PI 1 2010 kp - International Peatland Society · 1 1/2010 PEATLANDS international Paludiculture and...

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1/20101/2010

PEATLANDSPEATLANDSinternationalinternational

Paludiculture and Sphagnum Farming

The member magazine of the International Peat Society

Peat TechnologyPeat Technology and andAfter-UseAfter-Use of Peatlands of Peatlands

Cranberries and Human Health

Welcome to the Jyväskylä Convention

2 PEATLANDS International 1/2009

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KD10.067_210x297_PeatlandsInternational_RZ.indd 1 25.05.10 09:53

PEATLANDSinternational

1/2010

ISSN 1455-8491

Publisher

Interna onal Peat SocietyVapaudenkatu 12FIN-40100 Jyväskylä, FinlandPhone: +358 14 3385 440Fax: +358 14 3385 410E-mail: [email protected]: www.peatsociety.org

Editor-in-Chief

Jaakko Silpola, Secretary General

Assistant to the Editor-in-Chief

Susann Warnecke,Communica ons Manager

Editorial Board

Paul Short, CanadaJuhani Päivänen, FinlandMichael Trepel, GermanyCatherine Farrell, IrelandLech Szajdak, PolandAnne Jelle Schilstra, the NetherlandsMarie Kofod-Hansen, SwedenAllan Robertson, United KingdomTom Malterer, USA

Layout

Susann Warnecke, IPS SecretariatYliveto Oy

Printed by

Saarijärven Off set OyFinland, in June 2010

Cover photos

Cover: Valtra tractor working on a bog, Peat N141 wide implement. Photo: Valtra Oy AbThis page: Cloudberry fl ower, Rubus chamaemorus. Photo: Jenni Lintula

In this issue

IPS Insights

Editorial: IPS Convention – A highlight of the year! 3International Peat Congress 2012: Peatlands in Balance 4From the President’s Desk: New tasks for the IPS 5Enjoy your stay in Jyväskylä 7Order IPS Publications 43IPS Member Application Form 43Future IPS Meetings and Symposia 56Events of related organisations 56

IPS Convention 2010 in Jyväskylä 6

Seminar on After-Use of Cut-over Peatlands Presentation Programme 10After-Use Excursion 1 1 Practical Guide to After-Use of Cut-Over Peatlands in Finland 12Bord Na Móna Biodiversity Action Plan: Planning The Future Of The Cutaway Bogs 16After-use of cutaway peatlands – can favouring spontaneous re-vegetation be an alternative? 20Sphagnum Farming: A Quick Restoration for Cut-Away Peatlands 24Studies on Growing Crops on Harvested Peatlands in New Brunswick, Canada 26Hydrological restoration of Indonesian peatlands to mitigate carbon dioxide emissions 28

Seminar on Peat Technology Presentation Programme 32Technology Excursion 33Born in the Forest and Peatlands - Valtra is the most popular tractor for peatlands 34Practical Guide to Water Treatment Methods in Peat Harvesting 36Preventing Peat Production Site Fires: Educational Material 39Split root fertigation is a promising method to enhance cucumber yield in greenhouse production 40Laboratory methods for identification of self-heated peat - suitability of different parameters and related identification risks 42Peat as Bedding Material for Domestic Animals in Finland 44

Other topics

Book review: Peat and the Finnish Energy Policy 45Sculpture in the Parklands 46Paludiculture is paludifuture: Climate, biodiversity and economicbenefits from agriculture and forestry on rewetted peatland 48Physiological impact of biologically active substances in cranberries on human health 52

This magazine also contains the Annual Report 2009 of the IPS.

Jyväskylä, Finland

Welcome to the IPS Convention 2010!

14 - 18 June 2010

Pedestrian bridge and University at Mattilanniemi. Photo: Hanna Korhonen, City of Jyväskylä

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EditorialJaakko Silpola

This issue of Peatlands International is delivered not only to all IPS members around the world, but also to one hundred participants of the IPS Annual Assembly Convention held in Jyväskylä, Finland in June 2010. Therefore, I am addressing this message to all Convention delegates too.

It has been a successful tradi on of the IPS to organize summer conven ons in diff erent Na onal Commi ee countries through IPS’s history. Conven ons provide individuals with the possibility to get together, learn from each other and to join seminars and fi eld trips organized by local experts. Therefore I am very pleased that almost one hundred people from 21 countries have registered for this year’s main IPS event.

The four day Finland Conven on hopefully off ers everything a delegate wishes to see and to experience when visi ng one of the IPS member countries. Two parallel seminars about a er-use and peat technology show the level and

IPS Convention - A highlight of the year!

variety of topics achieved today. Most of the presenta ons tell about Finnish experiences and studies, however I am very delighted that so many interna onal speakers have joined the event too. The seminars are followed by two fi eld trips las ng one and a half days. I would like to thank all our speakers and excursion hosts for their input and me!

This magazine contains a special sec on where many of the speakers have published ar cles on the contents of their presenta ons. By this way the message of the seminars is spread to a wider audience. My dear reader, I hope you like this format. Addi onal handouts will be available at the seminars.

The Annual Assembly of Na onal Representa ves at the Conven on is the highest decision making organ of IPS. This year once again several high range issues are on the table: The rights for the Interna onal Peat Congress 2016 are given either to Latvia or Malaysia. At the same me, the IPS Presidency 2016-2020

is decided upon. Another high level issue is to determine the members

of the IPS Execu ve Board for the coming years. Besides these ques ons, there are several other administra ve issues the Annual Assembly must handle at its mee ng. On the same day, we will see the fi h happy recipient of the IPS Award of Excellence.

The Annual Report 2009, published in this magazine, provides a splendid summary of the Society’s ac vi es during last year. Once again, my sincerest acknowledgements to IPS members, stakeholders and all of those who voluntarily have operated in the Interna onal Peat Society!

I wish everyone an enjoyable Conven on 2010 and success in your daily opera ons all around the world!

Jaakko SilpolaIPS Secretary Generalemail: [email protected]

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Peatlands in BalancePeatlands in Balance

pre-register now at www.ipc2012.se

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From the President’s Desk

Donal Clarke

Whenever I am introduced to a stranger as President of the IPS they politely and blankly ask me what that is. Acquaintances ask me quizzically why I have joined a peace society. I have a sort of formula I use to explain, but it is diffi cult for people to grasp what the Society is. It is easier to describe what it does. Björn Hånell told the Execu ve Board (EB) of going to a conference of peat scien sts where most had not heard of the IPS. We have also no ced at the EB the number of individuals who join the Society but drop away a er a while.

We need to take some concrete steps to ensure that the peat world knows the Society is there and recognises its usefulness, and to ensure that exis ng members see it as providing value. The EB has been concerned to keep upda ng what the IPS is and does through reviews of its strategic plan and recently has been dra ing an ac vi es plan to ensure that it is as ac ve as possible during the next two years (bringing it to the Stockholm Congress). It is important that the IPS provides useful services to members. These can be provided by the EB and the Secretariat, but the ac vi es of energe c Na onal Commi ees are probably the most direct source of assistance to members and poten al members. Commissions also have the poten al to be dynamic providers of services to members and generators of interest to future members.

The poten al of the Society’s website to provide addi onal services is being examined as part of the ac vi es plan which is currently under review by the EB and the Scien fi c Advisory Board (SAB). If this is to be

done, it will require a lot of work from the Secretariat and addi onal fi nancial resources. It is up to us to develop ideas which will make the work worth while and s mulate members to contribute to them. In the mean me, sugges ons from members as to how the Society and its website could help them more would be welcome.

Our major ac vity in the last few months has been the con nuing a empt to co-ordinate the comple on of a Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management (SRPM). Ever since we collaborated with the IMCG in producing the Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands book we have been seeking ways to encourage the pu ng into prac ce of the Wise Use principles. A widely-accepted SRPM would be a major step along this road – it is not in itself

only a goal but a means to a greater goal. We are most grateful to the many people who have contributed to the development of the SRPM, and hope it can be completed in the near future. The latest dra has been circulated for comment some weeks ago, and it is hoped to make further progress during discussions at the Jyväskylä Conven on. I know there are many who think the process is taking too long, but an SRPM without par cipa on and at least some consensus would be less than ideal.

I look forward to mee ng as many of you as possible at Jyväskylä.

