Mount  Cheops  Cirque  Glacier:  Response  of  a  Small  Debris  Covered  Glacier  to  Climate  Change    S.J.  Rubin  V00197024    Geography  477,  Field  Studies  in  Physical  Geography,  University  of  Victoria.  (E-­‐mail:  rubi@uvic.ca)    

ABSTRACT  Global  climate  change  is  evident  in  the  alpine  regions  of  British  Columbia,  effects  of   which   were   observed   and   explored   during   field   school   investigations   of   a   microclimate  cirque  glacier  on  Mount  Cheops  in  Glacier  National  Park  of  Canada.  Rapidly  receding  glaciers  are  becoming  an  important  water  resource  concern  for  British  Columbia.  We  are  beginning  to  understand   that   our  water   supply   is   not   inexhaustible,   similar   to   that   realization   regarding  BC’s   timber  resources   in   the   late   twentieth  century.  Water   is  vital  not  only  as  a  resource   for  human  use;   changes   in  glacial  hydrological   systems  are  also  changing  patterns  of  vegetation  and  wildlife   that   are   adapted   to   alpine   conditions.     A   hydrological   survey  was   conducted   to  estimate  the  contribution  of  the  Cheops  glacial  melt  waters  into  the  Connaught  Creek  drainage  system,  by  comparing  discharges  at  various  locations  along  the  valley  bottom  and  within  the  cirque.  Simple  observations,  such  as  water  clarity  and  discharge   fluctuations  during   the  day,  help  to  provide  insight  into  the  glacial  hydrological  system.  Another  particular  consideration  is  the  effect  of  debris  cover  in  helping  to  preserve  glacial  ice,  which  was  observed  on  more  than  half   of   the  Mount  Cheops  glacier.  Using   a   series  of   air  photos,   a   temporal   assessment  of   the  Cheops   glacier   is  made   possible.   There   have   been   very   few   studies   on   small   glaciers   in   the  area,  and  the  ones  that  have  been  done,  including  this  one,  are  limited  by  being  conducted  in  one  location  at  one  time.  This  project  seeks  to  understand  the  significance  of  small  glaciers  and  their   role   as  water   resources,   and  how  debris   cover   slows   the   retreat   rate  of   some  glaciers.  There   is   no   inventory   of   the   small   glaciers   that   are   disappearing,   and   basically   no   baseline  study   to   build   our   knowledge   upon.   This   paper   will   illustrate   the   importance   of   continued  studies  and  monitoring  of   these  crucial  water  resources,  which  are   threatened  by   increasing  global  air  temperatures,  and  other  climate  change  variables.  Keywords  Cirque  glacier;  debris  cover;  microclimate;  climate  change  

 

BACKGROUND  

LOCATION  

Mount  Cheops  is  located  at  the  summit  of  Rogers  Pass  within  Glacier  National  Park  

of  Canada  in  the  Selkirk  Mountain  range.  The  park   is  approximately  48  kilometers  

east   of   Revelstoke.   Mount   Cheops   is   accessed   via   the   Balu   Pass   trail,   with   the  

trailhead   at   the   Rogers   Pass   Visitor   Center   on   the   Trans-­‐Canada   Highway.   The  

Selkirk   Mountains   are   a   prime   example   of   interior   rainforest,   receiving  

approximately   2000mm   of  

precipitation  per  year  (Parks  

Canada).  Compared  with  our  

800mm   on   the   coast   in  

Victoria,  we   see   that   Glacier  

National  park   is  very  wet  or  

very   snowy   all   year   round.  

The   study   site   in   the   north  

cirque   of   Mount   Cheops   is  

challenging   to   access,   and   includes  bushwhacking   a   short  distance   through  nearly  

impenetrable   aspen   groves,   followed   by   scrambling   up   a   steep   boulder   field   until  

reaching  the  terminal  moraine  and  beyond.    

 

SIGNIFICANCE  OF  CHEOPS  ICE  IN  THE  SELKIRKS  

The  Selkirk  Range  and  surrounding  mountainous  regions  are  extensively  glaciated.  

There  are  a  few  large  glaciers  and  ice  fields,  such  as  the  Illecillewaet  Nevé,  but  there  

are   a   vast   amount   of   small   patches   of   glacier   ice.   This   is   due   primarily   to   the  

influence   of   microclimates  

produced   in   mountainous   areas.  

