Final.docx Sociology

8/9/2019 Final.docx Sociology

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FINAL PROJECT GENDER BIAS

SECTION : C

SUBMITTED TODR. JAVED HUSSAIN

Dated: 24th April, 2009

SUBMITTED BY

AREEJ SHOAIB KHAN 10026

MOHSIN KHAN 10025

HAMMAD BIN MAHMOOD 19884

HIJAZ ALI 10112

FAHAD AHMED 10023

CHARU LATA 10098

ASAD KHAN AFRIDI 10120

JAHANGIR JAWED 10154

IBAD UDIN BAQAI 10115


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TTAABBLLEE OOFF CCOONNTTEENNTTSS

SERIAL

NUMBER

DESCRIPTION PAGE

NUMBER

1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 3

2 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 4

3 DEFINE THE PROBLEM 5-9

4 ABSTRACT 10

5 LITERATURE REVIEW 11-28

6 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION/HYPOTHESIS 29

7 CHOOSE A RESEARCH DESIGN 30

8 COLLECTION OF DATA (QUESTIONNAIRE) 31-45

9 ANALYZE THE RESULT 46-51

10 CONCLUSION 52

11 BIBLIOGRAPHY 53


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Acknowledgement

We have deeply indebted to Dr. Javed for giving us such a useful assignment,which has helped us to improve our capabilities to understand the social issuesaround us, how sociology is affecting our thinking. The topic, we chose not onlyprovide us great learning but abundant knowledge also.

As the project advisor it was his guidance, help and encouragement that lead tothe successful completion of this report. We would also like to thanks all thosepeople, who have directly and indirectly helped us in providing the information;without this help, the report would not have been in this presentable form.


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LETTER OF TR ANSMI TT AL

APRIL 6 2009

Dr. Javed Hussain

Project supervisor & Course Instructor

Iqra University

Dear Sir,

This is the final analysis report based on the topic THE PERSISTENCE OFINEQUALITY BETWEEN GENDERS , as requested it is being submitted to you onApril 6, 2009.

The report has been prepared keeping in mind how gender discriminationpenetrates in our society even in this globalized world.

The survey we conducted and the result which was analyzed prove our point thatmedia is causing destruction in our generation and rest is below in the report.

Areej shoaib khan Asad khan afridi Jahangir jawed Ibad Baqai

________________ ______________ ______________ _________

Hijaz Ali Mohsin khan fahad Ahmed Hammad mahmood Charu lata

________ __________ ___________ _____________ _________


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Defining the problem

Nature has always maintained a proportion in this world in order to decorate itand so it produced a balancing element for each and every thing. These balancingelements vary in the proportion they provide to their opposites. In the samecontext men and women are regarded as the counterpart for each other, but themajor conflict in this regular support is called 'gender discrimination'.

'Gender discrimination or biases' is often based on gender stereotypes of asociety, i.e. considering men strong and women as emotionally sensitive. It is

because of the fact that the term 'gender' is often conflicted with the term 'sex'.Both the terms are used as synonyms of each other in normal context, but there'sa technical difference between the both.

'Sex' and 'gender' are different in origin but basically the general role of individuals in a particular society is partly based on the physical potentials of individuals. Along with physical requirements individual must have to use mental

capabilities in order to move in the society. Gender discrimination in its originalityis a phenomenon, by which the role of individuals is determined with in aparticular society.

The dispute of gender discrimination arises when physical strength is consideredand the mental part is left out. As a result of such phenomenon, individuals arecategorized as 'strong' and 'weak', 'emotionally strong' and 'emotionallysensitive', 'competent' and incompetent', 'leaders' and 'followers' etc. The majordeterminants of gender discrimination include the social setup, culture, religion,geographical conditions, economic setup, moral standards and education level of the society.


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"'Male superiority' can be classified under the head of social setup, religious belief and cultural heritage. In such society, male individuals are trained to be dominantwhile females to be submissive. In such a condition, males even being on wrong

way are considered to be right and women even being on a right way areconsidered to be wrong. The moral judgments of such a society are on the basis of physically dominant gender. Not only in social and moral context, the physicallystrong individual is placed on higher position but in economic, educational andintellectual race as well.

The tale of social and economic injustice with reference to women discrimination

is very long, as it exists in almost all the societies and economies. Keeping femalesaway from general education, holding that they are not supposed to participate inany economic activity so there's no need to educate them, is one of the majorexamples from Asian social setups.

Women are discouraged in other social concerns as well, for instance people willheartily accept a man as their leader even if has some criminal record in the past,but for a woman it'll be impossible to become the leader of a mass if she'd beeninvolved in a minor crime.

Economic aspect of 'women discrimination' is also of outmost importance.Economically there are two different criterions for the participation of individualsin economic activities. Firstly in enlightened parts of Asia, women are encouragedto get educated, so girls heartily join the technical courses. But after gettingtechnically or professionally qualified they are not granted permission to playtheir role as an earning member of the family, so they don't participate in

economic activities and hence their professional qualification goes in the bin.Don't go far; just have a glimpse of 'medical studies in Pakistan'.


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As the admission in medical colleges is subjected to the merit, and luckily girlsexcel in academics so more girls avail admissions in medical colleges. After gettingqualified as M.B.B.S, majority of the girls do not practice, due to social hurdles.

Concisely, in unaware parts of the world, woman is considered as a liability, notan asset, as she's not the earning member of the family and she has to rely on themale member of the family for her needs. And man being the earning member of the family is considered as the dominant member of the family so woman isdeprived of the opportunities for which she qualifies. And in mean corporatesector, men are deprived of the equal employment opportunity for costeffectiveness and to maintain the bossy environment.

When it comes to the home front, those who are complaining about beingoppressed by the West, turn out to be oppressors themselves in relation towomen. Islamic fundamentalists and the religious right are responsible for thestark and horrific conditions faced by women in most of Muslim societies.

They help the ruling classes to suppress women. They also portray the struggle forwomen's rights as a western conspiracy against the "great traditions" and "familyvalues" of these religious parties.

They never utter a single word against the horrible conditions faced by women.They have never agitated against the rapes and other crimes committed againstwomen. For the ruling and religious elite, constituted essentially from the samemale, relatively affluent segment of society which perpetuates the abuse of women, the plight of poor women is a non-issue.


