Chiang Mai J. Sci. 2011; 38(4) : 638-647 http://it.science.cmu.ac.th/ejournal/ Contributed Paper Diversity of Figs and Their Pollinators in Chiang Mai Province, Thailand Yaowanit Tarachai*[a], Prachaval Sukumalanand [c], Prasit Wangpakapattanawong [b], Stephen G. Compton [d] and Chusie Trisonthi [b] [a] Faculty of Architecture and Environmental Design, Maejo University, Chiang Mai, Thailand. [b] Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand. [c] Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand. [d] School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT UK. *Author for correspondence; e-mail: [email protected]Received: 29 September 2010 Accepted: 12 May 2011 ABSTRACT A study of the diversity of fig trees (Ficus spp.) and their pollinators in parts of Chiang Mai Province in Thailand was conducted from June 2007 to May 2009. 13 monoecious and 13 dioecious species were recorded (twenty-nine taxa in total) representing all six subgenera. The largest group of 11 species belonged to subgenus Urostigma followed by Sycomorus with 8 species, Ficus, Sycidium and Synoecia each with 2 species and Pharmacosycea with 1 species. Some fig trees such as F. benjamina L., F. hispida L.f. and F. racemosa L. were found commonly in both lower and upper areas (310-1,200 m asl.), while some were found in small populations and restricted to specific habitats, such as limestone areas (F. anserina Corner and F. anastomosans Wall.). The study revealed a large number of fig wasp species, but only one species functioned as the pollinator. Pollinators of 20 fig species were identified, with Ceratosolen emarginatus Mayr recorded in both F. auriculata Lour and F. oligodon Miq. In this study, pollinators of F. anserina, F. curtipes, F. rumphii, F. pumila and F. maclellandii could not be found. Keywords; diversity, Ficus, fig wasps, pollinator, taxonomy. 1. INTRODUCTION Ficus (fig trees) is one of the most important genera of plants in rain forest ecosystems. There are close to 1,000 different species found around the world and approximately 350 species in Asia [1, 2]. A large number of animals like pigeons, parrots, hornbills, toucans, monkeys, gibbons and fruit-eating bats, feed on fig fruits [3]. In addition, many parts of fig trees are benefit for humans, e.g. juvenile shoots and leaves of F. lacor are used as vegetables and fruits of F. carica are edible. Latex of these plants is also used for many purposes such as F. benjamina latex for inhibiting the distribution of malarial mosquitoes, F. variegata , in Malaysia; used for godang wax in batic dye, and F. dusenii for trapping of birds. Some species can be used for fiber and as raw materials for papermaking. Also, some fig species are popular in gardening [4].
Transcript
638 Chiang Mai J. Sci. 2011; 38(4)
Chiang Mai J. Sci. 2011; 38(4) : 638-647http://it.science.cmu.ac.th/ejournal/Contributed Paper
Diversity of Figs and Their Pollinators in Chiang MaiProvince, ThailandYaowanit Tarachai*[a], Prachaval Sukumalanand [c], Prasit Wangpakapattanawong [b],Stephen G. Compton [d] and Chusie Trisonthi [b][a] Faculty of Architecture and Environmental Design, Maejo University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.[b] Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.[c] Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.[d] School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT UK.*Author for correspondence; e-mail: [email protected]
Received: 29 September 2010Accepted: 12 May 2011
ABSTRACTA study of the diversity of fig trees (Ficus spp.) and their pollinators in parts of
Chiang Mai Province in Thailand was conducted from June 2007 to May 2009. 13 monoeciousand 13 dioecious species were recorded (twenty-nine taxa in total) representing all six subgenera.The largest group of 11 species belonged to subgenus Urostigma followed by Sycomorus with 8species, Ficus, Sycidium and Synoecia each with 2 species and Pharmacosycea with 1 species.
