English Linguistics 1

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3.3 Lexical fields

also: semantic field, G Wortfeld, lexikalisches Feld

items in the vocabulary / lexicon which cover a coherent area / field,a conceptual domain

the whole lexicon of a language is split up into lexical fields

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e.g. domains of 'meals', 'fruit', 'vegetables', 'cooking', 'drinking', 'places for eating and drinking' etc.

mealsbreakfast, lunch, brunch, dinner, ... = onomasiological approach (starts from concept, asks for all possible signs)

general idea:the meaning of a member of the field can only be describedby referring to the other members

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E big, large, great, tallG großsuggestion: the meaning space is divided as with the parts of a mosaic

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largegreat

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lexical field of 'asking': ask, inquire, interrogate, question, wonder ...

verbs of 'moving': walk, march, pace, amble, stroll, sneak, stagger ...

colour adjectives: ...

university teachers: professor, reader, lecturer, fellow (BE) (AE)

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procedure for describing lexical fields:

componential analysis or semantic feature analysisthe meaning of a word is described as a bundle of semantic features

girl [+ HUMAN, - ADULT, + FEMALE]boy [+ HUMAN, - ADULT, … ]woman [ … ]man [ ]cow [ ]

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matrix with a finite number of semantic features description of the whole vocabulary / lexicon of a language

implies - existence of clear boundaries between individual items

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Try to complete the semantic feature matrix for the following verbs (lexical field of cooking) by indicating whether the verb can be used to signal the semantic feature in brackets or not, e.g.: you can boil sth. in [water], therefore '+', you do not toast sth. in the [oven], therefore ' − '+ … yes− … no± … both may apply

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[water] [fat/oil] [oven] [cooker] [degree]

cook ± ± ± ± ±boil + +

simmer + −fry +

roast +toast − −bake − −

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Fig. Lexical field verbs of cooking

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[water] [fat/oil] [oven] [cooker] [degree]

cook ± ± ± ± ±boil + +

simmer + −fry +

roast +toast − −bake − −

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Fig. Lexical field verbs of cooking

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conclusion:

- psychological reality of lexical fields is accepted by modern linguists

- improbable, however, that systematic semantic features define the boundaries between individual items

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remember the more recent idea of

- prototypes / prototypical features in our minds

- boundaries often fuzzy (exs.: chair, vase; see above)

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Are there other principles structuring the lexicon?

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3.4. Lexical relations / meaning relations

3.4.1 Synonymy

expression of the same meaning by means of different wordse.g. deep, profound

The incident made a impression on me.

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deepprofound

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ex. commence – begin, finish – end, close – shut, adult – grown-up

is there anything as absolute synonymy?test:exchangeable in all contexts?

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This river is very deep / *profound. ? He commenced to cry.…

absolute synonymy ….

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many 'so-called synonyms'interchangeable only in some contexts= total synonymy –

to die – to pass away – to kick the bucketwhat is the difference?

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3.4.2 Relationships of contrast

– –

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dead single sleep have

1. complementarity

relationship of contradictionthe denial of one term is the assertion of the other,

no 'room' in between

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– – – –

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old good love genius

2. antonymy, antonymsdifference to 1.?

Jumbo is a small elephant.

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– – – – –

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teacher buy over behind parent

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3. converseness, conversesexpress the same meaning with a reversal of the order of participants

Harris was Chomsky's teacher. Chomsky …

The cat is behind the car.

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– – – – –

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arrive come have learn know

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4. directional opposites express some kind of direction (also metaphorically)

you must have (own) sth. before you,you have to learn sth. in order to ,you can only forget what you

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3.4.3 Hierarchical relationships

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3.4.3 Hierarchical relationships

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= hyponymy:relationship of inclusion,superordinate term (hypernym) includes a set of (co)hyponyms

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lips, teeth, tongue

chineyesnosemouth

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= meronymy:part-whole relationship (meronym – holonym)

the holonym cannot be used for the meronym! (≠ hyponymy)

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3.5 Lexical ambiguitya word allows more than one meaningan old friend (1) friend who is aged

(2) friend who one has known for a long time

he lost his head (1) metaphorical(2) literal

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two types of ambiguity:polysemy the various meanings are associatively related to one another

mouth – (1) opening through which so. takes food

(2) part of a river which empties into a lake, sea

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homonymy

bark (1) outer covering of wood(2) sound uttered by a dog

swallow (1) to go down through the throat(2) small bird

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difference between polysemy and homonymy:(a) differentiation based on etymology p. – etymologically the same word, additional meanings via meaning transferh. – two originally differently sounding words coalesce in the course of their developmentlie – OE licgan 'to be in a flat position'

– OE leogan 'to tell sth. that is not true'

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two approaches may lead to divergent results!

(b) based on psychological relatedness

p. – associative connection by the native speaker

h. – no associative connection

lie – no link between two meanings, therefore lie1 and lie2

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find the different meanings of box (n.) and ask yourself whether you can explain the meanings by associative connections or not

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box(1) container for putting things(2) square on a page(3) (telephone) box(4) (witness) box(5) (royal) box(6) (to get a) box (on the ears)(7) box (hedge)

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problematic cases pupil young student

area in the middle of the eye

G Schloss lockcastle, palace

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E pupil

native speaker probably would assume– very different in meaning– therefore homonyms

G Schlosssee above

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homographs: identical in spelling

homophones: identical in sound regardless of spelling

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3.6 Metaphor and metonymy

3.6.1 Metaphor

"a good metaphor implies an intuitive perception of the similarities of dissimilars" (Aristotle, Poetics)similarity at least in one characteristic or feature

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in traditional terminologytwo concepts (tenor and vehicle) are linked (tenor need not be explicit)

An idea hit him.physical impact intellectual process

hit (vehicle) idea (tenor)also: a striking idea, the impact of an ideafrequent characteristic :

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literature, rhetoric – focus on the 'ingenious' metaphorthe evil empire (president Reagan)everyday use:metaphors are an important structuring principle, we conceptualize one conceptual/mental domain in terms of another

source domain – target domain

strength: whole domain may be made use of

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metaphor: mapping across domains

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+Love is +Our relationship has hit a dead-end street. Look how far we've come. It's been a long, bumpy road. We can't turn back now. We're at a crossroads. We may have to go our separate ways. The relationship isn't going anywhere. We're spinning our wheels. Our relationship is off the track. The marriage is on the rocks. We may have to bail out of this relationship.

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transfer of knowledge about …to the concept …

body metaphorsfoot of a hill ...

affection is warmth to greet someone warmly / coldly

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3.6.2 Metonymyrelationship of contiguity within a conceptual frameThe pen is mightier than the sword. (Edward Bulwer-Lytton)

'the one who can use the pen ...'

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the primary function of metonymy is referential

helps to avoid too many and too specific terms

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metonymy: mapping within a domain

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two basic types:

–part for the whole– the whole for the part= synecdoche in traditional rhetoric

container …the kettle's boiling, to drink a bottle

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producer … he bought a Picasso

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Weeping woman

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object attributea man of the bench (i.e. a judge)

material …

a glass

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his tongue was sharp (speech)

The decision of the White House The Pentagon decided ... Washington is insensitive ...

place …

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English Linguistics 1

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