Nigeria and the MDGs: Tracking Progress in Drinking Water and Sanitation Target

8/13/2019 Nigeria and the MDGs: Tracking Progress in Drinking Water and Sanitation Target

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NIGERIA AND THE MDGS: TRACKING PROGRESS IN DRINKING

WATER AND SANITATION TARGET

A.S. AremuDepartment of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering,

University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.Email address: [email protected]

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Water and sanitation is among the topmost emerging issues that have local, national andglobal importance. Water typifies the liquid state of matter and it is one of the most abundantnatural resources of the earth; distinctively occupying 75% of the earth surface and 50-90%

of the weight of living organisms. The main uses of water include application in variousspiritual, domestic, commercial and industrial activities; transportation; agriculture;livelihood; recreation and tourism; energy generation; and fire fighting. Sanitation, accordingto the World Health Organization (WHO), refers to the provision of facilities and services forthe safe disposal of human urine and faeces. It can also mean the maintenance of hygienicconditions, through services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal. Globally atotal of 2.6 billion people lack improved latrine while about 884 million people lack access toimproved source of drinking water (WHO and UNICEF, 2010). The availability of safedrinking water and enhanced sanitation in addition to decent hygiene practices has significanteffects on health, productivity, income and development. For instance as a result ofinadequate sanitation, hygiene and water , an estimated 1.8 million people die every year

from diarrhoeal diseases; 200 million people are infected with schistosomiasis, while morethan 1 billion people are suffering from intestinal helminthes infection (WHO, 2004). Also,almost 80 million years of "disability free" life is lost annually to unimproved householdenvironments (UNDP/UNCHS/World Bank, 1997). Providing funds in order to meet theUnited Nation’s target on water and sanitation is a huge challenge to municipalities. It wasreported that developing countries require about US$ 42 billion and US$ 142 billion to meetthe new coverage on water and sanitation respectively (WHO, 2008). Economic losses as aresult of poor sanitation in Bangladesh, Indonesia, Peru, and Tanzania is more than US$10

billion per year representing 1.0 - 6.3% of each country’s Gross Domestic Product (WorldBank, 2013).

In Nigeria, provision of adequate, safe drinking water and decent sanitation is one of theobjectives of the country’s vision 20:20:20. Poor management of the country’s environment

costs the government about US$10 billion annually (Ajao et al., 2011). In many communitieswithin the country, inadequate safe water supply and sanitation facilities have increasedinfant mortality rates and the occurrence of water related diseases such as diarrhea, cholera,typhoid, and guinea worm (ADF, 2007). Tracking Nigeria’s progress in achieving theMillennium Development Goal (MDGs) especially the target on water and sanitation isessential so as to monitor progress in achieving the 2015 benchmark, ascertain improvementsor areas in need, and explore areas of possible political and economical commitment at local,state, and national level.

mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


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2.0 UNITED NATIONS TARGET ON WATER AND SANITATION

The international community has been deeply concerned about the growing need to protect public health and the environment from the menace of crucial matters that affect drinking

water and sanitation. In 1977, the United Nations declared 1980 - 1990 as the “InternationalDrinking Water and Sanitation Decade”. This proclamation was aimed at providing safewater and sanitation for all in a suitable and sustainable manner by the year 1990. However,these achievements were not attained during the International Drinking Water Supply andSanitation Decade. International effort on water and sanitation was intensified in September2000 by the United Nations declaration known as the Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) and targets. The MDGs and targets represent a partnership between developing anddeveloped countries to create an environment which is conducive to development andelimination of poverty. Goal 7 focused on ensuring environmental sustainability and Target10 of Goal 7 was aimed at reducing to halve, by 2015, the proportion of people withoutsustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. The WHO/UNICEF Joint

Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation defines Safe drinking water as water with microbial, chemical and physical characteristics that meet WHO guidelines ornational standards on drinking water quality while Basic sanitation is the lowest-costtechnology that ensures hygienic excreta and sullage disposal. Access to safe drinking watermeans that the source of water is less than 1 kilometer away from its place of use and it is

possible in every day for each member of a household to reliably obtain at least 20 litres ofwater. Access to basic sanitation includes safety and privacy in the use of these services.The concept of improved and unimproved water supply and sanitation facilities wasintroduced by JMP in order to properly monitor the progress made in achieving the MDG onwater supply and sanitation. An improved drinking water source is one by the nature of itsconstruction, adequately protects the source of water from outside contamination, particularlyfaecal matter. It includes all protected drinking water sources (Table 1) and other sources thatcan provide adequate amount and affordable water. An improved sanitation facility is onethat hygienically separates human excreta from human contact. As shown in Table 1,“improved” sanitation facilities include all unshared facilities that can safely dispose excreta.

