1+ +Introduction+to+Research+Methodology

8/3/2019 1+ +Introduction+to+Research+Methodology

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Introduction to Research

Methodology


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Preamble

Knowledge: a synthesis of three elements

(Gustavsson, 1992).

The process of knowing i.e.Methodology,

The knower i.e. The Researcher, and

The known i.e. The Outcome of Research

Epistemology i.e. Thephilosophy of knowing


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Methods of Knowing

Four general ways of knowing (Charles

Peirce):

1. Method of Tenacity

2. Method of Authority

3. A Priori method (Method of Intuition)

4. Method of Science

Method of Logic


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Science vs. Common Sense

Science often refutes common sense.

However, both work in similar ways.

Common sense can be defined as practical judgments based on the experiences,

wisdoms, and prejudices of a people.

Example:

Birds of the same feather flock together;

opposite attract.


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What is science?

Science is

A process of inquiry, a way of knowing

Systematic process of asking and answering

questions

Driven by active curiosity, creativity, natural

skepticism, and tolerance for ambiguity

Serendipity is a part of science, but requiresprepared mind.


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Definition of Science

Science can be defined as

an objective, logical, and systematic method of

analysis of phenomena, devised to permit the

accumulation of reliable knowledge (Lastrucci1963:6).


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Key Elements of Scientific Method

Driving Curiosityformulation of meaningful questions that are out-of-

reach of common sense problem-solving

Systematic observation involving repeated, magnified examinations aimed at

reducing uncertainty about cause and effect(antecedents and consequences)

Systematic experimentation testing different antecedents (causes) to see which one,

or combination, produces a given consequence(effects).


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Characteristics of The Scientific Method

Empirical Information or facts about the world based on sensory

experiences. That is direct observation of the world, to seewhether scientific theories or speculations agree with the facts.

Systematic All aspects of the research process are carefully planned in

advance, and nothing is done in a casual or haphazard fashion.

Replication Repeating studies numerous times to determine if the same

results will be obtained.

Search for Causes Scientists assume that there is order in the universe, that there

are ascertainable reasons for the occurrence of all events, andthat science can discover the orderly nature of the world.


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Provisional

Scientific conclusions are always accepted as tentative and subject to question

and possible refutation.

Objective

Scientists attempt to remove their bias, belief, preferences, wishes, and valuesfrom their scientific research.

It means the ability to see and accept facts as they are, not as one might wish

them to be.

Inter-subjective Testability

Deductive reasoning (a priori assumption) is where a conclusion is inferred

from more abstract premises or propositions (Monette et al, 1994).

Inductive reasoning involves the derivation of general principles from direct

observation-from particular instances to general principles (Rubin & Babbie,

1997).

Characteristics of The Scientific Method


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Wheel of Science

Source: Wallace, Walter (1971). The Logic of Science in Sociology. Aldine-Atherton: Chicago.


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Theory

A theory

is aset of inter-related constructs (concepts), definitions

and propositions that present a systematic view of

phenomenon by specifying relations among variables withthe purpose ofexplaining and predicting the phenomenon.

is a coherentset of general propositions used as principles

ofexplanation of the apparent relationships of certain

observed phenomena.

Two purposes of theory:

Prediction

Understanding


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Theory Building

Theories

Propositions

Concepts

Observation of objects

and events (reality ) Increasing

lymoreabst

ract


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Researchers Operate at Two Levels

Abstract level In theory development, the level of knowledge expressing a

concept that exists only as an idea or a quality apart from

an object.

concepts

propositions

Empirical level

Level of knowledge reflecting that which is verifiable by

experience or observation.

variables

Hypotheses


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CONCEPTS

OBSERVATION OF OBJECTS AND

EVENTS (REALITY)

Empirical

Level

Abstract

Level

Concepts are Abstractions of Reality


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Deductive Reasoning The logical process of deriving a conclusion

from a known premise or something known to

be true.

We know that all managers are human beings.

If we also know thatJohn Smith is a manager,

then we can deduce thatJohn Smith is a human

being.


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Deductive Reasoning


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Inductive Reasoning The logical process of establishing a general

proposition on the basis of observation of

particular facts.

All managers that have ever been seen are human

beings;

therefore all managers are human beings.


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Inductive Reasoning


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Research: Definitions

The two words form a noun to describe a careful and

systematic study in some field of knowledge,

undertaken to establish facts or principles (Grinnell,

1997). A systematic way of asking questions (Drew, 1980).

The scientific examination (re-examination of

empirical data, collected by someone first hand,

concerning the social and psychological forces

operating in a situation (Monette et al., 1994).


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Research

Literally, research (re-search) means searchagain.

Organized analysis of any subject with suitable

acknowledgement.

A systematic, careful inquiry or examination todiscover new information about something, or

establish new relationships between things, and to

expand and verify existing knowledge for some

specified purposes.


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Objectives of Research

To find out answers to questions by applying

systematic and scientific techniques.

To obtain familiarity of any phenomenon.

To determine association between variables.

To determine characteristics of an individual or group

of activities and frequency of occurrence.


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Features of a Good Research

Objectivity

Control

Generalization

Free from personal bias

Systematic (well planned research design)

Reproducible

Revealing of limitations

Application of ethical standards


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Types of Research

Basic Vs. Applied Research

Descriptive Vs. Analytical Research

Quantitative Vs. Qualitative Research

Exploratory/Conceptual Vs. Causal/Empirical

Research

Historical Research

One-time research Vs. Longitudinal Research Field setting Vs. Laboratory Research


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Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

"All research ultimately has

a qualitative grounding"- Donald Campbell

"There's no such thing as qualitative

data. Everything is either 1 or 0"- Fred Kerlinger

The aim is a complete, detailed

description.

The aim is to classify features, count

them, and construct statistical models in

an attempt to explain what is observed.

Researcher may only know roughly in

advance what he/she is looking for.

Researcher knows clearly in advance

what he/she is looking for.

Recommended during earlier phases

of research projects.

Recommended during latter phases of

research projects.

The design emerges as the study

unfolds.

All aspects of the study are carefully

designed before data is collected.


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Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Researcher is the data gatheringinstrument.

Researcher uses tools, such as

questionnaires or equipment to collect

numerical data.

Data is in the form of words, pictures or

objects.

Data is in the form of numbers and

statistics.

Subjective - individuals interpretation of

events is important ,e.g., uses participant

observation, in-depth interviews etc.

Objectiveseeks precisemeasurement & analysis of target

concepts, e.g., uses surveys,

questionnaires etc.

Qualitative data is more 'rich', time

consuming, and less able to be

generalized.

Quantitative data is more efficient,

able to test hypotheses, but may miss

contextual detail.

Researcher tends to become subjectively

immersed in the subject matter.

Researcher tends to remain objectively

separated from the subject matter.


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Influence of Uncertainty on the Type of Research


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Suggested Readings

Bernard, H. Russell (1999). Social Research Methods: Qualitative And

Quantitative Approaches. Sage Publications.

Kerlinger, Fred N. (1999). Foundations Of Behavioral Research.

Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Kothari, C. R. (2004).Research Methodology : Methods And Techniques.New Age.

Ber, Bruce L. (1995). Qualitative Research Methods for the Social

Sciences. Allyn & Bacon

Yin, Robert K. (2008). Case Study Research: Design And Methods. Sage

Publications. Hair, Joseph F., Black, B. & Babin, B. (2007).Multivariate Data Analysis.

Pearson Education.

Field, Andy (2009).Discovering Statistics Using SPSS. Sage Publications.

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