Know about the beauty of Sultanate of Oman

ISSUE 07 SUMMER 2011 MAGAZINESultanate of Oman

Special IssueThe forts and castlesof Oman

10

Defending thefrankincense trade

18

The khanjar - symbol of Oman

53

ICOMAM – the International Committee of Museums ofArms and Military History - is an International Committee ofICOM – the International Council of Museums.

It provides a forum for museums worldwide: • To encourage scientific research about arms and

armour and military collections, both in specialised andgeneral museums and in military collections.

• To stimulate a proper, professional standard of collectioncare, management, conservation and use in line withinternationally recognised good practice and ICOMguidelines.

• To promote the highest standards in display andinterpretation.

• To encourage networking and partnerships betweenmuseums and research the world over.ICOMAM achieves its goal by holding triennial

congresses and intermediate symposia on relevant topics.ICOMAM has over 260 members, representing museums

in more than 50 countries world-wide, including suchfamous institutions as the Royal Armouries of Leeds, theFrench Musée de l'Armée, the Metropolitan Museum of Art,The Musée de l'Armée et d'Histoire Militaire in Brussels, theHofjagd- und Rüstkammer of Vienna, the Real Armeria ofMadrid, the Topkapi Sarayi Museum in Istanbul.Membership has increased over the past ten years includinga larger share of museums outside of Europe and America.Also some so-called Battlefield Museums are members ofthis international contact group.

ICOMAM is directed by an International ruling bodycalled the Executive Board. The ICOMAM approach to theconservation and study of relevant artefacts is scientific,dispassionate, objective and humanistic. It aims to assessthe importance of weaponry in world history as a majorsociological phenomenon touching on all the aspects ofpolitics, economics and social behaviour including itsartistic spin-offs and its relationship with our culturalheritage and its interpretation in the world today.http://www.klm-mra.be/icomam/

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[email protected]

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Published byin association with ICOMAM

ICOM is the international organisation of museums andmuseum professionals which is committed to theconservation, continuation and communication to society ofthe world's natural and cultural heritage, present andfuture, tangible and intangible. http://icom.museum/

SPECIAL ISSUE MAGAZINE 3

Welcome to this special edition of MAGAZINE – the newsletter of ICOMAM, the InternationalCommittee of Museums of Armsand Military History, published to inform members of itsactivities and publicize these to the wider world.

Robert Douglas SmithRuth Rhynas Brown

EDITORS

Contents

18 40 73

04 Preface

06 Introduction

10 Forts and castles of Oman

18 Defending the frankincense trade

18 Land of Frankincense- UNESCO Sites

19 Al-Baleed

20 Sumhuram/Khor Rori

22 The falaj system – water for life

24 Nizwa Fort

28 Jabreen Castle

32 Oman’s maritime heritage

34 The Portuguese legacy

40 Castles of Al Batinah

40 Nakhal Fort

43 Barka Castle

45 An Nu’man Castle

47 Castles of Dhofar: Still a livingtradition

47 Taqah Castle

49 Mirbat Castle

50 Sadah Castle

53 The khanjar – the symbol of theSultanate of Oman

57 The date palm as a weapon of war

59 Slings and sling-making

61 Bait Al Zubair Museum

65 The Sultan’s Armed ForcesMuseum at Bait Al Falaj

69 Historic firearms of Oman

73 The Martini Henry rifle

78 Bayt ar Ridayah

81 Al Hazm Castle and its artillerycollection

86 Historic artillery in Oman

89 Swords, shields and ceremony

89 Swords

90 Shields

91 Ceremony

93 Omani crafts and craftsmen

97 Acknowledgements

4 MAGAZINE SPECIAL ISSUE

Sultanate of Oman

H E Sheikh Abdulmalik bin Abdullah bin Ali al KhaliliTourism Minister

Great ideas catch one’s attention; especially those thatmake people look at things differently and give greater

insight into a particular subject or even give a totally newperspective.

This was the Ministry of Tourism’s thinking when itcontacted the International Committee of Museums of Armsand Military History (ICOMAM) to see if they were interestedin doing an independent expert review of the manycollections held in Oman’s public museums, forts andcastles, but with the added request that the ICOMAMdedicate an entire edition of their Magazine to the Sultanateof Oman. The Ministry felt that an expert review of itsexpanding portfolio of restored forts and arms collectionswas timely, especially as a means of assessing their widervalue in a global context. Also, the fact that many of ourarms and collections are displayed in their original settingsgives them added appeal, and we were very keen tocommunicate this to other museums specialists in the firstinstance.

The project has been exciting from many perspectives.The knowledge transfer between ICOMAM and our historicsites team has been great, and this has led to new insightsthat we can share for the first time through this publication.This publication itself will also become a valuable resourcefor our education and marketing programs because cultureis at the heart of Oman’s tourism strategy.

The Ministry of Tourism is delighted to be the custodianof an increasing portfolio of magnificent forts and castles,with many hosting exquisite collections. We have justopened new exhibits at Jabreen Castle, and plans are welladvanced for the opening of the restored Bayt Ar Ridaydahwhich includes a comprehensive small arms exhibition, andAl Hazm Castle that houses a world class cannon collection.These treasures will make a significant contribution toOman’s tourism and educational sectors for manygenerations ahead.

On behalf of Oman’s Ministry of Tourism, we hope youenjoy this special edition on the Sultanate of Oman.


Preface

Piet De GryseChairman of ICOMAMSenior Curator, Royal MilitaryMuseum, Brussels

With its bi-annual magazine publication, ICOMAM isunique. Several international ICOM committees

produce newsletters or publish a more or less regularbulletin informing the members about past or upcomingevents; others limit themselves to the regular updating oftheir website. However, with The Magazine, the seventhissue of which is now before you, ICOMAM has chosen adifferent route. This is not just another e-magazine droppinginto an electronic mailbox because the mail address is onsome mailing list. No, here one is advised by e-mail that anew issue of The Magazine is available for download throughthe ICOMAN website. As each number is presented as a pdffile, the reader can either read the issue on screen or printit, take it away and file it. Many colleagues tell me they optfor the latter: printing, reading and filing it away. From itsoutset The Magazine has been designed as a periodicaloffering more than merely the latest news about theorganisation. Short articles about what is going on at ourrespective museums and what is occupying us on a dailybasis: these are the subjects covered and as one imageoften says more than a thousand words, pictures andillustrations are very important. The Magazine in that wayreports on temporary exhibitions, on the refurbishment ofgalleries and collections and the publication of books.However, the editors go one step further and call upon us,the specialists, to give our opinions: which are our favouritecollection items, which publications do we deem to beindispensable tools, how do we use the new media? Thiscocktail is topped off with interesting articles and noteswhich do not fit the traditional scientific format of theserious journals in our area of interest. And we should notforget the information about ICOMAM itself, its congresses,its meetings and publications.

The current issue is different. It is dedicated to whatappears, to most of us, to be a distant country withmysterious collections and it contains both general culturalpieces as well as articles in our field of interest. Byconcentrating on the Sultanate of Oman this issue focuseson a relatively unknown country. You will probably besurprised to learn that Oman established contacts with thewider world from earliest times and that many vestiges ofthese contacts are still traceable today. Now that TheMagazine has concentrated on the military heritage of onecountry, we hope that other countries will seize theopportunity of presenting themselves to us in the future.

The Magazine is not dissimilar from a Swiss army knife:it’s a multifunctional tool geared to all opportunities. Enjoythe read!

Avec la publication bisannuelle de son Magazine, l’ICOMAMest unique en son genre. Divers comités internationaux

de l’ICOM envoient des lettres de contact ou publient unbulletin plus ou moins régulier informant les membres desévénements passés ou à venir. D’autres se limitent à la miseà jour d’un site Internet. Cependant, avec The Magazine, dontceci est déjà le numéro 7, l’ICOMAM suit résolument un autrecap. Il ne s’agit pas d’un simple magazine consultable enligne arrivant dans une boîte courriel parce que l’adresse seretrouve sur une liste d’envoi. Non, ici, un courriel annonce lasortie d’un nouveau numéro du Magazine, celui-ci étanttéléchargeable par le biais du site Internet de l’ICOMAM.Puisque le Magazine est présenté sous format pdf, le lecteurpeut donc soit consulter le numéro sur son écran, soitl’imprimer et le conserver. Beaucoup de collègues me disentprivilégier la seconde option: impression, lecture etconservation. Dès sa création, le Magazine a été conçucomme une feuille de contact visant plus loin que la seuleprésentation de données relatives à l’organisation. De petitsarticles sur la vie dans nos musées respectifs, sur les chosesqui nous occupent chaque jour : voilà ce qui figure en bonneplace. Et puisqu’une image en dit parfois plus long que letexte, notre publication fait la part belle aux illustrations etaux photos. Le Magazine parle dès lors de nouvellesexpositions temporaires, de réaménagement de collectionsou de salles, de publication de livres. Et les concepteurs sont

O M A N

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Al Hazm


IntroductionThe Sultanate of Oman is situated in the extreme

southeast corner of the Arabian Peninsular and sharesborders with the United Arab Emirates in the north, theKingdom of Saudi Arabia to the west and the Republic ofYemen to the southwest. The country’s 3,165 kilometrecoastline overlooks the strategic Strait of Hormuz and theentrance to the Gulf in the north and runs from the Sea ofOman to the Arabian Sea and finally, to the Indian Ocean inthe far southwest. Situated astride the Tropic of Cancer,Oman dominates some of the oldest and most important

S A U D I A R A B I A

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QATARBAHRAIN

KUWAIT

I R A Q

S Y R I ACYPRUS

LEBANON

ISRAELJ O R D A N

I R A N

T U R K M E N I S T A N

AFGHANISTA

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Baghdad

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Dubai

Cairo

Mecca

Riyadh

K artoumSan‘a

Djibouti

Salalah

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Addis Abeba

These maps are not an authorityon international boundaries

allés plus loin encore, en nous donnant la parole, à nous, lesspécialistes : quelles sont nos pièces favorites, quellespublications nous semblent indispensables dans notre travailjournalier, que pensons-nous des nouveaux médias ? L’offreest complétée par de courtes contributions ponctuelles quine trouveraient pas leur place dans le format habituel despublications scientifiques traditionnelles. En outre, leMagazine procure des informations sur l’ICOMAM, sescongrès, ses rencontres, ses publications.

Le numéro que vous avez sous les yeux aujourd’hui estnéanmoins différent. Il est presque totalement consacré à cequi est, pour la plupart d’entre nous, un pays lointain avecdes collections mystérieuses, et reprend tant des élémentsde portée générale que des réalisations récentes dans notredomaine d’intérêt. En se concentrant sur le sultanat d’Oman

(situé sur la côte sud-est de la péninsule arabique, entouréde l’Arabie saoudite, des Emirats arabes unis et de l’instableYémen), ce numéro thématique braque les projecteurs sur unpays relativement méconnu. Vous serez certainement surprisde lire qu’Oman a eu de nombreux contacts avec l’Europeoccidentale et que ces contacts, dont d’innombrables tracessubsistent, remontent loin dans le temps. Le Magazine vouspropose donc ici un premier numéro consacré à un paysspécifique. Nous espérons que d’autres pays, moins connuspour leur patrimoine militaire, entendront l’appel du large,embrayeront le pas et décideront de se présenter à nous.