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In many areas in Pakistan, women are not allowed to go to school. In many areasof Balochistan, Sindh, North West Frontier Province, it is impossible to see awoman in the markets or on the streets. The majority of Pakistani women are

facing the conditions of the dark ages with no social, political and economicrights.

Discrimination against them is very visible in every field of life. The number of women workers in Pakistan's work-force is on the rise. Nearly 90% women inPakistan face violence in the home. For the dominating sections of the ruling elite,domestic violence is not a crime. For them, every man has the right to beat his

wife, sister, daughter and even other female members of his family. Every one inthree teenage girls is a victim of some kind of torture.

Forces against women uplift consider the struggle for women's rights as a westernconspiracy. For them, women are inferior to men, and their main duty is to pleasemen. The religious right allows horrific and brutal oppression of women tocontinue in the name of Islamic culture.

According to many well known Islamic scholars, these 'traditions and customs' areun-Islamic. But people still defend them. They include the practice of honorkilling. Vani is a custom under which girls are given in marriage to men of rivalclans as a trade-off in deals to settle cases of murder and other blood feuds.(Sisters and daughters of accused murderers are given to affected families)

These girls are then treated as slaves in the rival clan. Forced marriages are rifeand Karo Kari is widely practiced. This is the custom of husbands or other malefamily members killing married or unmarried female members on allegations of illicit relations.


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More and more women in Pakistan are fighting back vigorously to end these crueltraditions. These women are challenging the male-dominated social and politicalsystem. But still it is not easy for women to raise their voice. This battle against

feudalism, tribalism and fundamentalism is linked with the fight against the rottensystem of capitalism. This battle cannot be fought on an individual basis. Workingclass women need organization and unity.

Finally we d conclude that, 'gender discrimination' in its originality is not a curse.Nature has structured individuals in different physical proportions, but mentalcapabilities are kept same for both men and women. And social responsibilities

don't only require physical strength but mental strength as well. So thedistribution of responsibilities should not be based only on physical potentials, itbrings conflicts. And these conflicts can only be resolved by filling the missing partof mental capabilities, and maintaining a balance between the distribution of responsibilities on the basis of equality and equity.(The writer is a political, social activist, who struggle against the inequality andbias towards women in every field of society. He was on hunger strike for 60 daysagainst the discriminatory behavior of a university s Vice Chancellor.)

R eferences

www.thefinancialdaily.com/RSS/RSSNews.aspx

www.allfreeessays.com/topics/gender-inequality


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ABSTR AC T

The afflicted world in which we live is characterized by deeply unequal sharing of the burden of difficulties between women and men. Gender inequality exists inmost parts of the world, from Japan to Morocco, from Uzbekistan to the UnitedStates of America. However, our emphasis is on the immense inequalitiesbetween women and men in Pakistan. It can take many different forms. Werealize, gender inequality is not a single problem itself, but a collection of manydifferent and interlinked problems.

We re focused on the plural view of gender inequality, which can have manydifferent aspects. Gender injustice can vary from one region to another, and alsofrom one period to the next. The effects of gender inequality can impoverish thelives of men as well as women. It can be more fully understood by taking detailedand observed note of certain forms of inequality that can be found in particularregions. Gender inequality hurts the interests not only of girls and grown-upwomen, but also of boys and men, through biological connections (such aschildhood undernourishment and cardiovascular diseases at later ages) and alsothrough societal connections (including in politics and in economic and social life).


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REV I EW OF LI TER ATURE

An essay by Amartya Sen.

Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen's work on gender inequality is of seminalimportance. His work on the theory of the household represents the householdnot as an undifferentiated unit, but as a unit of cooperation as well as of inequality and internal discrimination. He has worked on problems of discrimination against women in the development process, on survivorshipdifferentials between men and women under conditions of social discrimination

against women, and on women's agency in the process of social development.Along with his academic collaborator Jean Drze, Professor Sen proposed andpopularized the concept of "missing women" - estimated to exceed 100 million

round the world - which has given us a new way of understanding and mapping the problem

In this Cover Story essay, which is based on the text of hisinauguration lecture for the Radcliffe Institute at HarvardUniversity, Professor Sen takes a comprehensive and deeply

concerned look at the "many faces of gender inequality."Focussing on South Asia, he discovers in the data thrown up bythe Census of 2001 an interesting phenomenon - a split India,"something of a social and cultural divide across India, splittingthe country into two nearly contiguous halves, in the extent of

anti-female bias in natality and post-natality mortality." He concludes byidentifying the principal issues, emphasising the need to "take a plural view of gender inequality," and calling for a new agenda of action to combat and put anend to gender inequality.

REFERENCE:

www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1822/18220040.htm


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SACH ET

Society for the advancement of community, health, educationand training

Gender and Health

By: Dr. Rakhshinda Perveen

Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual well being andnot merely the absence of disease; declares the World Health Organization(WHO). This implies that one of the most consequential determinants of Health isGender, which happens to be socially shaped rather than biologically built.

Any form of social, economic and political injustice affects the humandevelopment. Health being one of the indicators of human development is indeedinfluenced. However, the worthiness "warranted" due to "maleness" andmisestimate "merited" due to "femaleness" shifts the balance of disadvantagesand disempowerment towards women. Hence women suffer from the denial of their basic human rights throughout the world in general.

What could be the health impacts on men and women composing a society that isblazed by inequalities, inequities, biases and discriminations? Certain facts andfigures reflecting the health consequences would give an answer to the questionbut not a solution to the problem. It is worthwhile to look behind the numericaland well-researched evidence.

In a traditional patriarchal society, obsessed with the fallacy that a girl is bornwith "a mouth to feed" while a boy is born with "two hands to earn" the fate of

the two babies having different genders is quite understandable. The male childassigns the role of a breadwinner and is raised in conformation with the sameimage whereas the female child becomes entitled to the "last, least and leftovers"as a rule.


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The social environment in nutshell is more enabling for males than females andthus life offers more opportunities to the former group. A new phase of deprivations begins for the females when they get married (do they alwaysexercise their right to decide? Who knows)? amidst the most frequently uttered"dua" of being blessed with SONS. The physiological process of Pregnancybecause of being TOO CLOSE and the lack of proper maternity care for majority of the women in Pakistan takes a heavy toll; here every hour two (2) mothers diedue to child birth.

