay tribute to the late Antoni Damman,Chairman of the International MireConservation Group, who died on 27December 2000. He was a considerable sourceof support in drafting the document. Finally,they would like to thank Bernie Smyth of Bordna Móna for her administrative supportthroughout the project.

The participants in the three joint IPS-IMCGmeetings which considered successive draftsof the Wise Use Document were:

FREISING

27-28 November , 1999

Co-ordinatorC Rubec.

International Mire Conservation GroupJ Couwenberg, H Diemont, A Grünig, HJoosten, R Lindsay, J Sliva.

International Peat SocietyJ-D Becker-Platen, J Blankenburg, D Clarke,G Hood, H Höper, P Ilnicki, J Päivänen, RPettersson, J Rieley, A Shaw, R Sopo, CWeissmann.

Wetlands InternationalM Risager.

Global Environment NetworkF Parish.

Biodiversity ConventionA Moen.

RamsarR Milton.

HEATHROW

3 December 2000


International Mire Conservation GroupO Bragg, H Diemont, K Jenderedjian, HJoosten, R Lindsay, C MacAlister, TMinayeva, L Papaèkova, M Risager, J Schulz,GM Steiner.

International Peat SocietyM Brandel, T Brandyk, G Caspers, D Clarke,G Hood, P Ilnicki, J Rieley, A Shaw, R Sopo.

WAGENINGEN

30 March 2001


International Mire Conservation GroupO Bragg, J Couwenberg, H Diemont, KJenderedjian, H Joosten, P Julve, R Lindsay,C MacAlister, T Minayeva, L Papaèkova, FParish, J Schulz, A Sirin, J Sliva, GM Steiner.

181ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

International Peat SocietyM Brandel, G Caspers, D Clarke, G Hood, PIlnicki, T Nyrönen, J Päivänen, J Rieley, AShaw, AJ Schilstra, W van Schie.

Wetlands InternationalM Silvius, D Taylor, H Zingstra.

The “Brief Statement on the Wise Use ofPeatlands”, adopted by the International PeatSociety and the International MireConservation Group, March 2002, reproducedat the beginning of this document, wasinitially compiled by G Hood, R Lindsay, TMinayeva, F Parish, J Rieley, A Sirin, A Shawand M Steiner. The final text accepted by thetwo organizations was completed by J Rieley,C Rubec and H Joosten.

182 APPENDICES

183APPENDICES

APPENDICES

184 APPENDIX I

Original 2002 2002Country Total area peatland peatland mire area

(km2) area area (km2)(km2) (km2)

Albania 28,748 600 179 4Andorra 468 10 5 2Austria 83,858 500 200 100Azores 2,335 1 1 1Belarus 207,595 29,390 23,500 11,412Belgium 30,528 700 160 3Bosnia and Herzegovina 51,129 200 150 10Bulgaria 110,994 800 25 5Channel Islands 205 ? ? ?Croatia 56,510 5 1 1Czech Republic 78,864 500 200 50Denmark 43,094 10,000 1,400 50Estonia 45,227 11,000 10,000 3,000Faroe Islands 1,400 30 30 25Finland 338,145 96,000 85,000 32,000France 543,965 2,000 1,500 100FYRO Macedonia 25,713 50 30 5Germany 356,970 16,250 13,000 100Gibraltar 6 0 0 0

APPENDIX 1

EXTENT OF MIRE AND PEATLAND RESOURCE

The tables in this Appendix supplement the information in §2.4 of Chapter 2. In these tablesEstimated peatland/mire area (> 30 cm peat, > 30% organic material) per country/region in km2.Total area (1998) of country/region according to Encarta.

0 = no peatland occurrences encountered, peatlands probably absent? = no peatland occurrences encountered, peatland probably present1 = peatland occurrence recorded, but may be (substantially) smaller than 1 km2

Table A1/1: Mire and peatland resources of Europe

185APPENDIX I

Original 2002 2002Country (continued) Total area peatland peatland mire area

(km2) area area (km2)(km2) (km2)

Greece 131,957 500 71 13Hungary 93,030 1,000 330 30Iceland 103,000 9,000 8,000 3,500Ireland 70,273 12,000 11,500 2,100Isle of Man 572 ? ? ?Italy 301,323 1,200 300 30Jan Mayen 373 0 0 0Latvia 63,700 7,000 6,600 4,663Liechtenstein 160 1 1 1Lithuania 65,300 4,800 3,520 750Luxembourg 2,586 4 3 1Malta 316 1 0 0Moldova 33,700 30 10 1Monaco 2 0 0 0Netherlands 41,526 15,000 2,350 150Norway 385,639 30,000 28,000 22,000Poland 312,684 20,000 12,500 2,000Portugal 92,345 200 20 2Romania 237,500 2,000 1,000 500Russia European part 243,000 213,000 150,000San Marino 61 0 0 0Slovakia 49,035 260 26 13Slovenia 20,253 150 100 10Spain 505,990 300 60 10Svalbard /Spitsbergen 62,160 10 10 10Sweden 449,964 70,000 66,000 55,000Switzerland 41,285 2,000 300 200Ukraine 603,700 11,000 8,000 5,800United Kingdom 244,110 19,000 17,500 1,000Vatican City 0.44 0 0 0Yugoslavia 102,173 1,000 300 50 (Serbia and Montenegro)Total 617,492 514,882 294,702

186 APPENDIX I

Table A1/2 Mire and peatland resources of Asia

Country Total area Peatland areaAfghanistan 652,225 120Armenia 29,800 55Azerbaijan 86,600 10Bahrain 707 0Bangladesh 147,570 300Bhutan 47,000 1Brunei 5,765 1,000Cambodia 181,035 7,000China 9,571,300 7,000Cyprus 9,251 1East-Timor 14,609 ???Fiji 18,376 40Georgia 69,700 200India 3,165,596 300Indonesia 1,904,443 270,000Iran 1,648,000 10Iraq 438,317 100Israel 21,946 40Jammu and Kashmir 222,236 100Japan 377,837 2,000Jordan 89,556 1Kazakhstan 2,717,300 50Kuwait 17,818 0Kyrgyzstan 198,500 100Laos 236,800 200Lebanon 10,452 1Malaysia 329,758 25,000Maldives 298 1Mongolia 1,566,500 50Myanmar 676,552 500Nepal 147,181 1North Korea 120,538 1,300Oman 309,500 0Pakistan 796,095 100Papua New Guinea 462,840 28,942

187APPENDIX I

Philippines 300,000 100Qatar 11,427 0Russia Asian part 1,177,000Saudi Arabia 2,240,000 0Seychelles 454 0Singapore 648 1South Korea 99,268 5Sri Lanka 65,610 35Syria 185,180 3Taiwan 36,000 ???Tajikistan 143,100 ???Thailand 513,115 500Turkey 779,452 120Turkmenistan 488,100 0United Arab Emirates 83,600 0Uzbekistan 447,400 ???Vietnam 331,690 1,000Yemen 527,970 ???Total 1,523,287

188 APPENDIX I

Table A1/3 Mire and peatland resources of Africa

Country Total area Peatland areaAlgeria 2,381,741 10Angola 1,246,700 100Benin 112,622 100Botswana 581,730 3,000Burkina Faso 274,200 10Burundi 27,834 150Cameroon 475,442 100Canary Islands (Spain) 7,273 0Cape Verde 4,033 0Central African Republic 622,436 100Chad 1,284,000 10Comoros 1,862 ???Congo 342,000 4,000Democratic Republic of the Congo 2,344,885 14,000Djibouti 23,200 0Egypt 997,739 10Equatorial Guinea 28,051 ???Eritrea 121,144 ???Ethiopia 1,133,380 200Gabon 267,667 80Ghana 238,500 100Guinea 245,857 1,000Guinea-Bissau 36,125 ???Ivory Coast 322,462 300Kenya 582,646 1,600Lesotho 30,355 20Liberia 99,067 400Libya 1,757,000 0Madagascar 587,041 1,500Madeira (Portugal) 794 ???Malawi 118,484 900Mali 1,240,192 400Mauritania 1,031,000 60Mauritius 2,040 1Morocco 453,730 10Mozambique 799,380 2,000

189APPENDIX I

Country Total area Peatland areaNamibia 824,269 10Niger 1,267,000 30Nigeria 923,768 120Réunion 2,512 1Rwanda 26,338 800São Tomé and Príncipe 1,001 ???Senegal 196,722 20Sierra Leone 71,740 1Somalia 637,700 0South Africa 1,219,090 300St Helena (UK) 324 80Sudan 2,505,800 1,400Swaziland 17,363 ???Tanzania 945,100 100The Gambia 11,295 100Togo 56,785 10Tunisia 164,418 1Uganda 241,138 14,000Zambia 752,614 10,000Zimbabwe 390,759 1,400Total 27,696,607 58,534

190 APPENDIX I

Table A1/4 Mire and peatland resources of North, Central and South America

Country Total area Peatland areaAntigua and Barbuda 442 ???Argentina 2,780,400 2,400Bahamas 13,939 10Barbados 430 0Belize 22,965 680Bermudas 53 1Brazil 8,547,404 55,000Bolivia 1,098,581 20Canada 9,970,610 1,235,000Chile 756,626 10,470Colombia 1,141,748 10,000Costa Rica 51,060 370Cuba 114,525 6,000Dominica 750 1Dominican Republic 48,400 10Easter Island (Chile) 117 1Ecuador 272,045 5,000El Salvador 21,041 90Falkland Islands / Islas Malvinas 12,173 11,510French Guiana 91,000 1,620Galápagos Islands (Ecuador) 7,844 1Greenland 2,175,600 5Grenada 344 ???Guadeloupe (France) 1,780 2Guatemala 108,889 1Guyana 214,969 8,000Haiti 27,750 1Hawaii (U.S.A.) 16,179 1Honduras 112,492 4,530Jamaica 10,991 100Juan Fernández Islands (Chile) 180 1Mexico 1,964,382 1,000Nicaragua 129,494 3,710Panama 75,517 7,870Paraguay 406,752 100

191APPENDIX I

Country Total area Peatland areaPeru 1,280,000 50,000Puerto Rico (U.S.A) 9,104 100St Kitts and Nevis 269 1St Lucia 616 ???St Vincent and the Grenadines 389 ???Suriname 163,265 1,130Trinidad and Tobago 5,128 10United States of America 9,629,047 625,000Uruguay 176,215 1,000Venezuela 912,050 10,000Total 42,373,555 2,050,746

Table A1/5 Peatland resources of Australia, New Zealand, the Pacific and Antarctica

Country Total area Peatland areaAmerican Samoa (USA) 195 0Antarctica 14,200,000 3,000Auckland Islands (New Zealand) 570 560Australia (excl. Tasmania) 7,614,500 1,330Chatham Islands (New Zealand) 963 450Guam (U.S.A.) 541 0Kiribati 811 2Marshall Islands 181 0Martinique 1,102 1Micronesia (Federated States of) 702 33Nauru 21 0New Caledonia and Dependencies 19,058 1(France)New Zealand 270,534 2,600Palau 488 1Samoa 2,831 1Solomon Islands 27,556 10Tasmania 68,331 20Tonga 750 ???Tuvalu 26 0Vanuatu 12,190 ???Total 22,221,350 8,009

192 APPENDIX I

APPENDIX 2

MIRES AND PEATLANDS AND THE GLOBAL CLIMATE1

This appendix is a longer version of the “Regulation of the global climate” material in §3.4.3with tables and text supporting the statements in §3.4.3. It discusses how peatlands andpeatland use may influence the global climate.

A2.1 INTRODUCTION

The peat formation process is stronglyinfluenced by climatic conditions, but mireecosystems themselves also affect the globalclimate. This occurs via the so-calledgreenhouse gases they absorb and emit andthe carbon they store.

Like a window pane in a greenhouse, a numberof gases in the atmosphere let solar radiation(visible light) pass to the surface of the earthwhile trapping infrared (heat) radiation thatis re-emitted by the surface of the earth. Thistrapping of heat radiation, that wouldotherwise escape to space, is referred to asthe greenhouse effect. Gases that influencethe radiation balance are called radiativelyactive or greenhouse gases (GHG)2.

Greenhouse gases fall into three categories:■ radiatively active gases such as water

vapour (H20), carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone(03), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N20), andthe chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) whichexert direct climatic effects,

■ chemically/photochemically active gasessuch as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogenoxides (NOx), and sulphur dioxide (SO2)which exert indirect climatic effects throughtheir influence on the atmosphericconcentrations of hydroxyl radicals (OH),CH4 and 03, and

■ aerosols: 10-6 - 10-2 mm large fluid or solidparticles dispersed in the air.

Even without human interference, the naturalgreenhouse effect keeps the Earth’s surfaceca. 300 C warmer than it would be if all solarradiation was simply transferred back tospace3. Water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide(CO2), and clouds contribute roughly 90percent to the natural greenhouse effect,whereas naturally occurring ozone (03)methane (CH4) and other gases account forthe remainder. The emission of greenhousegases by human activities causes a changein the radiation balance of the Earth (radiativeforcing).

The type of gases that mires and peatlandsexchange with the atmosphere is not alwaysthe same. Different mire types emit differentamounts and proportions of gases. In thecourse of their long-term development, somemire types become spontaneously wetter4 andthe proportion of emitted methaneconsequently increases. Peatland drainagegenerally enlarges the share of emitted carbondioxide and decreases that of methane,whereas peatland agriculture additionallyleads to a larger emission of nitrous oxide5.As all these gases have a different radiativeforcing6, the effect on the radiation balanceof the atmosphere differs with mire/peatlandtype and type of exploitation7.

193APPENDIX I

The other important aspect is the store ofcarbon, i.e. the carbon that is excluded fromshort-term (e.g. annual) carbon cycling.Stores are only important when their volumeschange. The increase of atmospheric CO2 inthe recent past is especially caused byburning the long-term carbon stores called“fossil fuels” (like coal, lignite, gas, and oil).The felling and burning of the tropicalrainforest increases carbon dioxideconcentrations in the atmosphere because of

the mobilisation of the carbon stored in forestbiomass, not because plant productivitydecreases. The peatland carbon store can besubdivided into three compartments, whichmay all behave differently under differentmanagement options8:■ the carbon store in the biomass,■ the carbon store in the litter, and■ the carbon store in the peat.

Figure A2/1 Carbon fluxes and carbon sequestration (103 g C ha-1 year-1) in a pristine bog(Pradeaux, French Central Massif, 1250 m over sea level NN)9

2.740 C-assimilation by photosynthesis

CATOTELM

LITTER

ACROTELM

SPHAGNUM

above ground

below ground

CAREX

840

370

470

1.900

890 (CO2-C)1.850

310

280 C-sequestration in peat

1.540 (CO2-C)

30 (CH4-C)

1.900

370

194 APPENDIX 2

To understand the integrated effects ofpeatlands on climate and the consequencesof human impact, it is therefore necessary toconsider both■ the types, volumes, and proportions of

greenhouse gases exchanged, and■ the carbon stores in peatlands.

A2.2 THE ROLE OF PRISTINEMIRES

A major characteristic of mires is that theysequester carbon dioxide from theatmosphere and transform it into plantbiomass that is eventually stored as peat.Peat accumulation in mires is the result ofvarious processes (Figure A2/1) including:carbon sequestration by plantphotosynthesis (primary production), directcarbon losses during litter decomposition10,decomposition in the acrotelm, anddecomposition losses in the catotelm. Onlyabout 10 % of the primarily assimilated carbonis sequestered in the peat in the long term.Long-term carbon accumulation rates of theworld’s mires are estimated to be 40 – 70·1012

g C per year11. This is approximately 1% ofthe 6,000 ·1012 g C emitted by global fossilfuel consumption in 199012, or 10 % of the 660·1012 g C emitted by USA electric utilities in199813.

In the long run, mires may in this waywithdraw enormous amounts of carbondioxide from the atmosphere and store it aspeat deposits. At present approximately thesame amount of carbon is stored in the world’speatlands as in the whole atmosphere14. Thedecreasing atmospheric concentrations ofcarbon dioxide during interglacials as a resultof peat formation and the consequent steadilyreducing greenhouse effect is seen by somescientists as a major cause for the origin ofice ages15.

The effect of pristine mires on the globalclimate depends not only on the sequestrationof carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere,

but also on the emission of other gases,especially methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide(N2O).

Methane is the second most importantgreenhouse gas after CO2 and is expected tocontribute 18% of the total expected globalwarming over the next 50 years, as opposedto 50% attributable to CO2. Furthermoremethane participates in tropospheric ozoneformation16. Global methane production isdominated by natural wetlands, rice paddies,and animal livestock (Table A2/1).

