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Steyn (Author’s details to be provided)

ISSN1814-6627 (print) 1753-5921 (online)DOI: University of South Africa Press

Africa Education Review 6 (2)

pp. 343 – 365

Educators’ Perceptions of Continuing Professional Development for Teachers in South Africa: A Qualitative Study

Abstract

The effectiveness of educational reform initiatives depends on the quality of teachers. Professional development (PD) of teachers has therefore become a major focal point of school improvement initiatives. The National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development (2007) attempts to address the need for suitably qualified teachers in South Africa. The study discussed in this article was qualitative within purposefully selected schools. Its aim was to explain educators’ perceptions of continuing profes-sional development in the light of the national policy. The following major findings emerged from the data analysis: (1) overall view of PD in the education system, (2) experience of types of PD programmes, and (3) impact of PD programmes on schools.

Keywords: professional development for teachers, continuing professional develop-ment, National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development

Introduction

The continuous growth of professionals’ knowledge and skills is an essential part of improvement in all professions, and teaching is no exception (Boyle, Lamprianou & Boyle 2005:1). In education it focuses particularly on the teacher as the key to improving learner performance (Desimone Smith & Ueno 2006:178; Knight & Wiseman 2005:387). King and Newman (2001:86) believe that as “teachers

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have the most direct, sustained contact with students, as well as considerable control over what is taught and the climate of learning, it is reasonably assumed that improving teachers’ knowledge, skills and dispositions is one of the most critical steps to improving student achievement”. It is therefore necessary to find appropriate professional development (PD) approaches to ensure that all teachers, even experienced teachers, are equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills for improving learner performance (Anonymous 2001/2002:17; Hirsh 2005:38; Shaw 2003:39).

The professional development of teachers has changed during the past two decades from a “one size fits all” model to more continuing, content- and pedagogically-focused programmes (Brandt 2003:13; Desimone et al 2006:183; Mundry 2005:9). Increasingly, the importance of teachers’ experience and knowledge with regard to student learning has been realised (Knight & Wiseman 2005:9). Unfortunately many PD programmes concentrate either on the content or on teaching methods (Van Eekelen Vermunt & Boshuizen, 2006:408).

Research indicates that many PD programmes for teachers are unsatisfactory and have not met intended goals (Boyle et al 2005:4; Mewborn & Huberty 2004:4). Burke (1997:299) blames ineffective PD programmes on research, since many programmes are based on faulty assumptions of such research or even no research at all.

To transform education in South Africa it is necessary for teachers to be ap-propriately equipped to meet its evolving challenges and needs (Department of Education 2007:4). The President’s Education Initiative research project reports that the “most critical challenge for teacher education in South Africa was the limited conceptual knowledge of many teachers” (Department of Education 2007:4). The Report of the Ministerial Committee on Rural Education (2005) also identified teachers’ limited access to PD (Department of Education 2007:5). The National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development is an attempt to address the need for suitably qualified teachers in South Africa (Department of Education 2007:5). This policy focuses on two complementary sub-systems: Initial Professional Education of Teachers and Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) (Department of Education 2007:2). The emphasis of this article is on CPTD, which focuses on improving the conceptual knowledge and skills of teachers through PD programmes. The National Policy Framework has the potential to change the quality of teaching in South Africa, but its success cannot be guaranteed without the support of educators in schools.

Valuable contributions have been made to our understanding of teachers’ PD. Yet there remains much in this field of study that is unclear and incomplete. In the

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light of the above, the following research question is posed: What are principals’ and teachers’ perceptions of PD in the light of the National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa? According to Van Veen and Sleegers (2006:89), educators “tend to have very personal and strong views on how they think they should work”.

CPTD in the National Policy Framework attempts to appropriately equip teach-ers to meet the challenges and demands of a democratic South Africa in the 21st century (Department of Education 2007:1). It is underpinned by the principle that “teachers are the essential drivers of education” (Department of Education 2007:3). Its ultimate aim is to enable learners to “learn well and equip themselves for further learning and for satisfying lives as productive citizens, for the benefit of their families, their communities and our nation” (Department of Education 2007:25). CPTD is most successful when teachers are actively involved and reflect on their own teaching practice; when CPTD is contextualised and school-based; when developmental activities are well coordinated and when sustained leadership and support are present (Department of Education 2007:25). The CPTD system essentially strives to contribute to the improvement of teachers’ teaching skills by equipping them to effectively execute their essential and demanding tasks, to continually improve their professional competence and performance, to enable and empower them by improving their professional confidence, learning area/subject knowledge and skills and classroom management, to improve their profes-sional status, and to assist them in identifying suitable PD programmes that may contribute towards their professional growth (Department of Education 2007:1).

The South African Council for Educators (SACE), the statutory body for professional teachers, has an overall responsibility for the quality assurance, implementation and management of the CPTD (Department of Education 2007:19). All teachers registered by SACE have to earn PD points by select-ing approved PD activities that meet their development needs (Department of Education 2007:20).