The  main  requirement  to  produce  

a   small   microclimate   glacier   is   a  

large   north   facing   headwall,  

creating  nearly  constant  shade  on  

the   slope   below.   The   headwall  

also  helps  build  deeper  snowpack  

in   the   winter,   because   it   is   too  

steep  for  snow  to  stick  to,  creating  

avalanche   accumulation   on   the  

slope   below.   These   two   factors  

have   helped   to   create   the   small  

Figure  1,  Topographic  map  of  Rogers  Pass  

Figure  2,  False  colour  satellite  image  of  the  northern  Selkirk  Mountains,  blue  is  glacier  ice.  

glacier   on  Mount   Cheops,   and  many   other   glaciers   in   the   region,   and   around   the  

world.   In  this   false  colour  image,  compare  the  amount  of   large  blue  areas  with  the  

small  blue  areas.  It  can  be  argued  that  the  accrued  influence  of  all  the  small  glaciers  

combine  into  a  very  important  water  resource.  If  the  influence  of  the  Mount  Cheops  

glacier  were  studied  on  it’s  own,  it  would  be  insignificant,  so  this  study  assumes  that  

the  Mount  Cheops   cirque   glacier   is   representative  of   a   type  of   glacier   that   is   very  

common  in  the  region,  and  that  type  of  glacier’s  combined  abundance  is  a  significant  

resource.   The   Cheops   glacier   is   very   small,   about   1/1031   the   surface   area   of   the  

Illecillewaet   Nevé,   yet   the   Cheops   glacial   discharge   is   1/8th   of   the   Illecillewaet  

discharge  measure   during   field   school.   It   is   also   important   to   note   the   altitude   of  

tongue  of  each  glacier;  the  Illecillewaet  Glacier  terminus  was  at  approximately  1975  

meters  above  sea  level  this  summer,  compared  to  the  Cheops  tongue  at  about  1800  

meters.   The   effects   of   microclimate   at   the   Cheops   glacier   sheds   light   on   this  

discrepancy.   The   disproportionate   surface   area   to   runoff   is   likely   due   to   the  

difference  in  exposure  of  glacial  ice  to  direct  sunlight.  The  Cheops  glacier  is  mostly  

in  the  shade  and  covered  by  insulating  debris,  leaving  it  susceptible  to  melt,  due  to  

warm   air   temperatures.   The   Illecillewaet   Nevé,   however,   is   entirely   exposed   to  

direct   insolation,   and   is   therefore   susceptible   to   sublimation,   or   a   direct   phase  

change   from   solid   ice   to  water   vapour.   This   is   a   direct   rational   for   believing   that  

small   microclimate   glaciers   are   an   important   source   of   freshwater   for   river  

headwaters:   they  melt  more   than   they  evaporate,  unlike   the  bigger  glaciers   in   the  

region.    

 

MICROCLIMATE  

The  Mount  Cheops  cirque  glacier  is  greatly  influenced  by  a  unique  geomorphic  and  

climatic   system.   The   temperature   range   in   the   region   is   very   prone   to   lots   of  

freeze/thaw   cycles,   which   is   essential   for   the   weathering   processes   involved   in  

cirque   formation.   “Cirques   are   often   preferentially   oriented   according   to   the  

direction  of  solar  radiation”  (Graf,  1976).  “Cirques  result  from  two  separate  groups  

of  processes:  1.  Mechanical  weathering  and  mass  wasting,  and  2.  Erosion  by  cirque  

glaciers”   (Ritter   et   al.,   2002).   The   north   side   of   the   mountain   has   a   very   steep  

exposed  rock  headwall  that  descends  from  the  summit  down  to  a  cirque  valley  that  

is   occupied   by   the   small   glacier.   The   layout   of   this   valley   is   consistent   with  

descriptions   of   cirque   formation   and  morphology.   The   large   northern   facing  wall  

provides   permanent  

shade   on   most   of   the  

glacier,   with   only   a   small  

portion   of   debris-­‐covered  

ice   extending   far   enough  

from   the   wall   to   receive  

direct   sunlight   at   midday  

during   the   summer  

months.   The   headwall  

serves   two   functions   in  

the  balance  of  the  glacier;  

lots  of  snow  falls  on  the  wall,  but  it  is  too  steep  for  snow  to  cling  to  during  the  winter  

months,   avalanches   deposit   the   snow   from   the   wall   down   on   the   surface   of   the  

glacier,  creating  a  large  cone  of  snow  at  the  edge  of  the  headwall.  The  other  function  

that   the  headwall  serves   is  a  source   for  debris  cover.  Alpine  areas  are  subject   to  a  

strong  freeze-­‐thaw  cycle,  creating  very  extensive  mechanical  weathering  in  the  area.  