Table 1 Improved and unimproved drinking water sources and sanitation facilities

Status Drinking Water Sources Sanitation Facilities

Improved Piped water into dwelling, plot oryard

Public tap / Standpipe Tube well / borehole Protected dug well Protected spring Rainwater collection

Flush or pour-flush to: Piped sewer system Septic tank Pit latrine

Ventilated improved pitlatrine

Pit latrine with slab Composting toilet

Unimproved Unprotected dug well

Unprotected spring

Cart with small tank/drum

Bottled water 2

Tanker truckSurface water (river, dam, lake,

Flush or pour-flush toelsewhere3

Pit latrine without slab oropen pit

Bucket latrine

Hanging toilet or latrine


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pond, stream, canal, irrigationchannels)

No facilities, bush or field

Only facilities which are not shared or are not public are considered improvedsanitation facilities

2Bottled water is considered improved only when the household uses water from an

improved source for cooking and personal hygiene3Excreta are flushed to the street, yard or plot, open sewer, a ditch, a drainage way or

other locationSource: WHO and UNICEF (2006)

The indicator of progress towards this target is a measure of how many people have gainedaccess starting from 1990 MDGs baseline year. It is represented as:

i. Proportion of the population with sustainable access to improved drinking watersource, urban and rural

ii. Proportion of the population with access to improved sanitation facility, urban andrural

2.1 Contributions of improved water and sanitation to other MDGs

The accomplishment of target 10 will directly or indirectly make substantial contributions tothe achievement of other MDGs. Areas of contribution are shown in Figure 1 and it showscontribution to the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger (Goal1), achievement ofuniversal primary education (Goal 2), promotion of gender equality and womenempowerment (Goal 3), reduction of child mortality (Goal 4), improvement of maternal

health (Goal 5), prevention of diseases (Goal 6), maintenance of the environment and pollution prevention (Goal 7), and social and economic development (Goal 8).


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3.0 TRENDS IN GLOBAL DRINKING WATER AND SANITATION COVERAGE

3.1 Global Drinking Water Coverage

The MDG on drinking water is an ambitious policy to improve access on safe drinking water.The coverage of drinking after the declaration of MDG is shown in Figure 2. In 1990, 24% ofthe global population do not access to improved sources of drinking water while in 2010,only 11% do not have access to improved sources of drinking water. The drinking water

target (12%) has thus been met in 2010. In totality there has been about 16% improvement inaccess to improved sources of drinking water between 1990 and 2010. According to the JointMonitoring Progress report of WHO and UNICEF, at the end of 2011, 89% of the world

population used improved drinking water source, including 55% with piped water supply on premises while 3% and 8% relied on surface water and other unimproved sourcesrespectively.

Improved

access tosafe waterand basic

sanitation

GOAL1

Reduced poverty,

improved health,

income, food

securityGOAL 3

Increased

productivity and

reduced burdens

GOAL 5

Reduction in labour

and health burdens

GOAL 7

Ecosystem

conservation,

reduced

groundwater

contaminationGOAL 8

Increased social

and economic

development

GOAL 6

Reduced risk of

disease

transmission

GOAL 4

Reduction in infant

morbidity and

mortality

GOAL 2

Improved health,reduced water-

carrying burdens,

increased school

attendance

Figure 1: Contribution of improved drinking water and sanitation to the achievement of MDGsSource: Adapted from WHO and UNICEF (2004)


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3.2 Global Sanitation Coverage

The trend in global sanitation coverage is depicted in Figure 3. In the 1990 base line year,globally 49% of the population used improved sanitation facilities and by 2010, the

proportion increased to 63%. At current rates of progress, it is envisaged that the world willachieve about 67 % coverage in 2015, which is below the proposed 75% target in 2015.According to the report (WHO and UNICEF, 2013) on global sanitation trend between 1990

and 2011, almost 1.9 billion people have gained access to improved sanitation facilities since1990. As at 2011, 64% of the world population relied on improved sanitation facilities whilethe remaining 36% (2.5 billion people) rely on unimproved sanitation facilities. Within the

population that use unimproved sanitation sources, 761 million use public or sharedsanitation facilities, 693 million use unhygienic facilities, while 1 billion (15%) still defecatein the open.