The National Policy Framework identifies four types of CPTD activities: school-driven activities, employer-driven activities, qualification-driven activi-ties and others offered by approved organisations (Department of Education 2007:17). A distinction is also made between compulsory and self-selected PD programmes. The former are paid for by the education authority involved, while teachers may receive bursaries for selfselected PD programmes (Depart-ment of Education 2007:3).

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Theoretical framework

Two literatures inform this study: social constructivism and literature on PD. According to social constructivism, individuals (teachers and principals) search for an understanding of the lifeworld in which they live and work (Creswell 2007:20). Individuals develop subjective meanings of their experi-ences which are multiple and varied (Creswell 2007:20). The aim of such a study is therefore to rely predominantly on participants’ views of a particular phenomenon, in this case CPTD. According to social constructivist learning theories, learning is viewed as constructive and learners build and construct new conceptualisations and understandings by using what they already know (Chalmers & Keown 2006; Mahoney 2003).

In the light of the above, CPTD can be operationalised by means of the social constructivist approach, which recognises the following (Chalmers & Keown 2006; Darling-Hammond & Richardson 2009:47; Paavola Lipponen & Hakka-rainen 2004; Wenger 2007; Hodkinson & Hodkinson 2005):

• Theconstructedmeaningofknowledgeandbeliefs. This is a process whereby individuals discover new knowledge, skills and approaches and then personally interpret their significance and meaning.

• The situated nature of cognition. This aspect recognises the fact that CPTD has to be strongly linked to the actual contexts and situations of individual schools. This is also in line with Engestrom’s model of expan-sive learning, which postulates that human beings do not live in a vacuum, but are embedded in their sociocultural context (Paavola et al 2004). As such their behaviour cannot be understood independently of this context.

• Theimportanceofampletime. New developments and change take time to be implemented.

In order to understand any PD initiative, such as CPTD, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of PD.

An overview of professional development for teachers

Publications on PD in the last decade have shed light on effective PD pro-grammes that develop teachers’ knowledge and skills; improve teaching prac-tice and raise learners’ performance (Desimone et al 2006:182; Wanzare & Ward 2000:2). In support of this, Hirsh’s study on effective PD reveals three important characteristics of PD learning (Hirsh 2005:43): (1) a deep under-standing of specific subject content is a core component of effective PD; (2)

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the individual beliefs of teachers play an important role in the development process; and (3) a detailed plan for introducing new content and practices and facilitation of follow-up action is required.

The traditional approaches to PD included workshops, seminars and confer-ences that adopted a technical and simplistic view of teaching and believed that teachers’ knowledge and skills could be improved by using experts from outside the school system (Boyle et al 2005:4; Lee 2005:40). They proved not to be very effective because they did not sufficiently change teachers’ subject knowledge or pedagogical skills (Mewborn & Huberty 2004:4), which explains why Mundry (2005:14) and Desimone et al (2006:209) suggest that the provision and sponsoring of ineffective PD programmes that do not lead to the improvement of teaching and learning should be discontinued.

More recently, longer-term PD programmes have been designed to assist teachers though direct practical experience to improve student learning (Lee 2005:39; Boyle et al 2005:22). PD is most effective when it is a constant, continual process that includes properly planned development and individual follow-up through supportive observation and feedback, educator dialogue and peer coaching (Bernauer 2002:89; Bolam 2003:103; Moore 2000:14). As such, effective PD programmes include longer contact time, activities sustained over long periods of time, participation of teachers from the same grade, school or subject, active learning opportunities and a focus on subject content (Boyle et al 2005:22; Desimone et al 2006:182; Lee 2005:40). Since the definition of PD includes a focus on the continuous development of teachers, it may be equated with the concept of CPTD in the National Policy Framework (Depart-ment of Education 2007).

The literature reveals a number of aspects that may play a crucial role in the effective implementation of PD. The following major aspects can be identified:

1Afocusonteachers’needsandtheirlearning: PD programmes should be differentiated to meet teachers’ individual needs (Lee 2005:46; Robin-son & Carrington 2002:240), since their professional growth occurs when PD programmes acknowledge their needs (Lee 2005:40). A needs-based model for mathematics’ teachers on site was successfully implemented in Mewborn and Huberty’s study (2004). Their experiences identified three main criteria for effective PD: (1) PD programmes should be designed for teachers who teach particular grades; (2) PD has to be sustained, con-textualised and relevant to teachers’ classroom practice; and (3) PD pro-grammes should be “site-based so that the educators developers understand their students, their curriculum, and their school structures” (Mewborn &

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Huberty 2004:2). Needs-based PD is also supported by others who believe that principals could monitor and evaluate teachers and decide what kinds of PD programmes they need, and then guide them in aligning programmes that fit their needs (Desimone et al 2006:206). Desimone et al (2006:205) suggest “scaffolding” PD opportunities by offering programmes targeted at teachers with varying levels of content knowledge and skills. Moreover, teachers prefer programmes that are more practical in nature and aim to meet their specific needs (Robinson & Carrington 2002:239; Somers & Sikorova 2002:108; Tyrell 2000: 15). Desimone et al’s study (2006:205) reveals that teachers with more expert content knowledge have more con-fidence and motivation to further develop their knowledge and skills than teachers with less content knowledge.