Donal ClarkeIPS Presidentemail: [email protected]

Donal Clarke during the field trip of the IPS Convention in Northern Ireland in 2009. Photo: Susann Warnecke

Peatlands in BalanceNew tasks for the IPS


Enjoy your stay in Jyväskylä! [‘jyvæs,kylæ]

Jyväskylä is a city and municipality located in Central Finland, 147 kilometres north-east of Tampere and 270 kilometres north of Helsinki, on the northern shore of lake Päijänne. It is the capital of Central Finland. The site of many education-related firsts in Finland, Jyväskylä is known as a city of schools, the Athens of Finland. It is also famous for its many buildings designed by Alvar Aalto. The city hosts Neste Oil Rally Finland, which is part of the World Rally Championship. It is also home of the annual Jyväskylä Arts Festival. As of 31 March 2010, Jyväskylä had a population of 129,777. The Jyväskylä sub-region includes Jyväskylä, Laukaa, Muurame, Petäjävesi and Toivakka. (Wikipedia) Photo: Mika Pasanen

7

Text: Susann Warnecke

There is a long tradition to hold the Annual Assemblies of the IPS in different countries, hosted each year by one of the National Committees. This year, we are coming back to the “home country” of our Society. Founded in 1968, the International Peat Society had its headquarters in Helsinki for a long time before moving to Jyväskylä in 1991.

Jyväskylä, capital of Central Finland, can indeed be seen as a centre for peat ac vi es. Besides the Secretariat of the IPS, the city hosts the headquarter of Vapo Oy and the offi ces of the Associa on of Finnish Peat Industries and of the Finnish Bioenergy Associa on. Hea ng and energy for domes c and industrial users comes from the peat and wood-fi red CHP plants at Rauhalah and - since this year at Keljonlah . As many Finnish ci es, also Jyväskylä is surrounded mainly by forests, lakes, hills and peatlands. These are o en in near-natural state but some are also used for agriculture, forestry, urban structures and peat produc on. Many of them you will surely see during your stay in Jyväskylä, especially at the fi eld trips on A er-Use and Peat Technology.

IPS Convention 2010Jyväskylä, Finland, 14 - 18 June 2010IPS Annual Assembly of National RepresentativesSeminars and Field Trips on Peat Technology and After-Use of Peatlands

The IPS Secretariat has, in coopera on with the Finnish Peatland Society, prepared a full week of ac vi es for our guests:

First, there are mee ngs of the Execu ve and Scien fi c Advisory Boards on Tuesday, 15 June, followed by mee ngs of several of the IPS Commissions and a guided evening stroll through the modern city centre.

On Wednesday, 16 June, all delegates are welcome to join the Na onal Commi ee Round Table discussions and, a erwards, the offi cial Annual Assembly of Na onal Representa ves of IPS. Also the 5th IPS Award of Excellence will be handed over on the same occasion.

Wednesday a ernoon is reserved for lectures. First you will be updated

The cruise boat Suomen Suvi will show our guests the Finnish summer lake scenery. Photo: Päijänne Risteilyt Hilden

Richly illustrated288 pagesLayout Eeva LouhioPrice € 42 + mail costsMaahenki (2008)

Suomi – Suomaa ISBN 978-952-5652-46-8 Finland – Fenland ISBN 978-952-5652-47-5

Publication: June 2008Orders by email:[email protected] [email protected]

Research and sustainable utilisation of mires and peat

Finland – Fenland Riitta Korhonen – Leila Korpela – Sakari Sarkkola (eds.):

Finnish edition

Suomi – Suomaa

Finland has more mires and peatlands regarding its

land area than any country in the world; one third

of its total land area is covered by them. Mires have al-

ways played an important role in Finns’ lives, and they

have been meticulously studied for over a hundred

years. Finland – Fenland, with articles by 42 experts,

introduces readers to the latest research into, and the

myriad uses of, mires and peat today.

The book explains how mires were initially formed;

the amount and variants of peat and mires; geo-

logical research; the mires’ rich biodiversity; and the

potential consequences of current global changes. It

also describes how mires were utilised in the past and

how this has aff ected their present situation.

Mires are a rich source of berries and perfect areas

for reindeer grazing. Peatlands have been trans-

formed into arable land, and forested mires are impor-

tant to the forest industry. Furthermore, peat is eco-

nomically valuable as a source of energy and growth

medium as well as in environmental management.

Th ere are also various potential after-uses for aban-

donned peat production areas.

Various alternative forms of mire use are represented

in the modern day, for example as tourist atractions

and sites for sporting events, as well as a source of peat-

based textiles and therapeutic products. Mires are also

of importance to the Finnish arts, folklore and general

state of mind. Responsible utilisation and conservation

will secure the future of Finnish mires.

also available at the IPS online shop: www.peatsociety.org

Maahenki (2008)

now € 55 in

cluding

worldwide s

hipping!

9

IPS Executive Board Elections 2010

At the Annual Assembly of National Representatives 2010, elections will be held for the following forthcoming vacant posts on the IPS Executive Board (EB): President: Donal Clarke, Ireland Stays in of ce. 2008 - 20121st Vice President: Björn Hånell, Sweden Stays in of ce. 2008 - 20122nd Vice President: Tomasz Brandyk, Poland* To be elected. 2008 - 2012

Ordinary members:Paul Short, Canada Stays in of ce. 2008 - 2012Satu Helynen, Finland Stays in of ce. 2008 - 2012Dmitriy Gogin, Russia* To be elected. 2008 - 2012Håkan Bjur, Sweden To be elected. 2006 - 2010Valerijs Kozlovs, Latvia To be elected. 2006 - 2010Jutta Zeitz, Germany To be elected. 2006 - 2010*election due to unforeseen circumstances, two-year term

The new Board members will be elected for the terms 2010-2012 and 2010-2014, respectively. All National Committees that have paid their membership fees up to date were invited to submit their nominations for candidates of the EB until 31 January 2010 to the IPS Secretariat. The nominee must be an IPS member residing in that country in which the National Committee is located and it shall be taken into account that the nominee’s travel expenses are covered.

Each National Committee has the right to send one of cial representative to the Annual Assembly, where he or she is obliged to present a due proxy. In addition, observers are allowed to attend the Assembly. As to safeguard an equitable distribution of national representation, there can be only one ordinary member from any one National Committee on the Executive Board at any given time. When circumstances offer no alternative, the President and 1st Vice President can be from the same National Committee as one ordinary member.

Voting for Executive Board members shall by carried out as a secret ballot. Each national representative writes the names of as many candidates as there are free places on the Executive Board on his/her ballot. The votes are counted independently from the order they are written in and those candidates with the highest total number of votes will be new ordinary Executive Board members. In case of equal votes, another secret voting is carried out between the remaining candidates. If the second voting remains equal, lots shall be drawn.

After new Executive Board members are elected, the 2nd Vice President is elected by the Annual Assembly by secret ballot (simple majority) among all Executive Board members for a period of 4 years and is eligible for re-election.

Please see the IPS Statutes and Internal Regulations for more details on the requirements and the election procedure at www.peatsociety.org/index.php?id=5, an extract of the most important items was published in Peat News 9/2009.

Susann WarneckeIPS Communications [email protected]

on the status of the Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management. A er that, the a endees split in two groups: one for the Seminar on Peat Technology and another for the Seminar on A er-Use of Cut-over Peatlands. During these hours we are expec ng to hear the latest fi ndings on these topics from local and foreign experts - and in case you cannot a end, you will fi nd ar cles on their research on the following pages in Peatlands Interna onal and on our website.

The fi rst seminar day will be closed with a special boat cruise on Lake Päijänne. Lake Päijänne is actually the longest and second largest lake in Finland, stretching over 119 km with the city of Lah to the south and Jyväskylä to the north. Of course we will not manage to cover the whole distance in one evening, but one and half hours are maybe enough to see the beauty of the Finnish landscape before we return for dinner to Savutuvan Apaja, a tradi onal restaurant in an area full of old houses brought from all over the country.

Hopefully everybody will be fresh on Thursday morning for the second sessions of the parallel seminars. The A er-Use topic will be extended on this day to tropical peatlands - we are especially glad that our Asian friends are joining us for this part. Last but not least, a er lunch, the most eager of us will leave on the two fi eld trips. The Technology trip will visit the Technical Research Centre VTT, the new Keljonlah CHP plant and the Valtra Tractor Factory and return to Jyväskylä for the night. The A er-Use tour is heading southwest to see pris ne mires, rewe ed peatlands and the use of cutover areas for growing bioenergy crops, for forestry, agriculture and other purposes, closing the day with a barbecue at Jämi holiday centre.

Friday, the last day of the Conven on, will start early for the Technology trip par cipants - they have a long way ahead to see the use of peat in small-scale hea ng in Ähtäri, Vapo’s peat machine factory, a pellet plant and peat produc on at Haukineva as well

as the produc on plant for growing media producer Kekkilä, and the peat museum at Aitoneva.

The A er-Use tour con nues from Jämi to see reed canary grass planta ons, refl ooding trials, water purifi ca on systems and a bird sanctuary. In the evening, both groups will return via Tampere to Jyväskylä - you can either con nue your stay in the city or travel home via Helsinki this or the next day.

Once again there is much to see, many important decisions to make and old and new colleagues to meet - you are welcome to see our city, meet the talka ve and the shy Finnish ci zens and enjoy the long and light summer nights. We hope that there is enough to off er for each of you, tervetuloa Jyväskylään!