24 21 17 14 11 8

76 79 83 86 89 92

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

C o v e r a g e ( % )

Year

Improved

Unimproved

51 48 44 40 37 33

49 52 56 60 63 67

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%70%

80%

90%

100%

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

C o v e r a g e ( % )

Year

Improved

Unimproved

MDG Tar et

Figure 3: Trends in global sanitation coverage and projections

Source: UNICEF and WHO (2012)

Figure 2:Trends in global drinking water coverage and projections

Source: UNICEF and WHO (2012)


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4.0 TRENDS IN DRINKING WATER AND SANITATION COVERAGE IN NIGERIA

4.1 Drinking Water Coverage

Reported progress in Nigeria towards the target on sustainable access to safe drinking water

is shown in Table 2. In 1990, 2000 and 2011, the proportion of Nigeria’s population withimproved sources of drinking water was 47, 55, and 61 % respectively. Pipe borne water is

prominent in urban areas while surface water is a common feature in the rural areas. Inaddition, urban areas have access to improved water sources than rural areas. On a nationalscale, as at 2011 more than half of Nigerians rely on other improved sources of drinkingwater such as protected dug wells and springs, tube wells or boreholes, rainwater collection,and public taps or standpipes. Altogether an estimated 26% of the 2011 population of Nigeriagained access to improved drinking water sources since 1995 (WHO and UNICEF, 2013).

Table 2 Use of drinking water sources in Nigeria (% population)

Urban Rural National

improved unimproved improved unimproved improved unimproved

Year

P i p e d o n

O t h e r i m p r o v e d

O t h e r

u n i m p r o v e d

S u r f a c e w a t e r

P i p e d o n


O t h e r

u n i m p r o v e d


P i p e d o n


O t h e r


1990 33 48 16 3 4 25 31 40 14 33 26 27

2000 20 58 18 4 2 36 31 31 10 45 25 20

2011 7 68 19 6 1 46 31 22 4 57 25 14Source: WHO and UNICEF (2013)

The distribution of households in all states of Nigeria by major source of water for drinkingand cooking is presented in Table 3. Treated pipe borne water, borehole, protectedwell/spring water and rain water are regarded as improved water sources while untreated pipe

borne water, borehole, unprotected well/spring water, surface water (stream, pond and riverwater) and vendor provided water are regarded as unimproved water sources. Within thestates, 14 states namely Niger, Enugu, Oyo, Ekiti, Kwara, Rivers, Ebonyi, Ogun, Kaduna,Imo, Edo, Anambra, Abia, and Osun have more than 75% of their inhabitants using improvedsources of drinking water while 52-73% of the population in Akwa Ibom, Ondo, Zamfara,

Kogi, Delta, Cross River, Benue, Taraba, Kano, Lagos, Jigawa, Nasarawa, Bayelsa, Katsina,Bauchi and the FCT use improved sources. In other states such as Adamawa, Sokoto, Gombe,Yobe, Kebbi, Plateau, and Borno, less than 50% of their population use improved sources toget drinking water. Also 62% of rural dwellers use improved drinking water sources while82% of the urban population also obtain drinking water from improved sources.


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Table 3 Distribution of households within each state and the FCT by source of drinking water

StatePipe bornewater (treated)

Pipe borne water(untreated)