2Thecommitmentofteachers: A commitment to learning refers to the psycho-logical state in which teachers desire to learn and experiment (Van Eekelen et al 2006:410). Teachers’ commitment and positive attitude towards PD are very important for the success of their professional growth (Blackmore 2000:3; Ho-Ming & Ping-Yan 1999:38; Pehkonen & Törner 1999:262). The study by Lam and Pang (2003:90) also illustrates that teachers are more committed to their professional learning if they are more selfconfident in terms of their teaching abilities. Furthermore, when teachers do not have ownership of the selection of PD it may not be very effective because of this top-down approach (Bernauer 2002:91; Desimone et al 2006:207; Somers & Sikorova 2002:104; Lee 2005:41). Fortunately CPTD also expects teachers “to take charge of their selfdevelopment by identifying the areas in which they need to grow professionally” (Department of Education 2007:3).

3Qualityleadership: Quality leadership means that school managers are in-volved in the learning process and collect evidence that the PD of teachers has taken place (Dymoke & Harrison 2006:80; Heaney 2004:42; Mewborn & Huberty 2004:6). This leadership style also involves a commitment to identifying the needs of teachers and appropriate training to meet these needs (Heaney 2004:43; Lee 2005:46). Principals also play a major role in chang-ing the norms, values, beliefs and assumptions of teachers (Lam & Pang 2003:84). Through an encouraging, supportive leadership style, principals can provide individualised support and concern about teachers’ feelings and professional needs (Heaney 2004:42; Lee 2005:46; Sparks 2003:43).

4Theschoolcontext: Teachers’ learning is affected by variables in the school context that may either enhance or obstruct the professional learning of teachers (King & Newman 2001:87; Heaney 2004:44; Hirsh 2005:43; Lee 2005:45; Van Eekelen et al 2006:409). The Canadian study by Yu, Leithwood and Jantzi (2000)

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included mediating variables such as school culture, teacher collaboration and the school environment which may affect teacher commitment to development and therefore also impact on PD effectiveness. Collaborating teachers utilise strengths and complement each other’s knowledge and skills, thereby stimulating reflection and broadening their perspective (Bezzina 2002:77; Brandt 2003:10; Dymoke & Harrison 2006:78; Lee 2005:45). A collegial culture creates more ef-fective teaching and ownership of teachers’ own professional learning (Dymoke & Harrison 2006:80; Boyle et al 2005:4). Furthermore, professional learning is most likely to happen when teachers have opportunities to work with profes-sionals both inside and outside their schools, and have access to the expertise of researchers (Robinson & Carrington 2002:240).

5Feedback on teachers’ development: In the ongoing approach to PD the impor-tance of feedback to teachers on their development and the impact on learners’ performance is widely supported (Lam & Pang 2003:87; Birman Desimone Porter & Garet 2000:29; King & Newman 2001:87). Teachers need to know whether they are making progress. Unfortunately most PD programmes are brief workshops, conferences or courses that do not allow for follow-up sessions (King & Newman 2001:87; Richardson 2003:401).

Research design

In order to achieve the best-informed findings from the study, a qualitative (Creswell 2007; Meadows 2003) explorative and descriptive approach was employed to explore an in-depth understanding of educators’ views of the new CPTD system, as well as the quality of existing PD to which they are ex-posed. For change to be meaningful in schools, it is necessary for the proposed CPTD system to contain the promise of improving the previous PD system. A phenomenological approach was used in order to understand participants’ personal meanings which were constructed from their “lived experiences” (Johnson & Christenson 2000:315; Rudestam & Newton 2001:38). Apart from being a description, phenomenology is also regarded as an interpretative process where the researcher makes an interpretation of the lived experiences of participants (Creswell 2007:59).

A purposive sample of four schools with maximum variance (McMillan & Schumacher 2006:319) was selected: a primary school (School A, a Quintile 4 school); another primary school (School B, a Quintile 5 school); a combined school (School C, a Quintile 1 school); and a high school (School D, a Quintile 5 school). Quintiles are used to rank South African schools according to their socio-economic status. Quintile 1 and 2 schools are regarded as the poorest schools; Quintile 4 and 5 schools are viewed as “rich” schools (Rademeyer

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2007:5) (see Table 1). The selection was based on accessibility, previous re-search projects in these schools which added to a trust relationship between the researcher and participants, and these schools’ focus on school development. From each of the four selected schools, participants were purposively selected by principals to ensure that information-rich participants were included in the study (Marshall 1998: 60).