Seminar on After-Use of Cut-over Peatlands

Wednesday, 16 June 2010

14:00 Introduc on; Päivi Picken and Catherine Farrell14:10 Many prospects in A er-use of Cut-Away Peatlands; Veijo Kleme and Olli Reinikainen, Finland14:30 Prac cal Guide for A er-Use of Cut-Over Peatlands in Finland; Hannu Salo, Finland14:50 A er-Use of Peat Produc on Areas in Sweden; Stefan Östlund, Sweden15:10 Aff oresta on of Cut-Away Peatlands: Problems and Possibili es; Lasse Aro, Finland

15:30 Coff ee break

15:50 Bord na Móna Biodiversity Ac on Plan: Planning the Future of the Cut-Away Bogs; Catherine Farrell, Ireland

16:10 Growing Birch and Willow for Bioenergy on Cut-Away Peatlands; Lasse Aro, Jyrki Hytönen, Finland16:30 A er-Use of Harvested Peatlands – Can Favouring of the Spontaneous Re-vegeta on be an

Alterna ve? Triin Triisberg, Jaanus Paal and Edgar Karofeld, Estonia

17:00 Closing

18:00 Departure to a boat cruise on Lake Päijänne and dinner at Savutuvan Apaja restaurant

Thursday, 17 June 2010

8:30 Re-opening and organisa onal ma ers

8:40 Eff ects on the Peatland Environment of Hydrological Restora on a er Peat Extrac on; Lars Lundin, Elve Lode, Monika Strömgren, Torbjörn Nilsson and Sabine Jordan, Sweden

9:00 Sphagnum Farming – A Quick Restora on for Cut-Away Peatlands; Niko Silvan, Finland9:20 Studies on Growing Crops on Harvested Peat Lands in New Brunswick; L. L. Ranasinghe, G. E. Williston

and R. McIntyre, Canada9:40 Cul va on of Reed Canary Grass (Phalaris arundinacea L.) on Cut-Away Peatlands; Mia Suominen,

Finland

10:00 Coff ee break

10:20 Planning hydrological restora on of peatlands in Indonesia to mi gate carbon dioxide emissions; H. Wösten, J. Jaenicke, A. Budiman and F. Siegert, Germany, the Netherlands and Indonesia

10:40 Novel Technology for Carbon Sensing Networks in Tropical Peatland; Mitsuru Osaki, Bambang Se adi, Hidenori Takahashi, Takashi Hirano, Toshihisa Honma, Suwido H. Limin, Gen Inoue, and Yuji Inoue, Japan and Indonesia

11:00 Atmospheric impact of a bioenergy crop cul va on on a peat extrac on site in eastern Finland; Narasinha J. Shurpali, Harri Strandman, An Kilpeläinen, Niina Hyvönen, Jari Hu unen, Chris na

Biasi, Seppo Kellomäki and Per J. Mar kainen11:15 FINAL: Introduc on to Wise A er-Use; Catherine Farrell, Ireland11:30 Lunch12:30 Departure of excursions

Presentations 16 - 17 June 2010

After-Use Seminar

11

Thursday, 17 June

12:30 Departure from Scandic Hotel Jyväskylä

pris ne mires and peatlands in near-natural state, presenta ons on peatland use in Finland, environmental processes and a er-use decision making, use of canary grass, wood and peat for heat and power genera on, peat museum and outdoor exhibi on, spontaneous mire regenera on, 50-year old growth, new mire regenera on trials on a refl ooded cutaway peatland, sphagnum replanta on trials on a cutaway peatland with greenhouse gas measurements, mature forestry trials on a cutaway peatland

Accommoda on: Jämi holiday center in twin rooms (included), no room in Jyväskylä needed

Friday, 18 June

reed canary grass as an a er-use form for biofuel and water purifi ca on,forestry on cutaway peatland, agricultural use of cutaway peatlands, crops and animal feed produc on, refl ooded cutaway peatland, combined bird sanctuary and peat produc on runoff purifi ca on fi eld, diff erent development stages of refl ooding, bird watching tower

18:00 Arrival at Tampere airport, 18:30 Arrival at Tampere railway sta on20:30 Arrival in Jyväskylä, overnight stay or connec ons to Helsinki and other ci es

•••••••••

•••••

After-Use Excursion 17 - 18 June 2010

Photo: AFPI

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About three thousand hectares of cutaway peatland are released from peat production in Finland every year. Land ownership steers to a great extent, which after-use alternative is chosen after peat production.

A great deal of the released area is privately owned and belongs to numerous land-owners. Prac cal decisions on a er-use are usually

much easier in those areas owned by the peat producer compared to those rented from other land-owners.

The Prac cal Guide to A er-Use of Cut-Over Peatlands was compiled par cularly for those land owners and stakeholders, who need basic informa on, guidance and good prac ce for the a er-use of cutaway peatlands. Economically low-value land may become land with

many prospects. Suitable a er-use alterna ves for each area can be selected from among many diff erent scenarios.

The project of collec ng, analysing and edi ng relevant informa on for the guide and ge ng it published started in May 2007 and lasted eight months. It was fully funded by the peat industry and involved experts from various peat produc on fi rms, environmental authori es, research ins tu ons and land owner organisa ons. The feedback from the material a er nearly two years’ u lisa on has been overwhelmingly posi ve.

The larger version of the guide is available only in Finnish and via the internet. The summary version can be obtained also as printed ma er, both in English and Finnish. The summary is devided into six chapters:

1. Land-owner makes decisions about a er-use form

2. Important agreements and documents

3. Aff oresta on4. Agriculture5. Wetlands6. Other a er-use forms7. The main a er-use pa erns for

cutaway peatlands in Finland:

• Forestry• Agriculture: energy crops, animal

feed, cereal crops, vegetables, berries and herbs

• Mire regenera on• Refl ooding: bird sanctuaries and

game reserves, fi shing lakes• Other a er-use forms: storage

areas, handling sites for bioenergy and by-product materials, mineral soil extrac on, tourism and recrea on, sports and other hobbies

Practical Guide to After-Use of Cut-Over Peatlands in Finland

Text: Hannu Salo

Hang gliding over agricultural land and an air field constructed on a cutaway peatland. Photo: Mika Pousi

After-Use Seminar

13

• Mire regenera on: Vegeta on development on a cutaway peatland through succession towards a mire ecosystem. Mire regenera on requires an increase in moisture. This a er-use form is especially favourable on areas that required pump-draining during the peat produc on phase

• Refl ooding: Forming a bird sanctuary, wetland, or ar fi cial lakes suitable for recrea onal use a er peat produc on ends in the area.

After-use should be considered while production is still ongoing

When peat produc on and rental income on the area is about to end, the producer carries out the needed a er-care ac ons. Their purpose is controlled ending of the peat produc on. Peat producers

are responsible for the a er-care and land-owners for a er-use. It is a benefi t for both to transfer the area to a new use with vegeta on cover, and as soon as possible.

Several diff erent land-use pa erns may take place in the same cutaway peatland, for example aff oresta on on the edges and mire regenera on in the middle. One a er-use alterna ve is seldom suitable for the whole site. Prepara on for planning and working towards a certain a er-use should take place in the early

The same site seven years later. Photo: Jorma Issakainen

Afforestation changes the view of cutaway peatland in a few years. Photo: Jorma Issakainen

stages of peat produc on. Close contact between the land-owner and peat producer is important during the fi nal years of produc on.

The peat producer applies for confi rma on of the a er-care phase ac ons from environmental authori es (within Regional State Administra ve Agency). It is easier to apply the monitoring- and responsibility issues when the new land-use pa ern and its possible permit requirements are known. The environmental permit for the

Hirvineva bird sanctuary near Oulu. Photo: Hannu Salo


After-Use Seminar

fi nal stages of peat produc on specifi es cleaning, monitoring, runoff treatment, maintenance of runoff treatment structures and compensa on in case of possible damages. The length of this a er-treatment phase may vary due to how soon the actual a er-use is established. Land-owners benefi t by taking the area to its next land-use as soon as possible.

The peat producer’s responsibility for the area is over when the measures ordered in the rental contract and environmental permit are completed.

Returning phase check list

1. Real-estate boundaries and land-owners

2. Field check and observa ons, maps, possible photos, notes and

other material describing the returning phase

3. General descrip on of the area’s status at the me of return

4. Responsibility of the structures and maintenance a er the returning or removal of the structures before a certain date

5. Responsibility for road maintenance

6. Announcement to the court of ending the access and other rights related to the rental contract (peat producer’s responsibility)

7. Recogni on of possible other contracts complemen ng the rental contract

8. Possible demand of environmental permit for planned a er-use

9. Land-owners possible du es to declare, for example fer lizer applica on

10. Other issues

Planning the after-use

Planning the a er-use of a peat-produc on area can be carried out from the perspec ve of favouring the natural circumstances or from the perspec ve of the desired a er-use.

This opens up to the reali es: what are the alterna ves? It is helpful to evaluate the situa on in the beginning from a wider perspec ve, because all the uses may not be suitable for the area. It is also benefi cial to consult the bordering neighbours and it is good prac ce to remember their wishes and all the available resources.