Wetlands18 115bogs/tundra (boreal) 35swamps/alluvial 80

Rice production19 100Animals (mainly livestock) 80Biomass burning 55Landfills 40Gas production 40Coal production 35Termites 20Oceans, freshwaters 10Hydrates 5?Total sources 500

Table A2/1: Net sources of globalatmospheric emissions of methane (in 1012 gCH4 year-1)17

Methane emissions in mires are highlyvariable, but generally higher in pristine fensthan in pristine bogs (Table A2/2).

Nitrous oxide is a greenhouse gas and alsocauses destruction of stratospheric ozone27.Nitrous oxide emissions from pristine miresare very low (Table A2/3). Occasionally, evena consumption of nitrous oxide may take placedue to the reduction of nitrous oxide todinitrogen (N2) under anoxic conditions.

195APPENDIX 2

Because all gases have a different lifetime inthe atmosphere and a different “globalwarming potential” (see Table A2/4), thecombined effects of all three gases togetherdepend on the time horizon chosen. On the100 year horizon, for example, Finnishundisturbed mires have a positive radiative

forcing of + 8.40 ± 0.15 ·1012 g CO2 equivalents(i.e. they increase the greenhouse effect),whereas on the 500 year horizon, the effectbecomes negative with - 0.54 ± 0.15 ·1012 gCO2 equivalents (i.e. they decrease thegreenhouse effect33). This is due to thechanging impact of CH4 emissions.

Table A2/4: The atmospheric lifetime and the IPCC (1996) accepted global warmingpotentials over different time horizons of radiatively important gases34.

Chemical Atmospheric Global warming potential (mass basis) (time)species lifetime (years) 20-year horizon 100-year horizon 500- year horizonCO2 variable 1 1 1CH4 12 ± 3 56 21 6.5N2O 120 280 310 170

Region Nitrous oxide emissionbogs fens

Finland28 0.04 0.04Sweden, Finland29 0.0 to 0.2USA, temperate zone (flooded)30 0.1 - 0.5Germany31 0.6 - 1.2Germany (flooded)32 - 0.7 to - 0.2Median 0.04 0.10

Table A2/3: Nitrous oxide emissions (in kg N ha-1 year-1) from pristine or rewetted mires

Region Methane emissionbogs fens

Globally20 20 101USA, temperate zone21 7 – 1132 0.8 - 1820*

Sweden22 11 228Finland23 20 – 220 135 - 480England24 10 – 40Germany25 293Germany (rewetted)26 81 529 - 980*

Median (lower – upper quartile) 53 (20 – 84) 297 (190 – 480)

Table A2/2: Methane emissions (in 103 g C ha-1 year-1) from pristine and rewetted mires

196 APPENDIX 2

Other reviews arrive at similar conclusions.Martikainen (1996) concludes that northernpeatlands have a negative radiative forcingeffect on climate (i.e. they “cool theatmosphere”) because the CO2 uptake (bypeat accumulation and biomass production)compensates for the warming effect of theCH4 emissions. Höper (cf. Table A2/5)deduces that over a short time-scale pristinemires contribute to the greenhouse effectwith respect to their CO2, CH4 and N2Obalances. Over a 500-year time-scale pristinebogs have a negative global warmingpotential and fens a small positive potential.

Similarly Roulet (2000b) concludes:“Canadian peatlands are neither a net sink orsource of GHGs. … For a time horizon lessthan 100 years, Canadian peatlands are asource (GWP for CH4 emissions > sink of CO2);for a time horizon greater than 100 years, theyare a sink.”

Although it should be recognised, that thereare large uncertainties in these calculations,we may provisionally conclude that■ under the present climatic conditions,■ on a time scale relevant for current

civilisation, and■ with respect to the combined effects of CO2,

CH4 and N2O exchange,pristine mires play an insignificant role withrespect to global warming.In this respect, mires do not differ from virgintropical rainforests and other types of

Table A2/5: Global Warming Potential (GWP in kg CO2-C-equivalents ha-1 year-1) of pristinemires using different time scales

bogs fensCO2 sequestration (kg C ha-1 year-1) -310 -250CH4 emission (kg C ha-1 year-1) 53 297N2O emission (kg N ha-1 year-1) 0.04 0.1Global Warming Potential 20 years 723 5524Global Warming Potential 100 years 45 1724Global Warming Potential 500 years -233 173

“climax” ecosystems, that are in equilibriumwith climate. Like these other ecosystems thathave a large carbon store in their biomass,mires and peatlands have a considerableclimatic importance as stores of carbon,especially in their peat (see below).

Recently it has been acknowledged, thatmany more greenhouse gases are emitted bymires including■ Hydrocarbons, that may significantly

impact ozone, methane and carbonmonoxide in the troposphere. 400-800·1012

g C yr-1, an amount equivalent to allmethane emissions, are emitted by plants,primarily trees. As the emissions are verysensitive to temperature, the emissionsfrom peatlands in North America andEurasia are expected to significantlyincrease under global warming35.

■ Dimethyl sulfide (DMS CH3SCH3), an“anti-greenhouse gas” that enters thetroposphere and is oxidized there to sulfateparticles, which - as cloud condensationnuclei - influence cloud dropletconcentrations, cloud albedo andconsequently climate36.

■ Methyl bromide (CH3Br) and methylchloride (CH3Cl)37, that have a coolingeffect through their ability to destroystratospheric ozone38.

No quantitative information is available onthe global climatic effects of thesesubstances.

197APPENDIX 2

A2.3 THE ROLE OF PEATLANDSDRAINED FOR AGRICULTURE

When virgin peatlands are converted toagriculture, the natural biomass is replacedby crop biomass. This may result insubstantial changes in the biomass carbonstore, e.g. when tropical forested peatlandsare converted to vegetable or rice fields. Areclamation of non-forested virgin peatlandto grasslands and arable fields will generallynot lead to large biomass or litter changes39.

The dominant effect of peatland drainage foragriculture is that the peat gets exposed tooxygen which leads to peat mineralisation,i.e. a decrease in the peat carbon store, andan increased emission of carbon dioxide,especially in the summer months40.

Under grassland, drained bogs and fens inthe boreal and temperate zones emit about

2,500 and 3,500 kg C ha-1 year-1 as CO2respectively (Table A2/6). Water table depthdoes not substantially influence themagnitude of these emissions. The highestmineralisation rate is observed with a watertable depth of 80 - 90 cm41, whereas depths of17 - 60 cm already lead to 80 % of the maximumvalue42. At water levels deeper than 90 cm,drought inhibits peat mineralisation again43.

Under tillage, peat mineralisation isaccelerated as compared to grassland due tomore intensive aeration. CO2 emission ratesin arable fens are higher than in bogs (TableA2/7).

Methane emissions from drained peatlandsare generally very low (Table A2/8), thoughemissions of up to 21 kg CH4-C ha-1 year-1

have been observed in bogs. Drained fensemit less methane than bogs and functionmore frequently as net sinks for atmosphericmethane.

Table A2/6: CO2 emissions from drained peatlands used as grassland.

Region CO2 emission in kg C ha-1 y.-1

bogs fensFinland44 1500 – 2500 3140Canada45 1910North-east Germany46 2800 - 6580North-west Germany47 0 – 48402 4119 - 4318Sweden48 3500Median 2350 3465

Region CO2 emission in kg C ha-1 y.-1

bogs fensNorth West Germany50 4400 13200South Germany51 6600-9900Poland52 11220Median 4400 10560

Table A2/7: CO2 emissions from drained peatlands used as arable land49.

198 APPENDIX 2

Region CH4 emission in kg C ha-1 y.-1

bogs fensCanada53 - 0.8 to + 0.3 - 0.8 to + 0.3Sweden54 0.8Finland55 2 to 21 - 0.5 to + 5.0North-east Germany56 0.6 to 3.5North-west Germany57 - 1.4 to + 0.3Median 2 0

Table A2/8: Methane emissions from drained peatlands used as grassland. Negative valuescorrespond to a net uptake and absorption of methane into the soil.

Nitrous oxide emissions from bogs are low(Table A2/9) due to the low pH and low totalnitrogen contents. In the more nutrient-richfens, nitrous oxide emissions of up to 16 kg Nha-1 year -1 have been observed, with a medianof 5.7 kg N ha-1 year -1. N2O emissions willdepend on the available nitrogen andtherefore on nitrogen fertilization. It isassumed that 1% of the nitrogen applied asfertilizer is emitted as N2O

58.

Table A2/9: Nitrous oxide emissions from drained peatlands used as grassland.

Region N2O emission in kg N ha-1 y.-1

bogs fensFinland59 0.04 1.2 to 1.5Sweden, Finland (forest)60 0USA, temperate zone61 5.7 to 13.1Netherlands62 2.2 to 13.3South Germany63 4.2North-east Germany64 0.6 to 14.0North-west Germany65 5.0 to 16.0Median 0.02 5.7

Figure A2/2 gives an overview of the globalwarming potential of drained peatlands underdifferent forms of agricultural use. Carbondioxide is by far the most relevant gas,contributing between 85 and 98 % of thecumulative global warming potential of allgreenhouse gases. Intensively used boggrasslands have similar warming potentialsto tilled bogs. Fertilisation and liming ofgrasslands strongly increases peatmineralisation66.

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A2.4 THE ROLE OF PEATLANDSDRAINED FOR FORESTRY68.

The effect of peatland drainage for forestryis more complicated than that of agriculturaldrainage, as various processes withcontrasting effects occur simultaneously andthe integrated effects differ considerably overdifferent time-scales.

As in agriculture, increased aeration of thepeat after forestry drainage results in fasterpeat mineralisation and a decrease of the peatcarbon store. In the boreal zone this aerationmay be accompanied by a decrease in peatpH and a lower peat temperature, which mayagain reduce the increased rate of peatmineralisation to some extent.

As water-logging in mires generally preventsan economic level of wood production69,peatland drainage aims to increase the woodyield. After drainage, forest vegetation (treesand shrubs etc.) takes the place of the originalmire vegetation and the peatland biomass

Figure A2/2: Rough estimates of the global warming potential of fens and bogs (in kg CO2equivalents ha-1 y-1) under different types of land use (compiled by Heinrich Höper 2000).67

-2000

0

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carbon store (both above and below ground)increases quickly. This store wouldeventually reach a new equilibrium that ismuch higher than that of the former mirevegetation. Before this stage is reached thewood is harvested and the biomass storereduces substantially again.

Peatland drainage for forestry also leads tochanges in the litter carbon store. The “moistlitter”70 in the mire’s acrotelm is generallyconsidered as part of the peat carbon storeas it gradually passes into the catotelm peat.The litter in a drained forest71 is of differentquality and can be considered as a separatecomponent. The accumulation of litter leadsto an increase in the litter carbon store. Asthis litter accumulates under aerobicconditions, the litter carbon store eventuallyreaches an equilibrium and the netaccumulation stops. Depending on thepeatland type and the cutting regime of theforest, it might take centuries before thisequilibrium is reached.

200 APPENDIX 2

Peatland drainage for forestry therefore leadsto■ a steady decrease of the peat carbon store,■ a rapid initial increase of the biomass store,

the harvesting of which leads to a typicalsaw tooth curve of the carbon biomassstore (Fig. A2/3), and

■ a slow initial increase of the peatland litterstore which eventually, after somecenturies, reaches an equilibrium.

The peatland carbon store, being thecombined effect of these processes, variestherefore strongly in time. In the first periodafter drainage, the increase in biomass andlitter stores may strongly exceed the lossesfrom the peat carbon store. As the biomassand litter stores tend to an equilibrium, butthe peat carbon losses continue72, thecumulative carbon losses from peat oxidationprevail on the long run73 (see Fig. A2/3).

With respect to gas exchange, the drainageof peatlands for forestry generally leads toan increase in CO2 emissions75, a substantialdecrease in CH4 emissions and, depending onpeatland type and type of land use(fertilisation), to a sometimes drastic increasein N2O emissions76.

A2.5 THE ROLE OF PEATEXTRACTION

The effect of peat extraction and subsequentoxidation is similar to that of burning fossilfuels. The peat carbon store is largelytransformed into CO2. Per m³ of extractedpeat77 some 50 kg CO2-C, 11,3 g CH4-C and4.3 mg N2O-N are eventually emitted78.Efficient drainage in the extraction areas maymaintain high rates of CO2 emissions79 whileCH4

80 and N2O emissions remain fairly low81.

Fig. A2/374 Dynamics of the carbon stores of a tall sedge pine fen site (oligotrophic nutrientstatus) during the 300 years after drainage. Tree stand scenario 1: Total carbon store of anuntreated drained tree stand. Tree stand scenario 2: Total carbon store of a drainedproduction forest. Tree stand stores are shown as a difference between the total (continuousline) and peat store lines (dashed line).

201APPENDIX 2

A2.6 NATIONAL BALANCES

Detailed national calculations with respect topeat carbon stores and radiative forcing areonly available for Finland82. Table A2/10presents the carbon balance data for Finnishpeatlands. Both undisturbed and forestrydrained peatlands currently have a positivecarbon balance, the former because of peataccumulation, the latter because of increasein root biomass and litter carbon.

Table A2/11 presents the integrated effectsof various greenhouse gases on radiativeforcing. The strongly time-dependent effectof undisturbed mires is striking, because of

Total C in 109 gUndisturbed peatlands - 408 ± 28Peatlands drained for forestry - 2468 ± 1485Peatlands drained for agriculture + 1485 ± 621Peat extraction and stockpiles + 180 ± n.d.Peat combustion84 + 2184 ± 178Totals 973 ± 2312

Table A2/10: Annual carbon balances of Finnish peatlands under different land-use forms(- sequestration; + emission)83.

the decreasing effect of methane85. Estimatingthe effects on the 500-year horizon is evenmore speculative than that for the 100-yearhorizon, and does not take into accountchanges in hydrology and temperatureresulting from global change.

A2.7 THE ROLE OF PEATLANDFIRES

In many areas of the world natural fires ignitedby lightning strikes were normal phenomenain peatlands87. Today fire is most frequentlythe result of human activities, such as theburning of forested areas for land clearing, ofnatural grasslands and savannas to sustain

Table A2/11: Summary of radiative forcing of Finnish peatlands under different land-useforms using different time horizons86.

Radiative forcing(in 1012 g CO2 equivalents)

Land use area in 1000 ha 100 year horizon 500 year horizonUndisturbed peatlands 4000 + 8.40 ± 0.15 + 0.54 ± 0.15Forest drained peatlands 5700 - 5.28 ± 5.5 - 7.61 ± 5.5Agricultural peatlands 250 + 6.63 ± 2.57 + 6.12 ± 2.45Peat extraction 63 + 0.71 ± n.d + 0.69 ± n.dand stockpilesPeat combustion 77.5 ± 7.3 PJ y-1 + 8.51 ± 0.75 + 8.32 ± 0.71Totals + 18.97 ± 8.97 + 8.06 ± 8.81

202 APPENDIX 2

nomadic agriculture, of agricultural residues,and of biomass as fuel for cooking andheating88.

Peatland fires may lead to the ignition of thepeat layers, especially after drainage89. Suchfires are difficult to extinguish and may lastfor many months despite extensive rains. Thedepth and extent of such fires depend on theoxygen availability, the moisture content, andthe presence of cracks in the peat90.

Emissions from biomass and peatlandburning represent a large perturbation ofglobal atmospheric chemistry91. In the 1982-3 drought and fire in East Kalimantan, thearea affected by fire included 5500 km2 of peat-swamp forest92. In 1997 and 1998 landclearance activities in Indonesia combinedwith an extended dry season created severalmonths of forest and peatland fires. Two ofthe most intensive sources of smoke andparticulate matter were fires on the peatlandsof Kalimantan and Sumatra. Both the surfacevegetation and the underlying peat wereignited. In Kalimantan some 7500 km2 of peat-swamp forest was destroyed with a loss ofsurface peat of between 0.2 and 1.5 metres.Total emissions of carbon as a result of thefires are estimated at between 400 1012 g Cand 900 1012 g C 93, being equal to 10 % of theglobal annual emission from fossil fuelconsumption94.

A2.8 THE ROLE OF PEATLANDINUNDATION AND REWETTING

Peatlands are inundated for rice cultivation95,water reservoirs (especially for hydro-electricity96), and mire restoration. Higherwater table depths generally lower the carbonmineralisation rate97. Nevertheless inundationand rewetting do not necessarily result inlower emission rates.

Rice paddies are among the most importantCH4 emitters in the world98. Inundation ofpeatlands to create water reservoirs leads to

significant emissions of both CO2 and CH4 99.

Roulet (2000b) estimates the emission fromCanadian wetlands due to flooding to beapproximately 1x1012 g C y-1, representing 5%of Canada’s anthropogenic emissions.