Male participation in child raising is another entity yet to be discovered anddeciphered in the local scenario. A "REAL MAN" by virtue of centuries old deeplyembedded ideas is not supposed to change Nappies or help his wife in thekitchen.

I may be sounding too pessimistic (although there is a very critical line of demarcation between Pessimism and Realism). Of course there are brighter andbetter examples.

Over the years many positive changes have started emerging in the society owingto the efforts of Public & Private sectors and much stronger strike of the

information technology. The level of awareness has towered. People may beuneducated but not necessarily unaware anymore. However, the predicament of common masses in general and those of women is still very unfavorable.

The causes may be looked into the irrationality of the prioritized national issues,lack of political will and stability. Therefore, it is not surprising to find certaindeplorable development (read non-development) facts. Nearly 38% of our peoplelive below the poverty line. This is one such revelation that could make realize thestate of the art to those who bear the insight.


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Reverting to the main focus of gender and health it is interestingly disappointingto note that almost negligible data exists about health issues of Pakistani men.What do they know and what should they know are untapped areas of research.Gender inequalities affect men's behavior and their relationship towards women.This is reflected in diminished sense of responsibility among men and increasedcases of gender-based violence, which in turn has its own health consequences. Itis inevitable to understand the significance of disease pattern in men and women.This understanding could only be achieved if the core issues of health areassessed and analyzed through a gender lens.

The need of the hour is to formulate and implement a gender sensitive healthpolicy. Needless to emphasize that the Politicians, representatives of thegovernment and CSOs and Media are the key actors in this connection.


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Islamic Women in Science

Author: Farkhonda Hassan

A thousand years ago, the Muslim World made remarkable contributions toscience. Muslims introduced new methods of experiment, observation, andmeasurement. To name but a few: Al-Khwarizmi (born in 825 A.D.) inventedalgebra (an Arabic word) and the word algorithm is derived from his name; Ibn al-Haytham (born in 1039 A.D.) wrote the laws of the reflection and refraction of light and expounded the principles of inertia (long before Isaac Newtonformulated his theories); Ibn Sina (born in 980 A.D. in what is now modern-dayUzbekistan) wrote the Canon of Medicine (al-Qanun fi'l-Tibb), a 318-page medicaltext that was the basis for all medical teaching in Europe and the Middle East forhundreds of years. In the words of the science historian George Sarton, "the main,as well as the least obvious, achievement of the Middle Ages was the creation of the experimental spirit, and this was primarily due to the Muslims down to the12th century."*

Yet today, the number of original research papers published by scientists inMuslim countries is 0.1% of the number published by scientists in Europe and theUSA. It is to be hoped that this trend is set to change, with many Muslim countriesopening new universities and introducing a variety of educational and trainingprograms to improve their capabilities in science and technology. For example, of Egypt's 18 universities, which together enroll a total of 1,187,926 students, fivehave opened within the past 4 years. But even with these developments, there isstill disparity between Muslim men and women when it comes to an education inscience and technology subjects.

In many Muslim countries, gender-based discrimination, coupled with social andcultural barriers, limits access and participation of women in higher education.Some people attribute these barriers to the teachings of Islam, but this is false.The teachings of the Holy Prophet of Islam emphasize "the acquiring of knowledge as bounden duties of each Muslim from the cradle to the grave" andthat "the quest for knowledge and science is obligatory upon every Muslim manand woman."* One-eighth (that is, 750 verses) of the Quran (the Muslim HolyBook) exhort believers to study nature, to reflect, and to make the best use of reason in their search for the ultimate truth.


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Science education in most Muslim countries begins between 6 and 7 years of ageand is taught as an integrated compulsory subject to both boys and girls until theage of 15. The major science disciplines are then studied separately in the last 2 or3 years of high school education. Fewer girls than boys are enrolled in high schoolscience curricula because of a bias in the existing education structure thatencourages girls to study the arts and humanities. There are various reasons forthis related to gender stereotyping, misleading perceptions that science andtechnology are subjects more suitable for boys, and the failure of curricula torelate science and technology to the everyday life of women. Thus, there is self-inhibition among school girls that affects not only the number of young womenentering university to study science and technology subjects, but also results inthe reluctance of talented women to introduce their own values and visions into aworking world dominated by men.

Muslim countries vary greatly in their culture, traditions, and social systems, andthere is a wide range of attitudes toward educating women at the university level.For example, in Egypt, women have attended university since the 1920s, whereasin other Muslim countries a university education for women is a recentphenomenon. Although women in many Muslim countries have the right to auniversity education, those in more traditional rural areas often do not exercisethat right, whether for social, economic, or family reasons.

The percentage of females enrolled in science and technology university coursesranges from 70% in the United Arab Emirates to 8% in Djibouti; in Egypt, 35% of science undergraduates are women (Table 1). In certain disciplines, such as publichealth at The Lebanese University, chemistry in universities in Iraq, and pharmacyin Syrian universities, there are more female than male undergraduate students.Women tend preferentially to enroll in the life sciences and chemistry, with farfewer studying physics, mathematics, and engineering. This seems to be more theresult of female students choosing these subjects than active discrimination bythe education system. This trend is also seen among U.S. and European femalestudents--for example, in the EU, women constitute 40% of natural scienceundergraduates, 28% of mathematics and computer undergraduates, and 20% of engineering undergraduates.


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Table 1. Percent Female Students

Enrolled in B.Sc. Courses 1990-1991

Country Total enrollment Percent female

Algeria 182,282 44

Bahrain 3,785 68

Djibouti 1,068 8

Egypt 525,931 35

Iraq 124,142 40

Jordan 34,984 45

Kuwait 14,412 67

Lebanon 75,525 48

Libya 53,611 31

Mauritania 5,339 14

Morocco 200,429 37

Oman 3,258 50

Palestine 16,422 38

Qatar 4,515 69


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Saudi Arabia 124,886 27

Somalia 4,641 15

Sudan 59,459 45

Syria 169,913 37

Tunisia 56,392 38

U.A.E. 10,462 70

Yemen 42,165 17

Total/average 1,713,621 35

Recently, there has been a small but noticeable shift in the type of scientificdisciplines chosen by Muslim women, with more female students selectingcourses in engineering, physics, mathematics, computer sciences, and thegeosciences. For example, at The Lebanese University, the percentage of women

studying engineering increased from 16% in 1992-93 to 20% in 1996-97, and inSyria, the total percentage of women studying civil engineering increased from14.4% in 1980 to 30.5% in 1994. Encouraging though this trend may be, it doesnot necessarily mean that greater career opportunities await women graduatingin science subjects.