Boreholehand pump

Protected wellor spring

Unprotected wellor spring

Rainwater

Surfacewater

Vendor provided

Abia 2.4 2.4 52.6 1.7 0.2 19.3 17 3.9

Adamawa 3 1.9 15.6 10.7 19.1 18.8 28.8 2.1

Akwa Ibom 9.9 0.7 48.7 0.4 9.2 14.1 17 0

Anambra 4 0.8 49.2 2.1 4.2 22 12.2 5.6

Bauchi 2.5 0.7 28.7 15.5 37.8 5.7 5.7 3.4

Bayelsa 5.7 5.4 9.4 0.6 0.8 37.7 37.1 0.2

Benue 0.3 0 8.1 11.4 7.1 46.1 26.6 0.3

Borno 1.9 1.3 12.8 9.6 48.4 16.7 7.4 1.6

Cross River 10.1 0.5 15.3 5.2 3.8 36.2 26.8 0.2

Delta 17.8 4.2 23.7 5.1 10.2 20.3 18.7 0

Ebonyi 1.2 1.4 18.6 19.8 3.7 42.4 8.4 2.1

Edo 5.7 2 22 4.3 2 45.7 14.3 3.7

Ekiti 7.2 0.2 9.9 12.4 6.2 53.6 8.2 0

Enugu 5.8 0.9 3.7 2.3 1.4 73.5 5 6.7

Gombe 6.6 5 27 10.1 42.1 2.8 6 0

Imo 10.3 6 35.3 1.3 1.3 32.5 12.4 1

Jigawa 14.1 30.7 39 6.9 6 1.6 0.2 1.4

Kaduna 4.7 1.1 8 32.1 11.8 35.9 6.1 0.2

Kano 6.1 4.9 22.9 21.7 21.4 14.2 8.4 0

Katsina 4.6 0.3 10.6 11.4 32.7 26.6 10.1 3.8

Kebbi 7.1 2.1 11.6 10 38.5 16.8 13.7 0.2

Kogi 2.4 0.2 13.8 8.3 1.1 43.2 22.1 9


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Kwara 10.4 0.5 26.1 7.9 8.3 38.6 6.2 0.7

Lagos 27.4 3.9 26.5 4.4 6.8 6.6 0.2 5.6

Nasarawa 7.9 1.2 14.6 5.2 7.1 25.8 37.9 0.2

Niger 9.7 0.2 27.7 26.3 3.9 24.8 7.1 0.2

Ogun 8.9 0.4 29.1 24.2 9.1 18.6 7.2 0.6

Ondo 1.1 0.4 19.1 13.6 9 37.5 18.9 0.4

Osun 17.8 0.8 14.8 38.4 0.5 5 19.1 3

Oyo 7.4 0 7.1 31.6 5.1 37.3 11.4 0

Plateau 1 0.4 10.4 11.9 26.1 21.5 26.8 1.9Rivers 2.1 3.7 59.5 14.1 3.2 6.9 9.3 0.3

Sokoto 14.5 1.6 3.3 18.9 47.9 10 3.3 0.6

Taraba 0.8 7.7 5.4 5.4 11.5 54.1 13.8 1.3

Yobe 3 4.5 28.8 6.3 44.5 8 2.8 2

Zamfara 3.1 1.2 16.9 18.4 21 30.8 8.4 0.2

FCT 7.5 0.8 31.6 2 1.6 29.3 17.5 9.2

Urban 15.9 2.3 26.8 16.6 5.3 22.8 2.6 4.8

Rural 4.2 2.7 19.9 10 15.9 28.3 17.3 1.1

National 6.9 2.6 21.5 11.5 13.5 27.1 13.9 2

Source: NBS (2012)


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4.2 Sanitation Coverage Nigeria’s progress towards meeting the target on access to basic sanitation is presented inTable 4. In 1990, 62% of the country’s population was without access to improved basicsanitation including 24 % that practice open defecation. In 2000 and 2011, 66% and 69%were with unimproved sanitation. Open defecation declined in Nigeria by only 1% between

1990 and 2011. More than one-third of the urban populace (36 - 44%) rely on facilities thatare shared (public facilities), while the rural areas seem to be moving towards using otherunimproved sanitation facilities such as bucket, hanging latrines, uncovered pit latrines and

public facilities. Also according to WHO and UNICEF (2013), since 1995, only 6% of the2011 population of Nigeria gained access to improved sanitation facilities. Consequently,

Nigeria still remains one of the countries with large numbers of people without access toimproved sanitation.

Table 4 Use of sanitation facilities in Nigeria (% population)

Urban Rural National

I m p r o v e d

unimproved

I m p r o v e d

unimproved

I m p r o v e d

unimproved

Year

S h a r e d

O t h e r

u n i m p r o v e d

O p e n

d e f e c a t i o n

S h a r e d

O t h e r

u n i m p r o v e d

O p e n

d e f e c a t i o n

S h a r e d

O t h e r

u n i m p r o v e d

O p e n

d e f e c a t i o n

1990 40 44 10 6 37 17 12 34 38 26 12 24

2000 37 40 13 10 33 15 19 33 34 25 18 23

2011 33 36 16 15 28 13 28 31 31 24 22 23

Source: WHO and UNICEF (2013)