Factors affecting the after-use choices

1. Loca on of the area: surrounding land-use, needs of the nearby area’s people and businesses, road network and distance, for example, from a processing place for the planned product

2. Depth of the remaining peat layer, thickness of layer needed and its quality

3. Characteris cs of the cutaway peatland mineral subsoil: nutrient capacity, grain size distribu on, is it cul vatable

4. Hydrological condi ons, especially possible pump drainage

5. Topography, land forms6. Environmental factors: water

protec on, landscape factors, providing certain ecological environments

7. Resources: fi nances, subsidies, human resources, me etc.

8. General benefi cial factors: climate issues and fl oodplain func ons

Cattle grazing on a cutaway peatland in Western Finland. Photo: Hannu Salo

15

Geological characteristics in after-use planning

1. One a er-use form seldom is suitable for the whole area

2. Cutaway peatlands mineral subsoil zones and a er use should be determined accordingly

3. Sampling is best to take a li le below the surface of the mineral subsoil, for example 5-10 cm below the peat layer’s base.

4. At least pH, sulphur and fi ne material concentra on of the mineral subsoil should be studied (par cles < 0,06 mm)

5. Boulder content and surface forms o en limit the a er-use

Land value improvement is a possibility

Well planned and carried out a er-use makes it possible to improve the value of the land. Low value land can be made produc ve. Cutaway peatland is o en more suitable for various purposes than the area was before peat produc on began.

Dryer sites can be turned to forestry or agricultural land.

After-use terminologyPeat production area: Area bordered with edge ditches, strip ditched, peatland area drained/dried for peat production

Cutaway peatland: Area, where peat production is exhausted. Area may function as a support area for remaining peat production or it is in the after-care phase or moved to after-use.

After-use of a peat-production area: Following/new land-use of a cutaway peatland, for example forestry, bird sanctuary or agriculture. Other equal terminology: following land-use.

After-care of a peat-production area: Conditioning the area after peat production, removal of structures that are no longer required and possible drainage. Usually a short-term stage.

Cutaway peatland: The land base after the removal of the peat layer, area that is the object of the after-use planning.

Mineral subsoil: Mineral soil below the peat layer.

Covers of the guide and its summary.

Pump-drained areas are suitable for fl ooding and wetland use and provide possibili es for example for game reserves and tourism. Many land-owners are very interested in the economical possibili es related to the a er-use.

After-use is also a cost

Costs must always be studied case by case. They are explained more carefully in each a er-use form chapter. Agricultural establishment costs are similar to ready cleared arable land star ng costs, when the base drainage is suitable.

Forestry costs are dependent, for example, on fer lizer requirements. It is good to study the costs of the

plans together with a relevant advisory organisa on. Some mes a er-use may

demand an environmental permit process and decision,

and con nuous monitoring of the impacts. This means that

costs will vary according to the a er-use form chosen.

For more detailed informa on you can also visit our web site, www.turveteollisuuslii o.fi .

Hannu SaloAssociation of Finnish Peat IndustriesVapaudenkatu 1240100 Jyväskylä, Finlandemail: hannu.salo@turveteollisuusliitto.


After-Use Seminar

Background

Since its establishment eff ec vely 75 years ago, the main objec ve of Bord na Móna has been to develop the bogs of Ireland for the industrial scale produc on of peat in order to provide an indigenous energy source for the people of Ireland.

In recent decades the company has expanded to embrace the businesses of hor cultural peat produc on, renewable energy, and environmental and resource recovery services, in turn crea ng a growing and dynamic company that can con nue to sustain itself into the future. The company is a signifi cant landowner in Ireland, with the concentra on of lands

Bord Na Móna Biodiversity Action Plan: Planning The Future Of The Cutaway Bogs

Text and photos: Catherine Farrell

centred on former raised bogs in the Midland coun es of Ireland. All opera ons are carried out according to best prac ce under Integrated Pollu on Preven on Control Licenses issued and regulated by the Environmental Protec on Agency. The licenses include a number of regulatory condi ons rela ng to best environmental prac ce, including a condi on governing a er-use and rehabilita on of the former peat produc on areas.

It has become increasingly apparent that the rehabilita on management of the Bord na Móna bogs now and in the future can contribute greatly to biodiversity and this has led to the development of the Bord na Móna Biodiversity Ac on Plan 2010-2015.

Biodiversity of the Bord na Móna Bogs

Biodiversity both is all life on earth and supports all life on earth; as humans we depend on biodiversity for clean air and water, healthy soils, food, building materials, and medicines. The importance of biodiversity in all our lives is refl ected in the range of legisla ve instruments and policies that require their sustainable management and conserva on, such as the Wildlife Act 2000 (Irish na onal legisla on), the EU Habitats and Birds Direc ves (European level) and the Conven on on Biological Diversity (Interna onal level).

Ireland signed the Conven on on Biological Diversity in 1992, it was ra fi ed in 1996 and subsequently the Irish Government set about developing a Na onal Biodiversity Plan in 2002 (currently being reviewed and updated in 2010). The value of bogs and the poten al value of the cutaway bogs in terms of enhancing the na onal biodiversity resource were highlighted in the 2002 plan.

It is increasingly apparent that the Bord na Móna bogs which includes up to 80,000 ha of bog and associated lands such as fringe woodland, riparian areas and workshop areas, as well as an extensive railway network that links the greater part of the bogs across the Midlands presents a range of opportuni es now and in the future for the expansion of a range of habitats and species that have otherwise been marginalised in the intensively developed Irish Mute Swans on cutaway bog wetlands, Ballycon, Co. Offaly.

17

landscape. This is most obviously seen through the eff ects of the rehabilita on of the cutaway bogs and management of bog fringe areas to date such as at the Lough Boora Parklands in Co. Off aly and the Oweninny Bog in Co. Mayo. Once peat produc on ceases, natural colonisa on rapidly proceeds on the cutaway bogs and a whole array of diverse habitats and species emerge, some of which are considered rare and restricted in distribu on in Ireland.

Species such as breeding waders Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), Curlew (Numenius arquata), Golden Plover (Pluvialis apricaria), and over-wintering migrants such as Whooper Swan (Cygnus cygnus) have been recorded in increasing numbers on the cutaway bogs. Other rari es include the Marsh Fri llary (Euphydryas aurinia) which has been recorded on three Bord na Móna cutaway bogs areas to date. Habitats with fragmented distribu on such as rich fen and na ve woodland (currently less than

1% cover in Ireland) are beginning to extend across the cutaway bogs while in we er areas, wetland habitats such as fen and reed-bed are also expanding. The fringe areas on the edges of the former peat produc on units as well as remaining bog remnants will also serve to create ecological corridors between fragmented and isolated habitats thereby providing a pla orm for sustaining viable habitats and species popula ons into the future,

as well extending the range of currently restricted wetland and woodland ecosystems within the Irish landscape. In some instances it has been possible to restore ac ve Raised Bog, an increasingly rare habitat in Ireland which is a priority habitat on the EU Habitats Direc ve (as in the case of the Killamuck Bog restora on project, see Peatlands Interna onal 2/2009).

Development of the Board na Móna Biodiversity Action Plan

Following from this growing awareness of the poten al biodiversity value of the Bord na Móna bog areas, Bord na Móna formalised its Corporate Biodiversity Objec ve in 2009. The aims are to strengthen the role of Bord na Móna in enhancing biodiversity and to create awareness of the values of cutaway bogs through wise-use management for biodiversity.

As part of this Corporate Biodiversity Objec ve and to coincide with the 2010 Interna onal Year of Biodiversity, Bord na Móna developed a Biodiversity Ac on Plan. The Biodiversity Ac on Plan is the product of consulta ons with relevant bodies and interest groups combined with the knowledge based on rehabilita on work carried out

Orchid rich grassland at Lough Boora Mesolithic site, Co. Offaly.

International Peat Congress 2008 delegates at Oweninny Bogs, Co. Mayo: area of Sphagnum regeneration.


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19

on the cutaway bogs and fringe areas to date. It was circulated to a range of consultees in March 2010 including statutory bodies such as the EPA, Na onal Parks and Wildlife Service and ENGOs such as BirdWatch Ireland, the Irish Peatland Conserva on Council and Bu erfl y Conserva on Ireland. A number of submissions were returned and these were incorporated into the fi nal published version (to be published and launched in May 2010). The rehabilita on experience to date, and range of habitats and species recorded to date on the Bord na Móna bogs is outlined in the Biodiversity Ac on Plan, with the proposed Objec ves and Ac ons for the period 2010-2015 to build on the rehabilita on work to date and establish a framework for future planning for biodiversity on the Bord na Móna bogs.