The rewetting of degraded peatlands wouldalso generally be expected to lead to adecrease in CO2- and N2O emissions100. Inpractice, however, rewetting of fen grasslandsoften leads to increased CH4 emissions101,while CO2 emissions may remain continuouslyhigh102. This could be caused by the rapiddecomposition of young plant material andis probably a transient phenomenon. Waterlevel fluctuations on such plots may cause adrastic increase of N2O emissions103.

Rewetting of drained alder forests leads toincreased emissions of CH4, but to decreasingN2O- emissions104.

A2.9 THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATECHANGE ON MIRES AND

PEATLANDS

The distribution of mires and mire types overthe globe clearly reflects their dependenceon climate105. As mires are concentrated inhumid or cool regions, a changing climate canbe expected to seriously affect their carbonbalance and radiative forcing.

Most climate models suggest that thenorthern regions, which contain most of theworld’s peatlands, will become significantlywarmer in the 21st century, - continental areas(though this is less certain) becoming drierand oceanic areas becoming wetter.Since both net primary production anddecomposition are closely related to moistureand temperature, significant alterations in thecarbon dynamics of peatlands may result106.

Some researchers stress the importance ofalterations in the water table level107, whichmight increase carbon accumulation innorthern peatlands but might create a greater

203APPENDIX 2

source of carbon dioxide in the more southernpeatlands. Others stress the importance of arise in temperatures108 and suggest that a netloss of carbon will take place in northern fensbut a net gain in northern bogs109.

The behaviour of permafrost peatlands willalso be important, as both decomposition andnet primary production are acceleratedfollowing permafrost melt110. In general,methane emissions from peatland ecosystemswill decrease with drying111. Increasedtemperatures and thaw depth in wet tundraecosystems could, however, also increasemethane fluxes, especially when, as climatemodels indicate, precipitation at northernlatitudes increases.

It may be concluded, that there are still toomany uncertainties in the magnitude and thedirection of potential changes to arrive at afinal conclusion on the reaction of mires andpeatlands to global warming112.

204 APPENDIX 3

APPENDIX 3

CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY- ECOSYSTEM APPROACH –

PRINCIPLES

The Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted an ecosystemapproach for the implementation of the objectives of the Convention. The Fifth Conferenceof the Parties in Kenya, 2000, recommended the application of the following principles (the“Malawi Principles”):

Principle 1: The objectives of managementof land, water and living resources are a matterof societal choices

Principle 2: Management should bedecentralised to the lowest appropriate level.

Principle 3: Ecosystem managers shouldconsider the effects (actual or potential) oftheir activities on adjacent and otherecosystems.

Principle 4: Recognising potential gainsfrom management, there is usually a need tounderstand and manage the ecosystem in aneconomic context.

Principle 5: Conservation of ecosystemstructure and functioning, in order tomaintain ecosystem services, should be apriority target of the ecosystem approach.

Principle 6: Ecosystem must be managedwithin the limits of their functioning.

Principle 7: The ecosystem approach shouldbe undertaken at the appropriate spatial andtemporal scales.

Principle 8: Recognising the varying

temporal scales and lag-effects thatcharacterise ecosystem processes, objectivesfor ecosystem management should be set forthe long term.

Principle 9: Management must recognise thatchange is inevitable.

Principle10: The ecosystem approach shouldseek the appropriate balance between, andintegration of, conservation and use ofbiological diversity.

Principle 11: The ecosystem approachshould consider all forms of relevantinformation, including scientific andindigenous and local knowledge, innovationsand practices

Principle 12: The ecosystem approachshould involve all relevant sectors of societyand scientific disciplines.

The full text of the Principles (including therationale for each) is contained in UNEP 2000.

205APPENDIX 4

APPENDIX 4

PATTERNS OF PROPERTY OWNERSHIP OF MIRES ANDPEATLANDS IN SOME SELECTED COUNTRIES

The legal basis for ownership, and the pattern of ownership of mires and peatlands, has amajor influence on the implementation of Wise Use guidelines in any country. Information onpatterns of property ownership in some selected countries is given in the paragraphs whichfollow:

Ireland113: Peat cutting had played a part inthe provision of domestic energy since atleast the 10th century, sometimes separatefrom the ownership of the bog, and peat waswidely used, even when wood wasavailable.114 From the end of the 17th century,after effective deforestation, peat became anessential part of domestic economy, not easilysubstitutable.

The establishment around this time of thegreat estates does not appear to haveconsolidated bog ownership, or rights to itsuse. In the massive report of the BogCommissioners, presented to the BritishParliament in 1814, the obstacle to thedrainage and large-scale development for fuelof Irish bogs was considered to be “theindeterminate nature of boundaries betweenadjoining properties and the rights of turbaryand grazing claimed by the tenantry” 115

When the large estates were divided in thelate 19th and early part of the 20th centuries aparcel of peat bog was considered to be anecessary part of an autonomous agriculturalunit, so as the land was divided, the bogswere divided. Currently, the present occupier/owner has often not established her title, andundefined turbary rights may be held by a

number of former tenants of an estate or theirsuccessors. In some cases the right to grazea bog may be held by one party, the peatunderlying the grazing by another, theresidual cutaway – subsoil or fee simple byyet a third, and sporting or shooting rightsby a fourth. It is not impossible that all theserights may be vested in a plot of bog of 0.25hectares “The break up of the estatesaccelerated after the establishment of the IrishFree State in 1922 … which divided bogs intoindividual strips – often very numerous andnarrow, the average width being 20-30 yards– and assigned them to individual tenants.”116

Finland117: The ownership of peatlands inFinland is divided as follows: privateindividuals 54.5%; the state 36.5%;companies 6.0%; Others (including parishesand other public “associations”) 3.0%.

Peatlands cover about 30 % of Finland’s landarea. When the Crown land was divided intoprivate farms, principally in the 19th century,the mire areas were divided between farms inapproximately the same proportion as themineral soil areas. Parcels of peatland aretherefore mainly inside farm boundaries. Onlyoccasionally are there separate all-mire areas.Traditional ways of using peatlands include

206 APPENDIX 4

peat cutting for litter in animal shelters andfor domestic fuel (western Finland) as well asharvesting of naturally growing hay (easternand northern Finland). New farms had to beestablished after the Second World War toaccommodate the refugees from the Sovietoccupied parts of eastern Finland. Many ofthese farms were established in areascontaining large mires, a part of which weredrained and cleared for agriculture.

The land owner has the right to decide howto use his peatland areas: he owns the surface,the peat layer and the bottom of the mire aswell as the rights to hunt and fish in the area.The land owner can sell or lease his mire toother persons or companies. The State hasencouraged private landowners to use theirpeatlands by granting them long-term low-interest loans for forestry drainage, but theseloans are limited to mires which are fertileenough for the growing of trees. Anotherexample of the State’s interference in thelandowners’ rights is the establishment ofnew mire conservation areas. Most of the newNatura 2000118 areas are in State- owned land,but some private areas have also beenprotected, especially in southern Finland. Inthese cases the state buys the land orcompensates the owner by other means.

Peat producers can either lease or buy theirharvesting areas from private or publiclandowners. In the case of leasing, the peatproducer returns the land to the owner afterthe end of peat extraction. The landowner canthen select the land-use method for the area.The most popular uses are afforestation andagriculture. Where the peat producerpurchases the mire area he becomes thelandowner and has the same rights and dutiesas other owners.

Estonia119: Estonian legislation provides thatland ownership extends only to the bedrock.Because peat is above the bedrock it belongsto the landowner. It is estimated that c.a. 85-90% of the peat deposits belong to the State

and rest to individual owners or to localcommunities. The reason for theconcentration of ownership in the State isthat the largest part of the peat reserves islocated in the centres of the peatlands whichbelong mainly to the State.

The rules for obtaining an extraction permitare the same whether the peat is owned bythe State or privately. The exception to this isthat an individual owner has the right toextract peat located within the boundaries ofhis/her property without an extraction permitand free of charge for his/her personalhousehold.

Sweden120: Landowners in Sweden are privateindividuals such as farmers and foresters,private and state-owned companies. Includedin their ownership are peatlands and parts ofpeatlands. Under Swedish law the exploitationof peatlands requires permission from theauthorities but the position is differentdepending on whether the exploitation is forenergy or horticultural purposes.

A special Peat Law allows any company(subject to permission from the authorities)the right to exploit peat for energy purposes.The landowner cannot prevent this, becauseenergy peat is regarded as an “energymineral” and minerals belong to the state. Byexpropriation the state gives the company therights to exploitation for, usually, 25 years.At the end of this period the company mustreturn the area to the landowner. The companyshould by that time have reclaimed the areainto, for example, productive land for forestry.

If the peat is exploited for other purposes,such as for horticulture, litter, or as a soilimprover, the peat is owned by the landowner.In these cases a company can purchase thepeat area or come to a profit-sharingagreement with the landowner.

Belarus121: All peatlands in Belarus belongto the State. Anyone is free to apply for a

207APPENDIX 4

license from the relevant State authorities touse peatlands for peat excavation or asdrained land for agriculture.

Canada122: In Canada, all land includingpeatland, other than land in National Parks,is governed by the provinces, each of whichhas varying rules for leases on peatlands.Less than 10 percent of peatlands in Canadaare privately owned, the great majority beingCrown lands (i.e. owned by the State).

Peatlands cover approximately 12 percent ofCanada’s surface area and comprise 72percent of the 148 million hectares of wetlandsin Canada123. Most peatlands occur in theboreal zone of Canada and are generallyunaffected by agricultural, urban, ports/harbours, and industrial impacts.

The distribution of peatlands in Canada is80% pristine; 15% in agriculture; 2% in urbanand hydro; 0.02% in forestry; and 0.01% usedfor peat extraction124.

Germany125: In the case of Germany theillustrative information is provided in relationto the Land of Lower Saxony:

Of the area of peatland in Lower Saxony 94%is in private ownership and 6% in Stateownership. Some 67% of the total is inagriculture, 12% in peat extraction, 3% isbeing re-wetted following peat extraction and2% is relatively untouched. Status unknown,including degraded peatlands grown withnatural bushes and trees, comprise 16%.

After the second world war the governmentof Lower Saxony was interested in leasingpeatland for peat extraction and agriculture,as there was substantial demand for energypeat and for new agricultural areas. Since 1990the Land of Lower Saxony does not lease anynew peatland areas for peat extraction oragricultural use, as the emphasis is now onpreservation or restoration.

Indonesia126: The information providedrelates mainly to the island of Kalimantan.Because the usage of land was traditionallydecided by use and practice effectiveownership of most land lies with thegovernment. In remote areas indigenouspeoples have longstanding rights to use landfor hunting, cultivation moving from place toplace, fishing and other resources. They donot have any legal title so the governmenthas the power to assume legal ownership. InKalimantan only a small percentage of theland belongs to private owners. In general,only small areas of peatland are included inthe land which local communities such asBugis, Banjarese and Dayaks cultivate. Inthe area of Kapuas or Samuda-Sampit, thereare extensive wetlands. The areas of shallowpeat cultivated vary between 2 and 10hectares. The largest area of shallow peatcultivated by local people is in SouthKalimantan, probably about 1000 hectares.To use this land they did not need agovernment permit as they already occupiedthe land before the introduction of therequirement for permits. Private companies,such as those running oil palm plantations,normally obtain government permits. Thesewere originally issued by the centralgovernment but in future will probably beissued only by the governor/localgovernment. These permits grant the rightto use the land for 25 years. However, few ofthese plantations are on peatlands. InKalimantan, particularly in SouthKalimantan, most of the peatland which hasbeen developed has been for governmentmigration projects. Such governmentprojects include those in Pangkoh, Basarangand most recently PLG. In the past most ofthe land came under the Department ofForestry. The Department of Migration canonly use Conversion Forest for its migrationareas. Thus, as far as the use of peatland isconcerned, the principal role in deciding theuse of land lies with the government.

208 APPENDIX 5

APPENDIX 5

CODE OF CONDUCT WHICH MIGHT BE APPLIED BY AWHOLESALE OR RETAIL COMPANY TO ITS SUPPLIERS

OF PEAT-BASED HORTICULTURAL PRODUCTS

This is an example of the type of criteria which might be applied, for instance, by a large retailchain or a large wholesaler of growing media to its suppliers of peat or peat-based growingmedia. This suggested draft code is intended to apply no matter where in the value chain thecompany applying the code is situated127.

It is not necessary for every supplier to score 100% on each item. Allowance should also bemade for rate of improvement. For example, it might be more relevant to judge a new companyin a developing country on the basis of improvement being made rather than on a absolutebasis. It is for each wholesale or retail company to draw up its own code of conduct. Whatfollows is no more than an illustration of some of the criteria which might be applied.

1. Characteristics of the countries in which any of the supplier enterprises operate. Are the supplier enterprises all from countries which:

1.1 Have ratified the principal international environmental conventions1.2 Have in place comprehensive national policies relevant to mires and peatlands1.3 Have in place relevant legislation on land-use planning and environmental

protection1.4 Have public administration functions adequate to administer this legislation1.5 Have in place legal frameworks which protect the rights of individuals and

communities over land1.6 Take decisions at a macro-economic level regarding the exploitation of mires or

peatlands on the basis of cost-benefit analysis

2. Type of mires from which all the supplying enterprises operate:

2.1 Are any of the mires and peatlands from which the peat is extracted rare, and areany of their inhabiting species rare

2.2 Are similar mires and peatlands to those exploited by the enterprises decreasingin abundance or not

1.3 Are similar mire and/or peatland types sufficiently protected in the countries oforigin

2.3 Are there no alternative sustainable resources available2.4 Do the enterprises operate on any protected sites

209APPENDIX 5

3. Quality of decision-making

3.1 Before they develop peatlands do the supplier enterprises make adequateinformation publicly available and do they engage in adequate public consultation

3.2 Are the enterprises’ decisions regarding the exploitation of mires and peatlandsbased on the best possible information

3.3 Do the enterprises take into account the implications of their decisions for otherparties directly or indirectly affected; and do they take into account the effectson surrounding ecosystems, defined in the widest sense.

3.4 Do the enterprises limit their interventions to the minimum necessary3.5 Have the enterprises located their extraction where it will cause least impact –

could they or should they obtain their supplies from other sites3.6 Do the enterprises conduct their activities on the basis of sound commercial

strategy3.7 Do the enterprises operate on the basis of accepted principles of good corporate

governance3.8 Are decisions to exploit a mire or peatland taken on the basis of cost-benefit

analysis3.9 Do the enterprises take their decisions in relation to mires and peatlands in

accordance with the criteria outlined in Tables 5/3 and 5/4

4. Conditions under which peat is extracted

4.1 Do the supplier enterprises operate in accordance with national land-use planninglaws and regulations

4.2 Are the enterprises’ activities licensed. Do the enterprises act in accordancewith the licence conditions

4.3 Do the enterprises operate environmental management systems4.4.1 Is every effort made to preserve the ecological processes necessary for the

survival of species4.4.2 Do the enterprises seek to ensure, where possible, that any loss or damage

caused by extraction is reversible4.5 Do the enterprises

- prevent- control- reduce- repair or- compensate forany damage consequent on peat extraction

4.6 Do they bear the cost of these measures4.7 Do the enterprises seek to adapt their extraction processes to the natural

characteristics and constraints of the mires or peatlands

210 APPENDIX 5

5. Social and environmental responsibility

5.1 Have the supplier enterprises balanced their peat extraction by compensatoryconservation measures such as setting aside and preserving pristine mires

5.2 Do the benefits of the supplier enterprises’ activities accrue to a large number ofpeople and not a privileged few. For example,- do the enterprises pay adequate wages, - do they give local employment, - do they adequately compensate those with rights over land,- do the enterprises sell their products at prices affordable by ordinary people

5.3 Do the enterprises have acceptable policies on the after-use of degradedpeatlands ensuring that, when production has ceased, they restore the peatlandto a peat accumulating ecosystem (mire) or other environmentally appropriateuse.

5.4 Do the enterprises promote knowledge and awareness of mires and peatlands5.5 Do the enterprises conduct research into, and/or use, alternative growing media

211APPENDIX 6

APPENDIX 6

CODE OF CONDUCT WHICH MIGHT BE APPLIED TO AFACILITY FOR THE CONVERSION OF PEAT TO ENERGY

AND THE RELATED PEAT EXTRACTION.

This type of code could be applied to an electricity generating station or to a briquette factory.As with the outline code in Appendix 5 this is given as an example only.