Some fig trees such as F. benjamina L., F. hispida L.f. and F. racemosa L. were foundcommonly in both lower and upper areas (310-1,200 m asl.), while some were found in smallpopulations and restricted to specific habitats, such as limestone areas (F. anserina Corner andF. anastomosans Wall.). The study revealed a large number of fig wasp species, but only onespecies functioned as the pollinator. Pollinators of 20 fig species were identified, with Ceratosolenemarginatus Mayr recorded in both F. auriculata Lour and F. oligodon Miq. In this study, pollinatorsof F. anserina, F. curtipes, F. rumphii, F. pumila and F. maclellandii could not be found.
1. INTRODUCTIONFicus (fig trees) is one of the most
important genera of plants in rain forestecosystems. There are close to 1,000 differentspecies found around the world andapproximately 350 species in Asia [1, 2]. A largenumber of animals like pigeons, parrots,hornbills, toucans, monkeys, gibbons andfruit-eating bats, feed on fig fruits [3]. Inaddition, many parts of fig trees are benefitfor humans, e.g. juvenile shoots and leaves
of F. lacor are used as vegetables and fruits ofF. carica are edible. Latex of these plantsis also used for many purposes such asF. benjamina latex for inhibiting the distributionof malarial mosquitoes, F. variegata, inMalaysia; used for godang wax in batic dye,and F. dusenii for trapping of birds. Somespecies can be used for fiber and as rawmaterials for papermaking. Also, some figspecies are popular in gardening [4].
Chiang Mai J. Sci. 2011; 38(4) 639
Each fig species is believed to have aunique pollinator and their interaction istypically thought as being one-to-one.Although, there are increasing number ofknown exceptions such as Ceratosolensilvestrianus and C. arabicus, and Ficus sycomorus[5]. Their pollinators are insects belonging tothe family Agaonidae, in order Hymenoptera.The interaction is an obligatory mutualism [6].
In the syconium, not only the living ofpollinators but also the habitat of other waspspresent, those wasps function as competitoror parasite that called “non pollinators”for instance, Sycophaga , Apocr ypta andPhilotrypesis [7].
Until recently, Ficus was classified into 4subgenera based primarily on floral characters;Ficus, Urostigma, Pharmacosycea, and Sycomorus[2]. Modifications were later made at thesubgeneric level by giving more emphases tovegetative characters and Ficus is currentlydivided into six subgenera comprisingsubgenera Ficus, Urostigma, Pharmacosycea,Sycomorus, Sycidium and Synoecia [8].
For monoecious fig trees, a syconiumcontains many female flowers with variablestyle lengths and a few male flowers in activepollination. They produce seeds, wasps, andpollen within a single fig tree. Dioecious figtrees produce either seed and gall figs. ‘Seedfig’ refers to fig trees whose syconia haveonly female flowers with long styles, whereas,gall figs contain both male and short-styledfemale flowers [9].
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS2.1 Fig Specimens
Plant specimens such as leaves, shoots andsyconia were collected to the laboratory foridentification work. Each sample was takenfrom many parts of the districts of ChiangMai. The syconium specimens were veryimportant for taxonomic study. The youngsyconium gave more information of male
flowers and difference of long and shortstyle female flowers while the mature andripe syconium were benefit for studying fruitsand seeds morphology. The periods offlowering were observed by visiting each treeevery month. To report condition of crops,synchrony and asynchrony, we observe thestage and size of figs in the same tree.Synchronous crops within tree means thedifference stages both young and mature figs(syconium) represent in the same tree.
2.2 Fig WaspsThe fig wasps were taken collected by
harvesting the early ripe figs (before ostioleturn loose). Then put each fig in the bottlewith thin cloth covering. The fig wasps, bothpollinators and non pollinators, emerged inthe next day.
The fig trees were identified using theChecklist of Ficus in Asia and Australasiawith keys to identification [2], Flora of China, vol.5.[10], Thai plants names [11], Flora Malesiana, series1, volume 17 [12], and Precursory taxonomic studieson Ficus (Moraceae) for the Flora of Thailand [13].
The fig wasps were verified usingAustralasian Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera): Abiosystematic revision of genera of fourteen families,with a reclassification of species [14], The Indo-Australian Agaoninae (pollinators of figs) [15],Classification of fig wasps [16], and Notes onFamilies: Agaonidae [17].