The   headwall   is   eroding   almost   constantly,   and   provides   an   enormous   amount   of  

debris  to  cover  and  preserve  the  glacier  ice.      

 

DEBRIS  COVER    

The   Cheops   cirque  

glacier   is   significantly  

influenced   by   the  

presence  of  debris  cover.  

The   debris   is   primarily  

composed   of   large  

angular   boulders,   but  

Figure  3,  Base  of  last  winter's  avalanche  cone  on  top  of  older  deposits.  

Figure  4,  Debris  cover  high  on  the  glacier,  450  meters  below  the  head  wall.  

there   are   areas   of   ice   covered   with   fine   silty   sediments.     There   is   an   enormous  

amount   blocky   debris   cover   over   a   large   area,   creating   landforms   typical   of   rock  

glaciers.  These   landforms  include  arcuate  ridges  of  debris  and  hummocky  ablation  

moraines,   which   are   consistent   with   findings   at   other   rock   glaciers,   such   as   the  

Wenkchemna   glacier   in   the   Rocky   Mountains   (Gardner,   1977).   The   Cheops   rock  

glacier   feature   is   ice-­‐cored,   “containing  subsurface   ice  with  a  superficial  coating  of  

rock   fragments   (up   to  several  meters   thick)…  The  coarse  block   layer  may  act  as  a  

thermal   filter   to   protect   the   permanently   frozen   ice   core   if   snow   cover   is   thin   or  

absent”   (Ritter   et   al.,  

2002;   Humlum,   1997).  

Gardner’s  

Wenkchemna   paper  

also   suggests   that  

debris   cover   is  

responsible   for  

creating   a   lag   time   in  

glacial   activity   relative  

to   non-­‐debris   covered  

glaciers   in   the   region.  

The  Wenkchemna  glacier,  for  example,  was  estimated  to  lag  70  years  behind  other  

glaciers  reaction  time  to  climatic  change.  

 

METHODS  

SITE  SELECTION  

The  Cheops  cirque  glacier  was  selected  as  a  safe  site   to  explore  over  the  coarse  of  

two  daytrips.  Other  glaciers  in  the  area  are  more  difficult  to  access,  and  would  have  

limited  the  amount  of  time  at  the  site  for  observations.  The  Cheops  cirque  is  located  

about  2  km  from  the  Glacier  Compound,  and  the  Balu  Pass  trail  allows  close  access  

to  the  site.  The  trail  is  along  Connaught  Creek,  and  accessing  the  cirque  is  easiest  at  

the   confluence   of   the   cirque   drainage   creek   into   Connaught   Creek.   The   drainage  

from   the   glacier   descends   a   steep   block   field,  with   its   loose   and  wet   rocks,   it   is   a  

Figure  5,  Hummocky  ablation  moraines  indicate  rock  glacier  stagnation.  

dangerous  area  to  travel  through.  A  thin,  active  glacier  is  located  in  the  cirque  along  

the  steep  headwall,  with  ice  extending  over  1  km  down  slope  from  the  wall.  There  

was  nearly  constant  rockfall  all  over  the  headwall,  posing  a  hazard  while  exploring  

on   the   glacier.   The  Cheops   cirque   glacier   proved   to   be   a   dynamic   landscape,  with  

changes   noticed   just   between   the   two   days.   One   change,   for   example,   was   the  

collapse  of  a  snow  bridge  that  was  present  over  a  crevasse  on  the  first  day,  but  was  

gone  on  the  second  day.  Another  change  was  due  to  weather  conditions,  while  the  

first   day   was   clear;   the   second   day’s   weather   conditions   were   fog   and   rain.   The  

drainage   creek   acted   very   differently   between   the   two   days.   Unfortunately,   the  

hydrological  survey  was  only  conducted  on  day  two.    