Au fond, notre Magazine ressemble un peu à un couteausuisse : c’est un outil multifonctionnel qui s’attaque à toutesles opportunités qui lui sont présentées. Nous voussouhaitons bonne lecture.

Sultanate of Oman

sea trading routes in the world. With an area of 309,500square kilometres, it is also criss-crossed by the ancientnorth-south and east-west overland Arabian trade routes.

Endowed with a natural beauty unparalleled in the Gulfregion, the Sultanate boasts a striking diversity oflandscapes, ranging from the lush, fertile plains ofsouthernmost Dhofar to the arid dunes of the EasternSands. Sweeping in a long arc from northwest to southeast,the rugged Hajar mountain range rises to a height of 3,000metres, effectively separating the northern coastal plain –Oman’s most populous region – from the interior of thecountry.


Introduction

Outside the larger cities, the landscape is dominated bysmaller towns and villages, often guarded by an ancientwatchtower, surrounded by groves of date palms, irrigatedby manmade water channels, aflaj

Watchtowers are a prominent feature of the landscapeguarding towns and villages as well as the passes through themountains.

Muscat, the modern capital city, sits virtually astride the Tropicof Cancer at the intersection of ancient trade routes.

The other major population centre, in the south aroundSalalah where coconuts and bananas flourish, is verydifferent. This area borders the Indian Ocean and is open tothe monsoon from late June to October.


Sultanate of Oman

A country as old as history itself, Oman has madesignificant contributions to human civilisation. Now amodern nation, it has long been an influential maritime andpolitical power with far-reaching contacts including Africa,China, the United States, Britain and Europe. Historical studies show that Oman was among the firstcountries to embrace Islam voluntarily during the time of theProphet Mohammed. His messenger, ‘Amr bin Al’Aas, was

View of Muscat overlooking Al Jalali and Mirani Forts.

Hospitality at Al Hazm

welcomed by the joint rulers of Oman, Jaifar and Abed AlJulandi, and from that time Oman became a bastion ofIslam, helping to spread the message to many parts of theworld, particularly East and Central Africa.

In the Middle Ages the Imams of Nizwa were importantfigures in both the religious and secular world, making it animportant cultural centre. However Nizwa was not the onlyimportant city; Muscat, Sohar and Sur were ports whichMarco Polo knew and mentioned in his writings.

In 1507 the Portuguese seized control of long stretchesof the Omani coast, although their rule did not extendbeyond these coastal regions, so that the interior, as well assome coastal areas such as Sohar, remained independent oftheir control. However Imam Nasser bin Murshid, whoacceded in 1624, united the country under his leadershipand, using a powerful fleet, was able to reduce Portugueseinfluence. Imam Sultan bin Saif continued his mission and,in 1650, liberated Muscat and succeeded in driving thePortuguese out of the region altogether.

Imam Ahmed bin Said, who had been Wali of Sohar andthe surrounding areas in 1744, reunited the country andquenched the fires of internal dissent. In 1775 he sent a fleetof around 100 vessels to the northern Gulf where they brokethe Persian siege of Basra. Imam Ahmed died in 1783 in hiscapital, Ar Rustaq but he had established the rule of the AlBusaid family which continues to this day. In 1792, ImamHamad, moved the capital from Ar Rustaq to Muscat, whereit remains.

Oman, like other Arab states, has prospered in thesecond half of the 20th century with the discovery anddevelopment of its oil fields. Following the accession of thepresent Sultan, Qaboos bin Said, in 1970 Oman hasexperienced a veritable renaissance. Oil revenues are being


Introduction

put to good use, building roads, schools, and hospitals aswell as establishing cultural institutions including museumsand festivals. Tourism is being encouraged and a programmeset in motion to restore and re-interpret many of theimportant fortifications and other old buildings to the public.

However despite the increased wealth, Oman and itspeople still preserve much of their cultural identity andmany traditional customs. Distinctive dress is one: Omanimen rarely wear western suits, preferring instead the longsleeved, floor length tunic, mainly white, khaki or graycotton, called a dishdasha, with embroidered caps, or verysmart, small turbans. Traditional style dress for womenfeatures a colourful, mid-calf length dress worn overelaborately embroidered trousers. More modern styles ofwomen’s dress are typically worn under a loose-fitting blackovercloak (‘abaya’) adorned with diamantes, beads and goldor silver thread. A major defining characteristic of allOmanis is their friendliness, openness and courtesy, andtheir hospitality.


Forts and castles of Oman

No visitor to Oman cannot but be struck by the profusionof fortifications – from simple look-out towers

stretching across the landscape to elaborate and imposingforts dominating towns or guarding roads and trade routes.

On the road from Muscat overlooking Fanja with the mountainsbehind and a series of watchtowers guarding the route south

Khasab Castle

Nakhal Fort

Jaalan Bani buHasan Castle



The earliest fortifications in Oman were built to protectcities and the valuable trade in frankincense. Sites such asSumhuram and Al Baleed in Dhofar are dominated by theirfortifications. Fortifications in Oman date back at least fivethousand years but little is known about these earlystrongholds. Some of the earliest surviving fortificationswere built to protect cities, trade routes and the valuablemarkets in frankincense. Sites such as Sumhuram and alBaleed are dominated by their walls.

In the early 16th century the north coast of Oman cameunder the control of the Portuguese as they expanded theirinfluence across the Indian Ocean to India and the Far East.They occupied Muscat and were responsible for building thetwo forts which frame the harbour there, Al Jalali and AlMirani.

The city of Al Baleed included a citadel – the ruins of which can be seen here from the south. The remains are almost 13 metreshigh with three round corner towers and several half towers. A central depression is the remains of a building with a large opencourtyard surrounded by rooms on all sides. Probably over four storeys high, it was the home and ruling centre of the Sultan.

The citadel from the north

The remains of the imposing wall that once surroundedthe city with the bases of towers along its length

Plan of the citadel at Al Baleed


Sultanate of Oman

The forts and castles of Oman served a number ofpurposes – for defence, as a military headquarters,administration base and judicial centre. The position of acastle was usually carefully chosen to defend a strategicposition – be that a population centre, a pass, a trade routeor, often all three of these. While its position and primaryfunction was as a means of defence, its major role was as ahub for administration and justice for the area around it.This has close parallels for castles throughout the Westwhich were also the focus of large estates, the seat of thelocal court and a centre of justice and law. In Oman, themajor figure in each area was the Wãli – a governor of anadministrative division, a Wilayah. The Wãli lived in thecastle along with his family and entourage.

This room, in Nakhal Fort, was used in the summer for the barza,where the Wãli received petitions or complaints and heard pleas.

The room where the barza was held in winter



Prisons, separate ones for men and women, are afeature of almost every castle or fort. Sometimes just asmall room with a strong door, some are just undergroundpits into which a prisoner was thrown and, probably,forgotten about.

A major function of any fort or castle was, of course,defence – resisting invaders. To this end a number ofstrategies were used including high thick walls, stronggates and loops through which cannon or small arms werefired. All these feature in Omani castles but it is in thedesign of entrances and gateways that they excelled.Starting with doors, which were often of immense thicknessand beautifully carved and decorated.

However, once inside an attacker would find a number ofobstacles in his path. First he would face being doused withhot date syrup. The major source of food, especially in thenorth of Oman, was the date and large stores were kept inevery fort or castle. Stored in palm leaf sacks piled up, theweight of the dates squeezed a thick syrup which was prizedas a delicacy. However this syrup also had a more sinisterpurpose – heated up and poured through an opening abovethe door, called a ‘murder hole’, onto the unwary attacker.The hot, sticky syrup would have inflicted considerableburns! Of course date syrup was not always available andanything which would inflict injury on the enemy, stones androcks for example, could also be used.

The women’s prison in Jabreen Castle In contrast to the women’s prison, that for men is harsher andmore basic.

The entrance to Jabreen Castle

A major function of any fort or castle was not only itsability to resist attack, but to act as a platform from which toattack any invaders. Small arms and cannon were the majorweapons used. Rifles and muskets were used to fire eitherfrom the tops of the walls or from specially designed gunloops. The tops of walls were battlemented, that is built withuprights, the merlons, with spaces between, the crenels. Asoldier could stand behind the merlon until ready to fire andthen use the crenel to fire at the enemy. In the West,merlons are usually rectangular while in Oman they areusually rounded or triangular on top.


Sultanate of Oman

Next, the attacker would face a zig-zag of passagesleading into the main part of the castle. These passageswere narrow, usually with steps, and meant that theattackers could only enter a few at a time. And at each turnthere would be a door and yet another ‘murder hole’ above.

And that was not all. To further impede the attackerssome of the steps could be removed! One step would alwaysbe made from wood with a drop beneath it, which could beremoved, and covered with a false floor in times of trouble.An unwary attacker, treading on the step, would fall throughinto the trap beneath.

The date store was the major source of food if a castle wasbesieged. The weight of the piles of date sacks, just a few are seenhere in Nakhal Fort, were sufficient to squeeze out the date syrupwhich was collected in the jars positioned in the floor.

Perhaps the best example of the convoluted zig-zag entrance is atNizwa Fort. After breaking through the main door, attackers wouldencounter no less than six further doors, five of which also had‘murder holes’ above them.

The top of this step, now covered with a glass plate, would havebeen removed in times of attack making a trap for the unwaryattacker.

Battlements at Taqah Castle



Battlements in Nakhal Fort

This firing loop, on the top of the tower at Nizwa, was used forsmall arms fire. Using the small holes on either side fire could beranged against enemies at a distance. The slot at the bottomangles steeply downwards so that attackers at the base of the wallcould be fired on

The huge drum tower at Nizwa. The vertical slits around the topperimeter are the lower ends of the firing loops, cut into the wallto allow fire at the base of the wall

For long range fire, cannon were used from the 16thcentury. At first they were probably just added to alreadyexisting fortifications but later special artillery towers wereconstructed to take full advantage of their power and range.The best example is perhaps Al Hazm Castle. Here twomassive artillery towers, at the southeast and northwestcorners of the castle, provide two levels, each with sevengunports making a total of 28 in all. Each tower isstrengthened and has a massive central pillar with panels ofdecoration. The gun ports themselves are wide and archedon the inside, the gun itself protruding through a smallerrectangular opening.


Sultanate of Oman

Of enormous importance in any castle or fort was thewater supply. Both having a good source of water for day-to-day use as well as a supply that your enemy could notinterrupt or cut off, was essential. Many castles weresupplied by a falaj.

