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© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited
Chapter 15:Working Capital Policy and Short Term Financing
Contemporary Financial Management
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited2
Introduction
This chapter deals with the management of working capital, which involves decisions about the optimal overall level of current assets and the optimal mix of short-term funds used to finance the company’s assets.
It also deals with the financing of the current assets that make up the working capital.
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited3
Working Capital
Working capital is the firm’s total investment in current assets
Net working capital equals current assets minus current liabilities
Working capital represents assets that flow through the firm Turned over at a rapid rate Usually recovered during the operating cycle when
inventory sells and receivables collected
Working capital is needed because of the time lag between cash disbursements and cash receipts
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited4
Working Capital Policy
Involves many decisions about a firm’s current assets and current liabilities
What they consist of How they are used How their mix affects the risk-return
characteristics of the company
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited5
Operating Cycle
PurchaseRaw Materials
Pay forRaw Materials
SellFinished Goods
on Credit
CollectReceivables
Operating CycleInventory Conversion PeriodReceivables Conversion PeriodPayables Deferral PeriodCash Conversion Cycle
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited6
OperatingCycle =
InventoryConversion
Period+
ReceivablesConversion
Period
InventoryConversion
Period=
Average Inventory
Cost of Sales/ 365
ReceivablesConversion
Period= Accounts Receivable
Annual Credit Sales/ 365
Operating Cycle Analysis
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited7
Cash Conversion
Cycle=
OperatingCycle +
PayablesDeferralPeriod
Operating Cycle Analysis Continued
PayablesDeferralPeriod
=
Accounts Payable +
Salaries, Benefits& Payroll Taxes
Payable
Cost ofSales
–Selling, Gen, Admin Exp( /365)
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited8
Size and Nature of Current Assets
Depends on:
Type of product manufactured or distributed
Length of operating cycle
Optimal amount of Inventory
Optimal amount of safety stock
Credit policies
Efficiency of current asset management
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited9
Appropriate Level of Working Capital
More conservative policies often result in lost sales due to restrictive credit policies.
Optimal level of working capital investment is the level which is expected to maximize shareholder wealth.
Conservative Aggressive
Current Assets More LessProfitability Lower HigherRisk Lower Higher
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited10
Optimal Mix of ST and LT Debt
Impact of term structure of interest rates Long rates usually higher than short rates Thus the interest cost of short-term debt usually
cheaper than long-term debt
Borrower incurs higher risk with short term debt Must refinance frequently Short term interest rates are highly volatile
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited11
Profitability Versus Risk
Need for financing equal to the sum of: Current assets Fixed assets
Current assets may be: Permanent - Are not affected by seasonal or
cyclical demand Fluctuating - Are affected by seasonal or cyclical
demand
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited12
Financing Strategies
Matching
Match the maturity of all assets & liabilities Reduces liquidity risk Hard to implement in practice
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited13
Financing Strategies
Conservative Approach
High proportion of long term debt Less profitable, since LT debt usually more
expensive
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited14
Financing Strategies
Aggressive Approach
High proportion of short term debt More profitable (short term debt cheaper) but
also more risky
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited15
An Optimal Financing Strategy?
No one strategy is “right” for all firms
The mix between ST and LT debt must also consider: Industry norms Variability of sales Variability of cash flows
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited16
Cost of Short Term Credit
APR = Interest + Fees
Usable funds 365
Maturity (Days)
Simple interest
Compound interestm
[ Interest + fees
Usable funds ] – 1 1 +EAR =
APR = Annual percentage rateEAR = Equivalent annual returnm = number of compounding periods per year
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited17
Sources of Short-Term Financing
Trade credit
Accrual expenses and deferred income
Loans from commercial banks
Commercial paper
Borrowing against Account Receivables
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited18
Trade Credit
Seller provides financing as part of the sales inducement
Spontaneous source of financing
Cost of trade credit is captured in the purchase price
Trade credit is never free. The cost of foregoing a cash discount is:
APR = % discount
100% – % discount
365
Credit – Disc period
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited19
Example: Cost of Foregoing a Discount
A vendor offers a discount of 2% if payment is made within ten days. If the discount is not taken, full payment is due in 30 days. What is the annual cost of not accepting the 2% discount?