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There has been a tendency for female scientists with Ph.D. degrees toconcentrate on teaching and research in a university setting. However, this trendmay be shifting because, according to a 1995-96 survey by the Egyptian Academyof Scientific Research and Technology, women constitute 43% of the workforce innon-university research institutes (such as the National Research Center,Petroleum Research Institute, and National Institute of Astronomical andGeophysical Research).

Table 2. Percent Female Faculty Members in Egypt

Faculty Males Females TotalPercentFemale

Medicine 4717 1913 6630 28.9

Veterinarymedicine

730 118 848 13.9

Dentistry 372 253 625 40.5

Pharmacy 357 273 630 43.3

Sciences 2767 941 3708 25.4

Engineering andtechnology

2727 283 3010 9.4

Agriculture 2525 402 2927 13.7

Source: Egyptian Supreme Council of Universities(1995-96)


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There are a number of sociocultural factors that limit career advancementopportunities in science and technology for Muslim women. Women are raisedand educated in a male-dominated society with very traditional attitudes andconstraints. These vary greatly not only from one Muslim country to the next, butalso between, for example, urban and rural areas of the same country. Otherfactors, well-known to Western women, also exist, such as the challenges of combining responsibilities for a household and family (usually extended family)with a professional career. In addition, because scientific communities are highlyresistant to change and science itself advances at a remarkable pace, it isextremely difficult for a woman to re-enter the scientific workforce once she hasput her career on hold to raise a family.

A look at female scientists in different fields in most Islamic countries indicatesthat the more powerful the scientific institution, the less open it is to havingwomen in senior positions. As in many other developed and developing countries,women are notably absent from leadership roles and positions of responsibility ininstitutions concerned with science policy and administration. In a few Muslimcountries, the percentage of female scientists in managerial and policy-makingpositions has been increasing, but at a considerably lower rate than the increasein numbers of women qualified to hold such positions.

Despite all the constraints and obstacles in Islamic countries, women scientistshave achieved considerable professional progress within a short period of time.Although there is an increasing pool of highly qualified women scientists in someIslamic countries, few women in universities and research institutes arepresidents, deans, departmental chairs, directors of institutes, or heads of divisions or laboratories. Very few women scientists are involved in the politicallife of their countries, although those who are involved have proved to be strongadvocates for science and technological development and for protecting the

environment. It is important that more Muslim women scientists are encouragedto enter politics where their voices will be heard.


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A few female scientists from Muslim countries serve on national and internationalcommittees where they have the opportunity to promote science and technologyat both the national and global level. In Egypt, Venice Gouda, a Ph.D. chemist, wasminister for scientific research from 1994 to 1997. The Executive Board of theThird World Organization for Women in Science (TWOWS).|| includes Muslimwomen scientists from Nigeria, Jordan, Kuwait, and Egypt.

There has been progress in the education of women from Muslim countries inscience and technology but there is still a long way to go. In the words of KofiAnnan, as he launched a U.N. global initiative earlier this year to educate girls,"Let us prove that a society which empowers its women is a society sure tosucceed."

REFERENCE:

sachet.org.pk/home/gender_columns

http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/290/5489/55

TRENDS OF GENDER INEQUALITY IN PAKISTAN


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The magnitude of the inequality indexes as computed by the authors are given inTable 1.The results given in Table 1, demonstrate a decline in overall gender inequality in Pakistan.

Looking at components,gender inequality ismost pronounced inlabour force

participation rates.While the female labour force participation ratehas more than doubledduring the past 31 years,from 7 percent during1972-73 to nearly 16

percent during 2004-05,it is still very lowcompared to male

participation, which wasat almost 69 percent in2005. Educationattainment index hasalso improved from148.8 to 112.3 over thesample period from1973-2005. Currently,the literacy rate is about45 percent for femalesand about 68 percent for

males. The rates of enrolment in schools for females are about 76

percent for primary andabout 27 percent for secondary education, which were 26 percent and 8 percent in1972-73, respectively. The male-tofemale teacher ratio1 has improved from 2.4


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during 1972-73 to 1.03 during 2003- 04, which shows that there are almost equalnumber of male and female teachers in primary, secondary and vocational schools.However, the low level of female enrollment relative to male enrollment impedes

the entry of women in the economic labour force and leads to a concentration of females in the unskilled labour force.

The survival index doesnt show any significant inequality between men andwomen, or much movement in the relative positions of men and women over timeGender inequality appears to be declining sharply during the 1970s, with animprovement in female enrollment rates and a drop in participation rate in malelabour force. The first half of the 1980s, shows an increase in gender inequalitythat is mainly attributed to a decline in the labour force participation rate for both

males and females, in an era of highunemployment in the country. Augustoand Zahidi (2005), have argued thatwomen are more concentrated in theunskilled labour force, so they are moreaffected by the high unemployment rate inthe country. Later, during the 1990s, thehigh enrollment rates helped resume the

decline in gender inequality index. Thedata shows a drop in male to femaleteacher ratio from 1.8 to 1.1 and simultaneously an increase of primary femaleenrollment rates from 68 percent to 77 percent in 2001. Thus, the accompanyingsharp decline of about 4.5 percentage points in the composite gender inequalityindex in 2001 helps to illustrate the fact that female teachers are essential to anyinitiative to increase female enrollment in Pakistan.

EMPIRICAL RESULTS


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The overall gender inequality based on three dimensions, including labour market,education and health facilities are analyzed in this paper using Pakistans data fromthe 1973 to 2005 period.

In line with the literature, exports and imports to

GDP ratios have been used to capture trade liberalization and the degree of openness of the economy.