Al Hazm Castle showing one of the massive artillery towers withits two tiers of gunports

Gunports at Al Hazm Castle

The falaj at Al Hazm Castle provides fresh water

The falaj is channelled right through the castle providing anendless source of fresh water



Water can be drawn up to all the levels in the castle by means of arope and bucket

The well in Jabreen Castle

However, it was always crucial to have a secondarysource of water – preferably from a well inside the castleitself so that if, or perhaps when, your enemy cuts off themain supply you still have water.

As with all castles, wherever in the world they are, ameans of escape in the direst need was always necessaryand many fortifications have some form of secret escapetunnel and Omani castles are no exception. Several castlesare said to have extensive tunnels to allow the beleaguereddefenders to escape.

Many of the castles and forts of Oman, particularly thosein the interior, were still being used until well into the 20thcentury especially by the Wãli. However many had fallen intodecay and were in a poor state of preservation. From the1970s the Ministry of Heritage and Culture began acampaign of restoration and preservation which goes on tothis day in line with UNESCO recommendations. Traditionalbuilding techniques and materials are used in therestoration work. Walls are rendered with a compound offired mud, straw, and gypsum. As the painstaking work oneach site is completed, it is handed over to the Ministry ofTourism to interpret and manage.

A concealed opening leading to a tunnel

Mirbat Castle under restoration in 2011


Defending the frankincense trade

Land of Frankincense - UNESCO World Heritage Sites

One of the recent UNESCO World Heritage designationsis the Land of Frankincense in Dhofar in the south of

Oman, incorporating a group of archaeological sitesconnected with the production and export of frankincense.They constitute outstanding testimony to the civilization that,from the Neolithic to the late Islamic period, flourished insouthern Arabia. The Oasis of Shishr and the entrepôts ofKhor Rori and Al Baleed are excellent examples of medievalfortified settlements.

Ptolemy identified three areas in the Dhofar region inwhich the frankincense tree (Boswellia sacra) is still foundtoday.

A frankincense tree

Differences in soil and climate, as well as differentspecies of trees, produce different resins; Dhofarifrankincense is reckoned the best in the world.Frankincense is tapped from the Boswellia tree when it is 8to 10 years old, by slashing the bark and letting the resinbleed out and harden into what are called tears. There are adifferent species of frankincense trees, each producing aslightly different type of resin. Tapping is done 2 to 3 times ayear with the final taps producing the best quality.

The Neolithic inhabitants of southern Arabia wereengaged in long-distance trade and with the passing ofcenturies, the frankincense trade became an establishednetwork, from the Mediterranean, Red Sea and Egypt in thewest to Mesopotamia, India and China in the east. Incensewas used in many different religions through history.



The best place to learn about the history of theFrankincense cultivation and trade is the recently openedMuseum of the Frankincense Land, situated on the outskirtsof Salalah.

Not only is the visitor shown the history of frankincensebut is also given an excellent introduction to the history ofOman. One gallery deals with the prehistory of the area,illustrated with many finds, videos and reconstructions.Another is devoted to the maritime history of Oman,including a full size reconstruction of a Baghla boat, whichused to ply the oceans between Oman and the Sultan’slands in Zanzibar and Mombasa. Displays andinterpretations are modern and excellent.

Al Baleed

The Museum is situated next to the archaeological parkcontaining the settlement of Al Baleed, from which

frankincense has been shipped since the early thirdmillennium BC. On an elevated site extending along thecoast with a khor providing water from the mountains, thesite has been excavated since 1977. Most of what the visitorsees today dates from the Islamic period, with its strongwalls and gates and a great Mosque.

The settlement began to decline in the 12th century, andit was attacked and partially destroyed on several occasionsin the 13th century, both by Arab rulers and by Persianraiders. Its fate was sealed with the arrival of thePortuguese in the Gulf and the changes they imposed onlocal trading patterns; it never recovered.

The Museum of the Frankincense Land

The ruins of the great mosque at Al Baleed


Sultanate of Oman

Sumhuram/Khor Rori

Forty kilometres to the east is another early frankincenseport, the settlement of Khor Rori, first excavated in the

1950s and currently undergoing excavation by the Universityof Pisa. Founded in the 3rd century BC to control the tradein Dhofar incense, the city was called Sumhuram.

The Indian merchants who brought cotton cloth, cornand oil in exchange for incense overwintered there, waitingfor the favourable monsoon winds to take them home. At itsheight, with its close links with the powerful Shabwa state,the city became very rich. However it was abandoned in the5th century AD, after years of decline, and was reclaimed bythe sand and the sea.

The fortified city, roughly rectangular in shape, is locatedon a rocky spur running east-west, 25 metres above sealevel and the walls, of dressed-stone facings with rubblecores, are still a very prominent feature. Even today theystill stand to a height of 5 metres, and in the past they musthave been some 9 or 10 metres tall and are almost twometres thick. The most heavily fortified section is thenorthern entrance, a massive structure with three gates,twisting at right angles, one after the other, on a steep path,flanked by the remains of towers. Here the walls are nearly3 metres thick.

Sumhuram rising out of the sand whichcovered the site for centuries.

Overlooking the site of the port at Sumhuram. In the background can besent eh sand bar which has grown up across the mouth of the port andwhich probably contributed to the abandonment of the site



The passageways close to the small postern gate weredecorated with monumental inscriptions, commemoratingthe foundation of the city. The gates and walls were neededto protect the city with its wealthy temples, residential areasand frankincense warehouses. Another important part ofthe defence of the city is a safe water supply and Sumhuramhas a particularly impressive sunken well and cistern.

There is a new visitor’s centre to help orientate andinform the visitor with displays and video. It contains manyinteresting finds from the site, indicating its wealth andculture.

The outer gate

The well and cistern

The visitor centre at Sumhuram

The displays in the visitor centre

Anotable feature of the landscape of Oman is the systemof water channels, called aflaj (plural) or falaj (singular),

that extends across the country. Basically a watermanagement system, aflaj provide a reliable supply of waterto human settlements and for irrigation in the hot, aridconditions of much of the country. They are thought to haveoriginated in pre-Islamic Iran, Persia, and may date back to1000BC, and from there, the system spread throughoutmuch of Asia and Africa.

Aflaj consist of a series of well-like vertical shafts,connected by gently sloping tunnels in such a way that largequantities of water are efficiently delivered to the surfacewithout the need for any form of pumping, relying on gravitywith the source being at a higher level than theirdestination. They transport water over long distances in hotdry climates without losing a great deal to evaporation orleakage.

The source of a falaj was normally at the foot of a rangeof hills or mountains where the water table is close to thesurface. Especially near the source but often for longdistances the falaj runs in underground channels and canextend for many tens of kilometres. The system has theadvantage of being resistant to natural disasters such asearthquakes and floods, and to deliberate destruction inwar. Equally important, they are not dependent on rainfalllevels, delivering a flow with only small variations from wetto dry years.


The falaj system – water for life

Falaj Daris, one of the five examples of aflaj designated as WorldHeritage Sites by UNESCO in 2006. It is almost 8 kilometres longand supplies some 2.25 million cubic metres of water to irrigatenearly 2 square kilometres of land. The mother well is 17.5 metresdeep

Diagram showing how a falaj was dug and the way gravity wasused to eliminate the need for pumping


The falaj system - water for life

In Oman aflaj date back to the Iron Age period and thereare still some 3000 still in use today. Many important siteswere built on or around a falaj, including Nizwa, Al Hazmand Bait Al Falaj, the Armed Forces Museum. In July 2006,five examples of aflaj were designated as World HeritageSites by UNESCO

Water is, of course, necessary to life but was also usedfor washing, bathing and for purification before prayers.

The UNESCO listed Falaj Al Khatmain at Birkat Al Mawz. The mainchannel divides into three streams very carefully designed so thatexactly one third of the water runs into each – experiments usingcoloured balls have proved this to be true as equal numbers ofballs flowed into each one. This was especially important as thewater supply was very carefully measured and regulated.

Sometimes a falaj was carried above ground in an aqueduct ashere near Bayt ar Ridayah Castle.

The top of the aqueduct


Nizwa Fort

Comprising fort, castle, mosque and souk, perhaps thegreatest fortress complex in Oman is the great citadel of

Nizwa. Nizwa, the ancient capital of Oman, was already an

important centre in the early Islamic period. However itsmain period of importance was during the Imamate of theYa’ruba when it became, once again, the main city in thecountry. Much of the surviving buildings date from thisperiod, including the great tower, which was raised duringthe 1650s.

With the rise of the Al Bu Said dynasty, Nizwa foundrenewed importance as the stronghold of the local Wali.A British officer who visited in the 1860s described hisreception by the wali in the public hall, where he ‘sat oncushions, exchanging compliments and conversing, coffeein the meanwhile being…distributed to the assembledguests’. The wali claimed he could call on 1000 men at armsto support his position.

Nizwa regained its position when the newly reinvigoratedImams began to seriously challenge the power of the sultan,establishing a virtually independent state following thetreaty of Seeb in 1913. It was still important enough for Saidbin Taimur to make it the object of his progress into northOman in 1955–56, when the old Portuguese cannon wasfired off to greet him. The Sultan held receptions in the oldcastle chambers to mark the new phase in Oman’s history.

The entrance into the great drum tower of Nizwa isformed in the solid base and was a masterpiece of planning.The small door at the base meant that only a few attackerscould enter at a time and once in, had to negotiate a narrow,zig-zag passage with stairs, murder holes and false steps.

The complex at Nizwa – from the right, the Mosque, the ancientsouq, fort and new souq with its imposing gateway

The great drum tower at Nizwa

The base of the huge drum tower is solid while the upper section servesas a platform for small arms fire and for cannon. The tower is 36 metresin diameter and 30 metres tall.


Nizwa Fort

The first door leading tothe main entrance intothe drum tower

The doorway at the top of the stairs with its stout door. Around the perimeter of the tower are a series of gunportsto mount cannon giving a wide range of fire over thesurrounding town and countryside.

Gunloops for small arms fire are also built into the walls – fire couldbe directed either out at an enemy at a distance or downwards,through the slot at the base, at an enemy close to the walls.


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Around the perimeter of the great drum tower you can see thegunports for cannon, at the lower level, and the small holes forfirearms near the top. The long ‘grooves’ around the top allowsmall arms fire to be directed downwards at an enemy close to thebase of the tower.

The interior rooms of the fort are displayed as they would havebeen in the past

A display in the fort showing traditional Omani costume of a castleguard.


Nizwa Fort

The newly restored old souq.

The celebrated mosque next to Nizwa Fort.


Jabreen Castle

Jabreen castle has been described as the ‘jewel in theCrown’ of Omani castles and forts. Built in the 1670s for

the Imam Bil’arub bin Sultan (1670–92) it evolved from asimple garrison fort to a major military stronghold. Today,like many castles in Oman, it is a rectangular constructionwith a circular tower at opposing corners. However it is theinteriors of Jabreen that make it special.