2.3 Research and LocationThe specimens were collected from
different locations as follows; the samplingof upper areas and moist and evergreen forest,the specimens were taken from InthanonResearch Station of Royal Project Foundation(Chom Tong district) at 800-1,200 m asl.,beside the road of Mae Tang-Pa Pae at 700-1,000 m asl.,
The upper areas with evergreen andmixed deciduous forest, the specimens were
640 Chiang Mai J. Sci. 2011; 38(4)
taken from beside the road of Mae Rim-Sameng and Queen Sirikit Botanic Garden at700-950 m asl., Chiang Dao at 550-900 m asl.The samples of lower areas were taken fromSansai, Hang Dong and Muang districts
(from 310 m to 500 m asl, Figure 1). Thestudy areas were sampled under the conditionof difference kind of ecology and not toodifficult to collect and study on fig wasps.
Figure 1. The study sites of Ficus and fig wasps in Chiang Mai; 1. Chiang Dao, 2. Mae Tang,3. Mae Rim, 4. Sansai, 5. Muang, 6. Hang Dong, 7. Chom Tong.
Chiang Mai J. Sci. 2011; 38(4) 641
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION3.1 Taxonomic study
Twenty-nine taxa in 26 fig species werecollected, representing 13 monoecious and 13dioecious species from all six subgenera. Thelargest group was 11 species of subgenusUrostigma. The second largest group consistedof 8 species of Sycomorus. Ficus, Sycidium andSynoecia each had 2 species and Pharmacosycea1 species (Table 1).
Two varieties of F. benjamina L. werefound; F. benjamina var. benjamina and F.benjamina var. nuda (Miq.) Barrett. The formerhad small-sized glabrous figs (0.8-1.5 cm indiameter), and the latter larger pubescent figs(1.8-2 cm in diameter). Their pollinator wasthe same species, Eupristina emeryi Grandi andnon-pollinators were insects in the generaPhilotrypesis and Ormyrus (Table 1).
Another monoecious species was F.racemosa L. with F. racemosa var. racemosa L. andF. racemosa var. miquell (King) Corner. Theformer had figs with bent hairs, whereas thelatter had dense white pubescence. Theirpollinator was Ceratosolen fusciceps Mayr. Fiveother fig wasps from the genera Apocrypta andApocryptophagus were found inside the figs.
Amongst the dioecious trees, F. hispidaL. was the most universally distributed. Therewere two varieties; F. hispida var. hispida L.f.and F. hispida var. badiostrigosa Corner. This figtree was distributed in open areas, sometimesnear streams and rivers. Both varietiesoccasionally appeared as pioneer species indeforested areas and their specific pollinatorwas Ceratosolen solmsi Mayr. The ripe fruitsattracted animals, for example squirrels, batsand also insect-eating birds such as bulbulfamily.
Overall, seven genera of pollinators werefound consisted of Blastophaga, Ceratosolen,Dolichoris, Eupristina, Liporrhopalum, Platyscapaand Pleistodontes. Non-pollinator fig waspswere Acophila, Apocrypta, Apocryptophagus,
Camarothorax, Ormyrus, Otitesella, Philotrypesis,and Sycoscapter (Table 1).3.2 Ecology and distribution
The native and cultivated plants occurredin different habitats. Some species thrived inunique habitats, whereas others could thriveeverywhere. However, most of the fig treeswere common in moist areas such aswaterfalls, streams and river banks. Some figswere found at upper areas, about 800-1,200m, for example F. auriculata, F. semicordata,F. fistulosa, F. subincisa, F. oligodon and F. anserina.The others were mainly distributed at loweraltitudes, e.g. F. altissima, F drupacea, F. benjamina,F. elastica, F. lacor, F. microcarpa and F. religiosa.They were represented throughout the forestand urban areas. Meanwhile, some species,e.g. F. racemosa, F. hispida, F. squamosa, weredistributed in both the lower and upper areas(Table 2).