Objectives and Actions of the Biodiversity Action Plan

Objec ve 1: To con nue to carry out all works in line with best prac ce guidelines and relevant legisla on across all Bord na Móna bogs: Essen ally this objec ve relates to ongoing compliance with relevant legisla on to Bord na Móna ac vi es. Compliance is necessary to ensure the con nua on of the core businesses within Bord na Móna (peat produc on) while also

facilita ng development of poten al commercial developments (such as wind farms) on Bord na Móna bog areas that will have to go through EIA and planning processes. This will involve tracking other policy developments such as the BOGLAND project (see Peatlands Interna onal 1/2006) and the Strategy on Responsible Peatland Management (IPS).Objec ve 2: To survey and iden fy poten al biodiversity areas within Bord na Móna bogs: An ecology survey of all the Bord na Móna bogs was ini ated in 2009. To date, 10,000 ha of bog have been surveyed with detailed habitat maps, species records and baseline reports developed for each bog area. These will add to the knowledge base as to how the Bord na Móna bogs will develop in the short term and long term in rela on to biodiversity. It will also inform how the Bord na Móna bogs can be connected by fringe areas, other nature conserva on sites and inter-connec ng wildlife corridors. The survey will con nue with addi onal target species and habitat surveys such as the ongoing surveys by BirdWatch Ireland.Objec ve 3: Promote and develop best prac ce in terms of rehabilita on plans for all Bord na Móna bogs to stabilise former peat produc on areas and enhance biodiversity: A number of rehabilita on methods (drain

blocking, rewe ng, tree plan ng) have already been tried and tested by Bord na Móna and these will be added to as the ecology survey iden fi es poten al op ons for biodiversity enhancement, such as reedbed establishment and enhancement along ar fi cially drained bog areas. Relevant new technologies developed in other countries will also be evaluated.Objec ve 4: To raise awareness and create a greater apprecia on of the biodiversity and natural heritage of Bord na Móna cutaway bogs and associated lands: This will involve a programme of communica on within the company and to the wider public. The publica on and distribu on of the Biodiversity Ac on Plan is a central part of this objec ve, as well as organised biodiversity events for Bord na Móna employees and the wider public.Objec ve 5: Monitor the progress of the Bord na Móna Biodiversity Ac on Plan: The Biodiversity Ac on Plan is essen ally a fi ve year plan that will be updated in 2015. In terms of monitoring the outputs of the plan this will be carried out annually with a progress report to all consultees, and a detailed review and update of the Biodiversity Ac on Plan in the period 2014 to 2015.

The Bord na Móna Biodiversity Ac on Plan is viewed as an important step in se ng out the a er-use and rehabilita on work that has been completed to date within the Bord na Móna bogs; the lessons that have been learned already in terms of prac cal management and successes rela ng to biodiversity enhancement; and how we will proceed to plan the future of biodiversity within the Bord na Móna bogs. While industrial peat produc on will con nue for a number of years and only rela vely small bog areas will be coming out of produc on in the near future, it is essen al that we begin to plan for their long term management now.

Doire Bhille Amenity area on cutaway bog, Co. Tipperary.

Catherine A. FarrellBord na MónaBoora, Leabeg Tullamore, Co. Offaly, Irelandemail: [email protected]


After-Use Seminar

Introduction

Due to its climate and topography Estonia is the second-most paludifi ed country in the world; peatlands of various types and condi ons cover ca. 22% of the country’s territory (Orru 1992). Therefore peatlands have a big importance on the landscape and on species diversity, local hydrological condi ons etc.

Peat extrac on has also a long tradi on here. Up to the middle of the 20th century, mainly block-cut peat was extracted, and its impact on mires was quite local and unimportant. Since the 1950s, when milling and the vacuum harves ng techniques were introduced, the

number and especially size of peat fi elds started to increase dras cally. As a consequence, the area of abandoned extracted peatlands is now ca. 9,371 ha (Ramst and Orru 2009).

A er-use of peatlands can have various aims. Although diff erent restora on techniques can be used, the ac ve restora on of degraded peatlands can be restricted by the lack of (fi nancial etc.) resources.

Due to unfavorable environmental condi ons, the spontaneous re-vegeta on of a previous peat produc on area is a chao c and me-consuming process, but in

some cases the natural re-vegeta on

is taking place more quickly and successfully. The main aim of this study was to inves gate and compare the re-vegeta on of the block-cut, milled and fer lized peat fi elds in the Rabivere and Viru bogs to clarify the main factors that infl uence natural re-vegeta on and, if possible, to give recommenda ons to enhance this process.

Materials and methods

The fi eld work was carried out in Rabivere and Viru bogs. The central and southern parts of the Rabivere bog (2686 ha) are preserved in an almost natural state, while the northern part is ditched and was fi rst used for block-cut peat extrac on. No

data is available regarding when this began, but it took place on an area of 137 ha and ended in 1950. Therea er, peat extrac on using milling and later the vacuum harves ng technique began on 24 ha, part of which was a former block-cut area.

This area was abandoned in 1982. In 1985 the milled area was sown with Oxycoccus palustris seeds and fer lized from planes with an unknown quan ty of P2O5 mixed with sawdust. The area

After-use of cutaway peatlands - can favouring spontaneous re-vegetation be an alternative?

Text and photos: Triin Triisberg, Jaanus Paal, Edgar Karofeld

Overall view of studied areas, illustrating the differences in their re-vegetation, A: block-cut area in Rabivere bog.

21

under inves ga on had a size of 5.8 ha (centre coordinates N 59º8’33’’ E 24º39’51’’), including 3.8 ha of former milled peatland and 2.0 ha of block-cut area. The surface of the milled peat fi elds between ditches is fl at, while humps and depressions are characteris c on the block-cut area.

Viru bog (235 ha) is located in northern Estonia, on the territory of Lahemaa Na onal Park. In the northern part of the bog, 37 ha have been ditched, and the peat was extracted using milling and vacuum harves ng techniques from 1966 to 1986. In the middle of the 1980s Rubus chamaemorus was planted on the northern edge of the peat fi elds bordering the bog forest. The area under inves ga on was 4.2 ha (centre coordinates N 59º28’31’’, E 25º39’26’’). Between ditches, the surface of the peat fi elds is fl at, with some seasonally fl ooded depressions and large, almost plantless bare peat areas.

The analysis was based on 285 sample squares (1x1m2) where the plant species composi on and coverage was evaluated and abio c environmental factors such as the pH and electrical conduc vity of bog water etc. were measured. Moreover, in 10x10 meters quadrates around every sample square, the density of pine and birch trees and their saplings, the maximum height and mode of trees and the height of saplings were recorded for the descrip on of the tree layer structure.

Unfortunately, due to changing weather condi ons, the depth of the water table fl uctuated greatly even from one day to another, and therefore we excluded these data from further analysis. The rela on between vegeta on data and tree layer and environmental variables was analysed using Canonical

Correspondence Analysis (CCA; Ter Braak and Šmilauer 2002). The dependency of species richness on environmental variables was analyzed using the General Linear Model (GLM) and General Regression Model (GRM) analyses (StatSo Inc. 2001).

Results and discussion

Vegeta on recovery was best in the former block-cut area in Rabivere bog (Fig. A), abandoned more than 50 years ago, where the moss layer cover alone is ca. 50%. On the fl at milled peat fi elds in Viru bog (Fig. C) the total plant coverage is only about

5%, and, in the central parts of the peat fi elds, vegeta on is s ll almost absent (mean coverage 1-5%). The parts of the peat fi elds closer to the forest are be er re-vegetated, having a mean coverage of up to 60%. The higher fi eld layer and mean overall coverage values on the unfer lized milled area were also represented on sample squares located near the road margins or adjacent to the bog. In the fer lized milled area in Rabivere bog, re-vegeta on has been more successful than in Viru bog.

The indicator species for block-cut areas are common species of natural raised bogs, such as Andromeda polifolia, Oxycoccus palustris, Vaccinium uliginosum, Rubus chamaemorus, etc. in the fi eld layer and Sphagnum fuscum, S. magellanicum, S. capillifolium, Pleurozium schreberi and Cladina spp. (mainly C. mi s) in the moss layer. Calluna vulgaris has high mean coverage in all areas. In the moss layer of the fer lized milled area, the rela vely high abundance of

B: Milled and fertilized area in Rabivere bog.

Warnstor a uitans and Sphagnum squarrosum is characteris c, whereas in the unfer lized cut-over area Eriophorum vaginatum is predominant in the fi eld layer.

The total number of plant species (vascular plants, mosses, lichens) was highest in the Rabivere block-cut area (32), whereas in milled areas it was almost similar – 24 species in Rabivere and 23 in Viru, respec vely. The mean number of plant species on sample squares was also much higher (8.9±4.4) in block-cut areas,

Schiedam - Nederlandtel. (+31) 10 426 76 66 e-mail: [email protected]

www.bolpeat.com

23

and it was almost three mes higher

(4.8±1.0) in the Rabivere milled and fer lized area as compared to the milled area in Viru bog (1.8±1.1), which had the lowest species diversity.

