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INTEGRATED WATERSHED AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

SITUATION ANALYSIS AND CAPACITY NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT

JUNE 2015

Sub-consultant: Alex Schumacher

Submitted by: AGRITEAM CANADA CONSULTING LTD.

Suite 200, 14707 Bannister Road S.E. Calgary AB T2X 1Z2

Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment Report Agriteam Canada Consulting Ltd Integrated Watershed and Environmental Management i June 2015

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................... II

1. METHODOLOGY AND PROCESS ............................................................................................................... 1

2. THE ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATORY CONTEXT ....................................................................................... 3

3. REVIEW OF CURRENT STATUS OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN RELATION TO SSI DEVELOPMENT ...... 6

3.1. KEY RESPONSIBILITIES ................................................................................................................................. 6 3.2. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ......................................................................................................... 8 3.3. WATERSHEDS AND LAND USE MAPPING ......................................................................................................... 9 3.4. SOILS AND LAND CAPABILITY ...................................................................................................................... 10 3.5. RAINFALL AND HYDROMETRIC DATA ............................................................................................................ 12 3.6. LAND DRAINAGE ...................................................................................................................................... 13 3.7. MICRO IRRIGATION FROM SHALLOW GROUNDWATER AND PONDS .................................................................... 13 3.8. COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT ....................................................................................................................... 15 3.9. SANITATION AND PUBLIC HEALTH ................................................................................................................ 16 3.10. INVASIVE PLANTS ..................................................................................................................................... 18

4. INTEGRATION WITH A-TVETS ................................................................................................................ 19

5. INTEGRATION WITH PROJECT ACTIVITIES .............................................................................................. 20

REFERENCES:.................................................................................................................................................. 22

LIST TABLES TABLE 1 REGIONAL INSTITUTIONS ENGAGED IN SSI/MI AND ASSOCIATED CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT ........................... 6 TABLE 2 SUGGESTED NRM INVOLVEMENT CONTRIBUTING TO PROJECT OUTPUTS ....................................................... 20

Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment Report Agriteam Canada Consulting Ltd Integrated Watershed and Environmental Management ii June 2015

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ADSWE Amhara Design and Supervision Works Enterprise AGP Agricultural Growth Program ATA Agricultural Transformation Agency A-TVET Agricultural Technical Vocational Education and Training BoA Bureau of Agriculture BoWR Bureau of Water Resources BoWRD Bureau of Water Resources Development CBPWD Community Based Participatory Watershed Development CRGE Climate Resilient Green Economy DA Development Agent EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EMP Environmental Management Plan EPA Environmental Protection Authority EPLUA Environmental Protection and Land Use Authority ESIA Environmental and Social Impact Assessment ESMF Environmental and Social Management Framework FTC Farmer Training Centres GIZ Die Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit HHMI Household Micro-Irrigation IDSAA Irrigation Development and Scheme Administration Agency IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IPM Integrated Pest Management IWM Integrated Watershed Management IWUA Irrigation Water Users Association LALEP Land Administration, Land Use and Environmental Protection Agency MoA Ministry of Agriculture MoE Ministry of Education NDRC Natural Resource Development and Conservation (core process in BOA) NGO Non-Governmental Organization NRM Natural Resources Management OIDA Oromia irrigation Development Agency ORDA Organization for Rural Development in Amhara Region PSNP Productive Safety Net Program RTL Regional Team Leader SLMP Sustainable Land Management Program SMIS Small-Scale and Micro Irrigation Support Project SNNPR Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Region SNV Netherlands Development Organisation (Stichting Nederlandse Vrijwilligers) SSI Small Scale Irrigation WFP World Food Programme

Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment Report Agriteam Canada Consulting Ltd Integrated Watershed and Environmental Management 1 June 2015

1. METHODOLOGY AND PROCESS

This needs analysis was undertaken to assess the current natural resources and environmental management conditions in each region. The Natural Resources Management (NRM) specialists collected information on the basis of a simple questionnaire prepared and distributed during the project orientation workshop held in Adama from February 20 – 22, 2015. This was designed to address and collect information in relation to:

A. Watershed management:

• Current practices related to the incorporation of watershed management considerations into small scale irrigation (SSI) planning

• The availability of planning tools such as watershed maps in the woredas in which SSI schemes are being, or have been developed

• The availability of land use information for the catchments • The nature of conservation measures currently being employed in watershed management • The attention given in the planning of SSIs to the needs of other water users and the

occurrence of conflicts over water access between upstream and downstream users or between irrigation and other uses

• The extent to which communities are consulted in the process of developing the SSIs

B. Water and soil management:

• The availability of information on groundwater, especially shallow groundwater • The availability of locally generated rainfall information and the procedures used to generate

flow data for the catchments • Water quality information in relation to its use for irrigation • The availability of soils information for use in the planning of the SSIs (soil maps; information

of soil physical or chemical properties; soil/water relationships) • Soil drainage and evidence of waterlogging or salinization

C. Other environmental issues:

• The environmental screening of SSI projects prior to implementation • The incorporation of appropriate measure into scheme design • Sanitation and the incidence of disease related to pathogenic water-borne organisms

D. Capacity building provided on catchment management or environmental issues

• Courses or other training events

The information was collected from sources listed below.

1. METHODOLOGY AND PROCESS


Amhara

• Woredas :Libokemem, Dembeya, Jabetehnan, Burie; Zones: N. Gondar, W. Gojjam • Regional Institutions: Amhara Design and Supervision Works Enterprise (ADSWE), Bureau of

Agriculture (BoA), Bureau of Water Resources Development (BoWRD), Organization for Rural Development in Amhara Region (ORDA), Environmental Protection and Land Use Authority (EPLUA)

Tigray

• Woredas: Alamata, Endamehoni • Regional Institutions: Southern Zone development corridor ( NRM coordinator), regional

NRM Core Process experts Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Region (SNNPR)

• Woredas: Silti, Wondogenet, Aleta Wando, Misrak Azernet • Zones: Sidama, Silti • Regional Institutions: BoA/Natural Resources and Conservation (NRDC) Core Process,

Irrigation Development and Scheme Administration Agency (IDSAA), BoA/Land Administration, Land Use and Environmental Protection Agency (LALEP) Core Process

Oromia

• Woredas: Wayu Tuka, Diga • Zones: Zonal Irrigation Authority (East Wallaga)

It has subsequently been analysed by the International NRM specialist and the findings discussed in each region with the regional NRM specialists and the international and national regional team leader (RTL) of each region. The combined analyses and the review of available literature on the environmental regulations and procedures form the basis for this report. The report focuses a wide variety of environmental issues and concerns identified in the four regions. It is clearly recognized that significant differences occur between regions and even between woredas in the same region with respect to the environmental issues that have to be faced and in the awareness and ability of the various levels of government to deal with them. To avoid being overly repetitious and lengthy in this report, we have addressed what is believed to be the prevalent situations mentioning – where relevant – the exceptions. Particular situations will be identified and actions, as needed, will be incorporated into the annual work plans as the project progresses.