Focus group interviews were used to facilitate the collection of data simul-taneously and to increase the quality and richness of the data (Daymon & Holloway 2002: 186). The focus groups consisted of post level one teachers, heads of departments (HOD) and deputy heads. Each focus group session lasted approximately one hour. A follow-up focus group interview for the sake of clarity was held with School A.

Personal interviews were conducted with three principals (Schools A, B and D). The principal of School C preferred the presence of the deputy head and one HOD at her interview. The researcher questioned the dynamics of participants in such an interview, but respected the principal’s preference that only the school management team who were all enrolled for the Matthew Goniwe project should participate in the interview. The principal valued the teaching time of other teach-ers during school hours; teachers were also not available after school hours. All interviews were held at the schools that participated in the study.

Table 1: Types of schools

The participants were briefed about the focus of the study before the interview. They granted permission to take field notes and to tape-record the interviews (Johnson 2002:111; Warren 2002:91). As a verifying measure, all notes were expanded by the researcher immediately after each interview was conducted. The following main question was put to the participants: What is your view on continuing professional development of teachers in National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development in South Africa?

A natural flow of conversation then followed. After the central question had been asked (Creswell 2002:107), the researcher encouraged the participants to continue talking by using facilitative communication techniques such as prob-ing, paraphrasing, minimal verbal response and summarising (Burns & Grove 2005). Recorded focus groups and individual interviews were tape-recorded and transcribed verbatim to ensure an accurate reflection of the participants’ views and by cross-verifying data provided by participants from different post levels. The field notes made after each interview were also checked to verify the interview data.

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The researcher read the interview transcriptions and field notes in order to identify “significant statements” which provided an understanding of the way in which participants experienced CPTD (Creswell 2007:61). Significant statements were then used to write a textual description of the participants’ experience of CPTD. From the textual description it was possible to identify the essence (Creswell 2007:62) of the CPTD phenomenon.

Guba’s model for trustworthiness was used to ensure the validity and reliability of the research (Lincoln & Guba 1985; Lincoln & Guba 1999). The four strat-egies to ensure trustworthiness are credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability. Credibility was ascertained by triangulation, prolonged engagement, a literature control, member checking and clear boundaries around the study (De Vos 2005:346). A dense description of purposive sampling and a complete description of methodology, including literature control and verbatim quotes from interviews, ensured transferability. In line with the views of Patton (2002:582) and De Vos (2005:346) social pheneomena, such as CDTD in this study, are too context-bound and variable to permit empirical generalisations. In this regard De Vos (2005:346) states that “the applicability of one set of findings to another context rests more with the investigator who would make the transfer than with the original investigator”. This is supported by Lincoln and Guba (1999:404) who maintain that “transferability inferences cannot be made by the investigator who only knows the sending context”. To counter the challenge of generalisation, the researcher referred back to the theoreti-cal framework to indicate how data collection and data analysis were guided by it (De Vos 2005:346). Dependability was maintained through code-recode procedures and a description of the research methodology. Confirmability was established through triangulation and reflectivity.

Findings and discussion of findings

Educators’ lived experiences of CPTD are described in a narrative way. A literature control was used to recontextualise context-specific views and where necessary more theoretical clarity was provided. The essence of the findings indicates that certain aspects of CPTD may fuel professional develop-ment, while others may restrict or inhibit it. The following major themes and sub-themes emerged from the data analysis: the influence of leadership and teachers’ attitudes on professional growth; appropriate training – the answer to effective CPTD (the accumulation of PD points, experience of types of PD programmes [official CPTD programmes; private CPTD programmes]); and the impact of CPTD programmes. The findings, presented in Figure 1, are described with reference to the central story line, themes and sub-themes.

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RECOMMENDATIONS: 1 Nurture and develop a positive attitude and commitment to CPTD.2 Ensure collaboration between leadership and educators: identify educators’

developmental needs and identify suitable PD programmes. 3 Recognise teachers’ development with PD points (even if cascading is done at

schools), and salary increases in the case of qualifications.4 Provide effective CPTD: reconsider accumulation of PD points to change attitudes

of educators; provide quality, hands-on, practical training; identify expert presenters knowledgeable about teaching practice; identify suitable times for CPTD; provide feedback and support after CPTD; ensure that district (and other) officials are knowledgeable about CPTD; ascertain effective collaboration and support between district officials and schools for CPTD.

Figure 1: An overview of the central story line, themes and sub-themes described by

principals and educators of the lived experience of CPTD

Central story line: On the one hand the findings reveal approaches and practices that may fuel the CPTD of educators and on the other hand they reveal approaches and practices that may reduce or inhibit the CPTD of educators. Recommendations for improved CPTD practices signify a way to harmonise the approaches and practices that may fuel the continuing professional development and not restrict or inhibit CPTD.