On the scale of microforms, the number of species is highest in depressions, fl owed by fl at areas and humps, and lowest in road margins, and due to almost mono dominant vegeta on, the species number is also low in ditches.

Whereas re-vegeta on in block-cut areas was quite fast and successive, in milled peat fi elds it was slow and irregular because of the destroyed seed bank and unstable growth condi ons. The main factors that appeared to infl uence the re-vegeta on of milled peat fi elds are surface microtopography, former treatment, the pH and electrical conduc vity of the bog water, as well as the total density of trees and saplings.

Species richness is most aff ected by sapling density, li er coverage, former treatment and surface microtopography. Single me fer liza on about 25 years ago does not have a long-term eff ect on the total number of plant species, but the mean number of species in sample quadrants and plants coverage have increased, leading

to the faster re-vegeta on of milled peatland.

According to the characteris cs of the studied cutaway peatlands and earlier knowledge for quicker restora on we should fi rst create more favorable and stable hydrological condi ons for plant coloniza on. This can be done by blocking the ditches, which improves the growth condi ons for pioneer plant species. Therea er fer liza on may accelerate growth of those species which will create more favorable condi ons also for mire plant species.

C: Milled area in Viru bog.

References

Orru, M. (koost) 1992. Eesti turbavarud. Eesti Geoloogiakeskus, Tallinn.

Ramst, R. and Orru, M. 2009. Eesti mahajäetud turbatootmisalade taastaimestumine. Eesti Põlevloodusvarad ja - jäätmed.

StatSoft Inc. 2001: STATISTICA (data analysis software system), version 6. www.statsoft .com.

Ter Braak, C.J.F. and Šmilauer, P. 2002. CANOCO reference manual and CanoDraw for Windows user’s guide. Biometris, Wageningen and České Budějovice.

Triin Triisberg*, Jaanus Paal, Edgar KarofeldInstitute of Ecology and Earth SciencesUniversity of Tartu40 Lai St.51005 Tartu, Estonia email: [email protected]

*Engineering Bureau STEIGERMänniku tee 10411216 Tallinn, Estonia


Sphagnum farming technique

By applying the Sphagnum farming technique developed in Canada which is based on bog moss transplanta on, it is hoped that revegeta on (and thus restora on) of abandoned cut-away peatlands will progress considerably faster than if le to natural processes.

One other notable advantage for the Sphagnum farming technique is that where applied, it accelerates recoloniza on by the desired Sphagnum species, thus slowing down natural recoloniza on by vascular mire species. In this technique, the upper 10 cm layer of living Sphagnum moss is removed from the surface of a donor site (natural or natural-like bog) and transplanted to the restora on area, where steps have been taken to maintain the water table at a suffi ciently high level.

Sphagna seemingly most suitable for transplan ng appear to be hummock-forming species, such as S. fuscum, S. rubellum and S. magellanicum. Bog moss regenerates

Sphagnum Farming: Sphagnum Farming:

A Quick Restoration for A Quick Restoration for Cut-Away PeatlandsCut-Away Peatlands

most eff ec vely from recent growth no more than two years old, therefore it is unnecessary to collect transplant material in the donor site from a depth deeper than 20 cm.

A suitable applica on ra o is 1 m2 of Sphagnum moss (which includes leaf, stem and branch fragments and individual plants) to 10-15 m2 of bare peat surface. This ra o has proven suffi cient for most bog moss species. Transplan ng of bog moss (Figure 1) succeeds in the spring and autumn, but not during the midsummer season .

Sphagnum biomass cultivation experiments in Aitoneva

According to earlier as well as ongoing studies, the annual biomass output of bog mosses can, at the very least, be of the same magnitude as the annual above-ground biomass output of a tree stand growing on a drained peatland. In order to study the applicability of the bog moss cul va on technique in prac ce, an intensive experimental area was established at Kihniö’s Aitoneva in the spring of 2006.

Within the framework of the experiment, bog moss growth, effi ciency of carbon sequestra on, as well as greenhouse gas balances were monitored in both a rewe ed cutover peatland and its corresponding donor site.

The primary Sphagnum species complex examined was a hummock forming species group represented mainly by S. fuscum , S. rubellum and S. magellanicum. For the sake of comparison, the lawn species group was also included in the study and was represented by S. fallax and S. riparium.

The aim of such experimental design was to compare the diff erences in carbon sequestra on between these two sec ons of Sphagna, and likewise their suitability for restora on purposes and/or short rota on produc on of peat growing media. Addi onally, experimental plots were situated in such a fashion to promote variability in the water table level in order to determine the op mal level for the growth of bog moss. Furthermore, part of the experimental area was excluded from

Text and photos: Niko Silvan

Figure 2: 35 years ago abandoned and later naturally restored cut-away peatland with pristine-like mire vegetation in Piilisuo, Kokemäki.

After-Use Seminar

25

restora ve measures to serve as a control site.

Results

According to earlier as well as our ongoing preliminary studies (both on the fi eld and in the greenhouse), the annual biomass output of bog mosses can be over 4 tons ha-1 in op mal condi ons (Table). The annual Sphagnum biomass output depended largely on the water table level and Sphagnum species composi on. For op mal Sphagnum growing condi ons water table levels should be near the soil surface (±5 cm). Addi onally, the Sphagnum species composi on had a signifi cant eff ect on biomass output results (Table).

Hummock growing Sphagnum species (S. fuscum and S. rubellum) proved to have much larger biomass yield than lawn growing species (S. fallax and S. riparium) (Table). According to our preliminary results on the fi eld, the cul va on sites cons tuted rather large carbon sinks, while the control site (unrestored) remained a rather large source of carbon (Table). On the other hand, methane emissions increased considerably as a consequence of Sphagnum cul va on compared to the control site (21-58 and 8 mg m-2 d-1, respec vely).

The donor sites, from which the surface Sphagnum material was removed for transplan ng, clearly began to recover during four growing seasons a er removal, and they were clear carbon sinks (7-41 g CO-C m-2 y-1) already in the 4th growing season. According to our preliminary results, Sphagnum farming areas acted as traps for suspended solids and mineral nutrients. However, because of the short monitoring

period and small data set, water quality results are not able to be generalized.

Conclusions

By transplan ng Sphagnum, it is possible to expedi ously restore pris ne-like mire vegeta on during a short me (20 years) and to create a func onal peatland ecosystem, for instance as buff er zone area (nutrient trap) or for growing media produc on purposes (Figure 2). The normaliza on of carbon dynamics, in the cul va on area already within a few years to resemble that of a natural bog, in which carbon is sequestered, indicates the recupera ve capability of cut-away peatlands and formerly drained nutrient-poor peatlands.

For more information

Chirino, C., Campeau, S. & Rochefort, L. 2006. Sphagnum establishment on bare peat: The importance of climatic variability and Sphagnum species richness. Applied Vegetation Science 9: 285-294.

Lainevesi, S. 1990. Korjuunjälkeinen turpeen kasvu ja suokasvillisuuden palautuminen Kihniön Aitonevan palaturvesoilla. Pro-Gradu-tutkielma, Oulun yliopisto.

Tuittila, 2000. Restoring vegetation and carbon dynamics in a cut-away peatland. University of Helsinki Publications in Botany 30. Doctoral thesis.

Quinty, F. & Rochefort, L. 2003. Peatland Restoration Guide, second edition. Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association and New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources and Energy. Quebec, Canada.

Yli-Petäys, M., Laine, J., Vasander, H. & Tuittila, E.-S. 2007. Carbon gas exchange of a re-vegetated cut-away peatland ve decades after abandonment. Boreal Environment Research 12 (2): 177-191.

Sphagnum species group CO2–C g m−2 y−1 Biomass kg ha y–1

Hummock species WT –5cm –124.4 4568Hummock species WT –20cm –42.9 2938Lawn species WT –5cm –39.8 2876Lawn species WT –20cm –19.0 2460Control (residual peat respiration) 104.0

Table: The CO2-C exchange and biomass productivity (as dry mass) of the two different Sphagnum species groups in two water table level (WT) treatments, Sphagnum farming field experiment at Aitoneva, central Finland.

Figure 1: Transplanting Sphagnum seed material with a large manure spreader onto a cut-away peatland in Aitoneva, Kihniö in early spring 2009.

Niko SilvanFinnish Forest Research InstituteParkano Research Unitemail: niko.silvan@metla.


After-Use Seminar

Peat extraction is an important economical activity in many rural regions in Northern New Brunswick.

According to available statistics, about 6,800 ha of peatlands or 5% of the total peatlands in the province of New Brunswick are managed for horticultural peat moss extraction (Poulin et al., 2004). Already there is a considerable extent of harvested peatlands in the province, mostly in abandoned condition. The Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association recommends three types of restoration / reclamation procedures for these harvested peatlands; return to a functioning peatland, cultivate

for forestry use and cultivate for agricultural uses.