2. THE ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATORY CONTEXT

There is a formal environmental regulatory framework in Ethiopia within which irrigation schemes must be developed and operate under the constitution of the country and the state regions. The inclusion of the environment as a cross cutting theme in Small-Scale and Micro Irrigation Support Project (SMIS) is not, therefore, just a simple matter of fulfilling the terms reference of this project. It is also essential for ensuring that as SMIS works with the partner organizations their activities are in compliance with and promoting better understanding of, the sound rationale behind the regulations (i.e., principally to promote the long term sustainability of the investments being made in SSI). A very thorough overview of environmental impact in Ethiopia was undertaken by Damtie and Bayou (2008)i and has been drawn on extensively for the following outline of the roles and functions of the environmental regulatory agencies in Ethiopia. The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Proclamation (Proclamation No.299/2002)1 empowers the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) to prepare procedures, regulations, guidelines and standards to effectively implement and enforce Ethiopia's environmental regulations. It requires that an EIA be undertaken for any planned development project or public policy that is likely to have a negative effect on the environment. The EPA is the principal federal government organ responsible for the formulation of policies, laws and standards to ensure that development activities in the country sustainably enhance human welfare and protect the environment. The EPA was established by Proclamation No. 9 (1995) and is the leading federal environmental institution responsible for formulating policies, strategies, laws and standards to ensure that development activities sustainably enhance human welfare and protect the environment. The EPA is also responsible for the implementation of Ethiopia’s Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) Strategy2, the goal of which, to quote the late Prime Minister Meles Zenawi, is to “quickly to improve the living conditions of our people by reaching a middle-income status by 2025 based on carbon-neutral growth”. Also under Proclamation No. 29 regional states were required to establish their own authorities. Hence the following entities exist in each of the regions being supported by SMIS (Damtie and Kebede, 2012) ii:

• Amhara: Environmental Protection, Rural Land Administration and Use Bureau (Autonomous accountable to the head of the regional government)

• Oromia: Oromia Land and Environmental Protection Bureau (A Sectorial environmental unit accountable to the regional council)

• SNNPR: LALEP under the BoA • Tigray: Environmental Protection Land use and administration Agency, under the BoARD

1 Federal Negarit Gazeta of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. 9thYear No. 11. Proclamation No. 29912002. Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation. Addis Ababa-3rd December, 2002. 2 Environmental Protection Authority of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. 2011. Climate- Resilient Green Economy strategy.



These regional environmental agencies are responsible for coordinating the formulation implementation, review and revision of regional conservation policies and for environmental monitoring protection and regulation within their respective regions (Damtie and Kebede, 2012) iii. Each is responsible for assessing EIAs for irrigation projects that are developed within their regions. All these agencies were initially linked to the respective bureaus of agriculture, as is still the case in Tigray and SNNPR. The logic for this appears to have been that as agriculture is the principal source of employment and income in the regions, it would also be the sector in which impacts would be most likely to occur. Amhara and especially Oromia now have somewhat more multi-sectorial economies hence there is also rationale for establishing more independent agencies with multi-sectorial responsibilities. Further investigation is needed to determine whether all new SSI schemes would be required to EIAs or whether those of less than certain command area (say 200ha) would not be required to prepare them. Certainly is not anticipated that most MI schemes which cover small areas, even when considered cumulatively, will be required to undertake this process. Where EIAs or Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIAs) are prepared they should be accompanied by an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) which should cover the following stages of project development:

• Pre-construction: to ensure that all government (EPA) requirements are complied with technologies and processes selected for a specific development minimize environmental impacts and there has been adequate consultation with the communities affected by the project.

• Construction: to ensure that construction procedures do not result in excessive noise dust, or water pollution; there is proper handling of wastes; and valuable natural resources are handled appropriately (for instance, soil A&B horizons removed during excavation of canals and structures should be retained and used within the irrigated area).

• Operational: ensuring the application of good agronomic and land and water management procedures that minimize environmental impacts; compliance with relevant proclamations for example 300/2002 on environmental pollution control which in the case of the irrigation systems applies to the use, handling and storage of pesticides and other potentially toxic agricultural chemicals. This might include the adoption of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) procedures and the use protective equipment when applying insecticides.

The impression received from responses to the interviews carried out by the NRM specialists and from the review of available literature is that the environmental agencies and the EIA process throughout Ethiopia is still generally quite weak and that there is a generally low level of knowledge about the functions and purpose of institutions involved. There even appears in some instances to be the opinion that fulfillment of the EIA requirements is prejudicial to development. Given the size of the investments being made in SSI through Agricultural Growth Program (AGP) 2, other parallel donor programs such as International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the likely future uncertainties linked to climate change it is essential that these systems be established in the most sustainable manner possible. This requires that rigorous environmental studies be undertaken and looked upon as a sound investment in the future of the SSI sector.



the World Bank (2014)iv which is the major funder of AGP2 has in the past applied the Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) to the projects it has supported in Ethiopia and elsewhere in Africa. This ensures the application of the environmental and social safeguards, institutional arrangements and capacity required for implementation of specific projects. It would also ensure that the projects under AGP2 other a programs meet national, regional and local environmental and social requirements. The purpose of the ESMF is to:

• integrate environmental and social aspects into feasibility and prefeasibility analysis of schemes

• promote transparency through stakeholder consultations • consider the application of innovative approaches to environmental and social analysis • encourage the consideration of technical alternatives based identified social and

environmental impacts • strengthen the environmental and social management capacities of responsible regional and

woreda officials. The application of an ESMF should assist project managers to identify and mitigate the potential negative environmental and social impacts of future projects. In the context of AGP2 it would be intended to strengthen the capacity of the regional and woreda officials and other relevant stakeholders. In the light of the foregoing it is essential to assess address with the World Bank and the AGP contact personnel whether or not an EMF has been established for AGP. If so, the manner in which SMIS could must usefully contribute to its implementation must be explored; if not, then it would be expedient for SMIS to contribute to the formulation of such a framework for AGP2 and for the other donor funded projects with which it will be associated. Recommendations

• Clearly define with the EPA and each regional environmental entity the precise conditions (i.e., size of scheme command area, size of upstream catchment and the size of the headworks) under which EIAs are required and the construction approval and monitoring process that will be followed as well as monitoring during the operational phase.

• In coordination with the regional environmental entities develop consistent guidelines for the preparation of SEIAs and EMPs that meet current regulatory requirements.

• Prepare standard manuals at national level together with the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and other concerned organizations to avoid duplication among the regions.

• Coordinate with the World Bank and with AGP2 to support the incorporation of an ESMF standard format to screen environmental impacts or assess the AGP format and arrange capacity development and awareness building linked to newly proposed SSI schemes.