F. squamosa and F. ischnopoda are speciesof rheophytic shrubs found in rocky beds ofquick running streams. They are low bushyshrubs with creeping stem. F. squamosa growson rocks or ground near the streams and hasfigs that originate on branches near to thewater level or even below. Their fruits havebrushy long hairy stigmas which persist whenthe figs are ripe. This is an adaptation forgrowing in running streams [12]. F. ischnopodagrows both on the ground of river banks andon rocks in the water as well.
F. anserina is a lithophyte growing fromcracks in rocks. It is a woody climber in moistforests occurring on limestone mountains andhas a narrow range in Thailand [12, 13]. Morethan 50 percent of its figs from several cropsfailed to be pollinated.
Several growth habits were represented:shrubs, climbers, trees, and stranglers. Mostmembers of subgenus Urostigma startedgrowing as epiphytes, then reached the groundand became stranglers when mature. Eightspecies were found growing naturally and as
642 Chiang Mai J. Sci. 2011; 38(4)T
able
1. C
heck
list o
f Fi
cus a
nd th
eir fi
g w
asps
in C
hian
g M
ai (Ju
ne 2
007-
May
200
9).
Cro
ps
No
Subg
enus
Ficu
s spe
cies
Pol
lin
ator
ssa
mpl
ing
(tim
es)
Sexu
alN
on p
ollin
ator
Syn
chro
ny/
Syst
emfi
g w
asps
Asy
nchr
ony
1U
rostig
ma
mon
oeci
ous
Ficu
s alt
issim
a Bl
.E
upris
tina
altiss
ima
Asy
nBa
lakris
hnan
& A
bdur
ahim
anN
ot se
en2
2m
onoe
ciou
sF.
ben
jamin
a var
. ben
jamin
a L.
Eup
ristin
a em
eryi G
rand
iPh
ilotry
pesis
sp.
Asy
nO
rmyru
s sp.
2
3m
onoe
ciou
sF.
benja
mina
var.
nuda
(Miq
.)Ph
ilotry
pesis
sp.
Asy
nBa
rrett.
Eup
ristin
a em
eryi G
rand
iO
rmyru
s sp.
1
4m
onoe
ciou
sF.
curti
pes C
orne
rN
ot se
enN
ot se
en2
Asy
n5
mon
oeci
ous
F. dr
upac
ea T
hunb
Eup
ristin
a b
elgau
mens
is Jo
seph
Not
seen
1A
syn
6m
onoe
ciou
sF.
elas
tica
Roxb
.Pl
eistod
ontes
clav
iger M
ayr
Not
seen
2A
syn
7m
onoe
ciou
sF.
lacor
Ham
.Pl
atysc
apa
sp.
Not
seen
3A
syn
8m
onoe
ciou
sF.
mac
lellan
dii K
ing
Not
seen
Not
seen
3A
syn
9m
onoe
ciou
sF.
micr
ocarp
a L. f
.E
upris
tina
verti
cillat
a W
ater
ston
Not
seen
2A
syn
10m
onoe
ciou
sF.
reli
giosa
L.
Plat
yscap
a qu
adra
ticep
s (M
ayr)
Not
seen
2A
syn
11m
onoe
ciou
sF.
rum
phii
Bl.
Not
seen
Not
seen
1A
syn
Acop
hila
sp.
Cama
roth
orax
sp.
12m
onoe
ciou
sF.
supe
rba M
iq. v
ar. ja
poni
caBl
astop
haga
con
stabu
laries
Jose
phO
titese
lla s
p.2
Asy
nM
iq.
Philo
trype
sis s
p.Sy
cosca
pter
sp.