Peatlands have been drained or altered for agricultural uses in many countries. In Germany and the Netherlands, 85% of the country’s peatlands have been used for intensive agriculture. In Canada especially in the southern part, a more intensively inhabited area of 1,410 km2 or 1% of the country’s total extent of peatlands have been drained and altered for commercial agriculture (Rydin and Jeglum, 2006). Low pH and nutrient content are negative factors in peatlands, but they have a potential as cation exchange capacity (120-130 meq/

100 g) and the water holding capacity is relatively high in peat moss.

Harvested peatlands can be reclaimed to croplands if some conditions are met and appropriate soil preparation is performed (Quinty and Rochefort, 2003). The depth of the remaining peat layer should be sufficient to provide suitable drainage, because decomposition of peat moss results in a loss of 1 cm of

Studies on Growing Crops on Harvested Peatlands in New Brunswick, Canada

Text: Lakshman Ranasinghe

Experimental crop of vegetable Soybean (Edamame) on harvested peatland.

27

Highbush blueberry on harvested peatland.

Lakshman L. RanasingheTheriault & Hachey Peat Moss Ltd.Baie Sainte-Anne, NB, E9A [email protected]

peat annually, and shallow peat does not provide good drainage. Moreover, it is important to adopt appropriate cultural methods to implement commercial crop produc on on peatlands.

According to Quinty and Rochefort, (2003), few harvested peat bogs have been used for agriculture in Canada. Various crops have been tested experimentally on harvested peat bogs in eastern Canada.

In a study conducted with the Peat Research and Development Centre, Shippagan, NB, a crop of potato on a harvested peatland produced yields comparable to commercial crops on mineral soil. Carrots were commercially grown for a number of years at St. Charles bog in New Brunswick. Onions, potatoes, corn and black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) were grown experimentally in a collabora ve project with the Peatland Ecology Research Group of Université Laval at the Saint-Bonaventure peat bog in southern Québec and proved to have commercial poten al.

Studies on growing crops on harvested peatlands at Theriault & Hachey Peat Moss Limited, Baie Sainte-Anne, New Brunswick were ini ated in 2007. A part of harvested peatland in an upper-slope of catena with about 90-100 cm depth of peat moss was selected for the study. Experiments on vegetable soybean (Edamame) varie es recorded an average green pod yield of 19.7 t ha-1 (Ranasinghe et al. 2010). Some varie es in high-bush blueberry varietal evalua on and adaptability trial which was established in

2006 have recorded sa sfactory performances.

An observa on plot of wild blueberry was established in summer 2009 to evaluate the crop performances. A fi eld experiment to evaluate the performances of new berry crop haskap (Lonicera caerulea L.) on these lands will be ini ated in spring 2010. All ini al studies showed poten al but the performances of these crops have to be evaluated about two more years to make conclusions.

References:

Håkan Rydin and John Jeglum (2006), The Biology of Peatlands, Oxford University Press Inc., ISBN 978-0-19-852872-2.

Monique Poulin, Line Rochefort, Stéphanie Pellerin and Jacques Thibault (2004) Threats and protection for peatlands in Eastern Canada, Vol 79-4, Geocarrefour.

Francois Quinty and Line Rochefort (2003), Peatland Restoration Guide (Second Edition), A publication of the Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association, New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources and Energy Quebec.

L.L. Ranasinghe, G.E. Williston and R. McIntyre (2010), Performance of Edamame (vegetable soybean) on harvested peatlands in New Brunswick, Proceedings of the 5th Atlantic Agronomy Workshop, Jan, 2010.


After-Use Seminar

Problem statement

Extensive degrada on of Indonesian peatlands by deforesta on, drainage and recurrent fi res causes release of huge amounts of peat soil carbon to the atmosphere. Construc on of drainage canals is associated with conversion to other land uses, especially planta ons of oil palm and pulpwood trees, and

with widespread illegal logging to facilitate mber transport. Because groundwater levels control carbon dioxide emissions from peatlands, restoring the peatland hydrology is the only way to mi gate CO2 emissions. An effi cient and cost-eff ec ve methodology is presented to plan rewe ng of disturbed tropical peatlands thereby aiming to meet the Voluntary Carbon Standard

regula ons which allows selling carbon credits once registered.

The study was conducted in the Sebangau catchment in Central Kalimantan under supervision of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and comprised of: 1) planning: selec on of loca ons best suited for eff ec ve restora on measures and dam construc on, 2) hydrological modeling: predic ng the eff ect of dams, 3) implementa on: dam construc on, 4) monitoring: monitoring the performance of dams over me.

Remote sensing and hydrological modeling

Diffi cult access of tropical peat swamp forests and limited project funds require the use of remote sensing data and modeling techniques in combina on with fi eld surveys of canal a ributes. Op cal satellite imagery from Landsat ETM+, SPOT HRVIR and ALOS AVNIR sensors, radar satellite data from the Shu le Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) and high resolu on airborne laser scanning data (LIDAR) were used to: 1) generate a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) of the peat surface and determine peat thickness, and 2) localize drainage canals for hydrological modeling of groundwater levels. Field surveys were used to validate the remote sensing results.

Hydrological modeling with the physically-based SIMGRO (SIMula on of GROundwater fl ow and surface water levels) model allows iden fi ca on of areas with good

Hydrological restoration of Indonesian peatlands to mitigate carbon dioxide emissions

Text and graphics: Henk Wösten, Julia Jaenicke, Arif Budiman, Florian Siegert

Fig. 1: Landsat ETM+ satellite image from August 2007 showing the study area located in Central Kalimantan on the island of Borneo, Indonesia. Dark green: peat swamp forest, red: fire scars in 2006.

29

restora on poten al and helps to op mize the number and loca on of dams required for rewe ng a specifi c area. Canal loca on, length, width, depth and slope as well as peat bulk density, hydraulic conduc vity and the stra fi ca on by peat thickness are required input parameters for the modeling. Calcula ons were made of water fl ow in the saturated zone, the unsaturated zone, river channels and over the peat surface. Groundwater levels calculated were calibrated and validated using measured levels at an undisturbed test site.

Dam construction

Dams act as fl ow barriers but they cannot store water for long periods as water will eventually seep through the surrounding peat. As dams restrict water fl ow rather than stop all water movement, they do not have to be water ght and thus construc on can be rela vely simple. To determine the op mal number and loca on of dams required for effi cient drainage reduc on, the surface slope was determined along each canal selected to be closed.

Hydrological model simula ons revealed that a cascade of closely spaced dams is most eff ec ve for water control. The steeper the slope, the more dams are needed to reduce drainage. Figure 2 shows the slope of a medium priority canal in the Bangah catchment (length 10 km, width 3 m, depth 1 m). The absolute eleva on diff erence of the canal from its origin at the top of the peat dome to its outlet into Bangah river is 3.1 m. Because the slope of the canal is not constant over its total length, it was subdivided into two sec ons: an upper, rela vely fl at sec on (Fig. 2, Slope1) and a lower, steep sec on (Fig. 2, Slope2).

The distance between dams required to reduce drainage is determined by

the hydraulic head diff erence, i.e. the diff erence between upstream and downstream canal water level across a dam. Field experiments showed that for small canals the water level over each dam should be limited to about 25 cm to reduce seepage and to prevent erosion. Thus, the canal in Figure 2 requires a series of 13 dams to overcome the 3.1 m eleva on diff erence.

In the upper sec on of the canal, a spacing of 975 m between dams is suffi cient to keep water level diff erences low, while in the steeper

sec on the spacing needs to be reduced to 320 m. Figure 3 shows an example of a rela vely simple dam in the Bangah catchment mainly made of locally available material.

Groundwater level rise

The eff ect of dams on groundwater levels is predicted by hydrological modeling, comparing the situa on before and a er dam construc on. In wet years, calculated groundwater levels are at or close to land surface whereas in dry years they drop to about 1 m below land surface. On

Fig. 2: Slope of the peat surface next to a canal in Bangah catchment as measured in the modelled DTM (0 marks the most upstream part of the canal). 13 dams are required to reduce large scale drainage.

Fig. 3: Simple dam in the Bangah catchment made of locally available material (3 m long, 1 m wide and 2.5 m deep).

Components Pallets HeatingComponents Pallets Heating

Are you looking for Hardwood Green Products, which are suppor ted by the chain of custody?Are you looking for Hardwood Green Products, which are supported by the chain of custody?

31

average the groundwater level at the undisturbed test site is -16 cm. This value provides an indica on of the intended long-term average groundwater level a er successful blocking of drainage canals in the Bakung catchment. The calibrated and validated hydrological model was applied to the whole of the Bakung and Bangah catchment for the 25 November 1997, during an extremely dry period.

Figure 4a shows that dams can raise groundwater levels up to 50-70 cm under these very dry weather and peat condi ons. For larger areas the rise is approximately 10-30 cm. Rise in groundwater levels is presented in classes rather than as absolute values to refl ect the uncertainty in the calculated results. The areas aff ected by rewe ng are strongly infl uenced by the slope of the peatland area surrounding the canal as this determines the catchment area draining to the canal.