3. REVIEW OF CURRENT STATUS OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN RELATION TO SSI DEVELOPMENT

3.1. Key Responsibilities

The manner in which responsibilities are assigned between the various government entities engaged in SSI/MI and any associated catchment management activities is shown in Table 1. As can be seen, one set of regional agencies (Bureau of Water Resources (BoWR), BoWRD, Oromia irrigation Development Agency (OIDA) or IDSAA in the case of SNNPR) are dedicated to the identification, feasibility assessment, design and construction of irrigation schemes and another, mainly the NRM department of the bureaus of agriculture is responsible for the subsequent operation of the schemes and still others responsible for the taking actions to effect upstream catchment management and conservation measures. It is apparent that the regional irrigation development agencies assign multidisciplinary teams to undertake project identification and feasibility studies. These consist of irrigation engineers, geologists, pedologists, agronomists, socio-economists, environmental specialists, watershed management specialists and catchment profile surveyors and other specialists as required and available. It appears then, that quite comprehensive feasibility studies include not only the investigation of conditions in the command areas, but also of some or all of the upstream catchments, depending on their size relative to the command areas. In response to budgetary constraints it is not unusual for the feasibility studies and the design to be managed as a single seamless operation. In reality therefore, decisions may be made to proceed with the development of systems prior to their having been thoroughly investigated and documented. In the case of SNNPR, Amhara and Tigray it was reported that once the results of these studies have been submitted and the feasibility of the selected irrigation schemes approved no further use is made of the collected information on the upper catchments. It is certainly not being released to the agencies responsible for management or conservation of the upstream catchments in an integrated watershed management (IWM) context. Table 1 Regional Institutions Engaged in SSI/MI and Associated Catchment Management

Region Tigray Amhara Oromia SNNPR SSI* identification

design and construction

agency

BoWR BoWRD OIDA BOA - IDSAA*

SSI O&M agency

BoARD/irrigation core process and

extension core process / and

BoWR

BoA OIDA BoA

Household Micro-Irrigation (HHMI)

Agency BoARD and BoWR BOA <1 ha

OIDA Micro irrigation

<2.5

Natural Resources Development and

Conservation Agency (NDRC) (Up

to 5ha)



Region Tigray Amhara Oromia SNNPR

IWM Agencies

BoA NRM team, Sustainable Land

Management Program (SLMP)

BoA NRM(Regional Watershed

Management Study and design Case

team). SLMP

MERET. zones, woredas and

kebeles

BOA NRM Individual experts

assigned as required.

NDRC Core Process team supporting

kebeles

Environmental Protection and

Land Use Planning Agency

EPLUA

Bureau of Environmental

Protection Land Administration and

Use.

Regional Land Administration and

Environmental Protection Bureau

LALEP

*Definitions Micro irrigation < 5ha SSI 5 – 200 ha

Medium Scale 200 – 500 ha Large Scale > 500 ha

In Oromia by contrast, the catchment management measures proposed in the feasibility studies are transmitted to the BoA which must commit to taking appropriate actions before work is allowed to proceed on the construction of the irrigation schemes. The agencies responsible for catchment conservation are NRM teams of BoA, or in the case of SNNPR, the NDRC Core Process team. These teams are also theoretically staffed by a wide range of specialists – soils and water conservation, forestry, hydrology, irrigation engineering and irrigation agronomy –. In reality, due to the very high turnover of staff it is unlikely that a full roster of the necessary staff is always available. In addition to having responsibilities for catchment management they might, as is the case in SNNPR, also have responsibility for supporting micro scale irrigation. It is clear that there is often little working linkage between the SSI design/construct agencies and those responsible for catchment management. Thus rarely, if ever, is a true process of IWM being followed. This does not mean that no work is being done in relation to catchment management. A number of governmental and non-governmental (NGOs) agencies are engaged in catchment management and rehabilitation work including the SLMP also with support from the World Bank (2013)v, Die Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)3, Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP), The MERET4, WFP program and NGOs. It does, however, mean that investments and works are usually targeted on catchments that have been prioritized on the basis of the degree to which they have become degraded in accordance with the Community Based Participatory Watershed Development (CBPWD) manual (Desta et al 2005)vi and not on those in which irrigation schemes are planned or being developed. The result of this is that many schemes are developed without effective remedial measures being implemented in the upstream catchments with the result that they are subject to rapid siltation with consequent high maintenance requirements and costs. Recommendations

• Meet with and review the activities of the institutions named above that are engaged in watershed management and rehabilitation works and identify how effective cooperation

3 Sustainable Utilization of Natural Resources for Food Security (SUN) 4 Managing Environment Resources for Transition



and allegiances may be achieved with them specifically in relation to the catchments serving SSI schemes

3.2. Watershed Management Practices

There is a long history of the application of indigenous soil conservation measures in Ethiopia which in the case of the Konso people, South Western Ethiopia (Mulat, 2013)vii included terracing, contour ploughing crop rotation fallowing, mixed cropping fertilization agroforestry and bunded field boundaries. The most concerted government and NGO works were, however initiated in the early 1970s as a result of prevailing and serious drought conditions (the 1972-1973 drought) and the recognition that there was an opportunity to combine food or cash for work programs with soil and catchment conservation initiatives. Woldemariam (2012)viii provides not only an excellent summary of the historical development of watershed management practices and policies for Ethiopia, but also pictorial record of different practices applied in Tigray. At regional level the NRM sections in the bureaus of agriculture, as shown in Table 1 are responsible for catchment conservation planning, budgeting and coordination of works. The process is however, executed through a bottom up approach directed and implemented at kebele level through the kebele Watershed team supported as necessary in the selection of work sites and the selection of structural approaches by the woreda Watershed team. These teams consist of some or all personnel shown below.

The physical soil and water conservation measures include: hillside terraces bench terraces, soil bunds, earth bunds (such as fanya juu terraces ), stone bunds and loose rock and gabion check dams for gully treatment. Micro basin pitting and deep trenches and eyebrow trenches are also used to contribute to ground recharge. Biological measures for stabilization of structures and soil conservation include the planting of bamboo (Oxtenanthia abyssinica)5, vetiver grass (Chrysopogon zizanioides), Desho (Pennisetium pedicellatum) and elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) as well as the planting of trees such as Moringa (Moringa stenopetala) and Sesbania (Sesbania sesban). The work on the building physical structures generally occurs in the dry season after the harvest and between January and April, while the establishment of biological measures happens mostly in the wet season (i.e., June – September) when there is the best chance of plant survival. Although the structures are usually technically effective they are subject to damage as a result of free grazing. Accordingly a cut and carry system is generally prescribed for harvesting forge materials for feeding

5 Arundinaria alpina in higher altitudes.

Kebele Watershed Team. Woreda Watershed Team

• Kebele chairman • Kebele rural development head • Three development agents (DAs) • One male representative/leader of each

community (gott, kushet, genda) • One female representative/leader of each

community (gott, kushet, genda) • One respected and influential person from

each community (gott, kushet, genda,etc.) • One representative of the youth

• Soil conservation expert • Forestry/agro-forestry expert • Agronomist (plant management, IPM) • Water harvesting /irrigation expert • Home agent • Livestock expert • Land use and administration expert • Food security expert (economist/socio-

economist/agro-economist) • Cooperative/marketing and inputs expert • Rural road construction expert



livestock. The enhanced availability of these forages as well as other foods crops that are grown along field bunds, such as enset (Ensete ventricosum) or Ethiopian Banana is greatly appreciated. An aspect of catchment management and conservation programs that doesn’t appear to have been very effectively addressed in current programs is that of recharge areas for shallow aquifers. If this project is to be successful in promoting micro irrigation from such aquifers, for instance in SNNPR, it is essential that the treatment of these recharge areas be given adequate attention. Recommendations

• Establish ongoing dialogue with SLMP and NGOs involved in catchment rehabilitation works to explore opportunities for joint training of regional or woreda staff.