13Pha
rmac
osyc
eam
onoe
ciou
sF.
callo
sa W
illd
Doli
chor
is m
alaba
rensis
Abd
urah
iman
& Jo
seph
Not
seen
4A
syn
Apo
crypt
a sp
.1A
pocry
pta
sp.2
14Sy
com
orus
mon
oeci
ous
F. r
acem
osa v
ar. r
acem
osa L
.Ce
ratos
olen
fusci
ceps M
ayr
Apo
crypt
a sp
.3A
pocry
ptop
hagu
s sp
.1A
pocry
ptop
hagu
s sp
.23
Syn
Chiang Mai J. Sci. 2011; 38(4) 643
Cro
ps
No
Subg
enus
Ficu
s spe
cies
Pol
lin
ator
ssa
mpl
ing
(tim
es)
Sexu
alN
on p
ollin
ator
Syn
chro
ny/
Syst
emfi
g w
asps
Asy
nchr
ony
Apo
crypt
a sp
.1A
pocry
pta
sp.2
15m
onoe
ciou
sF.
racem
osa v
ar. m
ique
lliCe
ratos
olen
fusci
ceps M
ayr
Apo
crypt
a sp
.34
Syn
(Kin
g) C
orne
r.A
pocry
ptop
hagu
s sp
.1A
pocry
ptop
hagu
s sp
.2Ph
ilotry
pesis
16di
oeci
ous
F. a
uricu
lata L
our.
Cera
tosole
n em
argin
atus
May
rlon
gicau
data
May
r4
Syn
Plat
yneu
ra s
p.17
dioe
ciou
sF.
fistu
losa
Rein
w e
x. B
l.Ce
ratos
olen
cons
trictu
s May
rN
ot se
en2
Syn
18di
oeci
ous
F. hi
spida
var
. hisp
ida L
.f.Ce
ratos
olen
solm
si M
ayr
Apo
crypt
a sp
.Ph
ilotry
pesis
sp.
3Sy
n
19di
oeci
ous
F. hi
spida
var
. bad
iostri
gosa
Apo
crypt
a sp
.Co
rner
Cera
tosole
n so
lmsi
May
rPh
ilotry
pesis
sp.
3Sy
n
20di
oeci
ous
F. ol
igodo
n M
iq.
Cera
tosole
n em
argin
atus
May
rA
pocry
pta
sp.
1Sy
n
21di
oeci
ous
F. se
micor
data
Buc
h-H
am. e
x.Ph
ilotry
pesis
dun
iaJ.
E. S
m.
Cera
tosole
n gr
avely
i Gra
ndi
Jose
ph2
Syn
22di
oeci
ous
F. sq
uamo
sa R
oxb.
Cera
tosole
n sp
.N
ot se
en2
Syn
23di
oeci
ous
F. va
riega
ta B
l.Ce
ratos
olen
app
endic
ulatu
s May
rN
ot se
en2
Syn
24Fi
cus
dioe
ciou
sF.
isch
nopo
da
Miq
.Bl
astop
haga
sp.
Not
seen
2Sy
n
25di
oeci
ous
F. hi
rta V
ahl
Blas
topha
ga ja
vana
May
rPh
ilotry
pesis
sp.
Sycos
capt
er s
p.2
Syn
26Sy
noec
iadi
oeci
ous
F. an
serina
Cor
ner
Not
seen
Not
seen
3A
syn
27di
oeci
ous
F. pu
mila
L.N
ot se
enN
ot se
en2
Asy
n
28Sy
cidi
umdi
oeci
ous
F. an
astom
osans
(Cor
ner)
Berg
Lipo
rrhop
alum
sp.
Philo
trype
sis s
p.Sy
cosca
pter
sp.
3Sy
n
29di
oeci
ous
F. su
bincis
a Buc
h.-H
am. e
x.Sm
ithLi
porrh
opalu
m sp
.N
ot se
en3
Syn
Tab
le 1
. Che
cklis
t of
Ficu
s and
their
fig
was
ps in
Chi
ang
Mai
(June
200
7-M
ay 2
009)
. (co
ntin
ued)
644 Chiang Mai J. Sci. 2011; 38(4)
No
Ficu
s spe
cies
Hab
itH
abit
atE
colo
gy &
dis
trib
uti
on
St
atu
s of
sp
ecie
sF
low
erin
g/Sy
nch
ron
y/
Chian
g M
aiTh
ailan
dye
arA
sync
hron
y
Tab
le 2
Div
ersit
y an
d di
strib
utio
n of
Ficu
s spe
cies i
n Ch
iang
Mai,
Tha
iland
(Jun
e 20
07-M
ay 2
009)
.
gene
rally
occ
ur in
low
land,
ope
n1
Ficu
s alt
issim
a Bl
. T
Trar
ea an
d de
cidu
ous f
ores
t,Co
Co1-
2A
syn
310-
1,00
0 m
asl.