Overall Gender Inequality

The estimated equation of the determinants of overall gender inequality is reported below (Eq-2).

where GDI is Gender Inequality Index, PCY is Per Capita Income, M is imports, X is

Exports, Y is Gross Domestic Product (GDP), SF is primary and secondary girl schools and

SM is primary and secondary boy schools.

The contributions of the above-mentioned determinants individually to changes ingender inequality are analyzed in each five-year period since 1976 to 2005. Theresults are presented in Chart 3. On an annual average basis, overall gender inequality index decreased by 0.88 percent during 1976-80. Trade liberalizationrelated variables such as exports-to-GDP ratio and imports-to-GDP ratio havecontributed one third (0.30 percent) of this decline (0.88 percent). Both thevariables, exports and imports-to-GDP ratio, of trade liberalization contributed


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0.14 and 0.16 percent, respectively of the total decrease of 0.88 percent. Decline inimports-to-GDP ratio from 1981-85 to1996-00 increased gender inequality.

However, exports-to-GDP ratio helped inreducing gender inequality. Recently,during 2001-05, trade liberalizationreduced the gender inequality by 1

percent Not surprisingly, however,growth in real per capita income playedan important role and contributed towards reducing gender inequality throughoutthe sample period. Another factor that caused an increase in gender inequality isthe decline in ratio of the number of girl schools to the number of boy schools.Specifically, during 2001-05, the lack of educational institutions for girls ascompared to boys increased the gender inequality by 0.52 percent.

Gender Inequality in Labour Market

The expected reduction of distortions in the commodity markets due to the processof trade liberalization would put pressure on entrepreneurs to employ additional

units of labour, more on the basis of its marginal cost. Thus, increasedcompetitiveness would be transferred into the factor markets. Therefore, tradeliberalization should be able to bring increased competitiveness in the labour market and remove distortions and discrimination. The following equationsupports this argument by demonstrating that trade liberalization has a significantimpact in reducing gender inequality in the labour market as measured bydifferences in labour force participation rates of men and women:

Gender inequality in the labour market is denoted by LFPR with all other variables as defined earlier.


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The contribution of determinants in annual average growth of LFPR is computedand shown in Chart 3. Gender inequality in labour market improved at an annualaverage rate of 1.7 percent during 1976-80. Growth in real per capita incomecontributed -0.49 percent, changes in imports-to-GDP ratio contributed -0.16

percent, and changes in export-to-GDP ratio contributed -0.08 percent, whilechanges in proportion of girl schools to boy schools contributed -0.02 percent, andunexplained variations contributed -0.93 percent to the overall reduction in gender inequality in labor force participation rates.

Positive growth in real per capita GDP during 1976-2005, has put pressure toreduce gender inequality in the labour market which is depicted in Chart 3. Thedecline in export-to-GDP ratio during 1981-85, however, has increased the gender inequality in the labour market. But recently, during the 2001-05 period, increasein share of export in GDP has contributed significantly towards reducing gender inequality in the labour market.

Gender Inequality in Education Attainment

There are many economic and non-economic factors that explain gender inequalityin acquiring education. Since, low income groups have almost no resources toinvest in human capital; therefore, there is no debate about allocation of resources

between males and females to begin with. However, in the case of lower middleclass groups, with fewer resources left over for human capital development,

priority is usually given to maleoffspring. Therefore, it isexpected that with the increase inincome level, demand for education of girls should increaseand growth in per capita incomeshould reduce gender inequalityin attainment of education. Lack


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of educational facilities for girls have a direct impact on gender inequality ineducation attainment and it creates supply bottlenecks as well. If fewer schools are

built for girls and more are constructed for boys, then gender inequality in attaining

education is the outcome of the discriminatory public policy. Therefore, ratio of schools for girls to boys is an important determinant in analyzing gender inequalityin education. Another supply side factor that could explain gender inequality is theavailability of number of female teachers per school. In most of the villages inPakistan, girl schools are usually ghost schools as they are there in terms of structure only. The determinants of gender inequality in education attainment areshown in the Eq. 4, estimated below.

Growth in per capita income has enabled more households to provide education tofemales.

Therefore, increase in per capita GDP played an important role in reducing gender inequality in attainment of education through the entire sample period (1973-05).Lagged ratio of girl schools to boy schools contributed towards reducing gender inequality in education attainment by0.11, 0.71, and 1.06 percent during1976-80, 1991-95, and 1996-00,respectively. However, declinelagged ratio of number of girl schoolsto number of boy schools during1981-85, 1986-90 and 2001-05

increased inequality by 0.2, 0.19, and1.8 percent, respectively. Decline inthe number of female teachers relative to female schools during 1981-85, 1991-95,and 1996-00 has further aggravated the gender imbalance prevalent in Pakistan.However, the number of female teacher per girl school has reduced gender inequality massively during 2001-05. Supply side factors, per-school female


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GENDER BIAS 28

teachers and ratio of girl schools to boy schools have remained quite important inexplaining the variation in the inequality of educational attainment among girls andare quite representative of public policy priorities.

Reference: http://www.spdc.org.pk/pubs/rr/rr67.pdf


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GENDER BIAS 29

HYPOT H E SIS:

Inequality in gender persists in today s societies in many differentforms and places overlooked by man.

Gender Bias is a major issue in Pakistan and all over the world. We haven chosen this topicbecause it exists in our Pakistani society the most. Pakistani women share 49% in its total

population of hundred and forty millions. But they are downgraded to the secondary role. Fromthe old times women have always been the inferior gender type with many following theproverb: It s a man s world. Inequality in gender is thought to be very common in poor areas.However, if we examine closely, we find it exist everywhere, and in many different forms:-

y Professional education and careers

y Cultural stereotypes

y Gender roles in parenting and marriage

y Governmental institutes

We are going to investigate the subsistence of gender bias in our Pakistani society and findthe different kinds of gender inequality that exist. We are also going to find where theypersist.


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GENDER BIAS 30

RE SE AR CH DE SIGN

The Research design of our report consists of the qualitative analysis. We usedIqra University as our universe. Students were selected randomly.

Q U AN T I T AT I VE ANALYSIS:

For the quantitative analysis for our survey we have collected the data with ouruniversity representing the sample population.