• Agreement with regional survey and design organizations and AGP and other funding and donor organizations on the rigorous implementation of IWM considerations for the selection and operation of SSI systems.

• Explore the situations, particularly in SNNPR and Tigray where it is important to protect and rehabilitate recharge areas that are essential to the maintenance of shallow aquifers.

• Support NRM units of the regional bureaus of agriculture (NDRC Core Process team in SNNPR) in the planning and execution of watershed conservation and rehabilitation measures.

• Assess the extent to which IWM is incorporated into the A-TVET curriculum and the effectiveness of this.

• Engage with MoA on criteria for the selection or approval process for SSI schemes that takes into account the condition of upstream catchments and on adjustments to the CBPWD guidelines to give priority treatment where necessary to related catchments.

• Compile a standard training manual and training facilitation guide for IWM training for SSI /MI.

3.3. Watersheds and Land Use Mapping

The situation in regard to the mapping of catchments and the land use within them is quite variable from region to region, but overall could be greatly improved. In all cases it appears that the GIS specialists in the regional case teams responsible for undertaking the irrigation scheme feasibility and design studies have access to imagery or topographic maps on which they are able to identify catchment boundaries and observational land use information. For instance the Tigray BoWR has prepared land use maps using GIS and suggested that the development of land use map skills using ELWIS and ERDAS would be useful. On the basis of this the hydrologists can estimate catchment areas and have enough land use information on which to base their estimates of runoff volumes and water balances. The rational method or Cooks formula are most widely used for this purposes although as demonstrated by various investigators, Ayana (2014)ix, Easton et al (2010)x , Tenaw and Awulachew (2010)xi, more advanced watershed modelling approaches are also being used by the various regional water agencies. More detailed and specific land use information and soils information would doubtless improve the precision with which these estimates are made. In Amhara it appears that BoA, ORDA and EPLUA have the ability to generate land use maps for multiple woredas and the same appears to be true in Tigray for the BoA Regional Watershed Management Study and Design Case team.



Most woredas appear to have administrative maps but many don’t have catchments delineated and only a few show land uses. In Amhara, for instance, it was reported that in eastern woredas and use maps there was capability to prepare land use maps but that this was generally not the case in the western woredas. In some cases the catchment boundaries are defined by taking GPS waypoints and transferring them to a base map. In Tigray the rule applied is that the woredas are responsible for mapping boundaries and land use in relatively larger catchments (500 – 2000 ha) while the kebeles are responsible for those classified as community catchments which are less than 50ha in extent. They are prepared primarily in relation to catchment management and reclamation works. It is essential to have clear methodologies for assessing IWM approaches and for adopting appropriate SSI system design criteria or assessing feasibility based on the extent of the irrigation command areas relative to the extent of the upstream catchments. These pose a particular challenge: where catchments are large in relation to the size of the command area, where the costs of effective upstream conservation measures are disproportionate in relation to the cost of the scheme development, and where the risks of rapid sedimentation and abbreviated scheme life are high. All regions are able to present cases of systems that have failed as a result of rapid sedimentation, reflecting either the fact that upstream catchment conditions were inadequately assessed or ignored during the feasibility analysis, or that inappropriate designs were adopted. There is generally little or no formal appreciation of the geomorphology of the catchments and how this might translate into the associated soils and slope characteristics which would consequently be associated with erodability of the landforms. There appears however, to be a reasonable appreciation among woreda staff responsible for catchment rehabilitation works of the relationship between the characteristics of the surficial geology, the soils and the slope gradients and the propensity of the landscape to gulley erosion. Recommendations

• In conjunction with other programs and projects (SLMP and PSNP PW and other NGOs) provide training and job embedded support to improve the capability of the regions and the woredas to apply GIS technologies to delineate the catchment boundaries and characterize them in accordance with their susceptibility to become degraded through application of accessible open source GIS technologies such as Quantum6 and provision of essential hardware.

• Provide GIS training to improve the capability of regional hydrologists to assess runoff, water balances and sediment loads using rational method or Cooks formula or other approaches by having access to improved information on land use and catchment characteristics.

• Improve feasibility assessment process and diversion structure design criteria in relation to catchment size and the relative size of command areas.

3.4. Soils and Land Capability

The FAO soil map of Ethiopia at a scale of 1:1,000,000 is available for the entire country and provides the basic soil taxonomy that has been adopted by Ethiopia. Other initiatives have also been taken to

6 https://www.qgis.org/en/site/forusers/download.html



generate more detailed maps; for example, the Soil Map of the Mandera Triangle7 and the map of the Tigray region produced by Rabia et al (2013)xii.However, these initiatives do not provide the detail necessary for planning irrigation schemes or other specific land uses. Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) reported in 2013xiii that it is working to rectify the paucity of both cartographic and physical and chemical soil information through establishment of the Ethiopian Soil Information System (EthioSIS). The importance of this initiative relates not only to the better knowledge and management of irrigable land, but it is also essential for maintenance of soil resources in general; from arable land (often sloping land with insufficient conservation measures) to forest and rangeland areas which are also frequently overgrazed. In relation to the management of irrigable land alone the importance of maintaining soil fertility is becoming more and more challenging to small farmers as the costs of artificial fertilizers continues to escalate at an almost logarithmic rate (Amundson et al. 2015)xiv. The soil scientists of the regional study and design groups generate soil information required for the irrigation scheme feasibility studies, but not necessarily for SS or MI schemes. For instance, ADSWE in Amhara generates maps for irrigation schemes larger than 200 ha. In Tigray and SNNPR mapping units are based primarily on soil texture rather than on pedological (taxonomic) units reflecting landscape, geomorphology and soil forming processes. It is unclear what approach has been adopted in Oromia but it is assumed that soil mapping units there are also based simply on textural characteristics. As part of these studies surface samples are taken and analysed for a range of characteristics chemical and physical ( pH, EC, CEC, C:N Ratio, CaCO3, N, P, K, bulk density, wilting point). It is understood that it is not normal practice to perform infiltration tests (e.g., double ring infiltrometer) or hydraulic conductivity tests (where water tables are shallow), or even to dig soil pits or make auger borings to otherwise investigate the nature of the underlying horizons in the soil profiles. This is potentially problematic as it leaves open the potential failing to identify drainage impeding conditions deeper in the profile and results in very deficient knowledge of the root zone. The information resulting from these investigations is not reportedly transmitted on to the woredas, possibly because there is limited capability at that level to usefully apply it. However on the basis of this information the regional soils and agronomy specialists, at least in SNNP, prepare recommendations (manuals) and training for the woreda specialists on crop selection. Water sources are reportedly sampled and tested where they are used for human consumption to determine whether they meet acceptable drinking water standards. There seems to be a common perception, however, that all waters are suitable for irrigation purposes and no report was received of water analysis to assess its quality for irrigation. Ample evidence is, however, provided on the need to assess irrigation water quality by:

• saline conditions that have been identified in Kola Tembien, Mereb Leke and Alamata woredas in Tigray

• the soda lakes such as Lake Abiyta in the floor of the Rift Valley which suggest that the existence of streams and aquifers with relatively high salt loads

• the relatively high concentrations of trace elements in other lakes in the Rift Valley as indicated by Masresha et al. (2011)xv.