 

SURVEY  –  MAKING  A  FIELD  MAP  

Simple   surveying   techniques   using   a   digital   rangefinder   (Nikon   Forestry   550),  

measured  distances  and  angles  between  landmarks.    These  were  used  to  create  an  

estimate  of  the  size  of  the  glacier,  and  to  determine  how  much  wastage  has  occurred  

based   on   the   height   of   lateral   moraines   above   the   surface   of   the   ice.   This   height  

difference   indicates   the   amount   of   glacial   wastage,   which   is   an   important  

consideration   because   glaciers  

do   not   only   recede   at   their  

tongues.   The   field   survey   also  

attempted   to   calculate   the  

amount   of   glacial   surface   area  

that   is  debris  covered  compared  

to  the  surface  area  of  exposed  ice  

and  firn.    

 

 

TRANSECT  PROFILES  

A  topographical  profile  is  a  good  visualization  for  understanding  how  the  aspect  and  

topography   of   the   Cheops   cirque   creates   a   microclimate   glacier,   with   a   good  

Figure  6,  The  Mount  Cheops  cirque  is  an  intricate  setting  for  surveying.  

accumulation  zone,  lots  of  source  rock  for  debris  cover,  and  protection  from  direct  

sunlight.  A  cross  sectional  profile  of  the  glacier  and  moraines  helps  to  illustrate  the  

down  wasting  of  the  glacier.  

 

AIRPHOTO  &  FALSE  COLOUR  INTERPRETATION  

Airphoto  interpretation  proved  to  be  challenging.  The  first  obstacle  is  obtaining  the  

airphotos  of  the   location.  The  airphoto  warehouse   located  in  the  Vancouver  Island  

Technology  Park  houses  provincial  airphotos  dating  back  to  the  1950s.  Airphotos  of  

Mount  Cheops  were  found  from  1951,  1986,  1991  and  1996.  These  airphotos  do  not  

easily  match  up,  as  scale  and  angles  from  the  plane  to  the  glacier  were  different  in  

all  of  the  photos.  Instead  of  creating  the  classic  receding  glacier  airphoto  image,  the  

four  images  are  displayed  next  to  each  other,  so  that  the  changes  on  the  landscape  

can   be   easily   identified.   The   classic   interpretation   method   of   drawing   the   glacial  

extent  from  previous  years  did  not  work  well  because  of  the  challenges  associated  

with   lining   up   landmarks   in   all   four   photos.   The   extent   of   ice   does   not   appear   to  

have  changed  drastically  over  the  roughly  fifty  year  period,  but  the  debris  covered  

area   of   the   glacier   seems   to   be   completely   reworked   between   all   of   the   photos.    

False  colour  satellite  images  are  useful  in  assessing  the  glaciation  in  the  region.  The  

blue  areas  of  these  photos  clearly  shows  exactly  where  glacial  ice  is  located.  Using  a  

grid   overlay,   the   surface   area   of   the   Mount   Cheops   glacier   was   compared   to   the  

Illecillewaet  Nevé.  Using  a  small  grid,  the  Cheops  glacier  was  first  compared  to  the  

Ursus  Major  glacier,  and  then  that  glacier  was  compared  to  the  Illecillewaet  using  a  

larger   scale   grid.   The   comparison   between   the   Cheops   glacier   and   Illecillewaet   is  

relevant   because   drainage   data   was   collected   from   both   sites.   All   of   the   Cheops  

glacier  runoff  converges  at  a  creek  just  above  the  Connaught  Creek,  allowing  for  the  

measurement  of  all  of   the  Cheops  runoff.  At   the  Illecillewaet,  however,  runoff  data  

cannot  be  assumed  to  be  of  the  entire  Nevé,  because  it  likely  drains  through  various  

systems,  but  discharge  was  collected  at  the  Illecillewaet  River.  Using  the  false  colour  

photo  surface  area  comparison,  the  comparison  of  discharge  from  the  two  locations  

becomes  a  meaningful  measurement.  

 

HYDROLOGICAL  BASELINE  STUDY  

Discharge   measurements   were   taken   at   various   locations,   and   at   various   times,  

including  repeat  measurements  at  some  locations.  The  goal  of  these  measurements  

was   to   determine   how  much   water   the   Cheops   glacier   contributes   to   Connaught  

Creek.  To  do   this  discharge  was  measured  above  and  below   the   confluence  of   the  

Cheops  drainage   into  Connaught  creek,  and  the  main  Cheops  drainage  creek   itself.  