We have followed the Research Model, in helping for our analysis. Thequestions we asked were structured . An example of our questionnaire is givenbelow along with the results underneath them.


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GENDER BIAS 31

Q UE ST IONNAI RE :

The questionnaires were conducted in university premises and were evaluatedfrom the Iqra students available and sitting at cafes or walking around. Both boysand girls (35 girls and 35 boys) were asked the questions so represent fair results.Fifteen questions were asked on different issues related to our hypothesis.

T he Exa mple of Our Q uestionn a ire:

1) Do you think gender biasness exists in our society today?

a. Yes

b. No

c. Partially

2) Which class of society do you think is effected by gender biases?a. Upper class

b. Middle class

c. Lower class

3) If given an opportunity to send your child abroad for education, who would youprefer?

a. Son

b. Daughter

c. Both


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GENDER BIAS 32

4) Do you parents plan to marry you before degree completion (BBA/MBA)?Engaged?

a. Yes

b. No

c. Maybe

5) In the future will you promote better education to your daughter will yousend her abroad?

a. Agree

b. Disagree

c. Partially agree/disagree

6) Do you feel that most parents prefer their sons to choose a better field?

a. Agree

b. Disagree


7) Do you feel that the girl s parents are usually pressurized to give dowry andthat they remain the inferior one s compared to the girl s in laws?

a. Agree

b. Disagree



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GENDER BIAS 33

8) How often do you go out for socialization?

a. Once in a week

b. Twice in a month

c. Daily

d. Not at all

9) Is you father dominant in the house?

a. Yes

b.

Noc. If any other, please specify___________

10) Divorced women have less social values and are usually degraded orout of favor compared to divorced men.

a. Agree

b. Disagree


11) What are the causes for gender discrimination?

a. Social class

b. Religion

c. Culture

d. If any other, please specify ____________


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GENDER BIAS 34

12) Were you ever harassed waiting in a line, public bus, or bazaar?

a. Yes

b. No

c. If any other, please specify____________

13) Have you ever been discriminated in a Government office orcorporation?

a. Yes

b. No

14) Are you satisfied by the government s legislation and itsimplementation for curbing gender discrimination?

a. Agree

b. Disagree


15) In your view do education institutes discriminate students on genderbasis?

a. Yes

b. No

]


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GENDER BIAS 35

COLLE C T ION OF T H E D AT A:-

1)

We began with this question because it introduced our topic and showed us and the studentswhere we were headed. The result of this question shows clearly that both girls and boys, evenin privileged ones, believe gender bias exist in our society today. Only very few said no, whilesome said partially.

2)

Most of the students, boys and girls both, believed gender bias exists commonly in middle andlower classes. Very few thought it exist in upper classes. This is related to the argument in ourhypothesis and we were going to prove this perception wrong in prospect using the studentsthemselves and their backgrounds.

05

101520253035

Girls Boys

Gender B. Exists in Our society?

Yes

No

Partially

05

101520253035

Girls Boys

Wich Class Affected?

Upper

Middle

Lower


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GENDER BIAS 36

3)

In this question, we gave the students and option on wether they would prefer their son ,daughter, or both to have a very good and expensive education, for example sending themabroad. This might have been difficult to produce the correct result as its predicting the future.However, we could still see the bias in the result when few girls and boys choose only daughter.Most girls have chosen both while most boys have chosen the son.

4)

This was going to be a scoring question. Although,many don t know their future occurrences, the children usually have an idea about the thinkingof their elders. When girls were asked, most of them said yes they would get married beforedegree completion, yet a handful also said no. When boys were asked, as expected, majoritysaid no and only very few said yes.

05

101520

253035

Girls Boys

Better Education for Son/Daughter?

Son

Daughter

Both

05

1015202530

35

Girls Boys

Marriage before Degree?

Yes

No

Maybe


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GENDER BIAS 37

5)

This question was asked in particular to emphasize on daughters education. Most of the girlsagreed that they would give their daughters excellent education. This was probably because of

their own gender. Infact, one of the girls said she would give her daughter excellent educationto the end because I don t want her to go through what I am. The girl was engaged. Mostboys partially agreed or disagreed or were unsure.

6)

Girls agreed with this view and the boys agreed with this view to a greater extent. Maybe it is

because of their own experiences. This is the case with many in Pakistan especially in averageor low income families. For a girl to complete her education with a private BA (bachelor in Arts)degree is common and on the other hand it is very rare for guys to complete with this degree.However, Iqra University students fortunately do not represent this population.

05

10152025

3035

Girls Boys

Better Education for daughter?

Agree

Disagree

Partially agree/disagree

05

10152025

3035

Girls Boys

Feild choice for Son

Agree

Disagree



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GENDER BIAS 38

7)

When asked by the girls, most of them strongly agreed with the view that girls parents arepressurized with the dowry and are the inferior ones. A handful of boys agreed as well. Thisquestion had a shared view. It also shows how in Pakistan the girls feel pressurized, even inposh and educated societies.

8)

Going out for socialization definitely has a difference in a girl point of view compared to a boy inour conservative culture. When girls were asked, many said either twice a month or once a

week. Few girls said they don t go out at all. On the other hand, the boys showed that most of them go out daily and then twice a month or once a week. No boy said he does not go out atall. Again, showing differences in freedom.

05

10152025

3035

Girls Boys

Go out for Socialization?

Once a Week

Twice a Month

Daily

Not at all

05

101520

253035

Girls Boys

Girl Pressurized in Marriage?

Agree

Disagree



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GENDER BIAS 39

9)

Fathers are the dominating power in almost all families. Both girls and boys have similaranswers. Some boys and girls said that their mothers dominate. Yet it is ordinary for the man to

dominate in our society.

10)

Divorced women having less social values and no priority for marriage is an opinion which manygirls strongly agreed with. Many boys agreed but at the same time, a handful disagreed. Thisopinion is however, supported, with fairly many who agree.

05

101520

253035

Girls Boys

Father Dominant?

Yes

No

Other

05

1015

20253035

Girls Boys

Divorced Women->Less Social Values?