1. Role of the facility in national policy.

1.1 Is the use of peat a necessary part of national energy policy1.2 Is the use of peat a part of national socio-economic policy

2. Type of mires which supply the facility

2.1 Within the country, are the mires and peatlands from which peat is extracted rare,are any of their inhabiting species rare, and are the functions affected rare

2.2 Are similar mires and peatlands to those used for supply decreasing in abundanceor not and are similar mires and/or peatlands in the country sufficiently protected

2.3 Are there any alternative sustainable resources available2.4 Is any of the peat extracted from protected sites

3. Peatland development

3.1 Before the peatlands were developed was adequate information made publiclyavailable and did the enterprises engage in adequate public consultation

3.2 Were the decisions regarding the exploitation of the peatlands based on the bestpossible information

3.3 Did the decision to exploit take into account the implications of the decision forother parties directly or indirectly affected; and does it take into account theeffects on surrounding ecosystems, defined in the widest sense

3.4 Is the intervention in the peatlands limited to the minimum necessary3.5 Is the extraction located where it will cause least impact – could or should supplies

be obtained from other sites3.6 Does the operation conform with sound commercial strategy.3.7 Do both the peatland enterprise and the facility enterprise operate on the basis

of accepted principles of corporate governance

212 APPENDIX 6

3.8 Was the decision to exploit taken on the basis of cost-benefit analysis

4. Conditions under which peat is extracted

4.1 Were both the peatland development and the construction of the facility inaccordance with national land-use planning laws and regulations

4.2 Are the peatland operation and the facility operation licensed. Are both operatedin accordance with the licence conditions

4.3 Do both enterprises operate environmental management systems4.4.1 Is every effort made to preserve the ecological processes necessary for the

survival of species4.4.2 Does the enterprise seek to ensure, where possible, that any loss or damage

caused by extraction is reversible4.5 Does the peatland enterprise

- prevent- control- reduce- repair or- compensate forany damage consequent on peat extraction

4.6 Does it bear the cost of these measures4.7 Does the peatland enterprise seek to adapt its extraction processes to the natural

characteristics and constraints of the mire or peatland4.8 Does the peatland enterprise have a policy of using the latest available technology

to minimise environmental impact

5. Social and environmental responsibility

5.1 Has the peatland enterprise balanced its peat extraction by compensatoryconservation measures such as setting aside and preserving pristine mires

5.2 Do the benefits of the operation accrue to a large number of people and not aprivileged few. For example - do the enterprises pay adequate wages,- do they give local employment, - were those with rights over land adequately compensated,- is the energy produced available to all

5.3 Does the peatland enterprise have an acceptable policy on the after-use ofdegraded peatlands ensuring that, when production has ceased, the enterpriserestores the peatland to a peat accumulating ecosystem (mire) or otherenvironmentally appropriate use

5.4 Do the enterprises promote knowledge and awareness of mires and peatlands5.5 Do the enterprises also promote the use of alternative energies

6. Characteristics of the facility

Does the facility use peat as efficiently as possible, using the latest technologyand minimising emissions

213APPENDIX 7

APPENDIX 7

INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS

● United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change http://www.unfccc.de/

● Convention to Combat Desertification (UNFCCD) http://www.unccd.int/main.php

● Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat(RAMSAR)

● Protocol to Amend the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially asWaterfowl Habitat http://ramsar.org/

● Basel Convention on Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposalhttp://www.basel.int/

● Bonn Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) http://www.wcmc.org.uk/cms/

● Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) http://www.biodiv.org/

● Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) http://www.cites.org/

● Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer http://www.unep.ch/ozone

● Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer http://www.unep.org/ozone/

● Lusaka Agreement on Cooperative Enforcement Operation Directed at Legal Trade in WildFauna and Flora

● Regional Seas Conventions http://www.unep.ch/seas/

● Barcelona Convention (Mediterranean Action Plan)

● Convention on Trade in Dangerous Chemicals and Pesticides (PIC) http://irptc.unep.ch/pic/

● Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) http://www.chem.unep.ch/pops

● Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision Makingand Access to Justice in Environmental Matters

214 APPENDIX 8

APPENDIX 8

THE SIX MANAGEMENT CATEGORIES OF IUCN

Category I - Strict Nature Reserve/Wilderness Area:Protected area managed mainly for science or wilderness protection.

Category II - National Park:Protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation.

Category III - Natural Monument:Protected area managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features.

Category IV - Habitat/Species Management Area:Protected area managed mainly for conservation through management intervention.

Category V - Protected Landscape/Seascape:Protected area managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation.

Category VI - Managed Resource Protected Area:Protected area managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems.

These categories were agreed at the 19th Session of the IUCN General Assembly, BuenosAires, January 1994, slightly amending an earlier, long-standing set of categories. A fullerexplanation, with examples of protected areas in each category, is given in IUCN (1994),Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories, prepared by WCMC and WCPA,published by IUCN.

215APPENDICES

1 Based on information supplied by Heinrich Höper.2 Because the concentrations of natural and

anthropogenic greenhouse gases are smallcompared to the principal atmosphericconstituents of oxygen and nitrogen, these gasesare also called trace gases.

3 Crill et al. 2000. All radiation (energy) iseventually transferred back to space but at longerwavelengths. For longer wavelengths a radiatingbody has to be warmer in order to lose the sameamount of energy.

4 Ivanov 1981, Couwenberg & Joosten 1999.5 See §A2.3.6 See §A2.2.7 Cf. §A2.3.8 See §A2.3, A2.4, A2.5, A2.6, A2.7.9 Francez & Vasander 1995.10 Francez & Vasander 1995.11 See §2.5.12 Committee on Global Change Research 1999.13 The Global Climate Change Task Force Of The

Council On Engineering and Council On PublicAffairs, 1998.

14 Houghton et al. 1990.15 Franzén 1994, Franzén et al. 1996. See also Rodhe

& Malmer 1997, Franzén 1997.16 Scholes et al. 2000.17 Reeburgh & Crill 1996.18 The most recent estimates indicate that 109·1012

g yr-1 of methane is released by wetlands globally.Tropical regions (20°N to 30°S) are calculated torelease 66 ·1012 g yr-1 (60.5% of the total),emissions from subtropical and temperatewetlands (20-45°N and 30-50ºS) are only 5 ·1012

g yr-1 (4.5% of the total) but there have beenrelatively few measurements in the tropics andsubtropics, and this figure is therefore currentlyuncertain. Northern wetlands (north of 45ºN)are calculated to release a total of 38 ·1012 g yr-1

(35% of the total) with 34 ·1012 g yr-1 from wetsoils and 4 ·1012 g yr-1 from relatively dry tundra(Milich 1999, Scholes et al. 2000).

19 More recent estimates of the total CH4 emissionfrom rice paddies amount to 50 ± 20 ·1012 g y-1

(Neue 1997).20 Aselmann & Crutzen 1990.21 Harriss et al. 1985, Bridgeham et al. 1995.22 Svensson 1976.23 Silvola et al. 1994b, Martikainen et al. 1992,

1994, 1995.24 Clymo & Reddaway 1971.25 Augustin et al. 1996.26 Pfeiffer 1993; Meyer 1999.27 Crutzen, 1979.28 Martikainen et al. 1993.29 Hillebrand 1993.30 Goodroad & Keeney 1984.31 Augustin et al. 1996.32 Meyer 1999.33 Crill et al. 2000.34 Crill et al. 2000.35 Scholes et al. 2000.36 Charlson et al. 1987, DeMello & Hines 1994,

Kiene & Hines 1995, Lomans et al. 1997, 1999,Watson & Liss 1998, Lomans 2001.

37 Varner et al. 1999.38 Daniel et al. 1995.39 Roulet 2000b.40 Mundel 1976.41 Höper 2000.42 Mundel 1976.43 Wild & Pfadenhauer 1997.44 Silvola 1986, Silvola et al. 1994a.45 Glenn et al. 1993.46 Mundel 1976.47 Segeberg & Schröder 1952, Kuntze 1992, Meyer

1999.48 Hillebrand 1993.49 The database for tilled peatlands is small and CO2

emissions have largely to be estimated fromsubsidence measurements (Höper 2000). In thistable the values for fens were calculated using thepeat subsidence in cm year-1, a bulk density of150 kg m-3, a C-content of 55%, and assumingthat 80% of peat subsidence is due to peatmineralisation. For bogs a bulk density of 100 kgm-3 was used.

50 Kuntze 1973, Eggelsmann 1976.51 Schuch 1977.52 Okruszko 1989.53 Glenn et al. 1993.54 Svensson 1976.55 Lien et al. 1992, Martikainen et al. 1992, 1994,

1995.56 Augustin et al. 1996.57 Meyer et al. 1997.58 Personal communication from Heinrich Höper.59 Martikainen et al. 1993.60 Hillebrand 1993.61 Goodroad & Keeney 1984.62 Velthof & Oenema 1983.63 Flessa & Klemisch 1997.64 Augustin et al. 1996.65 Tschirsich 1994, Meyer 1999.66 As becomes apparent from comparing data from

Segeberg & Schröder 1952 and Kuntze 1992.67 Similar results were found by Kasimir-

Klemedtsson et al. 1997.68 The complexities associated with peatland

drainage are excellently reviewed for the borealzone in Crill et al. 2000, (cf. also Joosten 2000),on which this subsection is largely based.

69 See also §3.4.1 (eb).70 Stegmann et al. 2001.71 In the boreal zone consisting of remains of

conifer needles, branches, rootlets, forest mossesetc.

72 Provided that the forest management continuesand the peatland remains sufficiently drained.

73 Cannell et al. 1993; Laine & Minkkinen 1996,Minkkinen & Laine 1998, Minkkinen 1999.

74 From Laine and Minkkinen 1996. Reproducedby kind permission of the Finnish PeatlandSociety.

75 See review in Crill et al. 2000 with respect toboreal peatlands. In boreal peatlands the increasedCO2 emissions from the peat carbon store may –temporarily – be overridden by increased CO2sequestration in the biomass and litter stores. Intemperate Alnus and Betula fens, mineralisation

216 APPENDICES

rates in flowing drainage may increasesubstantially (cf. Janiesch et al. 1991, Kazda 1995,Siemens 1996, Münchmeyer 2000).

76 Cf. Augustin et al. 1998, Augustin 2001.77 With a bulk DW density of 100 kg m-3 and a C

content of 50%.78 Hillebrand, 1993.79 According to Sundh et al. (2000) CO2 emission

from the peat extraction site (0.23 to 1.0 kg CO2m-2 yr-1) is on average ca 6% of the total amountof extracted peat.

80 In a Swedish study, the CH4 emission during thegrowing season was similar to emissions fromvirgin peatlands (Sundh et al. 2000).

81 Crill et al. 2000.82 See, however, also Roulet 2000b.83 After Crill et al. (2000): Tables 6 and 13.84 Mean value and S.D. for the years 1994 - 1998.85 The long-term values for forest drained peatland

are subject of discussion, because of the contestedlinear extrapolation of 50-year litteraccumulation data towards the 100 or 500 yeartime horizon (Joosten 2000).

86 After Crill et al.(2000): Tables 6, 13, and 15.87 Brown 1990, Kangas 1990, Paijmans 1990, Kuhry

1994, Frost 1995, Zoltai et al. 1998, Morrisseyet al. 2000, Joosten 2001.

88 Goldammer 1999a, Nepstad et al. 1999, Scholeset al. 2000.

89 Maltby 1986.90 Ellery et al. 1989, Maltby et al. 1990, Grundling

et al. 1998.91 Goldhammer 1999a.92 Scholes et al. 2000.93 Page et al. 2000.94 See §A2.2.95 See §3.4.1 (ea).96 See §3.4.2 (f).97 Mundel 1976.98 See Table A2/1 (Net sources of global atmospheric

emissions of methane).99 Rudd et al. 1993, see also Moore 1994, Nykänen

et al. 1996.100 Cf. Kamp et al. 2000.101 Tuittila et al. 2000.102 Tuittila et al. 2000.103 Flessa et al. 1997. See also Komulainen et al.

1999.104 Westermann & Ahring 1987, Grosse et al. 1992,

Gonzalez et al. 1995, Augustin et al. 1998.105 Schouten et al. 1992.106 Roulet 2000a, Martikainen et al 2000.107 Laine 2000, Martikainen et al 2000.108 Pastor et al. 2000, Bridgham et al. 2000.109 Laine 2000, Pastor et al. 2000, Bridgham et al.

2000.110 Turetsky et al. 2000.111 Laine 2000.112 Laine 2000; cf. Öquist & Svensson 1996: “Due

to site-specific responses by wetlands and thelarge range of plausible anthropogenic and naturalstressors, a quantitative evaluation of them incombination with climatic change is difficult. Itis conceivable, however, that within the nextdecades the main threat to wetlands is likely to

be due to anthropogenic activities rather thanclimate change.”

113 Based on information provided by KatherineMeenan.

114 Lucas 1970.115 Fuel Research Board 1921.116 Feehan & O’Donovan 1996 p. 30. See also

O’Kelly 1959.117 Based on information provided by Timo Nyronen

and Veijo Klemetti.118 A network of protected areas established by the

European Union.119 Based on information provided by Rein Raudsep.120 Based on information provided by Lars-Eric

Larsson.121 Based on information provided by Nikolai

Bambalov.122 Based on information provided by Gerry Hood.123 Rubec, 1996.124 Rubec 1988.125 Based on information provided by Hartmut

Falkenberg.126 Based on information provided by Adi Jaya and

Jack Rieley.127 In the case of a company manufacturing growing

media it should apply to all the companiessupplying it with peat; in the case of a trader orwholesaler it should apply to the manufacturerand to the companies supplying the manufacturer.In the case of a retail chain, it should apply tothe wholesaler, the manufacturer and themanufacturer’s suppliers.

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The drafters would like to thank JohnCouwenberg and Tony McKenna forpainstaking assistance with the references.

253INDEX

AAapa mire 30, 42, 81, 98, 146, 162Aarhus Convention 213Abandonment 36, 44Abiotic conditions 30, 162Absolute needs 22Absorbent material/Absorption 56, 61, 71, 162Abundance 111, 122, 123Access to Information 125 213Access to Justice 213Accumulation See under peat accumulationAcid soil 64Acid sulphate soil 44Acidity 26, 29, 37, 41, 70Acorus calamus 60, 62Acrotelm 34, 74, 77, 80, 81, 193, 194, 199, 162Acrotelm mire 29, 30, 31, 81, 162Activated carbon 56, 162Adaptation 36, 37Advanced growth 67Advantage 122Aeration 36, 43, 77, 199Aerenchyms 36Aerial roots 36Aerobic 28, 29, 34, 81-82, 162Aerosols 72-79, 192-203, 162Aesthetic functions 84-85, 92, 97, 162Aesthetic/aesthetics 94Affluence 114Afforestation 81, 162Afghanistan 186Africa 18, 32, 188After-use 25, 136Agaricus bisporus 53Agathis dammara 68Agnostic 113, 162Agricultural University Poznan 179Agriculture 18, 19, 25, 33, 35, 36, 51, 52, 62-66, 75-76, 81, 82, 84, 197-198, 136, 207Agrostis stolonifera 27Aikioniemi Markku 150Air-water regime 63, 162Alaska 21, 25Albania, 184Albedo 75, 162, 196Alces alces 85Alder 60, 79, 202Algae 41, 99

INDEX

254 INDEX

Algeria 188Alkaline soil 64Alligators 85, 98Allogenic 26, 162Alnus 37, 60Alnus fen 215Alnus glutinosa 27Alpine 44Alternative energy 136Alternative growing media 53, 136Alterra 2, 178Althea officinalis 61Altruism 48, 104am Ende Hans 98Amazon basin 25, 32America 32, 190-191American Samoa 191Amino acid 58Ammonia 82Amsterdam 70Anaerobic 34, 36, 70, 81, 162Anatomy 36Anchorage 21Andorra 184Andromeda polifolia 27Angler See under fishingAngola 188Animal husbandry 48, 64Animal protection See under nature protectionAnoxic conditions 74, 81, 194, 162Antarctica 32, 191Anthologies 97Anthropocentrism 46, 102, 111, 113, 114, 120, 162Anthropogenic losses 33, 42, 162Anthropogenic peatland patterns 83, 97Anti-greenhouse gases 162Antigua and Barbuda 190Antiseptic properties 61Appropriation failure 109Aquaculture 48Aquatic ecosystems 25Aquatic warbler 119Arable land, 63, 75, 197ARCA 34, 35Archaeology 83Archive function 91, 162Arctic/Arctic Circle 18, 30, 34, 44Argentina 59, 149, 190Armenia 186Army/armies 56Arnica montana, 62

255INDEX

Arrhenius Svante 99Art/artist 83, 85, 97Arthropods 162Ash content 41, 64Asia 32, 51, 53, 59, 186-187 See also under Southeast AsiaAster tripolium 27Astronomy 113Atheist 113Atmosphere 167Atmospheric CO2 33, 87Attachment to place 83Auckland Islands 191Australia 32, 61, 191Austria 184Automobile 56Autonomy 105, 108Avoidance, Principle of 125Axiology 45, 93, 162Azerbaijan 186Azonal climatic conditions 87, 162Azores 184