2F.
benja
mina
var
. ben
jamin
a L.
TTr
, St
wid
espr
ead,
moi
st m
ixed
fore
st a
ndin
the c
ity, 3
10-8
00 m
asl.
CoCo
2-3
Asy
n
3F.
benja
mina
var.
nuda
(Miq
.)w
ides
prea
d, m
oist
mix
ed fo
rest
,Ba
rrett.
TTr
, St
and
in th
e city
, 310
-800
m as
l.Co
Co2-
3A
syn
4F.
curti
pes C
orne
rT
Trm
oist
mix
ed d
ecid
uous
, nea
r the
stre
am, 3
50-8
50 m
asl.
CoCo
1A
syn
5F.
drup
acea
Thu
nb.
TTr
open
area
, nea
r the
stre
am,
deci
duou
s for
est,
320-
700
m as
l.Co
Co1
Asy
n
6F.
elas
tica R
oxb.
TTr
plan
ted
in to
wn,
cul
tivat
ed,
310-
500
m as
l.Co
Co1
Asy
n
7F.
lacor
Ham
. T
Trop
en ar
ea, in
the v
illag
e, fo
rlan
dsca
ping
, 310
-600
m as
l.Co
Co1
Asy
n
8F.
mac
lellan
dii K
ing
TTr
open
area
, gro
win
g in
the c
ity,
310-
400
m, a
sl.Co
Co1-
2A
syn
9F.
micr
ocarp
a L. f
.T
Trop
en ar
ea, n
ear t
he ri
ver,
ofte
ncu
ltiva
ted
in th
e city
, 310
-700
m as
l.Co
Co1-
2A
syn
10F.
reli
giosa
L.
TTr
, St
open
area
, in v
illag
e and
city
espe
cially
in te
mpl
e, 31
0-45
0 m
asl.
CoCo
1-2
Asy
n
11F.
rum
phii
Bl.
TTr
, St
open
area
, in v
illag
e, 31
0-45
0 m
asl.
CoCo
1-2
Asy
n
12F.
supe
rba M
iq. v
ar. ja
poni
ca M
iq.
TTr
deci
duou
s for
est a
nd i
n th
e vill
age,
320-
500
m as
l.R
Co1
Asy
n
13F.
callo
sa W
illd
TTr
open
area
, cul
tivat
ed in
tow
n,31
0-50
0 m
asl.
CoCo
1-2
Asy
n
14F.
rac
emosa
var
. rac
emosa
L.
TTr
river
side,
along
the
stre
am, m
oist
fore
st,
310-
1,20
0 m
asl.
CoCo
5-6
Syn
15F.
racem
osa v
ar. m
ique
lli (K
ing)
Corn
erT
Trriv
ersid
e, alo
ng th
e st
ream
, moi
st fo
rest
,31
0-1,
200
m as
l.Co
Co5-
6Sy
n
Chiang Mai J. Sci. 2011; 38(4) 645
No
Ficu
s spe
cies
Hab
itH
abit
atE
colo
gy &
dis
trib
uti
on
St
atu
s of
sp
ecie
sF
low
erin
g/Sy
nch
ron
y/
Chian
g M
aiTh
ailan
dye
arA
sync
hron
y
16F.
aur
iculat
a Lo
ur.
TTr
uppe
r are
a, fo
rest
s in
moi
st v
alley
s,60
0-1,
200
m as
l.Co
Co1-
2Sy
n17
F. fi
stulos
a Re
inw.
ex.