7 http://www.elmt-relpa.org/FCKeditor/UserFiles/File/elmt/RELPA_Atlas/pdf/ELSE_REGATLAS-014.pdf



This points not just to the need for salt analysis, but also for other elements that might be concentrated as a result of irrigation such chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and lead (Pb). Subsequent to the soil investigations in the selected irrigation areas by regional study and design teams no attempt appears to be made to assess the relative land capability for irrigation using standard procedures as applied by FAO (1976)xvi or USBR (1957)xvii. The assessment of the relative suitability of land areas as part of the scheme investigations is essential to be able to properly prioritize investments, identify investment risks and be assured of the best chances of success of the schemes. Recommendations

• Immediate dialogue is required with ATA in relation to the information being compiled in the Ethiopian Soil Information System (EthioSIS) and the uses may be made of this for: − planning of irrigation systems − planning catchment management initiatives − building the better appreciation among the regional irrigation design teams, BoA staff

and other partners of the need for essential soils information in the selection, development and operation of SSI schemes and for establishing and managing catchment management initiatives.

• Collaborate with MoA (SSI and NRM directorates) ATA, SLMP and other concerned parties (e.g., IWMI) to establish: − standard procedures for soils investigations for SSI schemes, including frequency and

depth of investigations, observational protocols, essential chemical and physical analyses including field tests

− guidelines for sampling and testing water to be used for irrigation purposes − guidelines for land capability assessment and mapping.

3.5. Rainfall and Hydrometric Data

Rain gauges and flow measurement stations are only installed sporadically among the catchments. In most cases stream flows have to be inferred using data from the nearest rain gauge, which could be many kilometers distant using rainfall records kept by the Ethiopian meteorological service. Fairly simple but standard approaches (Cook’s Method or the rational approach) can then applied to the calculation of runoff. In Tigray and possibly elsewhere the agronomy DA’s are tasked with reading the rain gauges in the kebele. It appears though that little practical use is made of this data taken at this level. If the water use efficiency and catchment management is to improve it will be essential in time locate specific rain gauges in each kebele and preferably in each watershed and to develop the capability among to technical staff to be able to accurately record and report or even analyze this data.



Recommendations

• With the regional and woreda specialists and the Ethiopian meteorological service review the spatial distribution of the rainfall gauges and flow measurement stations being used for project design provide truly representative information for the catchments related to the irrigation systems being developed

3.6. Land Drainage

All the agencies interviewed, at regional, zonal and woreda level, were questioned about the installation of drainage as part of irrigation scheme development. The standard response was that although drainage may have been included in the original scheme designs it was consistently overlooked during construction. If or when ponded water has to be removed during the wet season the farmers themselves take the necessary steps to remove it from their land. As pointed out above and reported by Campbell (2005)xviii there known situations in Alamata woreda in Tigray where saline conditions are already being encountered. Under the semi-arid to arid conditions prevalent in most of Ethiopia it may safely be predicted that similar situations will occur elsewhere, unless appropriate drainage systems are installed as needed and as SSI systems are constructed. Generally saline (or more seriously, sodic) conditions8 develop over a period of years with a gradual loss of soil productivity. As a result, they may not be noticed or diagnosed immediately, but if untreated the soils will eventually become largely unproductive. The factors contributing to their creation are: (i)the volumes salt laden water being used; (ii) the prevailing drainage conditions in the soil profile; (iii) the extent to which the soil profile becomes saturated; (iv) the capillary movement of water driven by strong evaporation at the soil surface. The risk of increasing incidence of saline cannot be accurately determined with the current soil investigation practices in which the quality of irrigation water is not assessed as a standard practice and where the nature of the subsurface soil horizons is not adequately investigated to determine whether drainage impeding layers exist within it. Recommendations

• See recommendations under 3.4. • Familiarize woreda specialists in potentially saline areas with simple soils testing equipment

(e.g., Hatch Kits and conductivity meter for assessing soil conditions)

3.7. Micro Irrigation from Shallow Groundwater and Ponds

The information collected suggests that there is generally little knowledge at regional zonal or woreda level concerning the location, depth or other characteristics of shallow aquifers. The most reliable sources of information appear to reside in the communities which have had historical access to shallow aquifers which have long been exploited for domestic water supplies and micro irrigation. 8 Sodic conditions occur when NaCl dissociates as Na++ and Cl- , the Cl-- is leached down or out of the soil profile and the sodium binds electrochemically to the surrounding clay crystals. Sodic soils are difficult to manage and expensive to reclaim.



In such locations such as Silte woreda in SNNPR and Endamehoni woreda in Tigre the presence of shallow groundwater has traditionally identified by the presence of verdant stands of trees and the water is almost invariably accessed by means hand dug wells. From these, water can be pumped using rope and washer pumps or treadle pumps although as is well known, these tend to be unreliable and under maintained and there is frequently a deficit of spare parts and the skills to maintain them. No reports were received of hand auger drills being used to access aquifers for the development of MI. The communities like those in Silte woreda in SNNPR that have a tradition of using aquifers for MI have developed guidelines for their access and management, including for instance guidelines for the minimum spacing of wells to ensure as far as possible, interference with each other’s access to water. Thousands of ponds have been constructed over the years for harvesting surface runoff and collecting water from springs and small intakes and are widely used for MI. Many any of these have failed as a result of poor site selection, poor construction and poor management. Where they have remained functional they provide an important source of water for both domestic uses and HHMI. One of the major human health problems associated with and ponds and hand dug wells for the provision of domestic supplies is the introduction into the water of pathogenic organisms. Both are subject to inflows of water contaminated with human and animal fecal material or agricultural chemicals during high rainfall periods. They are also subject to contamination by the receptacles used to draw water from them. Special care of these water sources is thus especially important and this requires relevant training of the users and promotion of good management practices by DAs and kebele heath workers. The advantage drilled and lined shallow wells, whether hand drilled or mechanically drilled, is that they are much less likely to be prone to contamination as a result of day to day use since water must be lifted by pump and there is much less chance of inserting contaminated objects into them. Never the less, care has to be taken not to introduce contaminated materials during the drilling process. As hand drilled wells are completed, especially where they are to be used for domestic water supply the water should be tested, at very least for E.coli which is a fairly reliable indicator for other pathogenic organisms. In the case of contamination it is often possible to rectify the situation by chlorination of the well. Where new MI is being developed it is also advisable to sample the aquifer with sufficient frequency and subject the samples to chemical analysis to ensure that the water is of adequate quality for irrigation. Recommendations

• Assess with ATA the opportunities for coordinated capacity building initiatives in relation to MI structure design, construction and management in the woredas in which schemes that have been selected for MI

• Preparation of component in shallow aquifer drilling and development guidelines/manual covering measures to be taken to avoid well contamination



• Review with the regional specialists the need and opportunity for inclusion of groundwater development skills into the curriculum and into instructor training in the A-TVETs

• Assess the availability of laboratories with the staff and equipment needed to do the essential basic analysis for drinking and irrigation water

These steps will provide the basis for the formulation of more specific capacity development initiatives in relation to the management and use of shallow groundwater.