BB.O.D. 83Babylon Frans 97Backpackers 18Bacteria 37, 58Bactericidal properties 58Bahamas 190Bahrain 186Bakenhus Gerhard 98Balneology 57-58, 163Baltic Sea 30Baltic States 53, 68Bambalov Nikolai 95, 178, 216Bandages 57Bangladesh 186Banjarese 207Banknotes 83, 98Barbados 190Barcelona Convention 213Bargercompascuum 97Bark 53, 54, 136Barley 58Basarang 207Baseflow 80Basel Convention on Hazardous Wastes 213Basket-ware 60Bauer John 98Baykonur space launching facility 71Bear 62, 85

256 INDEX

Beauty 85Beaver/Beaver dam 26, 69, 85, 98Becker Paula 98Becker-Platen Jens-Dieter 180Bedclothes 57Bedding material 56, 152, 206Bedding plants 53Bedrock 25, 26, 81, 167, 206Behavioural patterns 48Belarus 33, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 63, 65, 69, 70, 85, 136, 205Belgium 53, 72, 86, 97, 184Belize 190Benin 188Bentham Jeremy 46Bequest functions 48, 90-91, 163Bermudas 190Berry 18, 60, 84Bertelsmann Walter 98Betula fen 215Betula humilis 27Betula pubescens 67, 158Betulaceae 37Bhutan 186Bies Marius 98Bio-centrism 46, 93, 114, 119, 139, 163Biochemical mechanisms/ processes 58, 81, 163Biodiversity 18, 19, 40, 44, 82, 87, 91, 99, 108, 109, 118, 163Biogenic waste 53, 54Biogeochemical links 25, 163Bio-geographic 30, 163Biographies 97Biological Diversity, Convention on See under Convention on Biological DiversityBiological inactivation 56Biological links 25Biological properties 35Biological transformation 56Biologically active substances 51, 58Biomass 35, 41, 60, 61, 75-77, 197-200, 136, 163Biomass carbon store 72-79, 192-203Biophysical equilibrium 163Bio-refinement 61Biosphere 47, 117, 163, 167Biosynthesis 41Biotechnological raw material 61Biotic 163Bird 44, 85Birmingham 59Bittern 87Bituminous coal 163 See under coalBivalvia 40Black bear 62

257INDEX

Black peat 41, 54, 56, 58, 59Black spruce 67Blackwater fish 85Bladder 62Blame 107Blankenburg Joachim 180Blanket bog 28, 30, 31, 59, 71, 163Blattmudde 41Blechen Carl 98Blue greens 70Blue Iris 86, 99Blue peat 59Blueberry 60Blysmus rufus 27Boardwalks 98Boaters 85Body care 57-58Bog 25, 40, 82, 163Bog bodies 83Bog Commissioners 205Bogwood sculpture 98Bolboschoenus maritimus 27Bolivia 190Boloto 40, 41Bolton Eugene 95, 178Bonfield Colin, 178Bonn Convention on Migratory Species 213Books 83Bord na Móna p.l.c. 133, 151, 153, 178, 179, 180Borders 71Boreal 32, 35, 37, 43, 60, 67, 70, 77, 80, 97, 199, 207, 215Borneo 40Bosnia and Herzegovina 184Botswana 188Boundary conditions 103, 124Brackish water 40Bragg Olivia 180Bramble 60Brandel Magnus 178, 180, 181Brandyk Thomas 180Brazil 190Briquettes 55, 136, 211-212Brisbane 20Britain See under United KingdomBritish Columbia 66British Isles 64, 68British Museum 97-98British Parliament 205Briza media 27Bromelia 61Brook trout 70

258 INDEX

Brown coal See under ligniteBrundlandt Report 106Brunei 186Buddhism 46Buenos Aires 214Buffalo 59, 65Buffering effect 80, 81Bugis 207Building material/industry 18, 57, 61Bulgaria 184Bulk density 34, 43Burkina Faso 188Burns Bog 86Burundi 53, 188Business executives 90

CCalamagrostis canescens 27Calamagrostis stricta 27Calcareous mire 37, 87, 163Calcium 37Calcium carbonate 40, 163Calla palustris 27Calluna vulgaris 27Calorific value 55Caltha palustris 27Cambodia 186Cameroon 188Campers 18Canada 18, 25, 34, 43, 52, 53, 62, 65, 69, 70, 71, 78, 85, 86, 98, 99, 136, 151, 155, 190, 202, 207Canadian Sphagnum Moss Peat Association 178Canal banks 57Canary Islands 188Cape Verde 188Capillary 36Carbohydrate 58Carbon 33, 34, 35, 41, 43, 55, 70, 109Carbon accumulation/storage 33-35, 73, 193Carbon cycling See under carbon exchangeCarbon dioxide See under CO2Carbon exchange 73, 192, 163Carbon monoxide 72-79, 192-203Carbon sink See under sinkCarbonic acid 58Carbonisation 163Cardamine palustris 27Cardamine pratensis 27Careful decision-making 125Carex acutiformis 27Carex appropinquata 27Carex buxbaumii 27

259INDEX

Carex canescens 27Carex cespitosa 27Carex diandra 27Carex dioica 27Carex disticha 27Carex echinata 27Carex elata 27Carex flacca 27Carex gracilis 27Carex hostiana 27Carex lasiocarpa 27Carex limosa 27Carex nigra 27Carex panicea 27Carex paniculata 27Carex pulicaris 27Carex vesicaria 27Carex viridula 27Carex-meadow 60Carnivorous herbs 37Carp 70Carrier functions 48, 69-72, 92Casey Michael 98Caspers Gerfried 180, 181Caste system 114Catchment area 26, 28, 29, 30, 36, 44, 59, 133-135, 163Catchment hydrochemistry 81-83Catchment hydrology 80-81Categorical imperative 116Cation exchange 37, 56, 163Catotelm 34, 74, 77, 80, 81, 193, 194, 199, 164Cattails 95Cattle rearing 58, 64, 83, 155Cellular structure 53Cellulose 60Celtic Roots studio 98Centaurium littorale 27Central African Republic 188Central Asian Republics 51Central Europe 42, 44, 58, 59, 70Cephalotaceae 37Cereal 58Certification 129CFC See under chlorofluorocarbonsCH3Br See under methyl bromideCH3Cl See under methyl chlorideCH4 See under methaneChad 188Chalk 82Channel Islands 184Chaos 164

260 INDEX

Characteristics of mires/peatlands 21, 35, 36, 43Charity 104Chatham Islands 191Checklists 120-137Chemical adsorption/absorption 56Chemical composition 82Chemical concentration 40, 81, 82Chemical industry 56Chemical modification 55Chemical properties 35Chemistry 55Chernobyl 56Children’s cots 56, 61Chile 61, 190China 53, 59, 69, 70, 83, 110, 186Chitin 162Chlorofluorocarbons 72-79, 192-203Choices 102, 103CHP 53Christian-Albrechts University Kiel 179Chrysophyte cysts 99Church 113Church Frederic Edwin 98Cicuta virosa 27Circaea x intermedia 27Circumstances 109Cirsium palustre 27CITES 213Citizen 118Civic responsibility 136Civil Rights Act 115Civil servants 90Cladium 61Cladium mariscus 27Claim 105Clara Bog 43Clarity, Principle of 125Clarke Donal 20, 95, 180, 181Class 116Classification/Classification systems 21, 25, 29, 41, 42, 86, 90, 140Clastic material 26, 164Clay 26, 54Clean air 72Clean water 72Clearcut strips 67, 164Clemme Johan 84Climate 26, 32, 37, 41, 62-63, 66, 87, 164Climate change 19, 79, 87, 111, 118, 202-203Climate Change, U.N. Framework Convention on 19, 108, 142-144, 213Climax ecosystems 75, 196Cloud albedo 75, 196

261INDEX

Cloud condensation nuclei 75, 196Cloud droplet concentrations 75, 196Cloudberry 60, 102, 154Clouds 73CO See under carbon monoxideCO2 33, 43, 70, 72-79, 81, 99, 163, 192-203Coal 25, 55, 73, 163, 193Coalescence 90Coastal areas 32, 70, 79Coastal transgression mire 31Coconut 65, 95Code of conduct 22, 136, 137-138, 208-212Coercion 101Coffee 65Coffey still 58Co-firing/Co-fire 55Co-generation 55, 164Cognition functions 86-90, 164Cognitive development 49Coir 53, 54, 95, 136, 164Collective goods 109Colombia 190Colour 85Combined cycle technology See under IGCCCombined heat and power See under CHPCombustion technology 136Commercial strategy 135Common Loon 86, 99Commonage 164Communication 103Community 83Comoros 188Compaction 35Compagnie Génerale d’Omnibus 56Compensation 132Compensation, Principle of 125, 139Compost 60, 164Composted bark 53, 54Composted biogenic waste 53, 54Composting 71Compound interest 116Compromise 112, 138Concentration camps 72, 97Concentric bog 30, 42, 98Concept 24, 40, 104, 124Conclusion 140Condensing power plant 53Conductivity 164Conferences 85Conflict/conflicts 21, 35, 45, 47, 91, 101-119, 122, 124, 140Conflicting claims 101

262 INDEX

Congo 188Congo Dem. Rep. of 188Connemara National Park 86Conservation 164 See under Nature ConservationConserving management forestry 66-69Considerations, general See under general considerationsConstable John 98Construction materials 61, 69Consumer 118Consumerist preferences 90Container crops 51, 53, 164Contamination 64, 71Contingency 164Continuity 83Convention on Biological Diversity 19, 47, 142-144, 163, 204, 213Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) 213Convention on Trade in Dangerous Chemicals 213Convention on Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) 213Convention on Wetlands See under RamsarConvention to Combat Desertification 213Conventions 213Coral 41Coregonus lavaretus, 70Coregonus peled, 70Corg 81Corporate governance 122, 135, 164Corrosion 56Cosmic radiation 87Cosmogenic isotopes 99, 164Cosmos 164Cosmosphere 87Costa Rica 190Cost-benefit analysis 96, 103, 104, 109, 111, 135, 144, 164Cottage 57Cotton 61Cottongrass 57Cotyledons 37, 44Couwenberg John 177, 178, 180, 252Coyote 62Crab 162Cranberry 60, 66, 155Cranes 85, 98Crayfish 40Criminals 90Criteria 32, 129Croatia 184Crocodile 85, 98Crocodilia 85Crome John 98Crop biomass 75, 197Crops 18, 48

263INDEX

Cross purposes 103Cross-country skiing 18, 72Cross-sectional profile 30Crowberry 60Crustaceae 40Cryo-therapy 58, 164Cuba 190Cultural archives/heritage 18, 87, 91Curiosity 86Currant 60Cutaway peatland 71, 136, 154, 155, 160, 164Cyanobacteria 70Cycling of matter 25Cyperaceae 30, 37, 150Cyperus papyrus, 61Cyprus 186Czech Republic 52, 58, 65, 70, 184

DDachau 72Dactylorhiza majalis 27Dactylorhiza majalis ssp. Brevifolia 27Dactylorhiza. incarnata 27Damman Antoni 42, 180Danube 110Dartmoor 72Database 21Dau JHC 41Dayaks 207Dead Sea 30Decay See under decompositionDecision in principle 120, 121, 122-124Decision tree 120, 122, 123Decision-makers/making 101Declaration of Independence 115Decomposition of peat 25, 28, 33, 42, 64, 70, 79, 81, 164, 177, 202Deep ecology 164Deep ploughing 63Deer 59, 114Defective telescopic faculty 107Defence 71-72Definition 32, 40, 42Deforestation 109, 205, 165Deformation processes See under decompositionDeglaciation 25, 165Degraded peatlands 61, 132, 136Degraded soils 51, 81, 165Denitrification 82-83, 165Denmark 33, 52, 64, 65, 98, 184Depression See under hollowDer Weiher 98

264 INDEX

Dermatology 58Deschampsia flexuosa 27Desmidiaceae 98Desrochers André 96, 178Development 21Development controlDew 41Dialogue 139-140Dianthus superbus 27Diapers 58Diatoms 98Dicotyledons 37, 44Diemont Herbert 42, 96, 178, 180Diffusion rate of gasses 25Digestive system 58Dignity 115Dike 44Dimethyl sulfide 75, 196Dinitrogen 74, 194Discounting/Discount rate 106-107, 165Disease 102, 108Disjunct species 37, 44Distributional concerns 165Distributive justice, Principle of 125, 139District heating 53Djibouti 188DMS CH3SCH3 See under Dimethyl sulfideDocumentaries 83Dogs 94Dolphin 46Domestic heating 48, 53, 206Domestic waste 71Dominica 190Dominican Republic 190Drainage 25, 35, 36, 41, 44, 48, 63, 67, 68-69, 75-77, 81, 82, 97, 109, 111, 197-200, 206Dredging 25Drink 101Drinking water 59, 69-70, 108, 111, 118Drop zones 71Drosera intermedia 27, 61Drosera longifolia 27Drosera madagascarensis 61Drosera peltata, 61Drosera rotundifolia 27, 61Drosera species 61Droseraceae 37Dryopteris cristata 27Duck 62Durchströmungsmoore 28Dürer Albrecht 85, 98Dust/dust storm 36

265INDEX

Dutch Foundation for the Conservation of Irish Bogs 99Duty 104, 105Dwarf shrubs 37Dye 55Dynamic storage 80, 81

EEagles 85, 98Easter Island 190Eastern Europe 58, 84, 95Eastern white cedarEast-Timor 186Eat the Peach 97Eccentric bog 30, 42Eco-centrism 46, 93, 114, 165Eco-labelling 129Ecological compensation 165Ecological connection 86Ecological economics 117Ecological egalitarianism 165Ecological mire types 26, 27Ecological processes 48Ecology 113, 116, 165Economic costs 79Economic growth 106, 107, 111Economic indicators 99Economic utilisation 45, 61Economics/Economists 47, 91-93, 100, 103Ecosystem approach 135, 144, 204, 165Ecosystems 35, 36, 37, 40, 46, 47, 59, 66, 70, 72, 79, 81, 87, 90, 91, 111, 116, 119, 203, 136, 165Ecuador 190Edible berries 60Edinburgh Declaration 20Education 21, 100, 115, 133, 136, 137Educational functions 48, 90-91, 92, 117, 176Educational programmes 90, 133Effective means, Principle of 103Efficiency 105Egalitarian principle 124, 165Egoism 115Egypt 188EIA 68, 131, 144, 165Eilsen Spa 58Einheitserde 51El Salvador 190Elbe river 63Electricity generating station 53, 55, 153Electricity utilities 74, 194Electrolyte 26Eleocharis quinqueflora 27Eleocharis uniglumis 27

266 INDEX

Emancipation Proclamation 115Embryo 44Empetraceae 37Empetrum 60Empetrum nigrum 27Employment 84, 91, 133Endangered species 44, 213Endogenous 165Energy conversion 48Energy policy 211Energy resources 48Energy/Energy generation 18, 48, 53-55, 61, 115, 153, 205, 211-212England 64, 83, 97Enterprise 135-136, 144Entity 45, 165Environment Canada 2, 179Environmental conservation 45Environmental impact 87Environmental Impact Assessment See under EIAEnvironmental Impact Statement See under EIAEnvironmental issues 18,Environmental licensing 131Environmental management system 135-136Environmentalist 47Epipactis palustris 27Equality 104, 115Equatorial Guinea 188Equisetum fluviatile 27Erica tetralix 27Ericaceae 37Eriophorum angustifolium 27Eriophorum latifolium 27, 150Eriophorum vaginatum 27, 57Eritrea 188Erosion 42, 59, 83, 108Erotic preference 94Eskimo 172Essentiality 122, 123Estate crops 64Esterweger Dose 72Estonia 52, 54, 55, 58, 64, 65, 69, 85, 96, 97, 98, 184, 206Estuarine peatlands 63Estuary 71Ethical criteria/values 99, 108Ethical holism 47Ethical justification 47, 166Ethics 103, 113Ethiopia 188Ethology 139Eudaimonistic values 94, 166Euphotic zone 70, 166

267INDEX

Eurasia 60, 75, 196Europe 32, 40, 53, 59, 63, 64, 184-185European Union 96, 112, 132, 143, 216Eutrophic flood mire 61Eutrophication 43, 166Evapotranspiration 28, 29, 36, 80, 81, 166Everglades 66, 86Evolutionary advantage 48Evolutionary biology 113Evolutionary connection 86Excentric bog, 98Existence functions 85-86, 92, 166Exmoor 86, 98Exogenous 166Exoskeleton 162Expanded clay 54Expenditure 114Exploitation 18, 21, 33, 83, 91, 96, 100, 143, 166, 205Extent of peatlands 32, 33, 38-39, 184-191Externalities 109Extraction permit 206, 207Eye disease 58