Agree

Disagree

Partially agree/diagree


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GENDER BIAS 40

11)

The most interesting question was this one we asked. Overall forty one people agreed with theview that gender bias is due to c1813ulture. Eighteen people said it was social class, andthirteen said it was due to religion. The aftermath of this question reveals that many believegender discrimination is an issue created by our own the Pakistani culture.

12)

Harassment is dilemma faced mostly by women throughout the world. Our results show thatonly seven out of thirty five boys have faced harassment while the rest said no. And seventeen

out of thirty five girls were harassed while only others said no. This harassment could havebeen faced waiting in a line, public bus, or bazaars. One girl specified harassment elsewhere.

05

101520

253035

Girls Boys

Cause for Gender Bias?

Social

Religion

Culture

Other

05

101520253035

Girls Boys

Harassed?

Yes

No

Other


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GENDER BIAS 41

13)

We asked this question to test whether or not the government s organizations and institutionshave been making an effort on it or causing the discrimination themselves. But it was difficult to

judge the correct figures from the question and the results. A number of boys said they feeldiscriminated while girls said no. However, from the literature we reviewed, we have foundthat the Police is one such govt. institutions in Pakistan that discriminates males and females.Males are beaten easily while females are let go. On the other hand females are sexuallyabused by them. Others may think the Defense of Pakistan is also one such area where femalesare not preferred.

14)

This is another question regarding government institutions. We focused on whether or not thestudents felt satisfied with government legislations and if they thought they make a difference.The majority said they disagreed and they were not satisfied and that the government was notmaking any move on fixing their legislations to curb Gender bias.

05

101520

253035

Girls Boys

Discriminated by Govt. Institution?

Yes

No

05

101520253035

Girls Boys

Satisfied w/ Govt. Legistation to curb GB?

Agree

Disagree



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GENDER BIAS 42

15)

We asked this question to figure out any remnants of gender bias in education they feltthroughout their life. Although, having good educational backgrounds (such as AMI) a good

number said they haven t faced that. Yet, interesting more boys than girls said they often feltdiscriminated. They felt girls are let loose easily in many matters.

05

101520

253035

Girls Boys

Education Institutes Discriminate?

Yes

No


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GENDER BIAS 43

SE CON D AR Y ANALYSIS:-

NADIA, 26

BACHELOR F FINE ARTS

Throughout her two year engagement to saad, nadia was told she couldn t getluckier. He was the perfect catch: a well connected socialite boasting a foreigndegree and a promising career track at a multinational company. Nadia paintedwhile saad worked at their evenings were spent socializing or shopping. When

petty squabbles surfaced, Nadia s elegant mother in law with whom the couplelived, diffused the situation with a glittery laugh. Two years into the marriage thesquabbles became more frequent, and much pettier. The first time Nadia askedsaad for some extra spending money, he slapped her. A month later, he hit her forspilling water. Such was the beginning of three years of torment for Nadia. Shewas beaten on the slightest provocation: for sleeping in late, for serving a coldbreakfast, for calling her parents too often.

Not wanting to leave her infant son in saad s custody, Nadia refused todivorce her husband. Until one morning when she woke up in hospital. Opting forkhula- a speedy divorce settlement that denies women their dower amount andany gifts they have received from their husbands- nadia fled from her in lawshouse. A year later, she lives at home with her parents, embroiled in a custodybattle for her son. Her arms are visibly scared but her parents have otherconcerns: she is 26 year old divorcee with a child and no dowry.


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GENDER BIAS 44

Alia, 27

Master of business administration

As far as alia was concerned, the best thing about marrying Mustafa was his poshbeachfront apartment in Dubai s jumeirah district. It didn t even bother alia thatshe d be sharing the space with her in laws. Instead, alia got down to buyingclothes to wear with the 29 sets of jewellery that compromised her barri.but onlyfour months after the wedding, alia started becoming wary of her sister in law ssnide taunts. Her mother in laws demeaning comments were even harder to bear.Still, alia wasn t prepared for what happened next. One night as Mustafa lay nearalia, he began patting her affectionately. Soon, however the intensity of Mustafapats increased until alia started screaming. This was the first three severebeatings that would eventually force alia s parents to bring her back to Karachiand hospitalize her. Barely a year after getting married, alia is living with herparents again. But she remains married to Mustafa. Vying for reconciliation with

her with her husband, alia hopes to complete her residency term in UAE andreturn to her in laws home despite the fact that Mustafa will not speak to her. Atthe very least, alia wants to gain possession of her dowry as well as barri beforedivorcing Mustafa.


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GENDER BIAS 45

Jihan, 42

Bachelor of Arts

Since jihan s husband is only 20 years older then her, their relationship hadalways been distant. But the last thing she expected him to do was beat her blackand blue. Yet soon after retiring from the army, jihan s husband took to beatingher severely. Even though jihan was earning good money from her boutique, hewould tell her to get money from her parents. And if she did not deliver on time,he will thrash her. Ironically jihan found to solace with her parents.

Acknowledging that they could not support jihan and her two children, theysuggested that the couple try to work things out.

For their part, jihan s in laws shuddered at the thought to get divorce that couldmar the family s reputation. the victim of incessant abuse, jihan even triedcommitting suicide after her husband tied to her chair over night, threatening allthe while to kill her. Still, terrified that her well connected would win any ensuingcustody battle, jihan did not press for divorce. Instead, she relocated fromIslamabad to Karachi and finally sought shelter in a women s home. When herhusband followed her to Karachi, beat her again and started stalking the lawyersand social workers who tried to help her, jihan filed for divorce.


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GENDER BIAS 46

D AT A ANALYSIS:-

We have attempted to prove our hypothesis: Inequality in gender persistsin today s societies in many different forms and places overlooked by man, usingthe key factors different forms and places .

The forms we informed we would inspect in our earlier report:

y Professional education and careers

y Cultural stereotypes

y Gender roles in parenting and marriage

y Governmental institutes

1) Secondary Analysis:

The gender gap also appeared to narrow considerably beginning in the mid-1960s. Where some 5% of first-year students in professional programswere female in 1965, by 1985 this number had jumped to 40% in law andmedicine, and over 30% in dentistry and business school. Before the highlyeffective birth control pill was available, women planning professional

careers, which required a long-term, expensive commitment, had to

"pay the penalty of abstinence or cope with considerable uncertaintyregarding pregnancy."