Table 5 shows the percentage distribution of households in all the 36 states and the FCT bytype of excreta disposal facility. Improved sanitation facility include toilet which flushes tosewage or septic tank, covered pit latrine, and VIP latrine while unimproved sanitationfacilities include open defecation, toilet on water, pail/bucket latrine, and uncovered pitlatrine. It can be observed that 76% to 88% of the inhabitants in Lagos, Anambra, Imo, Ogun,and Akwa Ibom state use improved sanitation facilities while the proportion of the populationthat has access to improved sanitation facilities in states like Kano, Abia, Zamfara, Jigawa,Edo, Kaduna FCT, Adamawa, and Sokoto is between 51% and 71%. All other statesconsisting Osun, Delta, Rivers, Kebbi, Benue, Cross River, Ekiti, Enugu, Ondo, Katsina,Kogi, Bauchi, Gombe, Taraba, Niger, Oyo, Yobe, Borno, Nasarawa, Ebonyi, Plateau, Kwara

and Bayelsa have less than 50% access to improved sanitation facilities. A great proportion ofthe population in Plateau (79%), Kwara (80%) and Bayelsa State (84%) do not have access toimproved sanitation facilities.


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Table 5 Percentage distribution of households in Nigeria by type of sanitation facility

State None

Toile

t onwater

Flushto

sewage

Flush tosepti

ctank

Pail/

Bucket

Covere

d pitlatrine

Uncovere

d pitlatrine

VIP

Latrine Other s

Abia 2.7 5.6 6.3 10.3 0.2 52.1 19.5 1 2.3

Adamawa 20.1 0.7 1.8 1.8 0.4 49.6 12.7 3.3 9.6

AkwaIbom 4.9 7.6 4.5 0.4 1.3 70.2 9.8 0.9 0.2

Anambra 9.5 1.9 6.1 24.3 0.5 49.7 4.8 1.9 1.3

Bauchi 13.7 0.2 0.7 0.7 0.5 37.7 44.6 1.2 0.7

Bayelsa 5.7 68.3 3.1 7.6 0.4 5.2 2.9 0.4 6.5

Benue 15.2 5.1 3.7 1.2 0.5 40.3 11.9 0.7 21.4

Borno 11.2 0.9 0.6 1.2 0.6 29.3 53.6 2.2 0.3CrossRiver 13.1 1.6 4.2 8 0 26.5 34 6.1 6.6

Delta 8.2 24 9.9 13.1 0.5 17.1 13.4 7.7 6.2

Ebonyi 17.8 0.9 2.5 0.9 0.2 23.4 33.3 2.3 18.7

Edo 8.2 3.7 4.7 9 5.5 39.6 18.2 8 3.3

Ekiti 31.3 1.4 6 4.4 0.4 32.6 4.4 1.4 18.1

Enugu 42.1 2.9 11.1 10 0.2 16.7 4.5 4.8 7.7

Gombe 6.5 0.9 0.6 0.6 1.4 38.6 51.1 0.3 0

Imo 2.5 0.2 12.7 7.5 0.2 61.3 14.2 0.2 1Jigawa 8.4 0.9 2.1 1.1 0.7 62.6 16.7 1.8 5.7