FFabaceae 37Fabric 57Facies 90Facts 102, 103Faecal substances 51Fagne 40Fair Labour Standards Act 115Fairy tales 83Falkenberg Hartmut 178, 216Falkland Islands 190Farmer 18,Faroe Islands 184Fauna 37Feature 166Feedback 28, 79, 166Feldman Irving 97Fen 25, 40, 41, 59, 63, 66, 82, 166Fen Slodgers 97Fennoscandia 60, 61, 64, 67, 68, 166Fermentation 60Fertiliser 36, 51, 53, 66, 67, 70, 76, 82, 198Fertility 98Festuca rubra ssp. littoralis 27Fibre 41, 57Fibric 41Fiction 83, 97Fiji 186

268 INDEX

Filial piety 99Films 83, 97Filter/filter material/filtration 56, 99Financial discounting 166 See under discountingFinancial incentives 109Finland 33, 34, 43, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 60, 62, 65, 69, 70, 74, 77, 84, 85, 96, 132, 133, 136, 150, 152, 153,154, 155, 157, 160, 184, 195, 201, 205Fire 33, 36, 77-78, 201-202, 159First World War 57, 61Fish ponds 70Fish/fishery 62, 83, 85Fisherman 18, 84Fishing lake 70Flark 30, 166Flavour enhancer 58, 60Floating mat 26, 31Flood mire 26, 31, 41, 81, 82, 83, 166Flooding 33, 44, 64, 66, 70, 71, 78-79, 80, 81-82, 117, 129, 158, 202Floodplain 31Florida 44, 66Flow Country 99Flowers 25,Fluidised-bed 55, 166Fluvial mire 166Fochtelo peatlands 72Fodder 58, 59, 60, 83Folisol 41Folklore 83Food 60, 62, 101, 108Food production See under agricultureForage crops 66Forest biomass 73, 193Forested mires 30Forester 18,Forestry 18, 19, 21, 33, 35, 66-69, 76-77, 82, 84, 129, 136, 157, 158, 199-200, 206, 207Forestry principles 129Forestry Stewardship Council 129Form-body 60, 61Fossil fuel 73, 193, 78, 167, 202Foundation material 57Fowl 83Framework 120-144Framework Convention on Climate Change 19, 108, 142-144, 213France 51, 53, 65, 184Francis of Assisi 47Franco-Prussian War 61Frangula alnus 62Frazier Scott 100Free goods 109Free market ideology 94Freedom See under liberty

269INDEX

Freedom from arbitrary arrest 116Freedom from seizure 116Freedom of assembly 116Freedom of speech 116Freedom of the person 116Freedom of thought 116Freising 20, 180French Guiana 190Fresh water 25, 82, 83Friendship 84Frost 30, 57, 63, 80Frost mound mire 30Frozen mires 72Fruit trees 65Fuel 18Fugitive slaves 97Function 45, 48-100, 122-125, 167Functions of mires and peatlands 21, 48-100Fundamental properties 124Fungicidal properties 58Fungus/fungi 37, 99Fur 62Furniture 18, 60, 69Future generations 18, 19

GGabon 188Gabriëls P.J.C. 98Gaia 94Galanina Olga 178Galápagos Islands 190Galium uliginosum 27Gallinago gallinago 85Galway 97Gardeners 53Gas, natural See under natural gasGaseous treatment 56Gasification 55Gastropoda 40Gathering/Gatherer 84Gavia immer 86General considerations 121, 124-125Genetic conditions 72Genetic diversity 91Genetic materials 48Geochemistry 167Geogenous 25, 31, 41, 167Geological conditions 29Geological resources 90Geological Survey of Lower Saxony 178Geomorphologic conditions 29, 167

270 INDEX

Georgia 30, 59, 186Geosphere 26, 167German Peat Producers’ Association 178Germany 27, 43, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 63, 64, 65, 69, 71, 72, 85, 86, 95, 97, 98, 110, 132, 136, 152,184, 207Gezelle Guido 47GGAP 21, 40, 42, 129, 144Ghana 188GHG See under radiatively active gasesGiant Panda 98Gibraltar 184Global Action Plan 20Global Biodiversity Forum 20Global Environment Network 23Global gross national product 117Global Peatland Initiative (GPI) 2Global Warming Potential 74, 75, 195, 196God 47Gonystylus bancanus 68Goose/Geese 62Gorke Martin 93, 113-114, 178Gothic cathedral 104Government permit 206, 207Government/Governments 22Graduated concept 114Grain whisky 58Grass 30, 64, 75, 76, 197, 198Grass sods 66Grate firing 55Gravity drainage 43, 63Grazing 60, 72Great ape 46, 94Great Vasyugan Mire See under VasyuganGreater likelihood, Principle of 103Greece 64, 65, 185Greek philosophy 45Green growth 119Green malt 59Greenhouse crops 51Greenhouse effect 99, 102, 167Greenhouse gasses 36, 72-79, 97, 111, 167, 192-203Greenland 190Grenada 190Griendtsveen B.V. 180Groote Peel National Park 72, 86Grossform 30, 167Groundwater 26, 29, 40, 41, 59, 63, 71, 81-82Ground-water fed mire/fen 30, 31, 82, 83Group values 98Group-identification 85Grouse 62, 85

271INDEX

Growing media 51-53, 136, 152, 167, 208-210, 216Growth stimulation 58Grünig Andreas 180Grus japonensis 98Guadeloupe 190Guam 191Guatemala 190Guidance principles 120, 125-127Guidelines 101Guidelines for Global Action on Peatlands. See under GGAPGuilt 114Guinea 188Guinea-Bissau 188Gulag Archipelago 72Guyana 190Gymnadenia conopsea 27Gynaecology, 58Gyttja 41, 58

HH2O 72-79, 192-203H2S 70Habitat 26, 36, 37, 40, 44, 62, 71, 131, 136Haiti 190Halbtorf 41Hammarbya paludosa 27Hampicke Ulrich 178Hangmoor 29, 31Hangzhou 70Hanover 58Happiness 116Harbours 70Hautes Fagnes 86, 97Hawaii 190Haworth Moor 59Hay 59Heade Martin Johnson 98Health 108Hearne Jo 98Heat capacity 25, 167Heat conductivity 37Heathrow 20, 180Heavy metal 57, 64, 71, 87Heinicke Thomas 95, 178Hemic 41Herding 72Hereditary tendency 22Herons 86, 99Hesse Herman 47Het Bruine Goud 97Hierochloe odorata 60

272 INDEX

Hikers 18, 84Hindu society 114Hinduism 46Hinterland 127History 48, 83, 87, 90, 94, 97History functions 83-84, 92, 167Hobbema Meindert 98Hobby gardener 18Hoetger William 98Hofstetter Ronald 178Holism 46, 93, 114, 167Holistic rationalism 47, 167Hollow 30, 41, 63, 80, 90Holocene 33, 34, 42, 167Homo erectus 83Homo sapiens 46, 94Honduras 190Hood Gerry 98, 155, 178, 180, 181, 216Höper Heinrich 97, 178, 180, 215Horizontal mire 28, 167Horse 56, 83Horse blanket 57Horticulture 18, 51-53, 61, 62-66, 205Horticulturist 18Hottonia palustris 27Hudson Bay 32Human beings 46Human exploitation 97Human habitation 48, 71Human rights 105, 114Humber Estuary 63Humberhead Levels 63Humic acid 58, 59Humic preparations 56, 167Humification 81, 168, 177 See also under decompositionHumin substances 57, 58, 82Hummock 30Humus 51, 57, 168Hungary 52, 64, 65, 185Hunter 84Hunter-gatherer 94Hunting 18Hunting trophy 85Hydraulic characteristics/properties 26, 28, 30, 35, 168Hydraulic conductivity 28, 29, 30, 34, 42, 43, 172, 168Hydraulic permeability 81Hydrocarbons 75, 196Hydrochemistry 97, 168Hydro-electricity 18, 21, 69-70, 78, 158, 207Hydrogen 37Hydrogenetic mire types 25, 26, 30, 31, 168

273INDEX

Hydrologic characteristics 26, 30, 35, 36, 44Hydrologic reservoir 80Hydrological links 25Hydrological mire typology 41Hydrolysates 58, 168Hydrolysis 55, 168Hydropower guidelines 129Hydroscopic 168Hydrosphere 167Hydroxyl radicals 72-79, 192-203Hygroscopic effect 30Hysterisis-effect 109, 168

II went down 97Ice ages 74Ice formation 42Ice nuclei 30, 42Ice-age relicts 37Iceland 65, 185Idealistic approach 45Identity 83Identity functions 48, 168IGCC technology 55Ignorance 116Ilnicki Piotr 94, 96, 178, 180, 181IMCG 2, 6, 19, 23, 90, 99, 143Immersion mire 26, 31, 61, 81, 97, 168Immobilisation of nutrients 87Immune system 58Immunological stabiliser 58Impact 123Implementation decision 121, 124Inaccessibility See under remotenessIncineration 71Inclusiveness, Principle of 103Income 105, 114India 186Indian Citizenship Act 115Indicator 87, 92Indigenous peoples 60, 61, 64Individual 136-137Indonesia 53, 64, 68, 132, 156, 157, 159, 186, 207Industrial cutaway 71, 168Industrial development 70-71Industrial peat extraction 51, 211-212 See also under peat extractionIndustrial refrigerators 57Industrial waste 51, 71Industry 48Inflammation 58Information exchange 103

274 INDEX

Informational function 83-90, 109, 110Infrastructure 48, 66, 69, 70-71, 117, 131Inorganic substances 81Insect 162Institute for Problems of the Use of Natural Resources and Ecology 178Institute for Wetland Policy and Research 23Instrumental value 45, 47-48, 49, 91, 92, 100, 104, 168Instruments 45, 120, 128-137Insulation 57, 61, 83Insulation material 57, 61INTECOL 23Integrated catchment management 133, 168Integrative approach 21Interest groups 101Interest rate 118Intergenerational 106-108, 116, 168Interglacial periods 74, 194Intermediate cuttings 68, 168Internal rate of return 69International conventions 128, 218International co-operation 21, 129International Law 128International level 128-129International Mire Conservation Group See under IMCGInternational Peat Society See under IPSInternational Union for the Conservation of Nature See under IUCNIntervention 122-128Intervention failure 109Intrinsic moral value 45, 46-47, 91, 93, 102, 104, 112-114, 120, 138-139, 165, 168Intrinsic value See under intrinsic moral valueIntuition 114Intuitus 45Inundation See floodingInventory 32, 42Investment 79, 107, 111Ion 37, 40, 43, 163IPCC 195IPS 2, 6, 19, 23, 143Iran 186Iraq 97, 186Ireland 33, 43, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 65, 69, 70, 71, 84, 85, 86, 96, 97, 98, 132, 136, 151, 153, 185, 205Irian Jaya 97Iridaceae 37Iris pseudacorus 27Iris versicolor 86Irish Free State 205Irish Peatland Conservation Council 99, 179Iron 43, 44Irrigation 156Islas Malvinas 190Isle of Man 185

275INDEX

ISO 14001 136Isotope 169Isotope geo-chemistry 99Israel 186Italy 53, 185IUCN 20, 22, 99, 100, 132, 143, 214Ivory Coast 188

JJainism 46Jamaica 190Jammu and Kashmir 186Jan Mayen 185Japan 65, 86, 98, 132, 186Japanese Crane 98Jaya Adi 178, 216Jeglum John 40, 178Jenderedjian Karen 180Jenkins Liz 98John Innes composts 51Johnson E. Pauline 97Joosten Hans 20, 149, 180, 181Jordan 186Juan Fernández Islands 190Judgement 102, 103Julve Phillipe 180Juncaceae 37Juncaginaceae 37Juncus acutiflorus 27Juncus alpinus 27Juncus articulatus 27Juncus bulbosus 27Juncus effusus 27Juncus filiformis 27Juncus gerardii 27Juncus subnodulosus 27Just inequality 105Just savings 116Justice 105, 114Jyväskylä 20

KKalimantan 59, 78, 132, 156, 157, 159, 202, 207Kaltluftseen 80Kant Immanuel 46, 116Kapuas 207Karelia 34Kazakhstan 71, 186Kenya 188, 204Kesselmoor 31Kessel-standmoor 31

276 INDEX

Kettlehole mire 146, 169Keynes John Maynard 101Kiln 59Kinesitherapy 58, 169King Richard III 118Kiribati 191Klasmann-Deilmann GmbH 152, 179Kleinform 30Klemetti Veijo 96, 178, 216Knitwear 57Knowledge 86, 92, 103, 109Kolchis 30Kolepom people 97Komarov Botanical Institute 178Krause William 98Krüger Carl 98Kühne Dana 98Kushiro Shitsugen NP 86, 98Kuwait 186KwaZulu-Natal 59Kyrgistan/Kyrgyzstan 59, 186

LLabour camps 72Labour force 84-85Labrador Tea 62Lactuca sativum 152Lacustrine muds 58, 169Lagopus lagopus scotticus 85Lagow 20Lake district 59Land clearance 78, 202Land management techniquesLand purchase costs 71Land use 26, 42Landfill 71Landform 30Landowner 132Landscape 31, 40, 62, 63, 70, 84, 85, 131, 172Landscape hydrology 26Land-use planning 131, 169Lang Nikolaus 98Language 40Laos 186Lapps 61Lapshina Elena 43, 178Larix laricina 67Larks 86, 99Larsson Lars-Eric 178, 216Laserpitium prutenicum 27Lateral flow 26, 28

277INDEX

Lathyrus palustris 27Latk Fryco 98Latvia 33, 52, 54, 55, 64, 65, 69, 85, 185Lava 54Laws See under legislationLayering 67, 169Leaching 33, 71Leaf 41Lebanon 186Ledum groenlandicum 62Ledum palustre 27, 62Legislation 21, 101, 131Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm 47Lemna minor 27Lenau Nikolaus 97Lenin 98Lentibulariceae 37Lesotho 59, 132, 188Lettuce 152Levitan Isaac 98Lexicon 40Liberia 188Liberty of conscience 116Liberty/liberties 105, 108, 116Libya 188Licensing 169 See under environmental licensingLiechtenstein 33, 184Life-cycle analysis 144Life-support systems 48Lightning 77, 201Lignite 25, 55,73, 193, 169Lime 36, 53, 70, 76, 198Limin Suwido 159Limited accessibility See under remotenessLindow Man 97Lindsay Richard 20, 98, 179, 180, 181Linum catharticum 27Liparis loeselii 27Liquid ammonia 51Liquid manure 51Lithogenous 29, 31, 169Lithosphere 169Lithuania 52, 54, 55, 64, 65, 69, 185Litter 56, 60, 75-77, 145, 169, 197-200, 206Litter carbon store 77, 199Litter decomposition 74, 194Liverpool 59Livestock 74, 194Loam 51Location of peatlands 32, 33, 38-39, 184-191Locke John 94

278 INDEX

Locomotion system 58Lodgepole pine 68Log cabin 61Logging 68Longfellow Henry Wadsworth, 97Löns Hermann 97LORCA 34, 35, 43, 169Louisiana 110Lower Saxony 132, 207Lung cancer 107Lusaka Agreement on Co-operative Enforcement 213Lüttig Gerd 95, 179Luxembourg 185Luxembourg Rosa 47Luyken Jan 98Luzula pilosa 27Lychnis flos-cuculi 27Lycopodiella inundata 27Lycopus europeus 27Lynx 62Lyrurus tetrix 85Lysimacia thyrsiflora 27Lysimeter 169Lythrum salicaria 27

MMa’dan 97Macaulay Land Use Research Institute 179Macedonia 184Mackensen Fritz 98Macroclimate 62-63, 169Macrofossils 99Macrotope 90, 99Madagascar 188Madeira 188Mahler Sepp 98Makrolandšaft 90Malawi 188Malawi principles 204Malay archipelago 60Malaysia 64, 65, 117, 186Maldives 186Mali 188Mallord Joseph 98Malnutrition 102Malt whisky 58Malta 185Maltby Edward 179Malted barley 58Mammal 44, 85Management categories 132, 214

279INDEX

Management Guidelines 19, 21Management of peatlands 21Management skills 90Mancadan Jacobus Sibrandi 98Manchester 59Manganese 44Mangrove 31, 62, 68, 111Manitoba 66Maple leaf 98Maps 38-39, 88-89Marais 40Mariánske Lásné 58Marienbad 58Marine transgression mire 149Maritime climate, 63Marjoram Jerry 98Market 109, 118, 129Market garden crops 44Marsh 40, 177Marsh Arabs 97Marshall Islands 191Martinique 191Massachusetts 110Massif 90Material life-support functions 47-48, 116, 169Materialistic preferences 90Matting 61Mauritania 188Mauritius 188McAlister Charlotte 96, 179, 180McGill University 179McKenna Tony 177, 179, 252McNally Gerry 96, 179Meadow 60, 63-64Meadow-hen 87Mean-end relationships 45, 93, 103, 169Medical treatment 58Medicine 18, 57-58, 61-62, 117Mediterranean Action Plan 213Meenan Katherine 179, 216Mega Rice project 156Melampyrum pratense ssp. paludosum 27Melanismus 40Mentally ill 46Mentha aquatica 27Menyanthes trifoliata 27, 60, 62Meranti 68Mesolandšaft 90Mesotope 90Meta-ethical objectivism 93, 169Metal extraction 56