Similar stories with context-specific nuances

APPROACHES AND PRACTICES THAT RESTRICT/INHIBIT CPTDLeadership and educators have a negative attitude towards teaching/CPTD: No collaboration between principals and their educators; ignoring and not responding to educators’ needs; ignorance of suitable PD programmes; devaluing teachers’ development

Inappropriate training: The accumulation of PD points could lead to some experienced teachers’ resignation, as few teachers who attend private accredited PD programmes receive PD points. Official programmes: critique of content, repetition of content, no practical application, inexperienced, ill-informed presenters, poor collaboration between schools and officials, inappropriate time for training, no respect for the delegates’ time (no punctuality). Private CPTD programmes: PD programmes that do not meet the needs of schools.

No impact of CPTD programmes on schools: No feedback, support after CPTD, individual learning, quick fixes a waste of money, district managers ill-informed about CPTD programmes.

APPROACHES AND PRACTICES THAT FUEL CPTDLeadership and educators require an enthusiasm and commitment towards teaching/CPTD: Collaboration between principals and their educators; identification of educators’ needs; identification of suitable PD programmes; recognition of teachers’ development

Appropriate training – the answer to effective PD:The accumulation of PD points is not as important as an attitude change, although beginner teachers may be motivated by PD points. Official programmes:quality PD, hands-on training (like Matthew Goniwe project), practical application, inexperienced, expert presenters, collaboration between schools and officials , appropriate time for training, respect for time of delegates, punctuality. Private CPTD programmes: effective, practical and of a high quality for more affluent schools.

Impact of CPTD programmes on schools: Feedback, support after CPTD, cascading of programmes to school, longer duration, development model (Matthew Goniwe) leads to change in school culture, educators working collaboratively, district managers well-informed and supportive of CPTD programmes

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The central story line of educators experiences regarding CPTD

The central story line (Visagie 2009:114) gives an account of the lived experi-ences of educators regarding continuing professional development. The find-ings of the study reveal, on one hand, approaches and practices that may fuel the continuing professional development of educators, and on the other hand approaches and practices that may reduce or inhibit the CPTD of educators. Recommendations for improved CPTD practices signify a way to harmonise the approaches and practices that may enhance the continuing professional development of educators.

The influence of leadership and teachers’ attitude on professional growth

All participants agreed that both leaders and teachers require enthusiasm and commitment towards PD. As regards leadership, the principal of School B had an interesting view of the principal’s role: “If a leader is a four out of ten (4/10), you can do whatever you want, your whole organisation will only be a 4/10 …. This is the secret for educators to develop. The enthusiasm is just so much greater if the leader is excited …. If the principal is not excited, the school will not grow.” This is in line with the view of the principal of School C, who adds that if principals are motivated “it rubs off on the people.”

Apart from principals’ enthusiasm for CPTD, participants also felt that prin-cipals have certain responsibilities regarding teachers’ CPTD. The principal of School D stressed the importance of collaboration between principals and their educators: “If there is no collaboration, there is no sinc [no common goal], the school becomes out of sinc.” In essence this implies that principals should be in touch with teachers, recognise their shortcomings and see where they can “plant and plough in them [teachers]” (HOD School A). The principal of School D succinctly explains leaders’ responsibility as regards PD and the identification of needs: “A principal can never distance himself of development …. It [development] should be done according to a professional development plan … you have to identify teachers’ needs … but they [the teachers] should inform the principal of their needs .... The teacher must speak up … I need this or I need that… and we should work together.” A beginner teacher in School A said that principals should be aware of existing PD programmes that may support teach-ers. Teachers at School D went even further, because they expected their senior management team to inform them whether workshops were worthwhile to ensure that teachers did not waste their time.

A few participants stressed the necessity of teachers’ positive attitude towards PD. School B’s principal said: “It is all about attitude …. If the teachers can have a

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positive attitude and can become excited with what they are doing, then things can change and have the correct impact.” This principal views a positive attitude as the main principle: “to ignite something, to set a fire within people”. The deputy head of School D added that PD should enable educators to become excited about teaching. The effect of a teacher’s negative attitude is explained by one teacher of School A: “If I am not motivated, I’ll do nothing.”

Many participants concurred that recognition for PD is important. One teacher in School A said “If there is not recognition, I’ll do nothing”. The principal of School D recommended that PD programmes that lead to “accredited qualifications”…. “I don’t mind if it is a two-year programme, because after the two years I’ll have a qualification. That qualification should also have some kind of a monetary reward.”

The findings are in line with social constructivism and the literature survey. They support the constructed meaning of knowledge and beliefs, whereby participants discover new knowledge and skills, and also suggest appropriate approaches to-wards PD (Chalmers & Keown 2006; Darling-Hammond & Richardson 2009:47; Paavola et al 2004; Wenger 2007; Hodkinson & Hodkinson 2005). Participants were also able to personally interpret the significance and meaning of PD. Fur-thermore, the literature confirms that effective leadership means that principals are actively involved in PD, which involves an enthusiasm for PD and a responsibility for identifying both the needs of teachers and appropriate training to meet these needs (Dymoke & Harrison 2006; Heaney 2004; Lee 2005; Mewborn & Huberty 2004). Futhermore, sincere commitment by teachers to identifying and address-ing their PD needs is essential for the effectiveness of PD (Blackmore 2000:3; Desimone et al 2006:179). A top-down approach may hinder the effectiveness of PD because it does not acknowledge teachers’ professionalism (Desimone et al 2006; Lee 2005:41). This implies that teachers have to be “partners of the whole process” (Lee 2005:46). Implicit in the appropriate attitude towards PD is the necessity of PD programmes to “lead to a paradigm shift in people” (Deputy head, School D).