Also,   to   further  understand   the  hydrological   processes  of   the  Cheops   glacier,  melt  

water  discharges  were  measured  along  transects  below  the  glacier.  This  was  done  in  

an  attempt  to  estimate  the  amount  of  surface  runoff  near  the  terminus  of  the  glacier  

compared   to   the   discharge   at   the   valley   bottom,  with   a   presumption   that   a   large  

portion  of   the   total  melt  water   travels  down  slope  beneath   the  surface.  Because   it  

was   raining   during   the   hydrological   survey,   observations   of   water   quality   were  

important.   It   is   easy   to   discern  which   creeks   originate   at   the   glacier   because   that  

water  was  heavily  sedimented,  while  rainwater  runoff  was  clear.  

 

RESULTS  

FIELD  MAP  &  TRANSECTS  

 Figure  7,  Profile  of  the  Mount  Cheops  cirque  showing  the  altitudinal  extent  of  the  cirque  glacier.  

 

Surveying   is   an   important   step   in  

understanding   how   the   glacier   is  

reacting   to   climate   change.   The  

main   challenge   in   assessing   the  

extent   of   this   type   of   glacier   is  

determining  the  margins  of   the   ice.  

It   is   practically   impossible   to   see  

where   the   glacier   ends   and   debris  

field   begins   because   the   glacier   is  

covered  with  so  much  rock.  The  cross  section  was  measured  at  an  area  where  there  

was  exposed  ice  at   the  margin,  simplifying  the  task.  The   ice   is   lying  up  against  the  

inner  lateral  moraine,  leading  to  an  assumption  that  the  glacier  has  not  receded  very  

quickly  since  its  last  surge.    

AIR  PHOTOS  &  FALSE  COLOUR  SURFACE  AREA  COMPARISON  

The   air   photo   series   is   very   difficult   to   use  meaningfully   for   a   variety   of   reasons,  

including  low  resolution  of  the  images,  the  small  size  of  the  study  site,  shadows  cast  

by  the  headwall,  etc.  What  is  clear  from  looking  at  these  airphotos,  however,  is  the  

fact   that   the   large   debris   fields   are   completely   reworked   between   photos   in   the  

series.  This  suggests  active  glacial  processes  are  at  work  under  the  cover  of  debris,  

and  shows  many  signs  associated  with  rock  glaciers.  A  large  feature  is  visible  on  the  

lower  section  of  debris-­‐covered  glacier  in  1951  that  is  completely  gone  by  the  next  

photo.  Arcuate   ridges,   furrows   and  hummocky   ablation  moraines   are   clearly   seen  

changing   through   time.  The  extent  of   the  glacier  does  not  appear   to  have  changed  

drastically  over  the  nearly  50  year  period  covered  by  these  airphotos.  

 

 

 

 

Figure  8,  Mount  Cheops  cirque  glacier  cross-­section  showing  approximately  11  meters  of  down  wasting.  

 

 

 Figure  9,  Air  photo  series:  from  left  to  right,  1951,  1986,  1991,  1996.  

 

HYDROLOGICAL  STUDY  

Approximately  70%  of   the  water   flowing  down  Connaught  Creek  originates   in   the  

Mount  Cheops  cirque.  By  measuring  discharge  above  and  below  the  Cheops   input,  

and  the  Cheops  discharge  itself,  a  detailed  assessment  of  the  origin  of  water  in  the  

creek  was  made  possible.  These  findings  suggest  that  the  Cheops  glacier  supplies  a  

significant  amount  of  water  into  the  hydrological  system.  Other  components  of  this  

survey  included  measuring  the  discharges  of  surface  runoff  channels  along  transects  

below  the  glacier.  This  was  done  in  hopes  of  comparing  the  surface  runoff  high  on  

the  mountain  with  the  discharge  creek  in  the  valley.  Only  a  small  proportion  of  the  

water  measured   in   the  discharge  creek   in   the  valley  was  accounted   for  across   the  

slope,  suggesting  that  a  large  amount  of  water  is  flowing  downhill  under  the  surface  

of  the  slope.  This  is  not  surprising  considering  that  the  slope  is  primarily  made  up  of  

large  boulders.  It  is  also  interesting  to  note  that  the  combined  measurements  of  the  

Cheops   drainage   and   the   other   drainage   opposite   Cheops   combine   to   1.29   m3/s,  

very  close   to   the   total  of  1.38  m3/s  measured  downstream  of   the  confluence.  This  

suggests  that  the  discharge  measurement  techniques  used  were  fairly  accurate.  

 Figure  10,  Airphoto  showing  location  drainages  and  survey  sites.  