280 REFERENCES

Metallic surfaces, 56Metaphysical premises 47Meteoric water 41, 169Meteorological conditions See under weatherMethane 70, 72-79, 110, 192-203Methyl bromide 75, 196Methyl chloride 75, 196Metroxylon sagu 60Meuse river 72Mexico 190Microbes 56-57Microbiological contaminants 56Microbiological crop diseases 58Microclimate 36, 62-63, 80, 170Micronesia 191Micro-organisms 41Microrelief elements 30Microtope 90Microtopographic surface elements 30Migration 64, 207Mikrolandšaft 90Military exercises 71-72Milled peat 48, 55, 170Millennium Wetland Event 20Milton Randy 98, 180Mimetical desire 102, 170Minaeva Tatiana 96, 179, 180, 181Mine tailings 71Mineral soil 26, 33, 36, 40, 42, 65Mineral subsoil/substrate 25, 35Mineral wool 54Mineralisation 35, 36, 64, 76, 197Minerotrophic 170Minimum intervention, Principle of 125Mining company 18, 56Ministry of Environment Tallinn 179Mink 62, 87Minnesota 99Mire 24, 25, 40, 170Mire reserve 86, 97Mire restoration See under restorationMire types 25Mire-complex/system 90Mire-microform 90Mire-region 90Mire-site, 90Mischenko Alexandr 96, 179Miscou Island 86Missile silos 57Missing markets 117Misunderstanding 103

281REFERENCES

Modifiers 120, 127-128, 170Moen Asbjørn 180Moer 40Moisture content 43, 48Moldova 185Molinia caerulea 27Molluscs 40Monaco 185Monetarisation 104, 108-112, 115, 170Monetary benefits 92, 102Money 48, 100, 107Mongolia 30, 83, 186Monkeys 94Monocotyledon herbs 37Monocotyledons 37, 44Montenegro 185Montreal Protocol on the Ozone Layer 213Montreux Conference 19Moor 40Mooratmung 28Moore Thomas 97Moore Tim 96, 179Moorland species 59Moose 62, 85Moral perspective 170Moral philosophy 113Moral pluralism 170 See under pluralismMoral position See under intrinsic moral valueMoral standing 170 See under intrinsic moral valueMorally relevant 45Morgen Michael 98Morocco 188Morphological features 177Morphological types 30, 36, 170Mosses/moss species 37, 42, 64, 160Motivation, Principle of 125Mound formation 30Mowing 44, 60Mozambique 188Mud 57Mudde 58Muhammad 46Muir John 46, 47Mulm 41Multi-fuel 55Multiplier effect 84, 170Municipal authorities 71Municipal waste 51Murnauer moos 145Museums 83, 97Mushroom 18, 53, 60, 84

282 REFERENCES

Mutual coercion 101Myanmar 186Mycorrhizae 37, 44Myopic behaviour 107, 170Myosotis palustris 27Myr 40Myrica 37Myrtaceae 37Mysterious character 84Myths 83

NN2 See under dinitrogenN2O See under nitrous oxideNakagawara Hiroe 98Names 83, 97Namibia 189Nanoform 90Nanotope 90Nap 55Napoleonic Wars 61Nappies 58National level 129-133National park 98, 132, 207National policies 19, 21, 131Natura 2000 206Natural archives 91Natural capital 109Natural gas 71, 73, 193Natural Heritage Area 132Natural monument 132Natural resources 116Naturalistic approach 45, 170Naturalistic fallacy 114Naturalness 86, 170Nature conservation 18, 19, 45, 47, 61, 86, 91-93, 98, 108, 115, 206Nature mysticism 47, 170Nature protection 48, 86, 91, 97, 132Nature reserve 132Nauru 191Nazi 72, 97Needs 91, 101-102, 104, 111, 115, 124, 138, 170Negative publicity 129Nennodorf 58Neolithic 86Neoteny 99, 170Nepal 186Nepenthaceae 37Net present value 135, 144, 170Netherlands 33, 53, 54, 56, 57, 63, 64, 65, 71, 72, 86, 96, 97, 185New Brunswick 86

283REFERENCES

New Caledonia 191New Zealand 30, 52, 191Newfoundland 66NGO 22, 99, 129NH4 51, 81NH4OH See under liquid ammoniaNicaragua 190Niger 189Nigeria 189Nihilism 47, 93, 170Nitrates 43, 82Nitrogen 37, 82-83, 87Nitrogen oxides 72-79, 81, 192-203Nitrous oxide 72-79, 170, 192-203Nomadic peoples 72Non-anthropocentric 46, 47, 102, 113-114, 119, 138-139, 144, 170Non-Governmental Organisation See NGONon-human entities 47, 138Nonlinear 79Non-material life-support functions 47-48, 109, 171Non-substitutable 107Noo-centrism 46, 93, 171Noosphere 167Norg 81, 82, 171Normal functions 107-108Normal problems 111, 171Norms 101, 171North America 32, 40, 44, 53, 59, 61, 62, 65-66, 67, 71, 75, 84, 190-191, 196North Korea 186North York Moors 86, 110Northern Europe 25,Northern Ireland 86, 97Norway 33, 52, 57, 65, 69, 132, 185Norway spruce 67Nothofagus 37Novels 83, 97Novosibirsk 71, 98NOx, NO3 See under nitrogen oxidesNuclear power station 56Nuphar lutea 62Nutrient 26, 33, 36, 37, 41, 44, 53, 64, 66, 70, 82-83, 87, 91Nutrient richness 26, 29Nutrient transformation 82Nyrönen Timo 94, 179, 181, 216

OO’Connell Catherine 144, 179O2 concentration 26,O3 See under ozoneOdour See under smellOenanthe fistulosa 27

284 REFERENCES

Oenanthe lachenali 27OH See under hydroxyl radicalsOil 57, 71, 73, 193Oil absorbent 57Oil company 18Oil palm 96Oldenburg 97Oligotrophic 171Olive treeOman 186Ombrogenous 25, 29, 30, 31, 37, 87, 171Ombrotrophic 171Ontario 67Open-cast mining 51Openness 72, 85Ophrys insectifera 27Ophthalmology 58Opportunity 105Option functions 48, 90-91, 92, 171Orang utan 40, 94Orchidaceae 37Orchids 61, 85, 102, 115Ordnance 71Organic acid 37Organic components 41, 81Organic contaminants 56Organic fertiliser 51, 70Organic geo-chemistry 99Organic soil 33, 40, 63Organic/Organic material/matter 24, 25, 29, 33, 41, 51, 55, 171Organisms 25, 37, 40, 41, 85Organogenic 41Organo-mineral fertiliser 51, 171Ornaments 83Oscillation 28, 171Osier 83Osmosis 40, 171Ott Konrad 93, 179Otterburn Training Area 96Overbeck Fritz jr. 98Overbeck Fritz sr. 98Overflow mire 30Ownership of land 132, 205-207Oxbow of a river 83Oxidation/Oxidisation 29, 33, 35, 36, 42, 43, 44, 97, 171Oxidative decomposition 26Oxidative losses 28, 35, 171Oxycoccus 60Oxygen 25, 28, 36, 43, 62, 63, 70, 74, 76, 78, 81, 87, 202Ozone 72-79, 108, 171, 192-203, 213

285REFERENCES

PPacific North West 71Packaging material 61Page Susan 156, 157Pain 46Päivänen Juhani 40, 96, 157, 158, 179, 180, 181Pakistan 186Palaeo-ecology 87, 99, 118, 172Palaeomorph-morphology 99, 172Palaeo-physiology 99, 172Palangka Raya Declaration 20Palau 191Palm oil 65, 207Palm tree 64Palsa 30, 98, 147, 172Paludification 26, 69, 172Palynology 172Pampas 59Panama 190Pangkoh 207Panthera tigris 85Papackova Lenka 95, 180Papenburg 72Paper 18, 57, 60, 61, 67Papua New Guinea 186Papyrus swamp island 26Paradigm 172Paraguay 190Parasite/parasitic 37Paris 56Parish Faisal 180, 181Parnassia palustris 27Particles 73, 90, 162Passive mire 28Pasture 59, 63-64, 66, 172Patent still 58Patho-centrism 46, 93, 113-114, 139, 172Pathogen 53Patriotism 46Pattern formation 25, 28, 42, 85Patterned surface flow mire See under surface flowPeacefulness 40Peacock 114Peat 24, 41, 172Peat accumulation See under peat formationPeat archives 87, 91Peat baths 58Peat briquettes See under briquettesPeat content 24, 41Peat extraction 25, 33, 35, 48-51, 55, 77, 81, 151, 172, 200, 207, 211-212Peat formation 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 41, 42, 63, 74, 81, 84, 87, 194

286 REFERENCES

Peat moss 56, 61Peat Moss 97Peat oxidate 58, 172Peat pellets 59Peat plateau mire 30, 42Peat pulp baths See under peat bathsPeat reek 59Peat storage 35, 48Peat swamp 68, 78, 95, 157, 202Peat textiles 57Peat thickness 26, 28, 33, 41, 43, 80Peat types 25,Peatland 24, 40, 42, 172Peatland fires See under firePeatland management See under management of peatlandsPeatland reserve 86, 97Peatland types See under typologyPeatlands Park 86, 97Peatlands under Pressure 21Pedogenic alteration 41, 172Pedosphere 167Peel-Raam defence line 72Peled 70Pelicans 86, 99Pellets 59Penang Statement on Tropical Peatlands 20Perca fluviatilis 70Perch 70Percolation mire 28, 30, 31, 37, 81, 82, 158, 172Perennial plants 37Period of time 127Perlite 54, 172Permafrost 30, 32 79, 83, 172, 203Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources 142Perspective 104Peru, 191Pesticide 51, 56, 66Pests 53Petal 37, 44Pete Marsh 97Pettersson Reidar 97, 179, 180Peucedanum palustre 27pH 26, 51, 53, 64, 70, 76, 77, 81, 82, 199Phalaris arundinacea 27, 153Phalaris reeds 60Philippines 187Philomachus pugnax 150Philosophers/Philosophy 45Phobia 94Phosphates 37, 43Phosphorus 82, 83

287REFERENCES

Photochemically active gases 72-79, 192-203Photosynthesis 74, 166, 172, 194Phragmites 25, 26, 60, 61Phragmites australis 27, 61Physical filtration 56Physical needs 105, 108Physical properties 35, 51Physico-chemical properties 62, 64, 172Physiology 36Phytoliths 99Phytophtorose 58Phytotoxins 36Piano concert 104Picea abies 67, 158Picea mariana 37, 44, 67Picea sitchensis 68Pig rearing 58, 64, 152Pigmy organisms 40Pine 67, 102Pineapple 65Pingo formation 30, 173Pinguicula vulgaris 27Pinus contorta 67, 68Pinus sylvestris 27, 67, 158Pipeline 69Pirtola Marjatta 95, 179Pisciculture 70, 173Pistil 37, 44Place names 97Planktonic material 41Planning authority 131Plant biomass 73Plant material 25, 34Plant productivity 73, 193Plant tissue 36Plant uptake 82-83Plantago maritima 27Plaster porter-mats 61Plateau bog See under peat plateau mirePlato 47Pleasure 46Pleurotus ostreatus 53Pluralism/pluralist 104, 113, 122Plurality, principle of 125Poaceae 30, 37Poe Edgar Allan 97Poems 83, 97Point of time 127Poisonous substances 26Pokorny Jan 96Poland 51, 52, 58, 64, 65, 69, 85, 132, 185

288 REFERENCES

Polder 44, 173Polenov Vasilij 98Polenova Elena 98Polesia/Polesye 33, 70Policy/Policy-maker 21, 113Pollen 87, 99Pollutant 64Polluter pays 173Pollution 56-57, 59, 90,132Polygala amara 27Polygon formation 30, 173Polygon mire 30, 42, 98, 148Polygonum bistorta 27, 62Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus 40Pool, 90Pop group 97Pore/Porosity 26, 29, 43, 56Porter mats 61Portugal 185Positions 102Positive feed-back mechanism 117Postage stamps 83, 98Pot plants 53Pot still 58Potato 58Potentilla erecta 27Potentilla palustris 27Poultice 58Poultry rearing 56, 57, 58, 64Powan 70Precautionary principle 79, 125, 143, 173Precedence 102, 104-105, 114Precipitation 26, 29, 41, 80, 82, 87, 173Predators 99, 115Preference 48, 49, 90, 101, 102, 103-104, 109, 111Preference approach 45, 173Pre-human period 87, 94Premier Tech 151Prescription duty 105, 173Price 69, 115, 118Price David 95Primeval peatlands 18Primula farinosa 27Principles 103, 104, 105, 125-128, 138-139, 204Principles of Justice 105, 115Priority 101, 102, 106-108, 115Pripjat marshes 72Prisons 72Pristine 32, 63, 66-67, 71, 74-75, 80, 90, 118, 173, 194-196, 207Private peat extraction 48Problem-solving capacity 108

289REFERENCES

Product diversification 136Production functions 48-69, 92, 110, 173Productivity 104Profit 69Progressive management forestry 66-69Property ownership/rights 116, 132, 173, 205-207Proportionality, Principle of 138, 173Protected areas See under nature protectionProtection (of flora, fauna) See under nature protectionProtein 62Protocol to Amend the Ramsar Convention 213Province 133, 207Proxy functions 48, 173Prudential argument 94, 173Pubescent birch 67Public access to information 125Public administration 129Public affairs 101Public awareness 21, 133, 136, 137Public consultation 131Public participation 125, 131, 173, 213Public policy 109, 129Publicity 129Puerto Rico 191Pulp 61, 67, 69Pulverised fuel/firing 53, 55, 173Pumice 54Pumping 44, 63Pyrolysis 55, 60, 173Pythagoras 47

QQatar 187Québec 20, 67, 99, 155Quietness 85, 99

RRace 116Racoon 62Radiating bog 98Radiation intensity 40Radiative forcing 73, 87, 173, 192Radiatively active gases 72-79, 192-203Radioactive 56Railway 56, 57Rain/Rainwater 26, 29, 30, 41, 81Rainforest 68, 75, 196Raised bog/mire 29, 30, 31, 63, 173Ramin 68

290 REFERENCES

Ramsar Convention 19, 20, 22, 42, 99, 116, 213Ramsar site 88-89, 91, 96, 132Ranking preferences 103, 104Ranunculus flammula 27Ranunculus lingua 27Rare123, 143Raspberry 60Rational beings 46, 115, 173Rational choice 103Rational discussion 114Raudsep Rein 179, 216Raw material 48Raw material for chemistry 55-56Rawls John 105, 115Reasonable people 19, 120Reclaimed peatland 63, 64, 80 See also under restorationReclamation See under reclaimedRecreation/Recreational functions 48, 69-70, 84-85, 92, 94, 97, 100, 173Recreational fishing 70Recuperation 91Re-cycling 71Red Lake Peatlands 90Redox-processes 26, 174Reed 60, 61, 83Reed canary grass 153Re-flooding 71, 160Refrigerator 57Refugees 206Refugia/Refuge 44, 97Regeneration 174Regina Conference 19Regional authority 134Regional centres 21Regional level (groups of countries) 129Regional Seas Conventions 213Regional zoning of mires 90Regulation of catchment hydrochemistry 81-83Regulation of catchment hydrology 80-81Regulation of global climate 72-79, 108, 192-203Regulation of regional and local climates 80Regulation of soil conditions 72, 83Regulation/Regulation functions 18, 48, 72-83, 92, 109, 110, 117, 174Rehabilitation 132, 136 See also under restorationReindeer 72Reintorf 41Religion 45, 47, 48, 86, 94, 113Re-location, Principle of 125Remoteness 40, 71, 84, 85Renounced benefits 104Representativity 97Reptile 44