Appropriate training – the answer to effective CPTD

There was agreement among participants that PD is “extremely important”, “vital”, “crucial” and “necessary” for teachers to develop in the teaching profession. The principal of School C believed that “teachers have to be life-long learners”. In line with this, the principal of School D said: “They [teachers] can never say they have enough training. They must keep on doing their own research, own reading, read about education, talk about it, attend workshops because it is essential to stay abreast.” This view was supported by an HOD at School B who stated: “People cannot afford to stagnate, otherwise

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the learners may pass you and you cannot be left behind”. The principal of School B shared the secret of why the educators at a particular school always received promotion posts when they applied for them: “Only one thing and that is training of teachers.” For the principal of School D “training should be before implementation. The Department of Education made a huge mistake to first implement OBE [Outcomes-Based Education] and then train teachers”.

Many researchers support the vital importance of PD for the sake of teachers’ professional growth (Boyle et al 2005:1; Van Eekelen et al 2006:408; Desim-one et al 2006:183). Enhancing teachers’ knowledge, skills and attitudes is considered to be a critical step in improving learner performance (Anonymous 2001/2002:1; King & Newman 2001:87). While the necessity of PD was sup-ported in the study, participants had explicit views on attending accredited programmes to continue their registration as professionals in education.

The accumulation of PD points

There were different views on the accumulation of PD points. All participants in School A were negative about the proposed system. The deputy head and another HOD in this school were adamant that they would resign if the system was implemented. Many participants were not certain how the policy would be implemented, and also shared their doubts about the CPTD system. The principal of School D, for example, questioned the criteria of the system. Other participants referred to the unnecessary costs of implementing the proposed CPTD system and its administration. For the principal of School B, the accu-mulation of points was not important and “will have no benefit and serve any purpose if the attitude of educators is not changed during such programmes.” On the other hand, the principal of School C preferred formal training because teachers should receive qualifications and “not only certificates of attendance for training”, which should eventually lead to salary increases that may en-courage teachers to develop professionally.

The participants in School B were concerned about the PD programmes their school would offer in future. Since these school budgets for private PD pro-grammes are costly, not all educators can attend such programmes. The HOD explained: “If only one or two educator members attend a particular course and they receive [PD] points, the rest of the educators will not be interested in the training offered at the school” if they do not also receive PD points. He added that educators in his school often consulted colleagues from other schools or experts for assistance, which “will not deserve any points” although it can be regarded as development and it is important for training in the school.

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Only a few participants expressed positive perceptions of the accumulation of points. The HOD of School D said he understood the reason for this policy, because it will compel educators to attend official workshops. The HOD in School B felt that younger teachers in her school are often not willing to at-tend programmes. She believed that if they were forced to accumulate points “it may motivate them to attend such programmes …. However, if they are not positive about such courses, it will be meaningless.”

The accumulation of PD points required by the National Policy Framework, which is in line with international trends (Desimone et al 2006:205), has merits, but earning PD points should not be the main focus. The main emphasis should essentially be on improving the quality of teachers’ learning for the sake of improved learner performance (Boyle et al 2005:22; Lee 2005:39). Besides the accumulation of PD points, many participants also described their experi-ences of the current PD programmes offered to them. Although PD is crucial, the specific type of PD has a definite influence on the effectiveness of PD.

Experiences of different types of programmes

Participants referred to two types of programmes they attended: official pro-grammes offered by the Department of Education/district offices and private PD programmes.

Official CPTD programmes

In all the interviews, participants were dissatisfied with the majority of official PD programmes offered by their provincial Department of Education. Both the scope and content of such programmes were areas of concern. Furthermore, such programmes are without any application to particular learning areas and have to be extensively adapted to suit teachers’ own needs. A teacher at School B was quite adamant that she was not willing to attend official programmes any longer because these “programmes are not up to standard.” Many participants also criticised the theoretical nature of programmes. The HOD from School C regarded the programmes as “very fundamental” with “little practical value”. Officials were blamed for the poor PD quality of programmes, because they did not understand what is going on at “ground level”.

Many participants also considered official programmes a waste of time and money. Such programmes are often a mere repetition of what teachers al-ready do and know, “just different sound tracks with the same content.” The deputy head of School B called such programmes “warra-warra” (slang for “meaningless talk”). The participants blamed the repetition of programmes

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on the poor collaboration between district managers. However, the HOD of School D believed that repetition was necessary, because the poor attendance at workshops compels the department to repeat workshops to ensure that all teachers are trained.