 

DISCUSSION  

LOCATION,  HISTORY  &  ENVIRONMENTAL  IMPACT  

Mount  Cheops  is  located  in  the  Selkirk  Range  of  the  Columbia  Mountains.  The  region  

has  been  known  as  ‘Big  Bend  Country’,  referring  to  the  course  of  the  Columbia  River,  

which  binds  the  Selkirks  to  the  east,  north  and  west.  This  region  was  first  explored  

in   the   19th   century,   during   the   gold   rush   era.   Subsequently,   the   region   was  

thoroughly  explored  during  the  discovery  and  surveying  of  the  first  Trans-­‐Canadian  

railroad   route.   In   1881   the   decision   was   made   for   the   Canadian   Pacific   Railway  

(CPR)   to   cross   the   Great  Divide   at   Kicking  Horse   Pass,   east   of  Mount   Cheops   and  

Rogers  Pass,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  route  west  from  Kicking  Horse  Pass  was  

in  need  of  discovery,  and  Major  A.B.  Rogers  was  the  man  hired  to  find  it.  The  easiest  

place  to  route  the  railway  would  have  been  along  the  Columbia  River,  but   the   ‘Big  

Bend’  creates  an  enormous  detour,  over  400  km.  A  pass  directly  through  the  Selkirk  

Range   was   the   shortcut   that   was   needed.   Major   Rogers   began   his   search   for   the  

shortcut  from  what  is  now  Revelstoke,  and  traveled  east  through  the  mountains  up  

the   Illecillewaet  River.  Following   the  river  brought  Major  Rogers  very  close   to   the  

summit   of   the   pass,   but   not   all   the   way.   Mount   Cheops   lies   just   north   of   the  

Illecillewaet   River   headwaters,   and   creates   the   only   part   of   the   route   not   along   a  

river.  Mount  Cheops  has  literally  played  a  role  in  Canadian  history,  primarily  as  one  

of   the  most   avalanche   prone   areas   that   the   transportation   corridor   goes   through.  

Mount   Cheops   has   been   the   site   of   some   of   the   worst   disasters   in   Canadian  

transportation   history.   In   the   railway’s   first   thirty   years   of   operation,   nearly   200  

employees  died  in  the  area,  including  62  men  buried  in  an  avalanche  that  cut  off  of  

Mount   Cheops   in  March   of   1910.   That   experience   prompted   the   decision   to   dig   a  

tunnel  directly  under   the  pass,   averting   the  worst  of   the  avalanche  hazards   to   the  

transportation   route.  The   tunnel  opened   in  1916,   and   the   summit   route  along   the  

base   of  Mount  Cheops  was   abandoned  until   the   construction   of   the  Trans-­‐Canada  

Highway  in  1956.  The  region  became  Glacier  National  Park  of  Canada  in  1886,  two  

years   after   construction   of   the   railway   through   the   pass.   Rogers   Pass   National  

Historic   Site   is   also   part   of   the   park,   commemorating   the   importance   of   the  

development   of   the   trans-­‐continental   railway   through   the   pass.   This   area   would  

have  never  become  easily  accessible  without  the  development  of  the  transportation  

corridor,  and  therefore,  we  would  have  not  had  our  Field  School  there  without  the  

railway,  this  being  the  first  significant  point  of  the  study  site  on  Mount  Cheops.  Since  

the   Trans-­‐Canada   Highway   opened,   the   region   has   become   home   to   the   world’s  

largest   active   avalanche   control   program   run   by   the   Canadian  Military.   The   Snow  

Punchers  operate  105  mm  Howitzer  guns,  used  to  bomb  the  most  prone  avalanche  

starting   zones.  The   slides  are   started  while   the  highway   is   closed   to   traffic,  which  

has  greatly  reduced  the  avalanche  hazards  in  the  area.  Evidence  of  this  activity  was  

found   on   a   moraine   high   on   the   north   side   of   Mount   Cheops,   where   unexploded  

ordinance  was  found  during  a  field  school  excursion.    

The   environmental   impact   of   the   transportation   corridor   is   clearly   evident   upon  

exploration  of   the   glaciated  areas  of   the  park.  Black   soot   is   clearly   seen   in   annual  

layers  deposited  on   the   ice   in   some  places,   increasing   the   amount  of   solar   energy  

absorbed  at  the  surface  of  the  ice  by  lowering  the  albedo.  Imagine  over  a  century  of  

locomotives  burning  fuel  at  the  feet  of  these  great  mountains,  50  years  of  millions  of  

cars   passing   through,   and   image  millennia   of   no   combustion   engines.   It   seems   so  

obvious  now  that  the  transportation  industry  has  drastic  impacts  on  the  landscape.  