Bl.
TTr
fore
sts a
long
stre
ams,
310-
1,20
0 m
asl.
RR
1-2
Syn
18F.
hisp
ida v
ar. h
ispida
L.f.
TTr
along
stre
ams,
or m
oist
area
s,31
0-1,
200
m as
l.Co
Co5-
6Sy
n
19F.
hisp
ida va
r. ba
diostr
igosa
Cor
ner
TTr
along
stre
ams,
or m
oist
area
s,31
0-1,
200
m as
l.Co
Co5-
6Sy
n
20F.
oligo
don
Miq
uel
TTr
uppe
r are
as, v
alley
s, alo
ng st
ream
s or
moi
st ar
eas,
500-
1,20
0 m
asl.
RCo
1-2
Syn
21F.
semi
corda
ta B
uch-
Ham
. ex
J. E
. Sm
.T
Trfo
rest
mar
gins
, vall
eys,
along
trail
s,60
0-1,
200
m as
l.Co
Co2-
3Sy
n
22F.
squa
mosa
Rox
b. S
Rm
oist
fore
sts,
near
the
stre
am o
r on
the
rock
in st
ream
and
falls
, 700
-1,2
00 m
asl.
CoCo
2-3
Syn
23F.
var
iegat
a Co
rner
TTr
valle
ys o
r moi
st o
pen
area
s,60
0-1,
000
m as
l.Co
Co1-
2Sy
n
24Fi
cus i
schno
poda
M
iq.
SR
river
side,
on th
e cra
ck ro
ck in
the s
tream
or fa
lls, 5
00-1
,200
m as
l.Co
Co2-
3Sy
n
25Fi
cus h
irta
Vahl
STr
fore
sts,
fore
st m
argi
ns, o
pen
area
s; lo
wel
evat
ions
, 500
-1,0
00 m
asl.
CoCo
2-3
Syn
26Fi
cus a
nseri
na C
orne
rC
Lra
in fo
rest
s, fo
rest
s, m
ount
ain sl
opes
,lim
esto
ne ar
eas,
400-
1,20
0 m
asl.
RR
1-2
Asy
n
27Fi
cus p
umila
L.
CE
culti
vate
d an
d or
nam
enta
l plan
t,31
0-60
0 m
asl.
CoCo
2-3
Asy
n
28Fi
cus
anas
tomosa
ns W
all.
STr
limes
tone
mou
ntain
, cra
ck o
f the
rock
,op
en an
d dr
y are
as, 5
00-9
00 m
asl.
RR
2-3
Syn
29Fi
cus s
ubin
cisa B
uch.
-Ham
. ex.
Sm
ithS
Trm
oist
fore
sts,
along
stre
ams,
valle
ys,
400-
1,20
0 m
asl.
RR
2-3
Syn
Hab
it;
T= T
ree,
S= S
hrub
,H
= H
erb,
C= C
limbe
r,St
= S
trang
lerH
abit
at;
Tr=
Ter
restr
ial,
E=
Epi
phyt
e,R
= R
heop
hyte
,L=
Lith
ophy
tes
Stat
us
of s
pec
ies;
R= ra
re,C
o= C
omm
on
Sy
n=
Syn
chro
ny,
Asy
n=
Asy
nchr
ony
Tab
le 2
Div
ersit
y an
d di
strib
utio
n of
Ficu
s spe
cies i
n Ch
iang
Mai,
Tha
iland
(Jun
e 20
07-M
ay 2
009)
. (c
ontin
ued)
646 Chiang Mai J. Sci. 2011; 38(4)
cultivated plants: Ficus altissima, F. benjamina,F. lacor, F. microcarpa, F. religiosa, F. superba var.japonica, F. callosa and F. hispida.
Pollinators of five fig species were notfound; composed of four introduced species;F. curtipes, F. rumphii, F. pumila and F.maclellandii, and one local species of F. anserina,rare fruiting samples in site study.
