How Do People Learn

(Science)?

Objectives

Discuss major theories of learning and relate

them to the learning of science.

Explain how students’ prior knowledge can

affect science learning.

Give an operational definition of

constructivism.

Compare constructivist teaching methods

with conventional teaching methods.

Information Overload

Human knowledge is currently doubling every

6 months.*

We can’t teach it all.

*William J. Clinton. Remarks by the President to the National

Association of Attorneys General. March 12, 1998. (retrieved 23 Dec.

2004).

A new definition of knowledge…

…the meaning of “knowing has shifted from

being able to remember and repeat

information to being able to find and use it.”

(Herbert Simon, Nobel laureate, 1996)

What Current Research Says

Key findings were drawn from cognitive

theory– about how people think, brain

physiology – how the brain in made and

works, and educational research – how

students change in regard to classroom

practice.

Bransford, Brown, & Cockling, 2000

Key Finding #1

Students come to the classroom with

preconceptions about how the world works. If

their initial understanding is not engaged, they

may fail to grasp the new concepts and

information that they are taught, or they may

learn them for purposes of a test but revert to

their preconceptions outside the classroom.

Bransford, Brown, & Cockling, 2000

What does this mean for science

teaching?

Students have naïve

conceptions/misconceptions that MUST be

dealt with.

something a person knows and believes that

does not match what is known to be

scientifically correct.

If misconceptions are not corrected, new

knowledge will either be ignored or incorrectly

understood.

Piaget

People do not just acquire knowledge; they

“build meaning.”

Once those meaning structures have been

built, new information must somehow be

worked into the old structures.

This can happen two ways: If the new

information “fits” the old structure, it is

assimilated. If it doesn’t fit the old knowledge

structure must be changed to

“accommodated,” which can be difficult

and/or painful.

Examples of misconceptions

The Sun goes around the Earth once every

day.

Babies come from the mother’s stomach.

Seeds need light to germinate.

Fluttering leaves makes the wind blow.

We can see in the dark.

Discrepant Event (cognitive

disequilibrium)

Heavy things sink.

Bowling balls are heavy.

Plop!!

Whoops!!

What can we do about

misconceptions?

Anticipate misconceptions

Find out what students believe before

instruction

KWL

Think-alouds

Drawings

Mindmaps

Create a cognitive disequilibrium

Key Finding #2

To develop competence in an area of inquiry,

students must: (a) have a deep foundation of

factual knowledge, (b) understand facts and

ideas in the context of a conceptual framework,

and (c) organize knowledge in ways that

facilitate retrieval and application.

Bransford, Brown, & Cockling, 2000

The problem of

TRANSFER

Transfer is the ability to use what is

learned in one setting (e.g. school) in new

settings (e.g. life situations)

What does this mean for teaching?

Learning and learners, not teaching and

teachers, must be the focus

Depth, not breath, must determine content

Classroom experiences must include

development of metacognitive skills and

learning independence.

What Learning Looks Like in the

Brain

(Redman, 2006)

Growth of a Brain Network

At birth

50 trillion connections

Ages 3 to 10

1000 trillion connections

Age 20

500 trillion connections

So…How does the brain learns and

remember?

Practiced learning makes dendrites grow

along a narrow, defined pathway.

Dendrites are only activated by the activity

that made them grow.

How The Brain Learns and Remembers

The neuron produces new dendrites when

the brain is actively engaged in learning. The

more a nerve is stimulated, the more

dendrites it grows.

Dendrite

What if we want divergent (creative) rather

than convergent (analytical) thought)?

The key is to form MULTIPLE connections –

neural networks – by providing diverse

experiences.

How The Brain Learns and Remembers

2 ways to build learning and memory

Stronger connections – repetition, direct

instruction, practice

Broader connection pattern– multiple modes

of input, exploration, new contexts

What does this mean for science

teaching and learning?

Facts may be learned through memorizing,

defining, labeling, etc. (lower levels in Blooms

taxonomy).

If we want students to be about to apply

scientific concepts in new situations, they

must be learned and demonstrated in

complex, authentic contexts.

Concept attainment

The concept attainment strategy inspires

students to use critical thinking skills to find

critical attributes of a given concept. It seems

like a game to students, but it actually

requires higher level thinking skills.

Concept attainment

Sequence the items purposefully.

Always start with a “yes” example. Follow

with a “no” example.

The additional examples should be given in

random order, but providing a “twist” along

the way is encouraged!

Avoid giving too many “no” examples at one

time.

Let students give the examples.

Procedure

Explain to the students that you are going to have them derive a

concept based on examples you will provide. They are to

determine what all of the “yes” examples have in common. (At

no time are they to call out what they think your concept is!)

On your chalkboard, label a place for the “yes” examples and a

place for the “no” examples.

Give them one yes and one no example and tape it to the board.

Procedure

Introduce new examples one at a time and let the students

indicate in which category they think each example belongs.

They may signal with thumbs up or thumbs down if desired.

The order is very important. After giving several yes and no

examples, provide a twist that requires the students to rethink

their concept!