Between  1916  and  1988  the  CPR  operated  ‘pusher’  locomotives  to  help  heavy  trains  

make   it   up   the   steep   grades   in   the   Selkirks.   These   ‘pushers’   added   70,000  

horsepower   to   each   train;   in   this   respect   the   environmental   impact   is   quite  

shocking.  Glaciers  in  the  park  are  racing  up  the  mountains,  disappearing  before  our  

eyes.  When  considering  the  effects  of  sublimation  on  the  large  exposed  glaciers,  the  

input   of   black   soot   on   the   surface   makes   an   enormous   difference   in   the   energy  

balance  of  the  glacial  ablation.  

 Figure   11,   A   1966   oil   company   advertisement   bragging   about   their   environmentally   destructive  capabilities.  

 

CLIMATE  CHANGE  TO  MICROCLIMATE  

The   glaciers   in  Glacier  National   Park   of   Canada   are   diminishing   rapidly.   Since   the  

first   photograph   of   the   Illecillewaet   Glacier   was   taken   in   1887,   the   tongue   has  

retreated  over  2000  meters.  A  National  Park  survey  approximates  that  large  glaciers  

in   the  park  are  a   third  of   their  size  compared  to  when  they  were   first  surveyed   in  

1850.  “Only  27%  of  the  99  km2  area  of  Glacier  National  Park  covered  by  glaciers  in  

1850  remained  by  1993”  (Pelto,  2009).  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure  12,  Mount  Sir  Donald  and  the  Illecillewaet  Glacier,  1887  (unknown  photographer)  and  2009  (S.J.  Rubin).  

Scientists   have   been   aware   of   the   effects   of   pollutants   in   the   atmosphere   since   at  

least  the  mid  20th  century.  An  estimate  from  a  1958  publication  states:    Our industrial civilization

has been pouring carbon

dioxide into the atmosphere

at a great rate. By the year

2000 we will have added 70

percent more carbon

dioxide to the atmosphere.

If it remained, it would have

a marked warming effect on

the earth’s climate, but most

of it would probably be

absorbed by the oceans.

Conceivably, however, it

could cause significant

melting of the great icecaps

and raise sea levels in time.  (N.A.S.,  1958)  

This   estimate   was   based   on   a   solid  

understanding   of   Earth’s   energy  

balance,   and   that   the   addition   of  

greenhouse   gases   into   the  

atmosphere   causes   changes   in   the   amount   of   heat   being   trapped   near   Earth’s  

surface.   The   authors   understood   that   there  would   be   implications   for   Earth’s   ice,  

and  sea  level,  but  their  estimates  were  off.  The  population  more  than  double  in  the  

time   since   the   book  was  written   until   the   year   2000,   and  with   it   the   demand   for  

fossil   fuels   has   grown   exponentially.   Their   estimate   of   a   70%   increase   in   carbon  

dioxide  turned  out  to  be  more  like  a  300%  increase,  and  their  prediction  that  most  

of  the  CO2  would  be  absorbed  in  the  oceans  was  also  quite  far  off,  the  oceans  have  

absorbed   only   30%   of   atmospheric   CO2   (E.I.S.,   2009).   Also,   the   authors   did  

acknowledge   changes   in   atmospheric   temperatures,   but   they   did   not   seem   to  

Figure  13,  Cover  of  a  1958  publication  that  predicts  global  warming  as  a  result  of  anthropogenic  changes  to  the  atmosphere.  

forecast  the  changes  this  would  cause  to  ocean  water  chemistry.  Acidification  of  the  

oceans  due  to  increased  absorbed  CO2  is  one  of  the  greatest  problems  our  society  is  

facing  today.  Many  sensitive  oceanic  ecosystems  are  slowly  being  destroyed,  such  as  

bleaching  coral  reefs  all  over  the  world.  Global  sea  level  rise  is  also  a  major  problem,  

with  the  potential  of  creating  millions  of  climate  refugees  all  over  planet  Earth.  The  

focus   of   this   paper,   however,   is   on   the   effect   of   melting   glaciers   to   future   water  

security  issues.  Million  of  people  around  the  world  depend  on  snowmelt  and  glacial  