In particular, participants criticised the presenters of official programmes who lack the necessary expertise and skills. This lack explains why many presenters appear to rely predominantly on theory and often become defensive when the audience asks questions. Participants prefer “knowledgeable” and “competent” presenters who are “top achievers”, “experts”, “subject specialists”, “well cognisant with my world” and proficient in English or the language of the PD programme. The principal of School B succinctly expressed it as follows: “It won’t help if you choose any Tom, Dick or Harry to study the programme for which they have no passion or in which they have not had success before.” The HOD of School C expressed his experience in this regard: “You’ll find that it is Johannes teaching another Johannes” (an uninformed facilitator try-ing to teach equally uninformed delegates).

The appropriate time for workshops was another area of concern; the differ-ent schools did not agree on the best time to conduct PD programmes. Some prefer PD at the beginning or the end of the year in order to plan effectively for its implementation. Others favour weekdays after school, which was un-acceptable for others who feel tired after a school day. Schools complained about programmes offered during school hours that affected teaching time, although the deputy head of School C suggested “take people for a whole week and teach them from morning till afternoon … like the Mathew Goniwe programme”. The principal of School C was in favour of PD during holidays if that could lead to a formal qualification with adjusted remuneration. Unfor-tunately holidays were “out” or “impossible” for other participants.

The issue of appropriate time raised another concern. Participants in School B referred to the presenters’ lack of punctuality. One deputy head said: “The session should begin at one o’clock and they only arrive at three o’clock. Some don’t even come”. Moreover, presenters may even go so far as to tell the participants that they had completed the session but that “it is now only quarter past three and you need to stay till four .... Really, we are not children.”

The educators of School C compared the usual official programmes with those offered by the Matthew Goniwe School of Leadership and Governance, which is a non-profit section 21 company primarily funded by the Gauteng Depart-ment of Education. The deputy head said: “It [Matthew Goniwe training] is more like a hands-on training …. They do follow-ups and assessments and

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evaluations at the schools …. It should not be a top-down thing where they come and lecture.”

The principal of School B expressed the hope that officials would change the quality and style of their PD programmes: “It will be far better if the depart-ment presents only one such a session than 200 workshops.” He referred to one excellent, very costly official workshop he attended. It was the only official programme where he ever felt confident to say: “Yes, I am in teaching.” The others made him “morbid to be in education”.

Although participants in general were very negative about the majority of official programmes, one deputy head of School B expressed her satisfaction with an official programme on bullying. Apart from official programmes, participants also expressed their views of private development programmes.

Private CPTD programmes

The participants of three schools felt that non-official PD programmes were more effective, more practical and of a higher quality than official programmes. The principal of School B referred to a list of private training programmes his school uses for teachers. The school is also a member of the KDA (Kids Development Academy) that organises workshops. “They are very expensive, but are just magnificent courses, approximately R6 000 per person.” He re-garded the presenters as specialists in a particular practice. It is the respon-sibility of educators to share their knowledge and skills after attending such programmes, so that more people can benefit from the training. However, participants from School D who are also members of KDA did not share the same positive experience of KDA programmes. They complained that their educational needs were not met by these programmes.

Boyle et al (2005; 4), Mewborn and Huberty (2004:4), Lee (2005:4) and Van Eekelen et al (2006:406) found that many PD programmes have, for various reasons, not succeeded in developing teachers. Very often a “one size fits all” approach is followed, which does not take into account the developmen-tal needs of educators or the contextual factors of different schools (Brandt 2003:13; Desimone et al 2006:183; Mundry 2005:9). This is also supported by the situated nature of cognition, which acknowledges the fact that CPTD has to be strongly linked to actual contexts and situations of individual schools. Since individuals are embedded in their sociocultural context (Paavola et al 2004), their behaviour cannot be understood independently of this context.

Contradictory to the findings in this study, research indicates that experts from outside schools may not necessarily be effective (Boyle et al 2005:4;

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Lee 2005:40). It again confirms that a technical and simplistic view of PD may be ineffective if programmes are not properly planned to suit the needs of individual schools (Desimone et al 2006:182). Thus the most fundamental question should be whether PD programmes have had an impact on schools.

Impact of CPTD programmes on schools

In general, participants felt that many PD programmes and official programmes in particular had little or no impact on their schools. The deputy head of School C succinctly summed up the opinions: “Short courses are a waste of money …. They do not have any impact. Quick fixes have never worked.”

It appeared that many participants agreed that private development programmes have a better potential to impact on schools. For example, the development model used by Matthew Goniwe ensures that their programme has an impact on the school. The deputy head of School C explained: “If all of us are practising what they [Matthew Goniwe] have taught us, obviously the culture of the school is going to change.” The principal elaborated that “we [educators] do the training in smaller groups and they [Matthew Goniwe] do follow-ups and assessments and evaluations at the schools to see the impact of the programme …. In some instances where you find an individual learning alone, there is no collaboration” in the school.