3.8. Community Engagement

It is evident that a very deliberate effort is initially made in all the regions to engage communities during the project identification and feasibility studies for new irrigation schemes. The study and design teams usually include a socio economist or community engagement specialist and on occasion the DAs will also be involved. In this context, however, the engagement appears to be limited primarily to the collection of data and not so much to involving the community in the scheme planning process. Usually the intensity of the engagement drops off quite rapidly once ESIAs have been submitted and the feasibility stage has been completed and detailed design and even construction activities start. If studies are being conducted during periods in which the farmers are busy there is often little chance that they will attend to meeting with the study team. The need to improve the community consultation process was a fairly consistent theme in our consultation with the woredas. In situations where new or proposed SSI schemes are located in close proximity to long established or traditional ones there is much of value to be learned from the experiences of farmers practicing irrigation, the approaches adopted by them, the problems they have encountered and how these have been resolved. The process of engaging with them and attempting to learn from their experiences appears to be very mixed. An example of a good example of useful traditional practices is to be found for example in low lying areas of Alamata woreda in Tigray, where there are well established traditional furrow and spate irrigation practices known as “Kolla” which are also associated with strong water administration systems. Though somewhat threatened by degradation of the upper watersheds, these still provide good examples of system administration and field management. In Amhara too it appears that there has been a concerted effort to assess and document lessons learned from farmers. The same does not appear to be true in SNNPR or Oromia. As explained previously, the planning of catchment conservation works is much more community based, being organized primarily through the Kebele usually by the DAs. Even in relation to this though, there were numerous comments on the inadequacy of the consultation process and the exclusion of disadvantaged groups (the landless, the aged and women). It appears that in some woredas, particularly in Amhara where, though still not perfect, the community consultation purpose has improved significantly since 2011. There are also communities, for instance 14 of the 54 in Alamata woreda in Tigray and also in SNNPR that have specific by laws governing the use of catchments. In these, community watershed management teams have often received specific training in the application of these by laws. In Tigray this was done as part of a program financed and managed by World Vision but in SNNPR it appears that the community elders and religious leaders have been the major influence in formulating these bylaws.



As catchment boundaries do not necessarily coincide with woreda boundaries at attempt was made to find out how communities and kebeles or woredas deal with this situation especially in relation to the implementation of catchment conservation works and access to natural resources (firewood etc.). It appears that this is infrequently a problem and when it occurs the issues can generally be resolved between the community watershed committees with the intervention of the woreda or kebele administrative offices. A concern brought up in relation to management of and access to, catchment resources, for instance in Wondogenet woreda in SNNPR, was the invasion of land by people from outside the resident communities who neither respect the community rights to the natural resources nor the conservation works that have been installed. Upstream/downstream conflicts happen both in relation to access to water resources, where there are irrigation schemes drawing on the same water source and also with respect to access to the natural resources in the upper catchment areas. In the first case these water access conflicts between IWUOs, occur when water supplies are limited and the upstream users fulfill their needs as a priority thus depriving the downstream users. Such cases are usually resolved by intervention of the kebele and woreda administrative offices or in the case of more established traditional irrigation areas, by the elected “water fathers”. In either case the result is generally an agreement by the WOUs to share access to the water with defined hours of water use. Obviously there is seasonality to such conflicts with more incidents occurring during the dry season and exacerbated by drought conditions and when more water demanding similar crops are being grown. Similar interventions of the kebele and woreda administrative offices are used in the case of upper catchment conflicts involving access to natural resources or grazing. Recommendations

• For new SSI and MI schemes and in keeping with the PIDM approach, the engagement of communities, or at least the Irrigation Water Users Association (IWUAs), is essential at every stage of development, from feasibility analysis to scheme design and construction, so that farmers have contributed to the conceptual design and field layout have a greater sense of ownership and better understand the manner in which the system operates.

• Assess and, as needed, improve on community bylaws already enforced in SNNPR and Tigray and assist woredas and other regional partners to promote and extend the adoption of these for the management of their catchment areas.

• It is strongly recommended that as part of the cooperation with the regional and woreda organizations responsible for the O&M of SSI schemes an initiative be taken to collect and document farmer experiences from both the traditional irrigation areas and from the newer but fully functioning systems. The purpose of this would be to provide the basis for preparing a set of both positive and negative practical lessons-learned to be incorporated into training materials for new irrigation farmers.

3.9. Sanitation and Public Health

“Access to safe water, sanitation and hygiene is very low in Ethiopia: in 2011, only 49 percent of the population had access to safe water and 21 percent of the population had access to improved sanitation facilities. Inadequate access to safe water and sanitation



services and poor hygiene practices negatively impact health and nutrition; diarrheal disease is one of the leading causes of under-five mortality in Ethiopia”.9

This situation is being systematically addressed by the Government of Ethiopia’s Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Project (WASH). Notwithstanding this however, the problem of water borne diseases remains. The parasitic diseases which might be exacerbated by irrigation development project include malaria, schistosomiasis (bilharzia), onchocerciasis, typhoid fever infective hepatitis as well as a number of primarily gastro intestinal conditions caused by water borne organisms including E.coli, Salmonella, Campoylobacter, Shigella, Crypotposporidium, Giardia and Entamoeba. Infections mainly result from contact with or ingestion of contaminated water due to lack of proper sanitary facilities and the use of domestic water supplies drawn from unprotected sources. It can be anticipated that many of these diseases occur with some frequency, however, information collected from the various partner organizations by the SMIS NRM staff mentioned only malaria, bilharzia and diarrhea (which could have been due to any number of the organisms mentioned above). The kebeles all have health posts the staff of which promote the construction and use of latrines and better community awareness of the health and welfare issues. It is not clear that in the preparation of irrigation feasibility studies or the associated SEIA documents significant effort is being made to link with this health system. There does not appear to be any effort to incorporate information on the occurrence of disease in existing irrigation systems or to identify the mitigation measures that might be incorporated into the design or operational plans for future irrigation systems. This appears to reflect an attitude in all four regions that health matters are more a concern for the Health Bureaus and offices than one that needs be taken into consideration by the irrigation study and design teams. There is a good case to be made for promoting strengthened linkages between the study and design teams and the health bureaus at the time of project identification and design so that appropriate considerations are taken into account in project design. This might include such disparate measures as the installation of adequate drainage (also mentioned previously in relation to soils waterlogging and the formation of saline and sodic conditions); taking deliberate steps to ensure that sanitary facilities are well isolated from irrigated areas; sharing in community awareness programs; but also the selection and promotion of crops with potential to contribute to improved nutrition. It might also include any information from the health bureaus on the frequency with which conditions associated with the misuse of pesticides are encountered. This could be incorporated into farmer training programs and be used to enhance farmer awareness of pesticide hazards and the need to practice IPM as well as to improve the marketability of crops by being able to certify them contaminant free or even “organic”. Recommendations

• Promote linkages with health bureaus during project planning: to increase awareness of the nature and incidence of commonly occurring disease and their actual or potential relationship to irrigation; and to identify project design an operational measures (crop

9 http://www.usaid.gov/ethiopia/water-and-sanitation



selection, crop management, IPM etc.) that would contribute to improved health and welfare of the communities.