Percentage Discount 365APR =
100 - % Discount Credit Period - Discount Period
2 365=
100 - 2 30 - 10
= 37.24%
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited20
Accrued Expenses & Deferred Income
Any accrued but unpaid expense is a form of short term financing
Stretching payables extends the financing period but can result in a poor credit rating
Deferred income consists of payments received for goods & services to be delivered in the future Are shown on the Balance Sheet as a liability
called Deferred Income
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited21
Short Term Bank Credit
Single loans for specific financial needs Line of credit
Agreement to borrow up to predetermined limit at any time
Revolving credit Legally commits the bank Usually secured Requires a commitment fee
APR =
Interestcosts
Usable funds
+Commitment
fee 365
Maturity ( days )
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited22
Commercial Paper
Short-term unsecured promissory notes
Issued by large well-known corporations
Maturities from a few days to 9 months
Sold at a discount
Purchasers include corporations, banks, insurance companies, pension funds, etc
Maturity ( days )
Interest costs +
Placement fee
Usable funds 365
APR =
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited23
Accounts Receivable Loans
Receivables make excellent collateral: Fairly liquid Easy to recover in the event of default
Problems with receivables includes: Subject to fraud High administrative costs
Two common forms of receivables lending Pledging–Firm retains title Factoring–Sale of A/R With recourse Without recourse
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited24
Borrowing Against Inventory
Inventory may make a good form of collateral, depending on the following characteristics:
Perishability Identifiability Marketability Price stability
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited25
Borrowing Against Inventory
When lending against inventory, the lender must decide who will hold the collateral (inventory)
If borrower holds inventory, the lender may use: Floating lien: floating charge over all current and future
acquired inventory Trust receipt: inventory and sale proceeds are held “in
trust” for the lender
A third party holds the inventory in a: Terminal warehouse: inventory is stored in a bonded
warehouse Field warehouse: secured inventory is segregated on site
and managed by a field warehouse company
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited26
Characteristics of Term Loans
Granted by a bank or other lending institution
Maturity – initial maturity of 1 to 10 years
Less expensive than a public offering
Repayment may include: Equal periodic payments of interest plus principal
(amortized) Equal principal payments plus interest on the outstanding
balance Periodic payments plus a large [balloon] payment at the
maturity date One large payment on the maturity date (bullet payment)
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited27
Characteristics of Term Loans
Interest rate varies, depending on: General level of rates in the market Size of the loan Maturity of the loan Borrower’s credit rating
Interest may be charged as a: Fixed rate Variable rate (Prime plus ___%)
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited28
Characteristics of Term Loans
Security Provisions Protect the lender in case of borrower default May include:
• Assignment of monies due under a contract• Assignment of receivables or inventory• Floating lien or debenture on firm assets• Pledge of marketable securities• Mortgage on fixed assets• Assignment of the cash surrender value on a
life insurance policy
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited29
Characteristics of Term Loans
Affirmative Covenants Things the borrower will do
• Provide periodic Financial statements• Carry insurance• Maintain minimum net working capital
Negative Covenants Things the borrower will not do
• Not to pledge certain assets as security• Not to merge or consolidate• Not to make or guarantee loans to others
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited30
Sources of Term Loans
Banks
Insurance companies
Pension funds
Government agencies
Equipment suppliers
Conditional sales contracts
Chattel mortgages
© 2004 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited31
Major Points
Working capital consists of the current assets carried on the Balance Sheet and the current liabilities used to fund them.
Current assets require an investment, similar to that of a fixed asset.
Current assets are low return; therefore the firm wants to carry the minimum amount necessary.
There are many forms of short-term funding available, but each of them has a cost attached.