Lecture 2B - Ethics

8/18/2019 Lecture 2B - Ethics

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Ethics...

While knowledge of ethics may not guarantee

an ethical decision, it will ensure ethical

components are taken into consideration.

"We judge ourselves by what we feel

capable of doing, while others judge us bywhat we have already done."

— Henry Wadsworth Longfellow


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Ethical Theories

Deontological (duty-based) theories

Teleological (consequence-based) theories

Virtue theories


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Prohibitions against certain kinds of

behaviour exist, despite any beneficial

consequences.

Therefore, Robin Hood would be viewed as avillain and not a hero for his model of wealth

redistribution.


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These theorists do not approve of using

unscrupulous means to achieve positive

ends.

Kant: people should always be treated withrespect and as ends unto themselves, never

as means to an end.


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Deontological approach

Problems with this approach:

Which human rights are deemed more important?

As society evolves over time, will norms of basic

human rights change?

Blindly following this approach could lead to

considerable harm.


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Deontological Ethics

From deon (Greek for duty)

Rule determines the result

Rule is the basis of the act

Rule is good regardless of the act

Result always calculated within the rules


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Teleological (consequence-based)

Theories

The ethically correct decisions are those

which produce the best consequences.

Consequentialists

Unlike deontologists do not ask whether a

particular practice/policy is always right or wrong

but whether it will lead to positive results.


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Teleological approach

Referred to as "utilitarian”

Positives of this approach:

Requires a consideration of all alternatives.

Requires practitioners to think about theconsequences of their

Problems with this approach:

Calculating the greatest good


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What are virtues?

A virtue is a positive character trait

Modern-day virtue ethicist Alastair Macintyre

points out that different virtues have been

prized by different societies, and at differentpoints in history

Virtue Ethics is therefore a morally relativist,

non-cognitivist theory.


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Virtue is particularly important in

the writings of Aristotle.


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A Different kind of theory

Not the same as Utilitarianism or Kantianism

Not so much a guide for moral decision-

making, more a description of the moral life.

Utilitarianism and Kantianism ask “How shouldI act?”

Virtue Theory asks “How should I live my life?”,

and “What kind of person should I be?”

It is interested in the whole person, not just theiractions


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Aristotle and the Doctrine of the

Mean

Aristotle believed that the moral man was the

man of virtue.

He did not see virtue as the opposite of vice.

Virtue is the mean between two extremes – amiddle way.


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Virtues

Victorian Virtues

Temperance

Modesty

Obedience

Conformity

Virtues Today

Tolerance

Individuality Generosity

Patience

Loyalty


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Advantages of Virtue Ethics

Emphasis on pleasure and emotion

it is good that we should enjoy acting

virtuously


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Advantages cont’d

Moral education

being moral is a developmental process

Consideration of life as a whole

“One swallow does not make a spring”(Aristotle)

It understands the need to distinguish good

people from legalists Just because one obeys the laws and follows

rules does not make one a good person)


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Disadvantages

Offers no solution to specific moral dilemmas

Not everyone has the equal opportunity to

develop morally

do we judge them the same?

Many non-virtuous people live happy lives,

many virtuous people are miserable

Cultural relativism – whose virtues are best?


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Disadvantages (cont’d)

We recognise that some non-virtuous people

are useful in our society; life would be dull

without them

Virtue ethics seems to praise some virtuesthat we might see as immoral

Soldiers fighting unjust wars may be

courageous but that does not make them

morally good


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Disadvantages (cont’d)

Aristotle’s Golden mean does not easily to

apply to all virtues. Is it possible to take

compassion to an extreme, where it becomes

a vice? Even where there is a mean how do

we identify where it lies?

Aristotle gave no guidance for ethical

dilemmas.


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Let’s hear from you…

Would you argue that the media is justified in

using teleological theories in making editorial

judgements?


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Models of moral reasoning

NAVRAN MODEL

POTTER BOX

SAD MODEL


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• British law prohibits

reporting the names and

family histories of children

facing criminal charges

until their trials are

complete. Is the legal

standard the only possible

one we can use to evaluate

this case?

• Is Britain’s domestic

standard compelling for

the international media?

The above picture taken from a shopping

center security camera shows two-year-old

Jason Bugler being kidnapped from his

mother by two ten-year-olds who would

eventually brutally murder the child.

The Liverpool Murder Case


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Ethics and Values

Ethics - the discipline dealing with what is morally

right or wrong, good or bad.

Ethical system describes the critical process of

how we work through moral issues Values - the accepted principles or standards of an

individual or a group

All decision-making involves values which ref lectour presuppositions about social l i fe and human

nature!