The most common monoecious specieswere F. benjamina, F. lacor, F. religiosa and F.racemosa. They were strangling plants that weremainly bird-dispersed, except F. racemosa,which has fruits usually eaten by smallmammals such as squirrels and fruit eatingbats.
The numbers of flowering periods andfruiting times were diverse among the fig trees.Figs might be present just once a year or couldbe produced 5-6 times in some species. Bothmonoecious and dioecious species such as F.racemosa, F. fistulosa and F. hispida have figs atdifferent stages of development within thesame crop (Table 2). The situation called‘synchrony’ that we found in both within treeand among trees in each species.
4. CONCLUSIONTwenty-six fig species were represented
in the study sites around Chiang Mai. Mosthad their own specific pollinators, but F.auriculata and F. oligodon shared the same speciesof pollinator (Ceratosolen emarginatus). Thepollinators of F. curtipes, F. rumphii, F. pumila,F. maclellandii and F. anserina could not befound.
The widespread fig species usuallypossessed a large number of individuals ofpollinators. However, the number varied ineach season [18, our observation]. There weremany syconia of some figs without pollinatione.g. F. ischnopoda and F. subincisa. Almost figsdropped in a few weeks. Perhaps there wassmall population of pollinators in nature. Indioecious fig tree, male tree bear fig wasp
offspring in its syconium. If there is less maletree population in the area, fig wasps cannotsurvive without syconium. Thus the statusof synchronous crops both within tree andamong tree can solve this problem. Fig waspscan immerge the new receptive fig in the sametree or other tree. In the study, synchronouscrops was usually occur in dioecious fig excepta big syconium monoecious fig as F. rasemosa.It bears lots of syconium and fig wasps,sometime the new generation pollinatorsimmerge to the same tree again.
The ripe fruits of F. racemosa served manykind of animals as food, so they distributedlots of seeds. Number and size of figs in eachcrop was one of the reasons to promote themsuch as F. benjamina, F. microcarpa and F. lacor,although produced small figs but their bigcrop attracted many kind of birds, which helpthem planting new generation. Future studieson the details of interactions between figsand fig wasps should be of valuable works.It would be support knowledge of figdiversity and distribution and also theconservation of natural ecosystems.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe are grateful to the TRF/BIOTEC
Special Program for Biodiversity Researchand Training grant T_148011 for financialsupport. Sincere thanks and appreciationare also addressed to specialists for theirkind suggestion and checking of specimens:Dr. Cornelis Chr. Berg, specialist of Ficustaxonomy, Netherland; Dr. Finn Kejellberg,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique(CNRS), Montpellier, France and Dr. Jean-Yves Rasplus, Entomologiste INRA, Centrede la Biologie et de Gestion des PopulationsCampus International de Baillarguet, France.This project was performed under theNational Research University Project, Officeof the Higher Education Commission,Thailand.
[12] Berg C.C. and Corner E.J.H., FloraMalesiana, series 1, 2005: 17(part 2).
[13] Berg C.C., Precursory taxonomic studieson Ficus (Moraceae) for the Flora ofThailand, Thai For. Bull. (Botany), 2007; 35:4-28.
[14] Boucek Z., Australasian Chalcidoidea(Hymenoptera): A biosystematic revision ofgenera of fourteen families, with a reclassificationof species. CAB international Wallingford,UK, 1988.
[15] Weibes J.T., The Indo-Australian Agaoninae(pollinators of figs), North-Holland,Amsterdam, 1994.
[16] Noort S.V. and Rasplus J.Y. Classificationof fig wasps. (Online), Available: http://w w w. f i g w e b . o r g / F i g _ w a s p s /Classification/index.htm (25 February2006).
[17] Pitkin B.R. Notes on Families: Agaonidae.(Online), Available: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/entomolog y/cha l c ido ids/agaonidae.html. (20 December 2006).
[18] Wang R.W., Yang J.X. and Yang D.R.,Seasonal Changes in the Trade-off amongfig-supported wasps and viable seeds infigs and their evolutionary implications,J. Integrat. Plant Biol., 2005; 47: 144-152.