Jabreen Castle

The castle has twostrong artillery towersmaking it a formidable

stronghold.

Ship grafitti in Jabreen’ssouth gun tower date from

the early phases of fortconstruction.

Jabreen Castle,main door.


Jabreen Castle

When it was built, Imam Bil’arub bin Sultan intended tomove the seat of the Imamate from Nizwa to Jabreen andindeed Jabreen came, for a short while, to be known for‘unity, peace and the call of Islam’. It was a centre of learningfor the study of Islamic law, history, Arabic, medicine andastrology. However its glory lasted only some twenty years. In1692, Imam Bil’arub was besieged by his brother Saif binSultan who took Jabreen. In about 1708, Saif bin Sultan’sson, Sultan bin Saif moved the capital to Al Hazm.

In the 19th century Jabreen declined in importance, onevisitor noted there was only a small garrison of six men,while another stated it was only used as a summerresidence. After years of neglect, in the 1980s, Jabreen wastaken over by the Ministry of Heritage and Culture who haverestored it to its former glory. Today, it is a popular visitordestination operated by the Ministry of Tourism.

The gateway into the castle

The courtyard with its balconies andscalloped arches says much for thecastle’s fine architecture and atteststo its sophistication.


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The most magical room in the Castle is the Hall of theSun and the Moon, with high windows designed to allow themoonlight to stream in at night, and ventilated to allowcooling breezes in the day.

The security aspect of the castle though was never faraway. This is also one of the castles where the Imam’s horsecould be stabled within the castle itself – its stable reachedby a wide and gently sloping ramp which has been replacedby a stairway.

Besides the palace there was a famous Madrasah withinthe castle itself, with schoolroom, library and two mosques,a reminder that the Imam was a religious as well as anational leader.

The ceilings of Jabreen castle are wonderfully painted with floraland geometric patterns, reminiscent of Persian carpets. This isthe ceiling of the Sun and Moon room.

One of the rooms restored to its original splendour.

The Hall of the Sun and Moon. The windows are arranged in twotiers – to let the light of the moon in by night and to cut down theblaze of the sun during the day.


Jabreen Castle

The stable in the castle is on the upper floor reached by a ramp.

Even here though, there is a secret stair which can be removed tofoil the unwary invader.

The highly decorated stairway.


Oman’s maritime heritage

Before the discovery of oil, much of Oman’s wealth camefrom the sea. Trade, primarily in frankincense and

horses, was a staple of the Dhofar region for centuries.Later, the northern ports, Sohar and Muscat, became partof the network for the spice trade, with ships sailing toPersia and India and as far as China. By the 16th century,Oman’s fleets began to expand beyond the gulf and theyfought and defeated Portuguese ships in the course ofthe17th and 18th centuries. The navy was a vital part inkeeping the two parts of the Omani empire, Oman and

To investigate the legend of Sinbad, Tim Severin built a traditional Arabsailing vessel sewn with coconut twine and, in 1980–81, sailed her fromOman to China. The 6,000 mile journey, funded by the Sultan of Oman, isdescribed in the book The Sinbad Voyage. The Sohar is now displayed nearthe Al Bustan Hotel in Muscat.

Zanzibar, in touch with one another. The sea brought notonly trade but fishing, and Oman’s sailors were well knownfor their skills and seamanship. The sea, especially fishingbut also tourist divers exploring the riches of the watersaround the coasts, is still an important part of Omani lifeand the economy.

A traditional dhow inMutrah harbour

HMOV Al Mansoor. A fast-attack vessel, originally built in the UKin 1973, and re-equipped in 1979 with twin Breda 40mm guns and2 Exocet surface-to-surface missiles. She carried a crew of 32 andwas capable of 25 knots. She was decommissioned in 1985.


Oman’s maritime heritage

Taqah fisherman

This old house in Sadah is decorated with images of ships.

Watchtowers protectingthe harbour at Muscat.


The Portuguese legacy

Although the Portuguese were driven out of Muscat 350years ago there are vestiges of their brief presence in

the survival of some of their fortifications. These werefurther modified and adapted by the Omani’s for their ownmilitary purposes after they had driven out the Portuguese.

Muscat harbour is protected by the ‘Twin Forts’ of Al Jalali,seen here, and Al Mirani. The two towers of Al Jilali wereconnected by the long curtain wall, with cannon loops, builtby the Portuguese in the later 1520s. The fort was furtherstrengthened in the 1580s.

By the beginning of the 16th century the Portuguese hadestablished direct sea links with Africa and Asia. In 1508 they captured Muscat and began to buildfortifications to control shipping through the Sea of Omanand to guard against the rise of the Ottoman Empire.

Al Mirani fort was probably built in the late 16thcentury at the command of Philip II of Spain, alsoKing of Portugal at this time. In the foreground is

Al Khor Mosque.



In Muscat they were responsible for building several fortsthat survive to this day including Al Jalali and Al Mirani.

However the fortifications are not the only reminder ofthe Portuguese presence; the visitor can still seePortuguese cannons around the castles, forts and publicbuildings of Oman today. Nor are these merely museumpieces; in 1955 Jan Morris reported that one of thePortuguese guns at Nizwa was damaged by a too-powerfulcharge when it was fired to greet the arrival of the Sultan.

Al Mirani fort

Muscat Island, to the north of Al Jalali fort, was also fortified. AsJan Morris notes, ‘… it had long been the custom for ships visitingMuscat to have their names inscribed on the rocks in white paint.’Some are still visible today.

An early Portuguese cannon at Al Hazm Castle. The lifting rings ontop of the barrel are characteristic of guns cast in Portugal

Surviving cannon cover the period of the Portugueseoccupation, from the early 16th century to the 1640s. Theearliest of these bronze cannons have distinctive liftingrings on the barrel instead of the dolphins found on theguns of other European countries. One such example iscurrently displayed at Al Hazm Castle, which has a verybeautiful plain barrel and a pleasing cylindrical cascable;the type of gun which would have armed the firstPortuguese ships which sailed to Asia in the 16th century.


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A Portuguese cannon at Nizwa Fort mounted on an historicallyaccurate reproduction carriage. The cannon in the background isan 18th century Swedish iron finnbanker.

Another fine 16th century Portuguese cannon ismounted in Nizwa Fort. This is more elaborately decorated,with an elegant, long cascable and the arms of the king ofPortugal on the barrel. These are surrounded by the chainof the Golden Fleece, the Order of Chivalry of theHapsburgs, indicating the King of Portugal at the time wasalso a member of the order, suggesting the gun must havebeen cast in the time of Joao III who died in 1557.

A Portuguese gun dating from later in the 16th centuryis also on display at Al Hazm Castle. Instead of the liftingrings this cannon has dolphins, in the shape of lively fishand the Portuguese king’s arms lack the collar. This cannonalso has the mark of a Portuguese gunfounder, butunfortunately it is too damaged to identify it; it looks like a Por D cast onto the barrel, which may represent the mark ofCosme Dias, who worked in the 1570s.

Detail showing the arms of Portugal surrounded by the chain ofthe Order of the Golden Fleece.



Detail showing the letter D or P cast onto the barrel of the cannon

Later 16th century Portuguese cannon at Al Hazm Castle.

The coat of arms of Portugal cast onto the barrel


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In 1580, the last native king of Portugal died and Philip IIinherited the crown and its possessions. Gradually thePortuguese kingdom began to be absorbed into theHapsburg Empire and we can see this story represented in apair of cannons displayed at Al Hazm which, with theirribbed breech and dolphins, look more Spanish thanPortuguese.

Not all of Portugal’s artillery was cast in Lisbon; by1520s they sent out gunfounders to India, to take advantageof cheap labour and materials to establish gunfoundriesthere. The most famous of the Portuguese gunfounders in

A Portuguese cannon at Al Hazm Castle showing theinfluence of Spain and the Hapsburg Empire.

Detail of the cannon showing its cascable Instead of the lifting rings of the earlier Portuguese cannon thislater one has the more characteristic dolphins of Spanish cannon

Asia were the Bocarro family, establishing foundries in Indiaand China. Francisco Bocarro left Portugal to set up worksin Goa and was certainly there by 1587. He was succeededby his son, Pedro Dias, who continued the foundry until1623. The third and best-known member of the dynasty,Manuel Tavares Bocarro, born in Goa, moved to Macao inChina, then held by the Portuguese, in 1625 to establish afoundry to produce cannons for the new fortifications there.Our last cannon, currently on display at the Ministry ofHeritage and Culture in Muscat, represents this phase ofPortuguese history. It was probably cast by Manuel in the



1640s and is a witty and playful mixture of Asian andEuropean motives, with a classical warrior, bestriding theglobe, dolphins in the form of very Chinese-looking lionsand a sight on the muzzle in the shape of a bird’s foot. Inaddition it bears the name of the new king, Joao IV, the firstking of the Braganza dynasty who re-established theindependence of the Portugal from Spain, and lost Muscat.

The small cannon made by Manuel Tavares Bocarro in the 1640s, mounted on a historically accurate reproduction carriage.

Instead of the usual dolphins this cannon has a pair of delightful lions.

The muzzle of the cannon with a foresight in the form of abird’s foot.

some guarding the ports and harbours of the coast andsome inland to protect the important passes through themountains and the routes south.

Nakhal Fort

Seemingly growing out of the uncut rock on a platformcommanding the valley and an important route to the

south, Nakhal Fort is a supreme example of Omanifortification building.

In many ways it is unlike many of its Omani counterpartsand has many affinities with western European castle-building traditions. It comprises six towers joined by a highwall with a seventh, freestanding tower in its midst. Onceinside, the high walls make storming the inner part of thecastle extremely difficult.

Nakhal Fort has a very long history. The site was fortifiedin the pre-Islamic period but nothing remains today. A fort onthis site was certainly in use by the early 9th century andrestoration and renovation work was carried out in the 12thto 15th centuries. It was restored again in the 16th century bythe Ya’ruba Imams and in the 19th century towers, a gateand wall were added. It was heavily fortified in the 19th


Castles of Al Batinah

Stretching east from Muscat between the waters of theSea of Oman and the Hajar mountains to the south. is a

wide plain called Al Batinah. Long populated and foughtover this region is heavily fortified with castles and forts –

Nakhal Fort is built on a platform of rock onthe foothills of the Hajar mountains.

The eastern end of the fort.


Castles of Batinah

The western section of the fort.

Once inside the gate, the high walls of theinner part of the castle are formidable.

A restored interior room

century when Colonel S.B. Miles wrote about approachingNakhal Fort: ‘rounding an angle we were now confrontedwith the massive ramparts of the fortress, which, warned bythe watch tower, immediately began to fire salutes a batteryof twelve-pounder iron guns, the sound of whichreverberated sharply from the rocky walls of the glen.’