Kaduna 4.4 4.2 0.8 0.8 6.3 53.2 25.7 4.4 0

Kano 3.1 2.9 1.8 1.6 2.9 65.7 19.6 1.6 0.8

Katsina 6.4 0.2 4.4 0.7 0.5 36.7 50.2 0 0.7

Kebbi 5.9 1.2 3.3 1.4 4.1 40.9 36.4 0.4 6.5

Kogi 36.7 0.6 8.6 5.2 0.2 22.7 3.2 5 17.7

Kwara 47.9 10 1.4 0.9 0.9 16.4 4.6 1.6 16.2

Lagos 4.3 2.8 35.3 29.6 0.5 14.7 2.1 8.8 1.9

Nasarawa 26.7 8.1 5.8 2.5 0 19.6 18 1.2 18.2

Niger 16.1 13 3.8 0 0 31 18.3 1.2 16.6

Ogun 1 0.2 4.8 9.9 0.8 60.1 11.4 2.1 9.7

Ondo 21 7.2 3.5 1.5 1.3 31.7 7 5.5 21.4

Osun 42.5 0.8 5.8 14.3 0.5 25.9 3.5 2.3 4.5

Oyo 29.2 14.2 4.2 11.9 0 18.1 4.2 1.4 16.9

Plateau 30.9 2.3 4.4 2.1 2.9 13.7 14.5 1 28.2

Rivers 7.7 23.3 19.1 4.5 0.8 13 13.8 9.8 8

Sokoto 22.2 1.4 0 2.8 0.2 48 23.4 0.4 1.6

Taraba 32.2 1.5 2.3 0.5 1.5 30.4 21.6 3.1 6.7

Yobe 20.1 2.7 5.9 1 8.1 26.8 25.8 0.5 9.1


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Zamfara 5.4 1.8 2.6 1.2 8 63 15.9 2.2 0

FCT 11.7 1.8 21 12.8 0.2 22.8 10 2.6 17.2

National 16.1 6.3 6 5.6 1.5 35.4 17.8 2.6 8.7

Source: NBS (2012)

5.0 CONCLUSION

In 2011, drinking water coverage in Nigeria was 61% while sanitation coverage was 31%.Since 1995, only 26 % and 6 % of the 2011 population of Nigeria have gained access toimproved drinking water and sanitation respectively. Though Nigeria seems to have made

progress in access to improved drinking water, access is still low in many states. Twentythree states of the Federation still have less than 75% of their population having access toimproved drinking water facilities. Also access to basic sanitation varies from 16% to 88% inall the states. In twenty-eight states, efforts are falling short of the 2015 target of 65% accessto improved sanitation facilities. Therefore it is unlikely that Nigeria will meet the MDG

target in 2015 since a greater number of the states lack behind and more than a quarter of thetotal population do not have access to improved sanitation facilities. The pivotal role waterand sanitation play in the achievement of other MDGs requires a combination of efforts bythe three tiers of government and external support agencies to facilitate access to improvedfacilities.

REFERENCESADF (2007) Appraisal Report on Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Sub-Programmes inYobe and Osun States, African Development Fund. Water and Sanitation Department,OWAS.

Ajao, I.O., Obafemi, O.S. and Ewumi, T.O. (2011) Household Sanitation and Mortality Ratein Nigeria: An Expository Analysis. Journal of Applied Sciences in EnvironmentalSanitation, 6 (3): 333-342.

NBS (2012) Social Statistics in Nigeria Part I: Households and Housing Conditions. NationalBureau of Statistics.

UNDP/UNCHS/World Bank (1997) Understanding Environmental Problems inDisadvantaged Neighborhoods: Broad Spectrum Surveys, Participatory Appraisal andContingent Valuation. Working Paper No. 16. U.S.A.

UNICEF and WHO (2012) Progress on sanitation and drinking water: 2012 update.WHO/UNICEF Joint monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation. Geneva: WHOand New York: UNICEF.

WHO (2004) The Sanitation Challenge: Turning Commitment into Reality. World HealthOrganization, Geneva, Switzerland.

WHO (2008) Regional and Global Costs of Attaining the Water Supply and Sanitation Target(Target 10) of the Millennium Development Goals. WHO/HSE/AMR/08/01, World HealthOrganization, Geneva, Switzerland.


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WHO and UNICEF (2004) Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: A Mid-Term Assessment of Progress. World Health Organization and United Nations Children’sFund. Geneva: WHO and New York: UNICEF.(http://www.wssinfo.org/pdf/JMP_04_text.pdf ).

WHO and UNICEF (2006) Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: TheUrban and Rural Challenge of the Decade. World Health Organization (WHO) and United

Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), Geneva, Switzerland and New York, USA.

WHO and UNICEF (2010) Progress on Sanitation And Drinking-Water: 2010 Update.WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation. Geneva: WHOand New York: UNICEF.

WHO and UNICEF (2013) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-Water: 2013 update. WHOand UNICEF, Geneva and New York.World Bank (2013) Tapping the Market: Opportunities for Domestic Investments in

Sanitation for the Poor. World Bank Water and Sanitation Program and International FinanceCooperation, Washington DC, USA.
http://www.wssinfo.org/pdf/JMP_04_text.pdfhttp://www.wssinfo.org/pdf/JMP_04_text.pdfhttp://www.wssinfo.org/pdf/JMP_04_text.pdfhttp://www.wssinfo.org/pdf/JMP_04_text.pdf

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Nigeria and the MDGs: Tracking Progress in Drinking Water and Sanitation Target

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