Students raise their hand as soon as they think they know what

the concept is and hypothesize by giving another yes

example. NEVER should they reveal the concept until you ask

for it.

Procedure

Confirm or reject the hypothesis by placing their example in the

correct category.

When you have given several examples and the students have

given examples to indicate they know the concept, ask for

critical attributes found in the yes examples. Students will

recognize the attributes, but they will not always have a name

for the concept. Finally, give the concept a name.

Have the students reflect on their thinking by elaborating

patterns as they explain what led them to derive the concept.

How did the twist change their thinking?

Example

YES

Flower

Wheat

NO

Car

Rock

Concept Attainment

What is the concept? What are its attributes?

What about emotions and learning?

Ability to learn……

Increasing stress

Ready for flight or fight;

Impulses only

Asleep

Best learning

So much about learning. What

about teaching?

Experiences that Strengthen Neural Connections – Cause Learning

Are frequent, regular, and predictable

Occur in the context of a warm, supportive relationship

Are associated with positive emotion (fun, excitement, humor, comfort)

Involve several senses

Are responsive to the child’s interests or initiative

The 2 single-most effective strategies

for producing learning are:

Challenge

Feedback

Vygotsky

Zone of proximal development

Scaffolding

What students

can do alone

What students

can do with help

What students

cannot do

Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky, 1962)

Piaget’s Proposed Stages

Slavin,(2002)

What does this mean for science

teaching?

For almost all elementary students, abstract

concepts are difficult, if not impossible, to

understand; therefore…

Concrete experiences are essential!!!

Key Finding #3

A “metacognitive” approach to instruction can

help students learn to take control of their

own learning by defining learning goals and

monitoring their progress in achieving them.

Metacognition – thinking about thinking;

reflecting on our own thought processes to

make them more deliberate an effective.

Bransford, Brown, & Cockling, 2000

What does this mean for science

teaching?

Take time to have students “process”

information.

Teach students how to reflect.

Use strategies such as mind mapping,

questioning, and group work.

Bandura’s social learning theory

Social learning theory:

People learn from one another, via

observation, imitation, and modeling.

Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2010, January).

Vygotsky (again)

Social cognitive development

Social interaction plays a fundamental role in

the development of cognition

Kearsley, G. (1994)

Questions are key

What do you think?

How do you know?

What would happen if…”

Why did that happen?

What do you predict? Why?

Educational Philosophies

1. Teacher is active.

2. Reading and Lecturing

3. Textbook Driven

4. Abstract (not experienced)

5. Practice – Rote

6. Student is observing.

1. Student is active.

2. Discovery Learning

3. Multiple sources of information

4. Concrete Experience

5. Trial and Error

6. Teacher Facilitator

Direct Instruction Constructivist Learning

Let’s Summarize

Since we cannot teach it all, we must focus

on:

Conceptual understanding rather than a

collection of facts

Helping students learn how to learn (how to

think about their thinking and deliberately

control learning)

Let’s Summarize

Since students “build meaning” rather than

“absorb information” we must:

Find out what they think about concepts and

deal with naïve conceptions and

misconceptions.

Help students learn how to learn (how to think

about their thinking and deliberately control

learning).

Let’s Summarize

If want student to obtain useful information

that they can use in diverse contexts we

must:

Help them make many and complex neural

connections by exploring, trying out concepts

in different settings.

Ask lots of probing questions and teach

students to ask questions.

Let’s Summarize

To create the most effective learning

environment, we must provide:

Challenge and feedback in a supportive,

accepting environment.

Let’s Summarize

To teach most effectively, we must:

Teach at the right level (ZPD).

Use concrete experiences as much as

possible.

Provide the support needed for success

(scaffold).

Provide opportunities for social construction of

knowledge.

In groups, make a list.

Strategies: Reasons:

References Bransford, J.; Brown, A.; & Cocking, R. (Eds). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind,

experience, and school. National Academy Press. Available from the Internet at

http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=6160

Clinton, W. (1998, March). . Remarks by the President to the National Association of

Attorneys General. Retrieved on December 25, 2009, from

http://clinton2.nara.gov/WH/New/html/19980312-21753.html

Hanuscin, D. (n.d.). Misconceptions in science. Retrieved on December 25, 2009, from

http://www.indiana.edu/~w505a/studwork/deborah/

Jensen, E. (2005). Teaching with the Brain in Mind, 2nd Ed. Alexandria, VA: Association

of Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Kearsley, G. (1994). Social development theory (L. Vygotsky). [Online]. Available:

http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/vygotsky.html [January 4, 2010].

Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2010, January). Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

at Learning-Theories.com. Retrieved January 4th, 2010 from http://www.learning-

theories.com/social-learning-theory-bandura.html

Redman, L. (2006). Faculty Research, Department of Pharmaology and Toxicology,

Mdical College of Georgia.Retrieved on October 28, 2009, from

http://www.mcg.edu/som/phmtox/phtx_faculty_redmond.html

Slavin, R. (2002). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice 7th Edition,. Boston:

Allyn and Bacon..

Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.