Educators who work together as teams were also mentioned as an important factor in ensuring a positive change in schools. School D mentioned the success of cluster meetings in their district and their experience of professional growth during such meetings. One teacher said: “We have brilliant clusters and we work through problems in our cluster.” Participants in School A disagreed, because they felt that cluster leaders merely shared their own experiences during PD sessions, and “you’re on your own” when teachers return to their schools. To aggravate this, district leaders who should assist schools when implementing changes do not know how to address problems.

Teachers in School A concurred that the “cascading system”, where an experienced teacher attends a programme and returns to school to train colleagues, would be more effective than compelling all teachers to attend programmes. This was also supported by the principal of School D, who believed that ideally the principal or deputy head should be trained and “then come back and train the educators …. We had our own workshops on OBE where we came together and discussed the material with great success.”

Determining the impact of PD is a critical and integral part of PD (Vincent & Ross 2001:37). In essence, it needs to focus on the impact of a PD programme in relation to teacher and learner outcomes (Knight & Wiseman 2005:403). As

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mentioned, improving learner performance through PD requires collaboration between educator members (Lee 2005:45; Dymoke & Harrison 2006:78). A col-legial culture also creates more effective teaching and ownership of teachers’ own professional learning (Boyle et al 2005:4; Dymoke & Harrison 2006:80; Lee 2005:40). Moreover, it contributes to developing a positive school culture that is committed to creating better learning opportunities for all learners (Robinson & Carrington 2002:240; Rhodes and Houghton-Hill 2000:431).

Conclusion

Ongoing PD for teachers is essential if quality education for learners is to be pro-vided. PD should therefore remain a priority, since the outcomes of such efforts will ensure that the enhancement of teaching and learning can be accomplished (Heaney 2004:45).

This study explored the views held by educators on PD and in particular CPTD. Participants in the study were unanimous in their views of CPTD, irrespective of the school’s socio-economic status. Although they were supportive of the impor-tance of PD, their perceptions also illuminated the myriad challenges associated with implementing effective CPTD in practice. One of the great challenges is to motivate teachers to become committed to their own development and learning. The punitive measure that “teachers who do not achieve a minimum number of PD points over two successive cycles of three years will be accountable to SACE for such failure” (Department of Education 2007:20) may not have much effect on poorly performing teachers. Another challenge is thus to encourage a collabora-tive culture in schools under the supportive leadership of school managers. The necessity of accumulating PD points in the National Policy Framework emphasises the development of individual teachers, but neglects to show the importance of teacher collaboration and a more collegial culture in schools.

The following recommendations are made for the effective implementation of CPTD:

• Nurtureanddevelopapositiveattitudeandcommitment toCPTD. A positive attitude towards teaching and CPTD is vital for the successful implementation of programmes.

• Ensurecollaborationbetweenleadershipandeducators. To ensure effec-tive CPTD it is necessary for educators and leadership to collaboratively identify such needs, as well as appropriate CPTD programmes to meet those needs.

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• Officially recognise teachers’development. This can be done with PD points as stipulated by the National Policy Framework, but also when cascading is done at schools by educator members who attend the CPTD programmes or with salary increases in the case of qualifications.

• ProvideeffectiveCPTD. Reconsider accumulation of PD points to change the attitudes of educators; provide quality, hands-on, practical training; identify expert presenters who are knowledgeable about teaching prac-tice; identify suitable times for CPTD; provide feedback and support after CPTD; ensure that district officials (and other officials) are knowledgeable about CPTD; ascertain effective collaboration and support between district officials and schools for CPTD.

The findings of the study should be regarded as tentative. They highlight edu-cators’ perceptions of PD in general and CPTD in particular, their experience of types of PD programmes, and the impact of such programmes on schools. It is clear that more extensive research is required, over a longer period of time and in a wider range of settings in South Africa, to test the findings of this study. Nevertheless, the study shows that new CPTD strategies may be required to equip teachers for a constantly changing context in South Africa.

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Table 1: Types of school

Type of school Location of the school Socio-economic status of the school

School A: a parallel-medium primary school with 627 learners (previously a Model C school)

Urban, within a middle-class community

52% of learners from previously disadvantaged groups

A Quintile 4 school where many learners are exempted from school fees

School B: an Afrikaans-medium primary school with approximately 1 400 learners (previously a Model C school)

Urban, within a more affluent community that includes both affluent and middle-class families

A Quintile 5 school where only 8% of learners are exempted from school fees

School C: a combined school (Grade R to 12) with 1 635 learners

Located in a peri-urban informal settlement

The majority of parents are unemployedA Quintile 1 school where all learners are exempted from school fees

School D: an English-medium high school with 670 learners (previously a Model C school)

Rural school that includes middle-class to affluent families

A Quintile 5 schoolOnly 8% of families are exempted from school fees

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