291REFERENCES

Research 100Research networks 21Reservoirs 59, 69-70, 78, 80, 202Respect for Nature 119Responsibility, Principle of 125, 142Restionaceae 30, 37Restitutive justice, Principle of 139, 174Restoration 111, 118, 136Retailers 129, 208-210, 216Réunion 189Re-wetting 61, 160, 207 See also re-floodingRheumatism 57, 58Rhizobial inoculants 53Rhizome 25, 37Rhynchospora alba 27Ribbed fen 30Ribes 60Rice 60, 64, 66Rice hulls, 54Rice paddies 74, 75, 78, 194, 197, 202Ried 41Rieley Jack 20, 156, 157, 179, 180, 181, 216Rights 101-102, 104, 105, 115, 124Rio Declaration 46, 142-144Risager Mette 180Risk 108, 117, 135River valleys, 63, 81Roads 69, 70-71Robertson Allan 95, 179Rock group 97Rocket launches 71Rockwool 54Romance languages 40Romania 185Roofing 60, 61Root/Root system 36, 63-66, 87Rosaceae 37Rotation 68, 69Rowwen Hèze 97Royal Holloway Institute 179Rubber 65Rubec Clayton 179, 180, 181Rubus 60Rubus chamaemorus 60, 114Ruff 150Rule of law 116Rumex acetosa 27,Rumex hydrolapathum 27,Run-off 26, 28, 29, 80, 81-82Ruppia maritima 27Rural/Rural areas 55, 84

292 REFERENCES

Russia 33, 43, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 64, 65, 68, 69, 71, 85, 96, 132, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 185, 187Russian Academy of Sciences 179Russo-Japanese War 61Rwanda 189

SSa’ar ba’alê hayyîm 46Sacred cow 47Sacrifices 86Saebens H. 98Sago starch 60Sago/Sago palm 60, 64, 96Salicaceae 37Salicornia europaea 27,Salix aurita 27Salix cinerea 27Salix repens 27Salmo trutta 70Salt 30Salvelinus fontinalis 70Samoa 191Samolus valerandi 27Samuda-Sampit 207San José 20San Marino 185Sand 26, 54Sand-cover 63Sandy soil 51Santalaceae 37São Tomé and Príncipe 189Sap 61Sapric 41Sapropel 58Sarawak 59, 64, 68Sarraceniaceae 37Saudi Arabia 187Savannah 94Scarcity 111Scheuchzeria palustris 27Scheuchzeriaceae 37Schieber Wilhelm 98Schilstra Anne-Jelle 93 181Schmilewski Gerald 95, 179Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani 27Schoenus ferrugineus 27Schopenhauer Arthur 46Schulz Jenny 180Schwammsumpfig 28Schweitzer Albert 46, 114Schwingmoor mire 26, 31, 37, 81, 97, 174Science 91, 94

293REFERENCES

Scotland 58, 59, 98Scots pine 67, 154Scottish Flow Country 99Scrophulariaceae 37Scrub 44Scurvy 60Sea level 26, 79, 108, 174Secretions 57Sedentary 24, 40, 174Sedentate 41Sedge 25, 30, 44, 64, 83, 87Sedge mire 44Sediment/Sedimentation 26, 41, 64, 82-83, 174Seed 41Seed-tree group 67, 174Self-consciousness 46, 48, 49Self-defence, Principle of 138Self-identification 85Self-made mixes 51Self-maintenance 122Self-organisation 30Self-registering witness 87Self-regulation mechanisms 40, 87Self-respect 84Self-sealing mire 169, 174Selinum carvifolia 27Senecio paludosus 27Senegal 189Sentiency 46Sentient beings 46, 174Sentimental argument 94, 174Sepal 37, 44Sequestration 72-79, 174, 192-203Serbia 185Serendipity 99Serov Valentin 98Serratula tinctoria 27Sestroretskoje boloto 98Sewage 70, 104, 109Sewage sludge 51, 71Sex 101, 116Seychelles 187Shakespeare William 118Shaw Alan 180, 181Sheep 83Sheet-form bags 57Shier Charles 95, 179Shorea spp. 68Shrinkage 35, 36Siberia 25, 30, 32, 34, 42, 71, 98, 147, 148Side-effect 123

294 REFERENCES

Sierra Leone 189Signalisation functions 86-90, 92, 94, 100, 174Silviculture See under forestrySilvius Marcel 181Singapore 65, 187Singer Peter 46Sink 35, 70, 71, 72-79, 82, 174, 192-203Sirin Andrej 147, 179, 180, 181Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) 96Sitka spruce 68Sium latifolium 27Skiing 85Skin disease 58Sliva Jan 158, 180Sloopy fen 29, 31Slope 28, 31,Sloping mire 29, 31, 150, 172, 174Slovakia 65, 185Slovenia 185Smell 57, 94Smyth Bernie 180Snail 40Snakes 94Snipe 85, 87Snow 42Snowdonia 86SO2 See under sulphur dioxideSocial acceptance 102Social justice 115Social primary goods 105, 116Social skills 90Social-amenity functions 83-84, 92, 94, 174Society of Wetland Scientists See under SWSSocio-economic conditions 44, 62, 83, 175Socio-economic policy 133Sod peat 48, 53, 55, 57, 59Soil 83Soil carbon 25Soil classification 41Soil conditioner/improver 53Soil organisms 35, 36,Soil pore water 80Solar drying 48, 59Solar forcing 175 See under radiative forcingSolar radiation 73, 192Solidarity 84Soligenous 29, 31, 41, 175Solomon Islands 191Solubility 26Solzhenitsyn Alexander 116Somalia 189

295REFERENCES

Song of the Peatbog Soldiers 97Songs 83, 97Sooma 86, 97Soot 99Sopo Raimo 95, 145, 154, 155,160, 179, 180South Africa 158, 189South America 32, 190-191South Korea 187Southeast Asia 18, 20, 25, 30, 32, 43, 44, 65, 68, 94Southern Europe 95Soviet Union 33, 51, 57, 61, 62, 71, 72, 98, 206Soybeans 53Space launches 71Spadeadam 96Spain 53, 65, 185Spatial scale 90Spawning grounds 62Special Area of Conservation 96, 132Specialised vessels/boats 98Species adaptation 36Species integrity, Principle of 125Speciesist 46, 175Sphagnum 25, 29, 30, 37, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61Sphagnum magellanicum 149Spices 65Spiders 94Spinal system 58Spinoza Baruch 47Spirit of Peatlands 20Spirituality 94Spirituality functions 85-86, 92, 175Spitsbergen 185Sponge gemmoscleres 99Sponges 80Spongy peat 37Spores 87, 99Spreewald Biosphere Reserve 86Spring mire 29, 31, 41, 82, 175Spring-fed mire 29, 41Sri Lanka 187St Helena 189St Kitts and Nevis 191St Lucia 191St Martin104St Petersburg 70, 98St Vincent and the Grenadines 191Stable manure 51Stahl Anne 98Stakeholder 175Stamen 37, 44Standard 48

296 REFERENCES

Static storage 80Status quo 104Steiner Gert Michael 180Stellaria glauca 27Stickelmann R. 98Stockholm 20Stopper 121, 122Storage co-efficient 28, 29, 43, 81, 175Storks 85, 98, 99Stormosse 90Stratigraphy 118, 175Stratospheric ozone 74, 75, 194, 196Straw 56, 59Stress mitigation, 92String 30Strong sustainability 106, 175Sub-arctic 32, 34, 42, 43, 70Sub-boreal 35Sub-national level 129, 133-135Subsidence 35, 36, 42, 43, 175Subsistence 105Substitutable 107, 123, 175Substrate 29, 51-53, 62-69, 175Substrate in horticulture 51-53Succisa pratensis 27Succow Michael 145-150Sudan 189Sugar 25Sugar cane 66Sulphate particles/Sulphates 43, 75, 196Sulphides 44Sulphur 64Sulphur dioxide 72-79, 192-203Sumatra 40, 78, 202Sun spot cycli 87Sundew 61Suo 24, 40, 41, 102, 175Suomi 97 See under FinlandSupertope 90Surface flow mire 28, 30, 31, 81, 175Surface lowering 44Surface patterning 40, 87Surface run-off See under run-offSurface vegetation See under vegetationSurface-rooting trees 37Surficial 175 See under surfaceSurgical dressing 61Suriname 191Survival 105, 108Survival courses 90Surwold 20, 145

297REFERENCES

Suspended solids 56, 83Sustainable 18, 19, 96, 106-108, 111Sustainable development 45, 120, 175Sustainable forest management 66-69Svalbard 185Swamp 40, 177Swaziland 189Sweden 33, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 65, 69, 85, 132, 185, 206Swedish Peat Producers’ Association 178Swedish Peat Research Foundation 178Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Umeå 178Swelling 35, 36Switzerland 64, 65, 185SWS 23, 143Symbiosis 37Symbol 85, 92, 98Symbolisation functions 85-86, 92, 94, 175Symmetry 85Synsite 90Synthetic-organic material 54Syria,187

TTaiwan 65Tajikistan,187Tamarack 67Tanzania 189Taoism 93Taruturve 179Tasmania 30, 191Taste 90Taxa 47Taxonomy 175Taylor Doug 100, 181Taylor Paul 46, 119Technological optimist 116, 175Technology improvement 136Temperate peatlands 37Temperature 40, 62, 80, 81, 102Term/Terms 24, 40Terminology 21, 24, 102, 115, 129, 140Terrestrial wildernesses 86Terrestrialisation 26, 31, 41, 176Terrestrialisation mire 26, 30, 82, 83, 176Tertiary 25, 176Testacea amoebae 98Tetragonolobus maritimus 27Teucrium scordium 27Teufelskreis der Moornutzung 43Textiles 57Thailand 111, 187

298 REFERENCES

Thalictrum flavum 27Thallasogenous 30, 31, 176Thatching 61The Broads 86The Gambia 189The Rivet Poppers 117Theism 47, 176Thelypteris palustris 27Therapeutic properties 57Therapy 57-58Thermophysical mechanisms 58Thinning 67, 68, 176Thoreau Henry David 47, 87Tiger 85Tillage 76, 197Timber 60, 96, 117Tinner Dose 96Togo 189tom Dieck Richard 98Tomato 58Tomsk 71, 98Tonga 191Tools 83Topogenous 41, 176Topography 32, 41, 176Torf 40Torfeira 40Torfkultursubstrat 51Torfrock 97Torvinen Aarno 146, 154Tourbière 40Tourism 100Towns 70Toxic soil 44Toxic substances 36, 37, 87Trace elements 51, 176Trace gases 97Traffic 117Training 21Transformation functions See under Educational functionsTransitory collection forestry 66-69Translation 40Transmigration See under migrationTransport 48, 55, 56, 71, 72Travel 109Tray module 51Tree canopy 68Trees 65, 75, 119, 196Trepel Michael 97, 179Trickle-down effect 114Triglochin maritimum 27

299REFERENCES

Triglochin palustre 27Trinidad and Tobago 191Trondheim Declaration 20Trophic conditions 26, 176Tropical agriculture 64-65, 156Tropical forestry/timbers 68, 117, 157Tropical peatlands 21, 32, 37, 75,78, 197, 202Tropical rainforest 73, 193Tropospheric ozone 74, 194, 176Trout 70Tsjaowbi 40Tundra 37, 78, 203Tunisia 189Turbary rights 205Turbera 40Turf 40Turkana Boy 83Turkey 95, 187Turkmenistan 187Turner William 98Turunen Jukka 43, 180Tuvalu 191Typha 25Typha angustifolia 27Typha latifolia 27Typology/Typologies 26, 41, 42, 176Tzarist police 98

UU.K. See under United KingdomÜberflutungsmoore 26Überrieselungsmoore 28Uganda 189Uisge-beatha 58Ukraine 33, 52, 54, 55, 58, 65, 85, 185Uncertainty 108Understanding 86, 102, 103Undisturbed mires See under pristine miresUninhabited areas 70United Arab Emirates 187United Kingdom 52, 53, 59, 63, 69, 70, 71, 72, 85, 86, 185United Nations 142-144United Nations Conference on the Human Environment 93, 142-144United States of America 52, 53, 69, 71, 74, 85, 86, 115, 136, 191, 194Universal Declaration on Human Rights 46, 103, 114, 115, 120, 138, 144Universalisation 116University of East London 20, 179University of Greifswald 20, 178-180University of Joensuu 180University of Laval 178University of Miami 178

300 REFERENCES

University of Nottingham 20, 179University of Palangkaraya 178University of Tomsk 178Unland Etta 98Upland areas 71Upper Carboniferous 25, 176Urban development/Urbanisation 18, 33, 70-71, 207Urogenital system 58Uronic acid 58Ursus sp. 85Uruguay 191US/U.S. See under United StatesUS Army Corps of Engineers 40Use/Utilisation 19, 36, 176Usova Ludmila 148Utility 115Utility discounting 176 See under discountingUtricularia vulgaris 27Uzbekistan 187

VVaccinium 60Vaccinium myrtillus 27, 62Vaccinium uliginosum 27Vaccinium vitis-idaea 62Valeriana dioica 27Valeriana officinalis 62Valley 63Valuation procedure 107Value theory 45Values/Value systems 18, 45-48, 101-119, 120, 176van Bakel Gerrit 98van de Griendt Henk 95, 180van der Werfhorst Aar 84van Gogh Vincent 98van Hoek Hans 98van Schie Wim 181Vanuatu 191Vapo Oy 96, 133, 152, 153 178Vasander Harri 160Vascular plants 37, 176Vasil’ev Fiodor 98Vasnetsov Victor 98Vasyugan 71, 98Vatican City 185Veen 40Veenhuizen 72Vegetable production 53, 56, 66, 75, 197Vegetation 24, 26, 28, 30, 36, 41, 44, 62, 82, 99, 136Vein pattern 37Venezuela 191

301REFERENCES

Verlandungsmoore 26Vermiculite 54Veronica scutellata 27Versumpfungsmoore 26Vested interest 140Veterinary 57-58Veto duty 105, 138, 176Vicious circle of peatland utilisation 36Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone 213Vietnam 187Villa 114Vinkeveen 97Vinnen Carl 98Viola palustris 27Virgin peatlands See under pristine peatlandsVirus 58Visitor centres 98Visitors 86Vital functions 107-108Vital issues 108, 176Vitamins 60Vogeler Heinrich 98Volatiles 55, 58, 177Volcanic 87Volltorf 41Vompersky Stanislav 159von Droste-Hülshoff Anette 97von Jawlensky Alexej 98Von Post/Von Post scale 41, 99, 177von Schulenberg Bernhard Willibald 98

WWageningen 20, 180Wageningen University 178Wages See under incomeWaldtorf 41Wales 59Wants 91, 101-103, 104, 105, 115, 124, 138, 177Warping 63Waste 51, 71,132Waste deposits 71Waste segregation 71Wastewater treatment 56, 83Wastiaux Cecile 98Water buffalo 59Water cushions 80Water cycling 80Water flow 26, 28, 29, 36Water level 28, 29, 34, 35, 37, 59, 63, 80, 81Water level fluctuations 26, 36, 78, 172, 202Water movement 41, 71

302 REFERENCES

Water purification 56, 109Water quality 36Water regulation 36Water reservoirs See under reservoirsWater rise mire 26, 30, 31, 42, 81, 177Water storage 36, 80Water table/Water table level See under water levelWater vapour 72-79, 192-203Waterlogged conditions 28, 29, 41, 44Watervalvlei mire 158Wax 25, 55Weak sustainability 106, 177Wealth 105, 119Weapons 83Weather 48, 177Weeds 53Weighting of preferences See under weightsWeights/weighting 104, 106, 115Weisky wine 59Weissmann C 180Welfare 105Well-being 106, 107Welsh Water 59West SiberiaWestern Europe 53, 84Westhoff Victor 97Wetland 24, 40, 41, 177Wetlands International (WI) 20, 23, 99, 100, 143, 179, 181Whisky 58, 115White peat 41, 54, 56Wholesalers 129, 208-210, 216Wichtmann Wendelin 95, 180Wild animals for food 62Wild animals for fur 62Wild animals for medicine 62Wild plants as raw material for non-food products 61Wild plants for food 59-60Wild plants for medicine 61-62Wild rice 60, 66Wild sago 60Wilderness/wildness 85, 86, 87, 99Wildlife refuge 132Willingness-to-pay 109Willow 60Wind drying 48Wind farms 71, 136Wise Use 177Witterveld 96Wood 55, 69, 205Wood fibre 53, 54Wood production 66-69

303REFERENCES

Wool 57Works of art 83, 97World Charter for Nature 93, 119, 143World Commission on Environment and Development 93, 114, 116, 142-144World Wide Fund for Nature See under WWFWorld-view 90, 94, 101, 112, 177Worpswede artists 98Worship 113Wuthering Heights 59WWF 99

XXenophanes 94Xeromorphy 36, 37, 177YYeast 58Yemen 187Yorkshire 59Yugoslavia 185

ZZakaznik 132Zambia 189Zapovednik 132Zero reference 87Zimbabwe 189Zingstra Henk 180, 181Zizania aquatica 60Zoning 131

304 REFERENCES

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WISE USE OF MIRES AND PEATLANDS - GRET - PERG · wise use of mires and peatlands - background and...

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