Nakhal was, like most castles in Oman, the home of thewali and his family with rooms for both his children andfamily. Nakhal Fort was, however, built as a stronghold andwas, in the past, heavily fortified and armed. Today it housescannon which recall a more turbulent past.


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The winter sitting room where the Wali held his barza andreceived petitions and complaints.

A British 17th century iron cannon on a restored 3-wheeledcarriage commands a view over the surrounding district.

The commanding view out of one of the gunloops of Nakhal Fort


Castles of Batinah

Barka Castle

Standing almost on the beach, Barka Castle was a lookout over the sea watching for ships and protected the

town and port of Barka and the route to the interior –especially as the port served the ancient capital of ArRustaq. The importance of Barka was at its peak in themiddle of the 18th century. Imam Ahmed bin Said (c.1749–83) negotiated with the Persians to end their siege ofSohar in exchange for the right to retain Muscat. The Imamthen diverted trade from Muscat to Barka and set up athriving international market. The Persian Governor inMuscat, deprived of vital supplies accepted an invitation togo to Barka and negotiate under a safe conduct. ThePersians were entertained to an extravagant banquet andwhile they were eating, a drum sounded, signalling amassacre.

Just when the castle was built is still unclear but it canprobably be dated to the reign of the grandson of ImamAhmed bin Said, Hamad bin Said (c. 1784–92). It wasextensively restored in the 20th century, under the reign ofthe present Sultan’s father, Said bin Taimur (1934–70) andagain by the Ministry of Heritage and Culture.

The Ministry of Tourism is currently developing BarkaCastle as a visitor destination with information and exhibitsabout local traditions of seafaring and fishing – appropriateto its position on the coast of the Sea of Oman

Barka Castle


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The towers are filled with cannon

Inside the castle itself are courtyards and livingareas including a mosque – in the centre.


Castles of Batinah

An Nu’man Castle

An Nu’man has been described as an ‘elegant countrycastle’. It was built, probably during the reign of Imam

Bil’arub bin Sultan Al Ya’rubi (c. 1670–92), as a countryresidence and rest house for important travellers on thelong, arduous journey from Muscat to Ar Rustaq and AlHazm. It was renovated by Imam Ahmed bin Said (c.1749–83) who added the two defensive towers and extendedthe walls. Today it has more the appearance of a grandhouse than a fortified castle.

However it was not always so peaceful. In 1807 Badr binSaif rebelled against his cousin Sayyid Sa’id bin Sultan andthe two men attacked one another with daggers inside thecastle. Badr was wounded, jumped out of a window andescaped on horseback but was eventually overcome by hisenemy. By the mid 1980s the castle was very ruined but hasbeen beautifully restored to its former glory.

An Nu’man Castle

The elegant doorway into the castle gives itmore the appearance of a house.


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The roof of the towers are very elegantwith their distinctive silhouette

The castle is supplied with water from a falaj

The water supply within the castle The interiors are beautifully restored to their former splendour.


Taqah Castle

Taqah Castle, 30 kilometres east of Salalah, has recentlyre-opened after an extensive renovation programme,

giving the visitor a vivid idea of what life in such a castle waslike. Standing right in the centre of Taqah, the castle wasbuilt in the 19th century as a private residence. From theearly 20th century, until 1984, it was the headquarters forthe local wali. Built from peach-pink local limestone, thesquare castle is built round a courtyard, with outside stairslinking the different levels and open rooftops.

Visiting this castle is like stepping back in time; therooms are furnished with bright textiles, pictures andceramics.

Castles of Dhofar: Still a living tradition

The three castles along the coast east from Salalah are allmore recent than the castles in northern Oman. It comes

as a surprise that although Dhofar is a land with a historystretching back into antiquity, with the frankincense trade,these are amongst the most recent and have been

strongholds on the front line well within recent memory,reminding us that castle building is still a living tradition.The local population could shelter within their walls in timesof trouble.

Taqah Castle

The interior courtyard of the Castle showing the well.

Weapons hang on the walls, exactly as past visitorsrecall. Light filters in through the carved windows andshutters. Freya Stark, visiting a similar castle in the 1930s,recalled, even at that date, that the shutters were used asmuch to keep out bullets as bright sunlight. The range ofchambers remind us of the harsh climate, where the familyand household moved to different rooms in the morning,afternoon and evening, to catch the cooling breezes in theheat of summer. In addition to the public rooms used forgovernment work, there are private bedrooms and bathing


rooms for the wali and his family. However this is as much acastle for living outside as within, with the rooms andspaces connecting at different levels.

The ground floor, where in the past would have beenused as stores, kitchens and the armoury, is now used as acentre for displays on local history, industries such asfishing, and crafts and costumes. In addition there is a smallshop from which locally produced jewellery and items canbe bought.

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Mirbat Castle

Mirbat Castle, set right on the seashore, guards anancient port, famous in past times for its export of

horses to India and still today an important and busy fishing

Mirbat Castle under restoration

Fishing boats in the harbour at Mirbat

port. Opposite the castle is a battery to defend theapproaches to the harbour.


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Detail of the shutters.

Mirbat

Like Taqah, this is a 19th century structure, square withhexagonal towers built diagonally opposite each other. Thiswas also the home of the local wali. At present it is goingthrough a programme of restoration though the visitor canstill appreciate the attractive elaborate shuttering on thewindows.

Sadah Castle

Sadah Castle is the furthest east of these fortificationsand the smallest. It is also the youngest, dating only

from the early 20th century, built during the reign of theSultan Sayyid Taimur bin Faisal to house the local Wali.Unlike Taqah, where the apartments are arranged round aspacious courtyard, here they are arranged vertically overfour floors in a simple tower house, placed right in thecentre of the community.

The basement contains a prison and storerooms whilethe upper floors contain the audience chamber and thenewly decorated residential suites. Again these are nowfurnished in colourful textiles and ceramics, giving thevisitor a glimpse of what they would once have looked like.

However you cannot forget that this is a defensivestructure as well as a home. The only entrance is through amassive wooden door, and there are few openings on theground floor. The battlements are liberally finished withcrenulations and gunloops along the wall walk which alsohas a little guardroom and lookout tower.

A view of the roof the castle showinggun loops and the small guard post.



Sadah Castle


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The restored interior of the castle.


The khanjar – the symbolof the Sultanate of Oman

You see the khanjar everywhere in Oman; on the nationalflag, on public sculptures; it is the shape of post-boxes;

they are displayed in museums; you can buy a genuine

A khanjar complete with its belt

antique one or commission a completely new khanjar; orsettle for a miniature plastic toy for a child. It is part of thenational dress of the Omani man. It is the symbol for Oman.

The kanjar and crossed swordsdecorate a plaque on the gates tothe Sultan’s Palace in Muscat.

Every Omani man owns at least one and wears it onspecial occasions, weddings, religious or state occasions. Itis the symbol of manhood, and until recently was part ofeveryday dress. There are basic designs which are normallyfollowed - the hilt and scabbard are usually decorated withsilver, as gold can be thought a little too ostentatious for


most tastes. However they can be subject to modernfashions, as other objects of desire - one museum curatortold us of the special khanjar commissioned by his cousinfor his wedding, decorated with suitably romantic crystals –‘not’, he murmured, ‘for everyday wear…’

A range of khanjars on sale in the souq in Mutrah

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The khanjar - the symbol of the Sultanate of Oman

The dagger itself is curved with a prominent central ridge.

Khanjars

The hilt itself is can be made from a wide variety ofmaterials including ivory, ebony, rhinoceros horn orsandalwood. The hilt and sheath are decorated with silverusing a wide range of styles and techniques – wirework,repousse, granulation, chiselling and chasing.

The khanjar is worn with an elaborate belt made ofleather of textile and decorated with silver, silver thread,wire or silver plaques. Unlike western European daggers itis usually worn in the front, clearly visible. It was alsocommon to have a small knife attached to the back of thesheath but these are usually missing.


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The curved blade is double edged, of steel, often with adeep central rib and fullers. The sheath is sharply curved inan upwards sweep.

All of Oman’s metalworking techniques can be found inthe manufacture and decorating of khanajar. There aredifferent designs and patterns but these are as much aboutchanging taste, as geographic differences.

There are two main types of hilt shape found in morerecent khanajar. The first, and most common, has thecharacteristic flared upper part of the grip. The second typeis associated with the family of the Sultan and has a smallerand more diamond shaped top to the grip.

The belt of the khanjar was usually decorated and hung withaccessories including a pouch and a container for kohl,essential to protect the eyes in the hot, dry climate.

Khanjarsusually also

had a knife atthe back like

this one.


The date palm as a weapon of war

One of the most characteristic sights in northern Oman isthe date palm. The date itself is ubiquitous. It is the

automatic accompaniment to local hospitality – deliciousOmani coffee, flavoured with cardamom, and dates. It is partof the economy, Oman produced over 3% of the worldproduction of some 6.7 million tonnes in 2004.

The date has been a staple food of Oman for centuriesand every castle has a room to store them, usually in thebasement. The dates were stored in date palm sacks piledhigh on specially made floor arranged so that the thick,sticky date syrup which oozes out when dates are pressedcan be collected.

A grove of date palms near Bayt ar Ridayah

However this date syrup could also be used for morewarlike purposes. Heated up, it was poured down ontoattackers – the hot viscous liquid causing nasty burns andinjuries – perhaps not enough to kill your attacker butenough to disable him and take him out of the action,hopefully causing mayhem and confusion in his panic. Abovethe entrance, just inside the gates, of almost every castle inOman is a slot down which it could be poured.

The date palm was used for many purposes, in fact,virtually every part of the tree is used in Oman to makefunctional items ranging from rope and baskets to beehives,fishing boats, and traditional dwellings.

The syrup was collected in glass or earthenware jars set into thefloor of the store.


The date store at Jabreen castle showing the floor on which thesacks of dates were stored. The syrup ran out and flowed alongthe channels and was collected.

This slot in Nizwa Fort was where hot date syrup could be poureddown onto attackers

Date palm rope is also widely made. A rough version ismade from the fibre found on the trunk at the base of thefrond. Another type is a finer twine-like cord made fromplaited palm leaflets.

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The sling maker


Slings and sling-making Slings are one of the oldest projectile weapons. It is

thought that they might go back as far as the UpperPalaeolithic period (40,000–10,000 years ago) and were usedall over the world. However, although sling shots are quitecommon in the archaeological record, surviving slings arevery rare as they are made from biodegradable materials,some form of natural string, which quickly rot anddisappear. The earliest existing slings were found in thetomb of Tutankhamen who died around 1325BC. They arementioned by Homer and there are depictions of them onTrajan’s Column in Rome. In Western Europe it is clear thatthey were used into the medieval period and certainly up tothe 15th century. In the Old Testament David kills Goliathwith a slingshot and this is occasionally illustrated.

Preparing sisal fibres, known in Arabic as masad, to make thestring from which slings are made.


