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Age of ReasonThe Scientific Revolution &
Enlightenment
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Rediscovery of the Universe
The main factors leading up to thescientific revolution: Discovery of the New World Invention of the Printing Press Rivalry among Nation-States
Reformation Renaissance Humanism
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The New Science
The
new
science was a diversestudy of natural philosophy.
- Astronomy
- Math / Logic
- Physics- Biology
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Astronomy
Ptolemy - Geocentric universe Borrowed heavily upon Aristotle
sconception of the universe.
Mathematically based, no scientificreasoning for the model.
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Nicolaus Copernicus 1473-1543 On the Revolutions
of the Heavenly Spheres - 1543
HeliocentricUniverse
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Copernicus
Revolution
The sun-centered universe rejectedAristotle
s cosmology. Revolutions = how long it took to
revolve
around the sun.
Kept the epicycles of Ptolmey
ssystem into his work.
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The New Astronomy Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) worked on
creating a mathematical way toexplain Copernicus.
Did not buy into the sun-centereduniverse.
Collected a larger collection of astronomical data.
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Johannes Kepler 1571-1630 Brahe
s assistant Defends
Copernicus
theory
Elliptical motionof the planets
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Mathematics
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) furthercontributed to the Copernicantheory.
Developed the use of a telescope,
which enabled him to view theheavens.
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The Rational Universe Mathematical
models could
explain the world Patron of the
Medici
Writes a series of articles on hisfindings
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Physics Isaac Newton (1642-1727) discovered
the laws of gravity. Principles of Natural Philosophy His laws are the cornerstone of
modern day physics. Rounded out the Copernican Theory
through his discovery.
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Laws of Motion
Newton s synthesisdeveloped the laws of
motion, dynamics, andmechanics. All motion could be
timed and measured. Until Heisenberg
sUncertainty Principle
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Biology
Until the 16 th century, all knowledge of human body based on Galen.
Four bodily humors: Blood, Phlegm, Yellow Bile, Black Bile Bright Blood (Arteries)
Dark Blood (Veins)
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Medical Advances
Vesalius: On the Fabric of the Human
Body 1543 Studies cadavers and
the first to assemble askeleton
Details the structure of the human body
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Other Advances
William Harvey: 1628 published findingson the nature of blood circulation.
Marcello Malpighi: 1666 made discoveriesregarding blood corpuscles.
Edward Jenner: 1798 inoculated smallpoxusing bovine immunity.
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Francis Bacon 1561- 1626 Father of
Empiricism A man of letters Known mainly for
the inductivemethod
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Empiricism
Empiricism follows the method of experimentation in science.
A natural philosopher that applies
the inductive logic to solve problems.
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Rene Descartes 1596- 1650 Invented analytic
geometry. Discourse of
Method Deductive Method
or Rationalism
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Rationalism Applies the deductive method of logic Cogito Ergo Sum - I think therefore, I
am. From this principle, Descartes derived
the Ontological Proof for the existence of
God. ( SEE St. Anselm) Perceptions of the Universe
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Expanding Knowledge
Middle Ages
Rediscovery of Aristotle. Late Middle Ages Humanism Early Modern Period birth of
the Scientific Method.
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The Method Combination of applied
knowledge, religious toleration,mutual forbearance, andpolitical liberty.
Beginning of the Enlightenment
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Faith and Reason
The new science brought manychallenges to religion.
1. Biblical fallacies
2. Natural philosophers vs.
theologians3. Material vs Spiritual World
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Blaise Pascal 1623-1662 French
mathematician Jansenist - apologist Wrote against
dogmatism andskepticism
Penses
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Leap of Faith Pascal was trying to establish a
means to be a Christian. Christianity = Ultimate Happiness Reason can only take you so far
The heart has its reasons thatreason does not know
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Points of the Wager Man transcends that what kills him
The eternal of these infinite spacesterrifies me.
You do not have the resources in yourself to make yourself happy.
For example, I am the King of France
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What is Enlightenment? Was it a revolutionary body of thought? Was it a unified body of thought
generated by an established canon of thinkers?
Was it a stage in the development of thehuman spirit?
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The Philosophes Not usually
philosophers
butrather
men of letters
. These philosophes
sought to applythe rules of reason and commonsense to nearly all major institutionsand social practices.
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Voltaire: 1694-1778 Born Francois-
Marie Arouet
Play-write andsatirist.
Extremely Witty
Candide
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Influences on the
Enlightenment The Ideas of Newton and Locke British Toleration and Stability after
1688. Progressive religious reforms based on
responsible government Experiments from the Scientific
Revolution Era.
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The Public Sphere
The emergence of the Enlightenment wasopening of the Public Sphere through an
active print culture. The Spectator by Joseph Addison and Richard
Steele
Coffeehouses and Freemason lodges Creation of the Encyclopedia (1751)
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Denis Diderot: 1713-1784
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Jean Le Rond d
Alembert: 1717-
1783
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Adam Smith: 1723-90 Founder of laissez-
faire economics
Mercantilism wasthe way topreserve a nation
Wealth of Nations
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Wealth of Nations
Four-stage Theory1. Hunting and Gathering
2. Pastoral or herding
3. Agricultural
4. Commercial
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Political Theory
Politics was the biggest area of reform in the Enlightenment.
A precursor to the revolutionary agethat followed it.
Philosophes felt discontented withthe way things were run.
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The Spirit of the Laws
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Montesquieu:1689-1755 A lawyer and a member of the
nobility.
The Father of Sociology Looked to England as an example of
what government should be like. Separation of Power - Checks and
Balances.
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Persian Letters: 1721
Montesquieu wrote this tale as acritique of European Societythrough the eyes of foreigners.
Usbek and Mirza
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Troglodyte Parable
Mirza writes Usbek and asks:
Is man happier by pleasure or thepractice of virtue?
Usbek
s response is the parable,
which discusses the three phases of the Troglodytes.
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Balance of Power The final decline of the Troglodytes
was a result of a moral problem, not
a military issue.
Men are born virtuous and ought tobe this way.
Economic connection -
Fable of theBees
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Rousseau:1712-1778 Born in Switzerland of lower middle
class family.
Moved to France and lived awayward life Confessions
Became involved with social circlesof the philosophes throughpublications.
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The First Discourse: 1750
Have the Arts and Sciences contributedto mankind or not?
Rousseau said NO! because they havetended to created needs and destroymorality.
Better to be a first rate cabinet maker,than a third rate geometrician
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The Second Discourse: 1755
What is the origin of inequality? Rousseau gave a speculative analysis
of human beings. Man was not originally social.
The drive for inequality was thedesire to be desired.
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The Social Contract: 1762
The Social Contract was Rousseau
spolitical theory.
All men are born free, buteverywhere they are in chains.
BUT WHY???? What is Rousseau s answer for this
bondage?
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Political Reality
Reform existed on three platforms:1. Those who wanted to reform and
revive the aristocracy (Montesquieu).2. Those who fought for a democraticgovernment (Rousseau).
3. Those who sought to reform themonarchy (Locke and Voltaire).
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Enlightened Absolutism
Use the
reason
of theEnlightenment to reform themonarchies in Europe.
- Frederick II of Prussia
- Joseph II of Austria- Catherine II of Russia
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Joseph II: 1765-1790 The son of Maria
Theresa and co-ruledwith her from 1765-
80. Centralized Authority Church Reforms -
Toleration Economic and
Agrarian Reform
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