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Professional

Proximity

Firstness

Impact/magnitude

Conflict

Human Interest

Entertainment

Novelty

Toughness

Thoroughness

Independence

No prior restraint

Public’s right to

knowWatchdo

Moral Values

Truthtelling

Humanness

Justice/fairness

Freedom

Independence

Stewardship

Honesty

Nonviolence

CommitmentSelf-control

Aesthetic

Harmonious

Pleasing

Imaginative

Logical

Consistent

Competent

Knowledge-

able

Socio-cultural

Thrift

Hard work

Energy

Restraint

Heterosexuality

Types of Values


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Values Used by the BritishPress

Legal value: Honor thecourt restrictions againstreporting juvenilenames and family

background.

Principles Used by the

British Press

Other-regarding care:The privacy of childrenfacing criminal chargesmust be protected at all

costs.

Values Used by theAmerican Press

Professional value: Donot suppress publicinformation.

Principles Used by theAmerican Press

Truth-telling: All people

have a right to know thetruth. The truth must be

proclaimed under allconditions.


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Resulting Action of the

British Press

Withhold informationabout the defendants

including names and

personal histories

Resulting Action of the

American Press

Print names ofdefendants and

information on their

personal histories.

WE NEED A GUIDELINE OR MODEL FOR ETHICAL

DECISIONMAKING!!

THE POTTER BOX


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Dr. Ralph BenajahPotter, Jr. Professor of Social

Ethics EmeritusBA, OccidentalCollege

BD, McCormickTheologicalSeminaryThD, HarvardUniversity

Ralph Benajah Potter, Jr., who retired in

July 2003, began teaching at HDS in1965. He is an ordained Presbyterian minister

and the author of the book War and Moral

Discourse and assorted scholarly articles. He

is a founding fellow of the Hastings Center forBioethics and is a member of the American

Academy of Religion, the Society for Values in

Higher Education, and, at Harvard, the Senior

Common Room of Lowell House. His 1997

HDS Convocation Address was titled"Moralists, Maxims and Formation for

Ministry."

Source:http://www.hds.harvard.edu/faculty/em/potter.html

F Di i f M l A l i


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Definition

Values

Loyalties

Principles→

↓ ↑

Four Dimensions of Moral Analysis


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The Potter BoxDr. Ralph Potter

Definition

PrinciplesValues

Loyalties

1. Definition: Define the situation as

objectively as possible.

2. State the different Values you see

involved in the situation and compare

the merits of differing values.3. State Principles that each Value honors.

Do those Principles suggest any new

values?

4. Ask yourself “If I base my actions in

this situation on this principle, to whom

am I loyal?”

5. Select a course of action that embraces

the most compelling values, principles,

and loyalties.

6. Evaluate the impact of your decision


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Potter Box Applied to the

Liverpool Murder Case

SITUATION

Two ten-year-olds go to trial for

kidnapping and brutally murderingtwo-year-old Jason Bugler

VALUES

British Television: honor the court

restrictions against reporting

juvenile names

U.S. Newspaper: do not suppress public information

PRINCIPLE

British Television: other-

regarding care

U.S. Newspaper: truthtelling is

categorical imperative

LOYALTIES

British Television: to juveniledefendants and their families

U.S. Newspaper: to general readership

JUDGMENTBritish Television: withhold broadcasting

U.S. Newspaper: publish names anddetails


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Is there a universal ground for making ethicaldecisions, an overarching theory from which we canchoose among competing alternatives?

Or is ethical decision making simply a process ofadjusting to the mores and commitments of a givencommunity?

The Potter Box accounts for both.

Without an appeal to an explici t ethical principle, aconclusion is not considered morally justi f ied.

Determining the Ethical Decision


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When competing values seem appropriate, resolution

usually occurs in step three (ethical principles).

When two different ethical theories are relevant, the

adequacy of the theories themselves must be evaluatedthrough metaphysics or theology.

Occasionally, the ethical choice is not apparent until

quadrant four, loyalties, as in the case of the Liverpool

murder.

Evaluation With the Potter Box Model


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Ethical Principles in Journalism

Truth

Truth dishonesty and lying in every/any form.

Fact, the reality told as it is

Avoidance of deception

The most ancient and revered ethical principle

of human civilisation.


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Standards for ensuring truth:

Story which is reported must be accurate

Verify facts (solid evidence is base)

A truthful story should promote understanding Provide a story which is essentially

complete

Relevant information

Fair and balanced story Avoidance of discernible bias

Avoidance of deception to unravel a greater

truth


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Objectivity

Absence of subjectivity, bias or prejudice.

Some assert that this is impossible.


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Fairness

Presupposes that all parties to a story/event

are given equal and fair hearing (through

adequate reporting) Report both sides of an

argument/controversy/issue

Includes:

Completeness, relevance and honesty-levellingwith the reader


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Accuracy

The truthfulness, correctness,

exactness/precision in the information that the

media provides to the audience.


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That is a wrap!

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