3.10. Invasive Plants

A number of invasive species have been introduced into Ethiopia and present a particular threat to agriculture especially where farmers have limited resources to combat them. Of particular note are:

• Parthenium hysterophorus, pathenium weed or wiretop weed which also goes by a number of different names. This annual herb originally from Mexico and Central America, aggressively colonises disturbed sites and can be a serious agricultural and rangeland weed to which some people are allergic and which can taint meat.

• Prosopis juliflora (Mesquite) a thorny shrub 3 – 5 m or tree growing up to 15 m height that is rapidly expanding through Ethiopia and which also rapidly invades cultivated or otherwise disturbed land.

• Eichhornia crassipes (Water Hyacinth) a highly problematic invasive species in lakes ponds and canals, covering the surface with a thick mat of vegetation, reducing water movement it has serious mechanical impacts on water supply systems and drainage canals, it increases evapotranspiration over 3 times “open pan” evaporation and provides habitat for intermediate hosts of human diseases such as schistosomiasis carrying water snails and larvae and pupae of malaria mosquitoes.

• Striga hermonthica (Striga), a parasitic plant, is a major production constraint in the cereal growing areas of Tigre and elsewhere in Ethiopia attacking teff, wheat, barley, sorghum and millet Reda et al (2005)xix.

Recommendations

• In the operational design and the EIAs for new SSI schemes an assessment is needed of the potential for these or other species to invade and to constrain yields and profitability.

• Ensure that regional and woreda staff responsible for the design and operation of irrigation systems are adequately informed of the invasive species that occur in the area and of the appropriate control measures.


4. INTEGRATION WITH A-TVETS

The DAs play an essential role in advising farmers at kebele level and in promoting community action by groups such as the watershed committees. Their role as the key extension link is dealt with in the appropriate section of this five-year plan. As one of the principal roles of the DAs is, however, to facilitate community actions for catchment conservation and rehabilitation works is essential that they not only have a strong background in community facilitation skills, but also essential and practical knowledge of catchment protection measures and the function of these. They require basic mapping skills to enable them to use detailed topographic maps and also GPS skill so that they have the ability to accurately record points of concern or interest. They should also have a basic knowledge of the agricultural soils of the regions in which they are likely to work and any management problems that are likely to be associated with these and some knowledge of landforms and the manner in which these are created in response to natural processes (water flow, gravitational forces, wind etc.). There is also an obvious need to ensure that as part of the curriculum the A-TVETs are providing adequate instruction to the students on IWM and the human and financial costs of not doing so. Other institutions might also be called upon to provide essential inputs to SMIS in relation to A-TVET training and capacity development in environmental and other related topics. For instance in SNNPR Wondogent University has staff with skills in watershed management and GIS and Wolikite Industrial University has staff with skills in pump accessories and maintenance. Recommendations

• The SMIS NRM staff in each of the regions should cooperate closely with the regional NRM specialists to review the A-TVET curricula to ensure that there is adequate focus on the environmental and NRM that have been reviewed in the forgoing sections of this report, which would include: − strong community facilitation skills − fundamentals of the EIA/SEIA process and the nature of environmental issues likely to be

encountered in relation to SSI/MI schemes − fundamentals of watershed protection/soil conservation structures – how they function;

where and how to construct them − fundamental of biological conservation measures-species selection for different

applications; establishment and husbandry of species − basic knowledge of soils and landform creation (geomorphology) − basic GPS skills − invasive species and management procedures.


5. INTEGRATION WITH PROJECT ACTIVITIES

In keeping with the need to integrate NRM/environmental inputs wherever appropriate and necessary into the major support activities of SMIS, Table 2 below indicates the nature of interventions that should happen in relation to each of the relevant project outcomes. Table 2 Suggested NRM Involvement contributing to project outputs Immediate outcome Output NRM/Environmental Actions

1100

1120 Explore linkages for improved IWM and integration of environmental concerns, as identified in environmental assessments into identification, feasibility assessment, design and O&M of SSI & MI schemes.

1130 Include in KM guidelines information relevant to IWM, geomorphology and soils, land use, sanitation, principal water-borne pathogens ( malaria, E.coli, Salmonella, Campoylobacter, Shigella Crypotposporidium, Giardia etc.).

1140 Ensure that the capacity development includes awareness of financial and human costs of ignoring environmental/land and water impacts (e.g., canal siltation, waterlogging/saline/sodic conditions, lost productivity and health).

1200

1210

Review and revise as necessary, guidelines and manuals for the inclusion of appropriate watershed management and environmental elements into the processes of scheme identification, planning and design and into contracting and contract supervision process.

1220 Ensure that for construction adequate measures are included in the construction contracts to guard against associated environmental, health and safety impacts such as noise, dust appropriate use of protective equipment.

1230 Provide training as needed for the integration of IWM into scheme development, operation and management. Plan future monitoring and support as needed.

1240 Ensure that woredas have access to simple GIS software and essential topographic/geology/soils maps and upgrade their capacity to prepare base maps and preliminary development maps.

1300

1330

Support public organizations’ activities in building WUOs/lWUAs awareness of IWM issues through participation in community events. Also identify and make available, or prepare graphic and/or simple narrative information relevant to IWM and relevant environmental/public health and sanitation issues.

1340 Incorporate into training of public organizations the use of indicators of compliance with relevant IWM, environmental/public health and sanitation issues.

1350 Support public organizations in the training of WUOs/lWUAs relative to the maintenance of IWM/environmental protection measures intended to contribute to scheme sustainability.

1400

1410

Assess research-extension programs to promote as necessary, or opportune, the incorporation of essential environmental/lWM measures: e.g., Integrated pest management, appropriate soil nutrient use, improved tillage and crop rotation practices, drainage, invasive species management, improved catchment protection technologies or approaches.

1420 Review, assess and provide, or if necessary generate or contribute to: manuals, guidelines and other training materials relevant to catchment protection, IPM, soil nutrient management, sanitation and control of water borne diseases, etc.