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The completed sling. The shot was put into the pouch, the loopwas put over a finger and the then the sling was whirled aroundthe head – letting go of one end of the string at just the rightmoment released the shot. With practice a skilled slinger could bevery accurate.

The pouch in which the shot was placed

In this fresco from a church, David has attacked Goliath with hissling (on the ground between them) and is about to slay him withhis sword. Fanefjord church, Denmark c.1480 (© Robert Smith andRuth Rhynas Brown)


Bait Al Zubair Museum

One of the best places to see the traditional weapons ofOman, and learn more about Omani culture in general,

is the Bait Al Zubair (House of Al Zubair)in Muscat, a privatemuseum opened in 1998. It is funded by the Zubair familywho established the Bait Al Zubair Foundation as thecultural and social arm of the family-owned business, theZubair Corporation, in 2005. The museum complex consistsof three separate buildings (Bait Al Bagh, Bait Al Dalaleeland Bait Al Oud) with a fourth currently under development,as well as a garden with a number of traditional features.

The main museum was built as a family home in 1914 bySheikh Al Zubair bin Ali, who served three former Sultans asa minister and advisor. Exhibits include items and portraitsof His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said and hispredecessors. Four galleries on the ground floor displaytraditional weapons, costumes of men and women, jewelleryand other handcrafts. It is a light, airy elegant museum withmodern, informative displays.

The entrance to BaitAl Zubair Museum

The main ground floor gallery of the museum

The visitor will find one gallery dedicated to the historyand development of the khanjar, displaying a particularlyfine collection of carefully chosen examples illustrating thedevelopment and varieties of this Omani dagger.

Not only are the daggers, their scabbards, belts andaccessories displayed but also some daggers are displayedon mannequins, showing how the weapons were worn.Close by are daggers from other Arabic cultures forcomparison.

Other traditional Omani arms are displayed, particularlyfine examples of the long swords and shields. There are wallcases of fascinating firearms. The visitor benefits frombeing able to examine and compare different examples ofhigh quality weapons. Most of the decoration on all theweapons are in silver and you can study the differenttechniques used – for example, casting, engraving, inlay,repousse, chasing. There is also a display of customizedMartini Henry rifles modified in the traditional Omani waywith silver wire, plaques and engraving, displayed along withaccessories, cartridge belts, bullet moulds and powderflasks.

Alongside the displays of Omani weapons are shown weaponsfrom other cultures around Oman particularly from the Yemen.


An Al Saidi Khanjar

A display case showing a range of Saidi-style khanajar.

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Bait Al Zubair Museum

A display of Martini Henry rifles

Detail of Martini Henry rifle

One interesting item was a belt made from MariaTheresa thalers, complete with powder flask hanging down.There are also fine weapons from other cultures, Persian,Turkish and Indian; and even small cannon.

Bait Al Oud (grand house) is a three-storey buildingdesigned to reflect the family’s former principle residence inMuscat, where Sheikh Ali bin Juma (Sheikh Al Zubair binAli’s father) and his family lived in the 19th and 20thcenturies, until the house was demolished in the 1940s. Thispart of the museum contains a large temporary exhibitionhall and reception area on the ground floor. The first floorincludes early European maps of the Arabian Peninsula andtypical Muscati furniture. The second floor includes earlyprints of the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa, earlyphotographs of Muscat and an exhibit of historic cameras.

Bait Dalaleel (house of the Dalaleel district) adjoiningthe main museum has been carefully restored, allowing thevisitor to experience life in Oman a century ago. The housecontains a guest room, bed room and the date store. Themuseum complex is set in grounds containing a hut madefrom palms, boats, a souq and a falaj. In addition there is agift shop and cafe, enabling the visitor to enjoy traditionalOmani coffee and halwa. www.baitalzubairmuseum.com


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A belt made from Maria Theresa thalers to carry a powder flask.

Bait Al Oud

The display of maps and charts in Bait Al Oud


The Sultan’s Armed Forces Museum at Bait Al Falaj

The Sultan’s Armed Forces Museum is currently housedin Bait Al Falaj, a whitewashed fort on the outskirts of

Muscat. Bait Al Falaj has long been associated with the Al Bu

dynasty .The fort was built in about 1845 by Sultan Said BinSultan and it was from here he started his campaign tosuppress internal uprisings. The fort was one of the mainhomes of Sultan Faisal bin Turki (1888–1913) and was thefocus of a decisive engagement between the troops of theSultan and those of the recently revived Imamate of Oman in1915, resulting in the Imam’s failure to take Muscat. Bait AlFalaj became the main northern headquarters for theSultan’s armed forces, first for the Muscat Levy Corps in1921 and from 1957 to 1978 of the Sultan’s Armed Forces. Itwas opened in 1988, as a Museum for the Armed Services,by HM Sultan Qaboos Bin Said. It is set within gardenswatered by the falaj after which it is named.

The falaj.

The museum covers all branches of the Sultan’s ArmedServices, and the visitor begins with a brief overview of theearlier history of Oman. The first displays deal withtraditional Omani weapons: spears, shields and swordsfrom the time of the Sassanids and the early Islamic era.The next galleries deal with the Portuguese occupation,Persian invasions and the civil war of 18th century. They also


A traditional Omani sword and small shield.

One of the display rooms inside the museum

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The Sultan’s Armed Forces Museum at Bait Al Falaj

show the growth of Oman as a naval power from the 17thcentury onwards and the creation of the Oman overseasterritories in Zanzibar and East Africa.

Exhibits include a comprehensive range of firearms frommatchlocks to percussion weapons and larger items such aNordenfeldt machine gun. Most of the displays deal with thelast 150 years of the history and development of the Sultan’sArmed Forces, showing how the Muscat Levy Corps, whowere originally based here in the 1920s, evolved into thecombined modern Services of today. The galleries show theconflicts in which they fought and their victories, illustratedwith exhibits, contempory photographs and informativepanels. The weapons displayed indicate how the Serviceswere modernized over the last century, as well as detailingchanges in uniforms and training.

Separate galleries are dedicated to the history of each ofthe different branches of the Armed Services: the RoyalArmy of Oman, the Royal Air Force, the Royal Navy and theRoyal Guard of Oman. Other displays show the love ofhorses and horsemanship which has long characterizedOmani society. One room is dedicated to the militarybackground and career of Sultan Qaboos who was educatedin Britain’s Sandhurst College and spent time with theBritish forces in Germany in the 1950s, before beginning themodernization programme of the Armed Forces in Oman.

A display of captured small arms.

Military vehicles on display around the main museum building.

A Land Rover half tank made in the UK in 1976 and used in Omantill 1986. It carried 6 personnel and a 7.62mm heavy machine gun.


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The museum includes objects from all the services.

RNOV Al Hadar, built in 1976in traditional Arab style, wasused a patrol boat with acrew of 11 and armed withtwo heavy machine guns.Powered by both sails and adiesel engine, she had amaximum speed of 10 knots.

A diorama in the museum showing a lookout post guardinga field HQ.

In addition the visitor can inspect the interiors of theartillery towers where the old cast-iron guns have recentlybeen remounted on accurate new carriages.

However not all of the museum exhibits are inside; thereis still much more to delight the visitor outside, with exhibitswhich can be walked through, and climbed over, including areconstruction of a field hospital and look-out post. TheArmy is well represented with a selection of tanks, artilleryand armed vehicles. One unusual item is a Land Rover halftank, built in 1976, one of the few in existence. There areseveral fighter planes and a helicopter from the Royal AirForce and even two ships which the visitor can closelyinspect to show the history of the Royal Navy. Few museumsin the world can boast of such a wide and varied collectionfrom guns and swords to tanks, planes and patrol boats.


Historic firearms of Oman

It is impossible to be very long in Oman without realizingthe importance of firearms in its culture. You can still buy

customized matchlocks and service rifles in the souq andrifles, especially Martini Henrys, hang on the walls of castlechambers.

Visitors often commented on this feature of Omani life;in the 17th century Engelbert Kaempfer, a Germanphysician described the Omani weapons as ‘old-fashioned’and well into the 20th century travellers noticed guns whichin the west would be considered museum pieces still ineveryday use. Silver embellished matchlocks and MartiniHenrys continue to be used for ceremonial purposes at Eidfestivals, weddings and other celebratory events.

Guns for sale in the souq at Muttrah

Guns hanging in theentrance to An Nu’manCastle

Firearms were particularly important to the lifestyle ofthe Bedu - where for self protection, hunting, and raiding,firearms and the possession of a gun, marked the changefrom boyhood to manhood. Grattan Geary, editor of theTimes of India, visited Oman in 1878 and described the localBedu as ‘all armed to the teeth. Many had long old-fashioned guns, highly ornamented, and all wore daggers orpistols in their girdles.’

Early in the 1930s Freya Stark, on a visit to nearbyYemen, noted the different ways that each tribe took todecorate their guns. One of her Bedu guides had a Frenchrifle, the butt of which had a rounded piece of wood coveredwith gazelle skin, ‘as is the Hadhramaut fashion for all theirguns’. Later she noticed her new guide did not have any ibexor gazelle skin – she was told that ‘it is not our fashion’. Shealso noted how lovingly they were attached to their guns,commenting that it was ‘far more tenderly treated thanmost children: it was last in and first out of the car always.’


Matchlock guns on display at Bait Al Zubair museum

A display of Martini Henry rifles atBait Al Zubair museum

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Historic firearms of Oman

Wilfred Thesiger thought that the rifle was the onlymodern invention the Bedu were interested in. He noticedhow his Bedu companions spent their evenings obsessivelytaking apart and cleaning their guns, on which after all,their lives might depend.

However firearms were also more generally a part ofOmani culture. When he toured northern Oman in the 1890s,Sir Percy Cox, the political agent for Indian government,commented:

‘I noticed that the population in general were in a highlynervous state and easily alarmed. One only had to hear arifle shot or two and everyone got the wind up. It wassignificant of the unsettled state of the country andunsatisfactory relations prevailing between one tribe andanother’.

However this changed over the course of the 20thcentury. When Thesiger and his party reached Nizwa, one ofhis guides was told that he could leave his rifle outside,‘thanks to the Imam, God lengthen his life, we have peacehere. It is not like the sands where you come from, wherethere is always raiding and killing.’

Although the matchlock was largely replaced by theMartini Henry, other types of firearms were popular. FreyaStark noticed the regard that one of her companions gave tohis Remington, while the latest British service weaponswere always in demand. However early in 1956 Jan Morris,accompanying the Sultan on his drive to Nizwa, recalledjoining a group of tribesmen:

‘sitting in a circle on the ground. “How old do you thinkmy rifle is?” asked one of them. This was an embarrassingquestion, for the weapon looked to me Cromwellian; itsfittings were elaborate and ornate, and many years beforeits barrel had evidently been split in an excess of ferocity, forit seemed to be spliced together with wire.