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GENDER BIAS 47

This control over their reproductive decisions allowed women to moreeasily make long-term decisions about their education and professionalopportunities.

Additionally, with reliable birth control, young men and women had more reasonto delay marriage. This meant that the marriage market available to any onewomen who "delay[ed] marriage to pursue a career...would not be as depleted.Thus the Pill could have influenced women's careers, college majors, professionaldegrees, and the age at marriage."

Our Analysis: It was much easier for us to observe this question. We used

question 3, 5, 6, and 15 for this one. The average results showed that females arediscriminated even in wealthy and well-educated societies of Pakistan. One girleven commented after giving her questionnaire, I will make sure my daughtersget full education because I don t want them to go through what I am goingthrough.


Cultural stereotypes are engrained in both men and women and thesestereotypes are a possible explanation for gender inequality and theresulting gendered wage disparity. Women have traditionally been viewedas being caring and nurturing and are designated to occupations whichrequire such skills. While these skills are culturally valued, they weretypically associated with domesticity, so occupations requiring these sameskills are not economically valued. Men have traditionally been viewed asthe breadwinner or the worker, so jobs held by men have been historicallyeconomically valued and occupations predominated by men continue to beeconomically valued and pay higher wages.

Our Analysis:


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GENDER BIAS 48

Question 8, and 9 were suitable for this type ( going out, freedom, anddominating power in house). These answers clearly reveal that the gender roleand stereotype of girls is the weak and the suppressed one, causing them tobe over protected by their parents as compared to a boy.


Gender roles that are created in childhood permeate throughout life andhelp to structure parenting and marriage, especially in relation to work inand outside the home. Despite the increase in women in the labor forcesince the mid-1900s, women are still responsible for the majority of the

domestic chores and childcare. While women are splitting their timebetween work and care of the home, men are pressured into being theprimary economic supporter of the home. Despite the fact that differenthouseholds may divide chores more evenly, there is evidence that supportsthat women have retained the primary caregiver role within familial lifedespite contributions economically. This evidence suggest that women whowork outside the home often put an extra 18 hours a week doinghousehold or childcare related chores as opposed to men who average 12minutes a day in childcare activities. In addition to a lack of interest in the

home on the part of some men, some women may bar men from equalparticipation in the home which may contribute to this disparity.

However, men are assuming the role of "care giver" more and more in today'ssociety. Education plays a major factor in this. The more education a male orfemale receives, the less likely they are to hold roles within the house distinctlybased on one's sex. Males are doing more cooking, cleaning, and house-hold"chores" than they were in the 1950s.


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GENDER BIAS 49

Our Analysis:

We used questions 4, 7, and 10 to express the results for this. All the answers tothis particular factor were in favor of our hypothesis. It showed that girls and theirparents are pressurized at the time of marriage, girls are married at an early ageinstead of higher education, and after being divorced, Pakistani women do notreceive the same respect and dignity from society as they should.

4) Secondary Analysis:Government interventions to protect women or to improve women s

conditions lack focus and seriousness of purpose, and changes introducedby the Government only address the issue at a superficial level. The onlyinstance of the police force being sensitive to gender issues was theestablishment of women police stations, an initiative that has failed tomeet its goals. Women police stations were established by the governmentof Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto. Staffed by women, their objective is tofacilitate victims of gender violence and to address women s reluctance toapproach male-dominated police stations with their complaints. Thesepolice stations are also assumed to treat the women accused according tothe law and to avoid the issues arising out of custodial power associatedwith policemen. In fact, however, the women police stations areineffectual. They are not allowed to register and investigate cases; most of the staff is untrained, and some are reportedly even illiterate.

Women police stations often lack basic facilities such as telephones and means of transport. In some cases, these police stations have actually become examples of female disempowerment; in conservative areas such as Peshawar, thepolicewomen are not allowed to leave the police station without the permission

of senior male police officers.


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GENDER BIAS 50

The police force has a much higher proportion of male officers than femaleofficers. The officers at the lower levels of the hierarchy have low educationalqualifications, and tend to be conservative and staunchly patriarchal. These traitshave created an institution that is inherently gender-biased, ironically making thepolice force one of the most effective tools of discrimination against women, themost vulnerable group of the society that needs the most protection

Our Analysis: We used 12, 13, and 14 to express the results for this. The answersrevealed that although many students never felt discriminated by governmentalinstitutes, they did not approve of the government legislation to curb genderinequalities. The legislations may exist, but the implementation is almost void.Question twelve shows that mostly girls have been harassed and not much is

done to cease this problem in our society.


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GENDER BIAS 51

T H E P L AC E S:

One may believe gender discrimination exists only in low income areas ( the

villages and tribal areas). It is true that tribal areas have many practices known to

everyone such as their laws of karo kari , bride price, etc. However, it is always

easy to point fingers at people blameworthy without considering your own faults.

The second purpose of our research is to prove the places where it exists.

Our results have confirmed the hypothesis that gender discrimination does no

only exist in rural or uneducated areas. It persists, even today, in our culture

(Pakistani), professions, careers, outside community, and even families of wealthy

and educated youngsters studying in highly ranked Universities.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_inequality


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GENDER BIAS 52

Conclusion

Gender inequities will remain unless educators make a commitment tochange gender relationships in schools (Lock et al., 1999). In thepresent climate of encouraging diversity in education, it is vital forgender considerations to be included in the discourse about diversity.Shakeshaft (1986) stated that 85% of the school population iscomprised of women, minorities, and the disabled, therefore the reality

is that excellence in the schools cannot be achieved without equity.Although this literature review has focused on gender equity, thesesame equity principles can be applied to alleviate other forms of discrimination. (Clarken, 1995). As Pipher wrote in 1994, "We can worktogether toward a new century in which men and women have equalpower in our culture" (p. 292).


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Bibliogr a phy:

www.thefinancialdaily.com/RSS/RSSNews.aspx

www.allfreeessays.com/topics/gender-inequality

www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1822/18220040.htm

sachet.org.pk/home/gender_columns

http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/290/5489/55

Reference: http://www.spdc.org.pk/pubs/rr/rr67.pdf

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_inequality

Shakeshaft (1986)

Clarken, 1995).

Lock et al., 1999).

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