1430 Participate in training of responsible public organizations on: catchment protection, IPM, soil nutrient management, sanitation, control of water borne diseases, etc.

1440 Provide technical and methodological support and advice, as necessary to public organization staff as they facilitate farmer access to agriculture support services and technologies

5. INTEGRATION WITH PROJECT ACTIVITIES


Immediate outcome Output NRM/Environmental Actions

2100 2120 Ensure that any physical development in the selected Centre of Excellence, including the development of the 10ha demonstration site is done in compliance with Ethiopian environmental regulations.

2200

2210

Review curriculum in the selected A-TVETs and interface with MoA, Ministry of Education (MoE), BoA, BTVET and EPB to ensure that the national irrigation occupational standards incorporate comprehension and the ability to act on the essential IWM and environmental management topics contributing to sustainable SSI and MI development.

2220 Coordinate staff of public institutions and selected A-TVET staff to develop and pilot elements of the curriculum that are germane to IWM and environmental and health protection in the context of SSI and MI.

2300

2310 Define the minimum qualifications needed for instructors and the capacity gaps for them to be able to effectively deliver the environmental/lWM components of the national irrigation occupational standards.

2320 Identify and/or prepare training or upgrading materials relative to environmental/lWM components that instructors would need to achieve the required levels of competency and deliver training.

2340 Participate in Identifying essential instructional equipment required for effective instruction of students in relation to the curriculum for environmental/lWM components of the national irrigation occupational standards

3100

3110 Identify and document potential IWM/environmental issues associated with development of MI. Refer to 1220 but also to issues such as shallow groundwater recharge and contamination.

3120 Input on IWM/environmental issues in, guidelines and brochures on HHMI technologies and practices.

3130 Input with respect to IWM/environmental issues in training of responsible public institutions in the application of selected HHMI technologies and practices.

3140 Input as appropriate for inclusion of environmental and health awareness as part of HHMI farmer training at farmer training centres (FTCs).

3150 Assist responsible public institutions in the development of environmental/IWM Indicators for M&E of HHMI performance (see 1340).

3200 3220 Contribute guidelines for prevention of shallow aquifer contamination to drilling manual.

3300 3310 Refer to 1410 as principal basis for demand driven research, adapted as necessary

to the household production context

3320 Train responsible public organizations as necessary or in conjunction with 1430 on IWM/environmental issues related to HHMI.


REFERENCES:

i Mellese Damtie and Mesfin Bayou. 2008. Overview of Environmental Impact Assessment in Ethiopia - Gaps and Challenges. Published and distributed by: MELCA Mahiber. P.O.Box 1519 Code 1250. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: p19. ii Mellese Damtie and Solomon Kebede, 2012, The Need for Redesigning and Redefining Institutional Roles for Environmental Governance in Ethiopia.Movement for Ecological Learning Community Action. MELCA Mahiber. P.O.Box 1519 Code 1250. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. iii Mellese Damtie and Mesfin Bayou. 2008. Ibid: P30. iv World Bank, 2014, Nile Basin Initiative. Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Program Nile Cooperation for Results Project (NCORE), Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF). Funded Under Grants from the Nile Basin Trust Fund and the Cooperation in International Waters in Africa Trust Funds. v The World Bank. 2013. Project Appraisal Document 525. For A Sustainable Land Management Project (SlMP-2) http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2013/11/07/000333037_20131107121854/Rendered/PDF/PAD5250PAD0P13010Box379865B00OUO090.pdf vi Lakew Desta, Carucci, V., Asrat Wendem-Ageňehu and Yitayew Abebe (eds). 2005. Community Based Participatory Watershed Development: A Guideline. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. vii Y. Mulat, 2013: Indigenous Knowledge Practices in Soil Conservation at Konso People, South western Ethiopia. Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Vol. 2 No. 2, December 2013: 4-5. viii Woldearegay Woldemariam. 2012: Cost and Benefit of Catchment Management and Regreening in Tigray, Ethiopia Kifle Mekelle University, Ethiopia: Power Point Presentation http://www.bebuffered.com/downloads/04_WOLDEARAGAY_Kifle_CatchmentDevelopmentEthiopia-Cost&Benefit_SWWW2012.pdf ix Ayana, Abdi Boru and Edossa, Desalegn Chemeda and Kositsakulchai, Ekasit, 1914. Modeling the Effects of Land Use Change and Management Practices on Runoff and Sediment Yields in Fincha Watershed, Blue Nile (December 30, 2014). OIDA International Journal of Sustainable Development, Vol. 07, No. 11, pp. 75-88, 2014. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2568509 x Z. M. Easton et al. 2010. A multi basin SWAT model analysis of runoff and sedimentation in the Blue Nile, Ethiopia. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 14, 1827 – 1841, 2010. www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/14/1827/2010/ doi:10.5194/hess-14-1827-201 xi M. Tenaw and Awulachew S.B.2009. Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT)-Based Runoff and Sediment Yield Modeling: A Case of the Gumera Watershed in Lake Tana Subbasin. https://www.google.ca/?gws_rd=ssl#q=Soil+and+Water+Assessment+Tool+(SWAT)-Based+Runoff+and+Sediment+Yield+Modeling: xii A.H. Rabia et al., 2013 Soil mapping and classification: a case study in the Tigray Region, Ethiopia. Journal of Agriculture and Environment for International Development – JAEID. 2013, 107 (1): 73 - 99 Sci Total Environ. 2011 Sep 1;409(19):3955-70. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.06.051. Epub 2011 Jul 20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21774962 xiii Agricultural Transformation Agency. 2013. Status of soil resources in Ethiopia and priorities for sustainable management. GSP for Eastern and Southern Africa. Mar 25-27, 2013, Nairobi, Kenya. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/GSP/docs/South_east_partnership/Ethiopia.pdf xiv R. Amundson et al. 2015, Soil and human security in the 21st century. Science 348. 1261071 (2015). DOI:10.1126/science.1261071: 4

http://ssrn.com/abstract=2568509

REFERENCES


xv Masresha A.E. et al. 2011. Speciation of selected trace elements in three Ethiopian Rift Valley Lakes (Koka, Ziway and Awassa) and their major inflows. Sci Total Environ. 2011 Sep 1;409(19):3955-70. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.06.051. Epub 2011 Jul 20. xvi FAO 1976. A framework for land evaluation. FAO Soils bulletin 32. Soil Resources Development and Conservation Service, Land And Water Development Division. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome 1976. http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5310e/x5310e00.htm xvii United States; Department of the Interior; Bureau of Reclamation Manual; Vol. V, Irrigated Land Use; Part 2, Land Classification. xviii Campbell l, 2005.Environmental Assessment and Screening Report on the project, Improving productivity and Market Success of Ethiopian Farmers. Pilot Learning Woreda: Alamata, CIDA 1519 2E Environmental and Screening Report xix Fasil Reda et al. 2010, Virulence Study of Striga hermonthica Populations from Tigray Region (Northern Ethiopia). World Journal of Agricultural Sciences 6 (6): 676-682. http://www.idosi.org/wjas/wjas6(6)/8.pdf

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