“Let me see,” said I, examining it closely while Iwondered what to say, “I should think well, now I should saytwenty, twenty-five years old?”

Gusts of derisive laughter greeted this careful reply. Theowner of the rifle looked around at his audience as if he hadproduced an unusually pink rabbit out of a hat. The youngmen clapped their hands, and the old ones laughed soheartily that some of them were seized with fits of painfulcoughing.

“This rifle,” said the owner to me, “belonged to myfather's father's father. It's eighty-three years old. Theoldest rifle in Ibri.”’

Later when he was having tea with two British officers inMuscat, he was shown ‘a magnificent old Omani musket,five feet long,’ which one of his hosts had picked up after arecent skirmish.

However, within a short time, guns from soviet Russiaand communist China made their way into the country.Ranulf Fiennes, while investigating archaeological sites inDhofar in the 1990s, found himself being menaced by agoatherd with a Kalashnikov.

Firearms also played a part in diplomacy. The Britishrepresentative presented the Imam with a double-barrelledsporting gun and pair of pistols while Sultan Said BinTaimur invited sheiks to his palace and gave them newfirearms as a mark of esteem. The Sultan was himself akeen marksman, ‘so keen that on the wall beside the sea atDhofar there stood a row of bottles, at which the ruler, inany idle moment, would take pot shots with a rifle from thewindow of his palace’, as Jan Morris reported.

It is not just the firearms that are important. There is toothe cartridge belt with its accessories – bullets and powderflask, the latter often made of silver and as beautifullydecorated as the khanjar.

Each gun was individually decorated andembellished for the owner.

Captured weapons, including a 7.62mm Russian submachine gunmade in 1941, on display in the Bait Al Falaj Armed ForcesMuseum


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A highly decorated powder flask.

A mould to cast lead bullets.


The Martini Henry rifle

between us. Next day after we had left the others, I told mycompanions that they could have these weapons aspresents, and promised al Auf that he could take the pick ofmy remaining rifles as soon as we returned to Salalah.Nothing that I could have given them could have delightedthem more. Service rifles in good condition wereunprocurable among these tribes. Even ammunition wasscarce. All tribesmen like to wear a dagger or carry a rifle,even in peaceful surroundings, as a mark of their manhood,as a sign of their independence, but in southern Arabia thesafety of their herds, even their lives, may at any momentdepend upon their rifles. Bin Kabina had already confided tome that he hoped to buy a rifle with the money I gave him.He no doubt had visualized himself as the proud owner ofsome ancient weapon, such as he had borrowed when heaccompanied me…now he owned the finest rifle in his tribe.’

Later Thesiger noticed when he met ‘the Cat’ a famousbandit in his day: his clothes were stained and torn , but hewore a large silver-hilted dagger set with cornelians and abelt filled with cartridges , and he held a brass-boundMartini rifle between his knees.

When visiting Oman and its castles, forts andmonuments, you cannot help but notice the prevalence

of firearms, rifles, shotguns and other long arms. Hangingon pegs in castles and forts or on display in museums, oneparticular rifle is so common, that after a while, one almostceases to notice it - the Martini Henry. A breech-loadinglever-activated rifle which entered British Army service in1871, it got its name from Friedrich von Martini, whodeveloped the action, that is the way that the rifle is fired,and Scotsman Alexander Henry, who designed the rifledbarrel. What is surprising is that this weapon, firstmanufactured in the 1870s, was still being used in the 1960and 70s – it was only ousted by the Russian Kalashnikov rifleand Chinese weapons in the late 20th century.

The rifle, especially the Martini Henry was an especiallyprized possession of the Omani tribesmen – right down tothe late 20th century. Wilfred Thesiger, in his travels acrosssouthern Arabia just after the Second World War, describesthe fascination that the Bedu have with rifles:

‘Al Auf had a long-barrelled .303 Martini, a weaponfavoured by the Bedu. We divided the spare ammunition

A room in Sadah Castle completewith the ubiquitous rifle

A range of Martini Henry rifles for sale in Mattrah souk.



The Martini Henry rifle entered service in 1871,replacing the earlier Snider-Enfield, and it was used

throughout the British Empire for the next 30 years.Although it was not the first breechloader which fired ametallic cartridge in British service, the Snider was thefirst, it was designed from the outset as a breechloaderand was both faster firing and had a longer range.

There are four variants of the Martini Henry rifle:Mark I (released in June 1871), Mark II, Mark III, andMark IV. There was also an 1877 carbine version withvariations that included a Garrison Artillery Carbine, anArtillery Carbine (Mark I, Mark II, and Mark III), andsmaller versions designed as training rifles for militarycadets. Mark IV Martini Henry rifle production ended in

1889, but it remained in service throughout the British Empire until the end of the First World War. It was seenin use by some Afghani tribesmen as late as the Sovietinvasion and early in 2010, United States Marinesrecovered at least one from a Taliban weapons cache inMarja.

The Martini Henry was copied on a large scale byNorth-West Frontier Province gunsmiths. Theirweapons were of a poorer quality than those made byRoyal Small Arms Factory, Enfield, but accurate downto the proof markings. The chief manufacturers werethe Adam Khel Afridi, who lived around the KhyberPass. The British called such weapons, ‘Pass maderifles’.

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First, the silversmith cutsout the basic shape insilver plate

The silver is formed into a cylinder

The edges of the cylinder are then silver soldered together using apiece of silver and a propane torch. In the past a charcoal firewould have been used to provide heat

A Martini Henry rifle showing its silver decoration.

What is very characteristic is that the rifle was givenadditional decoration – usually in the form of silver fittingsto secure the barrel to the wooden stock and a longdecorative ‘sleeve’ around the stock just behind the action.

Today the skills of the silversmith are still alive and riflesare still being decorated and ‘customized’. The silversmith,Salim bin Nassir Al Shuraiqi, is still practising the craftthough with some modern ‘conveniences’. The followingpictures show him making one of the decorative bands thathold the barrel to the wooden stock.


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The smith melts the piece of silver in the tongs to join the edges ofthe cylinder together

The smith melts lead in an iron ladle

Pouring the lead into the prepared silver cylinders.

The cylinders full of lead

The outline of the finished band is then drawn onto the blankbefore the decoration is punched into the surface.

The next stage is to fill the cylinder full of lead so that the smithcan punch the decoration into the thin silver plate.



A finished silver band on the rifle

Holding the work between his toes, the silversmith uses thepunches to create the decoration

The punches used by the silversmith


Bayt ar Ridayah

Some 150km south west of Muscat is the small castleknown as Bayt ar Ridayah. Originally built in the 17th

century by Imam Sultan bin Saif Al Ya’rubi, the leader wholead the Omani forces against the Portuguese, driving themfrom Muscat, the fort was extensively reconstructed in the19th century.

The original castle was only a single storey with a towerat each corner and was used mainly as a store for thesupply and support of the great citadel at Nizwa, some25km south. In the 19th century the upper storey was addedas living quarters for Sayyid Mohammed bin Ahmed bin SaidAl Busaidi. A 19th century visitor described the upperapartments as ‘high and spacious, but very modestlyfurnished but thought it “looked dismally bare and empty,comfortless and neglected, and bore the appearance of ahouse whose glory had departed. It had once been rich inarticles of luxury, collected by its founder in the days of hisprosperity, but these had all vanished.’

Today it is, in plan, like many Omani castles, arectangular building with a circular tower at opposingcorners. What marks this castle out to the visitor today isthe exhibition of historic small arms which has beeninstalled into the rooms of the castle.

Bayt ar Ridayah is rectangular in plan with a circular tower atopposing corners – the main entrance is to the left.

The entrance to Bayt ar Ridayah


Bait ar Ridayah

Standing in the enormous reconstruction of a gun barrel. In thefloor are set small video screen which explain how each of themany types of gun mechanisms works.

The showcases in this gallery are in the shape of the bullets of arevolver - the chamber hangs above them as though they areabout to be loaded ready for firing from an enormous pistol

This exhibition is truly remarkable in that the visitor canwalk right through an enormous reconstruction of the barrelof a gun. Set into the floor are small video screens whichexplain how each type of firearm works and every fewseconds the chamber is lit up and with a loud explosionsimulating the firing of this enormous piece.

And this is not the first surprise. Walking into the nextgallery one is confronted by six showcases in the form ofbullets for a revolver with the enormous chamber hangingover them.

This playful juxtaposition of showcases and exhibitioncontinues. In order to explain just how a bolt action rifleworks, there is a giant working model of the action. The boltis withdrawn, ammunition loaded into the chamber, the boltpushed into place and the gun fired. The visitor is left in nodoubt just how this type of weapon works.

The innovative exhibition and displays set up in Bayt arRidayah really brings home to the visitor the range andvariety of weapons used in Oman – from the lowly musketand the ubiquitous Martini Henry to the Lee-Enfield rifle.

A section on ammunition is cleverly set up withenormous models of bullets into which the visitor climbs viaspiral staircases.

Finally a realistic scene showing a group of bedutribesmen with their guns. Some are casting shot from leadwhile others are checking cleaning their weapons.

Below an actual example, this giant model demonstrates to thevisitor just how a bolt action rifle works. The bolt pulls back andturns, the ammunition is loaded and the bolt is returned to thefiring position before a loud BANG simulates the firing.


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A selection of guns on display – ranging from 17th century muzzleloaders to modern assault rifles

This display of ammunition, shot moulds and tools are containedwithin a giant model of a shell

A diorama showing tribesmen with their weapons. The seatedgroup at the front are busy casting new lead shot while othersare cleaning and checking their weapons


Al Hazm Castle and its artillery collection

Al Hazm Castle, some 120 km from Muscat, is one of themost fascinating fortified residences in Oman. It

consists of a rectangular block with two huge artillerytowers at right angles, set within a walled courtyard. It nowhouses an important and interesting collection of artillery.

The castle is an important monument to the Ya’rubaperiod in Omani history, literally so since the builder of theCastle, Imam Sultan al Ya’rubi and his son Imam Saif binSultan are entombed there.

The tombs of Imam Sultan al Ya’rubi and his son Imam Saif binSultan

Sultan bin Saif built the castle shortly before becomingImam in 1711. At his death in 1719, some tribal leadersfavoured the election of his son Saif, even though he wasonly twelve at the time and this lead to internal disputes.Saif’s progress was slow and full of setbacks; twice heachieved the position of Imam and twice he was deposed,before he, too, was buried at Al Hazm beside his father.

Al Hazm continued to play a part in national politics afterAhmad bin Sai’id, wali of Sohar, was elected Imam in 1744.The sons of his predecessor attacked his stronghold of ArRustaq and Ahmad retaliated by besieging Al Hazm, afterdestroying the surrounding date groves.

The castle consists of a large rectangular block, with twoimmense round artillery towers diagonally opposite eachother, set with an enclosed courtyard. Both the gate and thedoor of the castle are of elaborately constructed of wood.One of the delights of Al Hazm is the falaj which runsthrough the courtyard and through the castle itself,supplying water to the kitchens and bathsuites.