runoff   for   their   drinking,   agricultural,   and   industrial   water   supply.   It   is   therefore  

extremely   important   to  understand  how  climate  change   is  affecting  snowpack  and  

glacial  mass  balance   in  the  world’s  mountainous  regions.  Changes in glacier run-off

have profound effects on the volume and timing of water discharged into rivers, with

important consequences for water supplies, hydro-electricity generation, maintaining

river and riparian habitats, fish populations and recreational use.   This   study   was  

conducted   with   the   goal   of   helping   to   add   to   baseline   knowledge   of   how   small  

microclimate   glaciers   are  

reacting  to  climate  change  

in  British  Columbia.  

According   to   the  

Intergovernmental   Panel  

on  Climate  Change  (IPCC),  

air   temperature   is  

considered  to  be  the  most  

important   factor  

controlling  glacier   retreat.  

Their   studies   show   that  

for  a  typical  mid-­‐latitude  glacier,  a  1oC  temperature  rise  would  have  the  same  effect  

as  a  30%  decrease  in  cloudiness  and  a  25%  reduction  in  precipitation.  The  ICPP  also  

states   that   since   the   1970s   winter   snow   depth   and   spring   snow   cover   have  

decreased   in   Canada,   particularly   in   the   west,   where   air   temperatures   have  

consistently   increased.   There   is   also   evidence   that   the   April   1st   snow   water  

equivalent   has   decreased   15-­‐30%   since   1950   in   the  western  mountains   of   North  

Figure  14,  Global  near  surface  air  temperature.  Known  as  the  'Hockey  Stick'  graph.  

America,   particularly   at   lower   elevations   in   spring,   primarily   due   to   warming   air  

temperatures   rather   than   to   changes   in   precipitation.   These   changes   in   snowpack  

greatly  affect   the  amount  and   timing  of  discharge,  which   in   turn  affects   the  entire  

eco-­‐system.   These   vulnerabilities   exist   along   the   entire   course   of   the   rivers   with  

headwaters  in  alpine  areas.  

 

CONCLUSIONS  

Knowing  that  the  Illecillewaet  glacier  has  retreated  over  2000  meters  since  1887,  it  

is   interesting   to   imagine   the   Cheops   glacier   barely   changing   in   comparison.   The  

effects  of  microclimate  are  essential  in  the  creation  and  preservation  of  small  cirque  

glaciers.  Without  the  shade,  avalanche  accumulation  and  source  rock  from  the  north  

facing   headwall   it   would   be   impossible   to   maintain   a   small   glacier   with   current  

climatic  conditions.  The   fact   that   there  are  some  glaciers   that  do  not  appear   to  be  

disappearing  as   fast  as  other  glaciers   in  the  region  is   intriguing,   it  seems  timely  to  

consider   these  remaining  glaciers  as   important  sources  of  water   in   the   future,  but  

more  detailed  studies  and  inventories  are  essential.  While  the  climate  change  debate  

wages  on  in  politics  and  media,  the  glaciers  of  our  alpine  regions  are  disappearing  at  

an   alarming   rate.   Glacial   data   and   visualization   is   one   way   to   end   the   debate;  

warming   temperatures   have   irreparable   effects   on   our   water   reserves.   Repeat  

photography   of   glacial   landscapes   is   leaving   humanity   with   a   legacy   of   bedrock  

where   there   used   to   be   ice.   Resource   managers   can   take   steps   in   reducing   the  

environmental  impact  of  transportation  through  the  park,  for  example  filters  on  the  

railway  tunnel  exhaust  systems  could  capture  much  of  the  soot  released  in  the  park.  

Now  that  there  is  a  solid  understanding  that  increased  atmospheric  CO2  is  warming  

the   planet   and   causing   glaciers   to   disappear,   it   is   time   to   mitigate   humanity’s  

pollution  habit.  Glacier   are  not   a   renewable   resources,   they  have  been  developing  

over  tens  of  thousands  of  years,  and  we  have  the  capabilities  to  destroy  them  within  

a  century.    

 

 

 

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Washington,  1958.  Pelto,  M.  S.  “North  Cascade  Glacier  Climate  Project.”  Nichols  College,  Massachusetts.    

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Ritter,  D.F.,  Kochel,  R.C.,  and  Miller,  J.R.  “Process  Geomorphology,  4th  Ed.”  Waveland     Press,  Illinois,  2002.