The wonderfully carved doors of Al Hazm Castle The interiors of Al Hazm Castle are beautifully laid outand testify to the wealth and status of the builder.

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Al Hazm and its artillery collection

The castle is built for both defence and for comfortableliving. It contains the usual secret tunnels as well as stepswhich could be removed from staircases, turning them intodeadly booby-traps. Its judicial function can be seen in thethree prisons and the audience chambers. The livingquarters, elegantly laid out and decorated indicate thewealth and status of the family who originally built it.

Like the residential chambers, the two artillery towers arespacious and elegantly decorated. The walls and centralpillars are enlivened by white floral motives and even the baysthemselves and their openings are beautifully decorated.

This decorated pillar forms the centralsupport for one of the round artillery towers.

An Italian bronze cannon

The rear of the cannon and its very characteristic cascable.

The cannon was made in Naples in 1600. A very similar cannon is in the collection of the Museum of Artillery in Turin.

The towers make an excellent backdrop to thecollections housed within: an important collection of cannonfrom around the world, mounted in historically accuratecarriages. One tower contains bronze guns, from the 16th,17th and 18th centuries, from Italy, Spain, Portugal andbeyond. The other has an important collection of cast-ironBritish guns.


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A Spanish bronze cannon

The highly decorated cascable.Detail of the decoration


Al Hazm and its artillery collection

British cast-iron cannon supplied by the Londoncompany Wiggins and Graham (WG) for export in 1803.It is marked with the weight 21-3-14 equivalent to1113Kg.

This small cannon is a rare example which was made in Oman. Detail of the inscriptionon the cannon.

A cast-iron cannon probably made at Akers, Sweden, in the mid 18th century.


Historic artillery in Oman

The surviving guns come from all over the world, andshow how Oman has been connected to international tradeand politics. For example there are a number of Portugueseguns, left behind when they were expelled or captured fromships.

By no means all the historic artillery of Oman is housedat Al Hazm. Many old fortifications, coastal

communities and public buildings, boast a cannon or two,still on guard. In the past visitors often commented on howthe firing of small cannon marked their welcome or awarning of their arrival, and this tradition continued untilrecent times.


Historic Artillery in Oman

An 18th century cast-iron cannon, probably French.

This bronze cannon was made in Boston, USA, for the Imam ofMuscat.

Detail of the inscription, much worn, on the cannon.

Another rich source are the great iron manufacturingcountries, Great Britain and Sweden, whose guns wereexported around the globe. Oman has examples from boththese traditions: finbankers from Sweden, probably broughtby the Dutch East India Company and guns cast in England


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This bronze cannon was made in Spandau, Germany, in 1886.Detail of the eagleemblem, of KaiserWilhelm, on the barrel.

Cannon can be found in odd corners all over Oman. Here in Muscat a series of cannon have been buried, muzzle down, as bollards.

from the 17th and 18th centuries. France was anothercountry who tried to sell Oman guns to gain friendship atthis time.

Other countries show wider diplomatic ties: two gunsoutside the Ministry of Culture have origins in the UnitedStates and in the new united Germany in 1880s.

The blades are usually long and taper to a sharp point.


Swords, shields and ceremony

Swords

The dagger is not the only edged weapon in Oman. Thelong sword, usually carried over one shoulder, was used

with a small shield. Swords are of two types. The longstraight-bladed sword, the saif, is double edged and

Inspecting swords in the souq at Mutrah

approximately 3 feet (90cm) long, tapering from the hilt tothe point, with a single or double fuller and a long straighthilt without a guard or quillons. The second type, called akitarah curves slightly and is single edged.

The hilts are long and straight with no guards or quillons.

In the 1870s Grattan Geary, the editor of Times of India,was impressed by the swords he saw: ‘A favourite weapon isa straight, broad, two-handed sword, the sweep of whichwould take off a man’s thigh, or even cut him in two at thewaist.’ Nowadays swords are only used in ceremonies, inwhich they still have a part to play.


A traditional sword and shield in the Bait AlFalaj Armed Forces Museum

Shields

Shields are another ubiquitous part of the weapon cultureand can be seen hanging from walls of castles and forts.

They are usually quite small – just some 12inches (30cms)in diameter –made from wood or from a framework ofwicker covered in hide, sometimes that of the rhinoceros,and very deeply stepped.

Apart from their defensive purpose, they had lessorthodox uses. Wilfred Thesiger recalled visiting a familyand described the father as ‘a powerfully built man ofmiddle age who carried a straight-bladed sword, a throwingstick of heavy wood, and a small deep circular shield ofwicker-work, covered in hide, which he used as a stool.’

A typical wooden shield in Nakhal Fort

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Swords, shields and ceremony

Ceremony

Using weaponry in ceremonies such as sword dancingand mock fights with daggers, swords and shields is an

important part of Omani festivities. These could take placefor a variety of reasons – religious holidays such as Eid, forfamily celebrations such as weddings, or to greet importantvisitors. C.S.D. Cole, an East India Company officer, arrivedat Nizwa in 1845, to see ‘a large party, all armed, andpreceded by drums and horns creating a most discordantnoise.’ The whole party then formed into procession, thedrums and horns leading the way, headed by a man whowas continually crying out ‘a cheer for the Imam, a cheer forhis son, a cheer for the Englishman.’ This was responded toby the whole multitude ‘yelling with all their might, untilarriving at the grand square, when a circle was formed , andsham fights with the spear, sword, and matchlock, tookplace…The fight continued for about a quarter of an hour,when the party moved on to the middle of the square andcommenced again. A third movement was then made,bringing us to the end.’ A hundred years later, when WilfredThesiger returned from the crossing of the Empty Quarter tothe RAF station in Salalah, his Bedu companions made atriumphant entry, dancing and singing, ‘brandishing theirdaggers.’ Sometimes such ceremonies included displays ofhorsemanship, at which the Omanis excel.

In a sword dance, or razhah, two lines of dancers surgeback and forth, beating their swords and daggers againsttheir shields, accompanied by the sounds of horns blowingand drums beating, with songs or poems chanted aloud.

The explorer Bertram Thomas experienced one suchwelcoming dance in 1927, which he vividly recalled:

‘Drums were beating, and the crowds swayed left andright to their rhythm: quivering sword blades flashed in thesun as sword dancers leapt hither and thither, and lowchanting grew loud as we approached. Swinging round toform a corridor for us the tribesmen, holding their rifle buttsto their hips for the feu de joie, sent a hail of friendly bulletspinging over our heads.’

Today the best way to experience these traditionaldisplays of dancing, singing and music is at one of thefolkloric festivals held across the Sultanate. The largest isthe annual Muscat festival, lasting for four weeks – whengroups from all over Oman both take part and watch.Crowds gather each afternoon and evening to see the dancetroupes and hear the musicians.

Here, one can buy all sorts of local delicacies and watchthem being cooked – the pans of boiling Halvah are aparticular treat. You can also buy key ring attachments fromBedu women, based on the old camel trappings orfrankincense from the women from Dhofar, wearingvoluminous black gowns and masked very thoroughly. Yousee men, women and children wearing the differentcostumes of their localities. There are booths where youcan watch craftsmen and women making shoes,embroidering costumes or making a khanjar. The festivalmakes a wonderful introduction to the life and traditions ofOman.

Musicians and dancers at the Muscat Festival


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Omani craftsand craftsmenOne aspect of Omani life that has been preserved and

actively encouraged are traditional crafts andcraftsmanship. Indeed so important is this seen to be thateach year, in January/February, they constitute a part of theMuscat Festival held in Qurum Park. Alongside the latesttechnologies and developments are displays of traditionalcrafts, dancing and music.

Among the delights on show are traditional methods ofraising water for irrigation, singing and dancing, as well asmaking halwa, the traditional Omani sweet made of starch,eggs, sugar, water, ghee, saffron, cardamom, nuts and rosewater from the Jabal Al Akdhar.

The ingredients of halwa are mixed, in proportions and quantitiesknown only to the skilled halwamaker, and cooked in a mirjil (alarge copper cooking pot) for not less than 2 hours. Although todaythe cooking can be done over a gas or electric stove, the preferredmethod is over a wood fire made up of samr wood, known for itsodour free properties.

A reconstruction at the Muscat Festival of the traditional methodfor raising water.


Making the wooden wheels for the water raising machine.

Traditional weaving technique

Making butter – the milk is put into the goatskin and then rockedfrom side to side

Making baskets

A khanjar maker

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Omani crafts and craftsmen

The coppersmith, Khalfan bin Rashid Al Sabahi, in his workshop.

He both creates beautiful new wares and restores old andvaluable pieces..

Among the more traditional tools are more modern ones.

Among the many traditional crafts are the coppersmithand the silversmith – both highly important crafts in Oman.Copper is used to make all manner of utensils includingcoffee pots.


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This very intriguing, unusually shaped wooden frame was aningenious device for holding various iron bars which are used asanvils to form copper plate into almost any shape.


Acknowledgements

This issue of the Magazine was made possible by thekindness and generosity of a great many people. First we

must thank the Minister of Tourism, His Excellency SheikhAbdulmalik bin Abdullah bin Ali al Khalili.

Our visit was planned and arranged by the staff of theMinistry of Tourism, in particular we would like to thank:Ghasi Humaid Al Hashmi, Deputy Director-General forTourism Development for Historical Sites and Products;Abdullah Salim Al-Zahli, Director of Historic SitesDevelopment; Marcia Dorr, Advisor for Historic SitesDevelopment; Aisha Al Thanawi (Head of Rehabilitation andDevelopment); Khalfan Al Shabibi (Researcher for TourismAffairs and Peter Keage.

Many other people made this project a success and wewould like to extend our thanks to the staff of the Ministry ofTourism and all the guides and craftsmen we met, inparticular:Saif Khamis Al-Rawahi, Head of Collection Section at theMinistry of Tourism; Abdullah Al Alawi, TechnicalDevelopment Specialist, Ministry of Tourism; Azad Alemri,Ministry of Tourism, Dhofar District; Khalfan bin Rashid AlSabahi, Coppersmith; Salim bin Nassir Al Shuraiqi,Silversmith; the staff of the Sultan’s armed forces Museumin Bait Al Falaj; Abdullah bin Jbr Al Busaldi, Bait Al ZubairFoundation; Ali Al Qusaimi, Nizwa Fort; Ali Al Kathiri,Museum Director, Frankincense Museum; Mohammed AlJahafali, Site Supervisor, Al Baleed; Rashid Al Harrasi, AlHazm Castle; Santhosh, Silver World, Muttrah Souk; Tariq,Heritage Centre, Mutrah Souk;.

Finally we must thank our driver, Amar Waleed Al Maimans,whose kindness and warmth made our time in Omanespecially memorable.

Date post:	18-Jul-2015
Category:	Travel
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