Figure 4b shows surface water levels in a 12 km long canal. Compared to the situa on without dams, the result is a rise of the canal water level of up to 35 cm in the upstream part of the canal. The resul ng rewe ng of the peatland area surrounding this canal is up to 50 cm. Hydrological modeling of the rise of groundwater

levels on a daily base for the years 2006, 2007 and 2008 shows that on average this rise is 20 cm during the dry season.

Mitigation of carbon dioxide emissions

Rewe ng of drained tropical peatlands will poten ally lead to large mi ga ons of carbon dioxide emissions. Quan fying the rise in groundwater levels of hydrological restora on projects in peatlands together with an es ma on of the mi ga on in CO2 emissions caused by this rise, is important informa on to make greenhouse gas emission mi ga ons tradable under the Voluntary Carbon Standard regula ons.

Preliminary groundwater level measurements in the drainage aff ected Bangah catchment indicate an average level of -49 cm. Consequently, an average annual groundwater level of -50 cm was assumed to be a baseline level for the project area before hydrological restora on started. A er construc on of all dams, hydrological modeling indicates a rise of annual average groundwater levels of 20 cm.

With a reported emission mi ga on of approximately 0.8-0.9 t CO2 ha-1a-1

per cen meter groundwater level rise, rewe ng of the 590 km2 area of the combined Bakung and Bangah catchments results in an es mated mi gated emission of 1.4-1.6 Million tons CO2 annually. This es mated emission mi ga on will not be achieved in the fi rst year a er all dams have been constructed because only with me sedimenta on of organic and mineral material upstream of the dams makes them fully eff ec ve.

Higher emissions are expected during El Niño years, such as in 1997, 2002, 2006 and 2009 due to very low groundwater levels in addi on to drainage. In the project area, long-term measurements of groundwater levels (before and a er dam construc on) as well as subsidence and gas fl ux emissions are needed to confi rm these preliminary results. Results are reported as a class to refl ect the uncertainty in the calcula ons. Other greenhouse gases such as methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) are not taken into account because they are rela vely unimportant in tropical peatlands.

Fig. 4 Hydrological modelling applied to the Bangah catchment for very dry conditions on 25 November 1997. (a) Groundwater level rise in the whole area after construction of 114 small dams (b) Rise of the surface water level (swl) in a single canal after dam construction.

Henk Wösten, Julia Jaenicke, Arif Budiman, Florian Siegertemail: [email protected]


Seminar on Peat Technology

Wednesday, 16 June 2010

14:00 Introduc on by Jaakko Silpola

14:10 Fuel Peat Industry in the EU; Teuvo Paappanen, Arvo Leinonen and Kari Hillebrand, VTT, Finland14:30 Peat Produc on Technologies and Key Factors in Development; Ilkka Heikkilä and Niko Nevalainen, Vapo, Finland14:50 Prac cal Guide to Water Treatment Methods in Peat Harves ng; Tarja Väyrynen, Turveruukki, Finland15:10 ABC for Preven ng Peat Produc on Site Fires; Hannu Salo, Associa on of Finnish Peat Industries, Finland

15:30 Coff ee break

15:50 Split Root Fer ga on in Peat; Risto Tahvonen, Agriwood Research Finland MTT, Hor culture, Finland16:10 Development of Peat Produc on Technology in VTT; Arvo Leinonen, Ari Erkkilä and Juha Niemiaho, VTT, Finland 16:30 open topic

17:00 Closing

18:00 Departure to a boat cruise on Lake Päijänne and dinner at Savutuvan Apaja restaurant

Thursday, 17 June 2010

8:30 Re-opening and organisa onal ma ers

8:40 Use of Water Moss in Small Scale On-site Wastewater Treatment; Teppo Rantanen, Biolan, Finland9:00 New Methods of Processing Formed Peat on a Screw Extruding Machine; Kirill Epifancev, Russia9:20 Peat as a Reac ve Liner Material in Tailings Impoundment; Ilkka Ilmavirta and Kauko Kujala, Finland

10:00 Coff ee break

10:20 Laboratory Methods for Iden fi ca on of Self-heated Peat – Suitability of diff erent parameters and related iden fi ca on risks; Jaakko Soikkeli, Päivi Picken and Jaakko Lehtovaara, Vapo, Finland10:40 Peat as Bedding Material for Domes c Animals in Finland; Päivi Picken, Olli Reinikainen, Vapo, Finland11:00 PLA and PP Composites with Cellulosic Fibres from the Peat and Wood Industry; Kirsi Immonen and Johanna Lampinen, VTT, Finland

11:30 Lunch12:30 Departure of excursions

Presentations

16 - 17 June 2010

Photo: AFPI

Technology Seminar

33

Thursday, 17 June


• VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland- Peat produc on technology and fuel peat use development

• Jyväskylä Energy Keljonlah CHP Power Plant- This new power plant with 200 MW heat and 210 MW electricity started this year.- We make a short visit outside the plant and see peat and wood fuel intake systems. - The plant uses about one million tonnes of wood and peat fuels in a year.

• Valtra Tractor Factory- Valtra tractors, part of AGCO Corpora on, are among the most popular tractors in peat industry. - We visit the factory, hear how Valtra tractors are developed for peat produc on, we have a chance to test

tractors on a test ground, and fi nally we have a dinner provided by the company.

20:30 Arrival in Jyväskylä, accommoda on as for previous nights (own costs and booking)

Friday, 18 June


• Ähtäri - we visit an automated peat and wood pellet fi red hea ng system of Buster-boats factory.

• Peräseinäjoki, Haukineva:- Vapo Oy, Peat Machinery Factory

- latest innova ons in peat produc on machinery- how to decrease ground pressure of the machines - how to minimise dust emissions during peat produc on

- Vapo Oy, Pellet Factory- we visit a peat and wood pellet factory of Vapo Oy- the capacity of the factory is 66,000 tonnes- the factory started produc on in 2004

- Kekkilä, part of Vapo Group, Hor cultural Peat Factory- maxibales- bedding peat in round bales- lunch break during the visit

- Vapo Oy, Peat Produc on- visit to large scale peat produc on fi eld- introduc on of chemical water

treatment in order to clean solid par cles and nutrients from the drainage water of the peat fi eld

• Kihniö, Aitoneva, Peat Museum- coff ee at the peat museum,

historical movie about peat produc on, old peat machine exhibi on fi eld

18:00 Arrival at Tampere airport18:30 Arrival at Tampere railway sta on

20:30 Arrival in Jyväskylä, overnight stay or connec ons to Helsinki and other ci es

Technology Excursion

17 - 18 June 2010

Photo: Valtra Oy Ab


Technology Seminar

A visit to the Valtra factory in Suolahti, Finland explains the popularity of Valtra tractors amongst peat, forestry, snow and other contractors.

The Valtra factory is surrounded by forest. The typical landscape in Central Finland consists of forests, peatlands, lakes, hills and fi elds. Valtra tractors are designed not just for ploughing on steppes and prairies, but also for working in a wide range of terrains and climates.

Valtras are not just forestry or peat tractors, however. Valtra Inc. is the fourth biggest tractor manufacturer in the West. Valtra is the most popular tractor brand in Northern

Europe and the Bal cs, and number two in La n America. Valtra has increased its tractor exports to all over the world not by compromising the basic features of Valtra tractors, but quite the opposite. Extreme versa lity for diff erent tasks, custom-built tractor manufacturing and other unique Valtra features have proven to be in demand by customers all over the world.

Today Valtra manufactures some 17,500 tractors annually in its two factories in Suolah , Finland and Mogi das Cruzes, Brazil. Valtra models range from simple, mechanical and bomb-proof tractors to highly sophis cated high-horsepower tractors that feature the

Born in the Forest and PeatlandsValtra is the most popular tractor for peatlands

most modern stepless transmission technology, automated satellite guidance, headland management systems and more. The power range stretches from 74 horsepower to 370 horsepower serving prac cally all the needs of modern farming and contrac ng.

Valtra is without ques on the most popular tractor brand for peat harves ng. Valtra tractors off er several features that make them very suitable for peatland opera ons.

The overall power-to-weight ra o is excellent, especially in the T Series, which is the most popular model on peat bogs thanks to its range of powerful six-cylinder engines producing 130 to 210

Valtra T191 model transporting peat.

Text: Tommi PiteniusPhotos: Valtra Oy Ab

35

In the beginning of the 1990s, when Valtra’s market share on peatlands was small, the company’s management took the decision to increase the popularity of Valtra tractors among peat contractors. Valtra Marketing Manager for Finland at the time was Mr. Arto Tiitinen, a man with lots of energy and enthusiasm, as well as a useful farming background.

“I decided to visit peat producing companies. During the lunch period at one site I gave a presentation on Valtra tractors to the contractors and their tractor drivers,” remembers Tiitinen.

“At the end I gave every man as present a pair of Valtra gloves. Somebody asked me for a black felt-tipped pen. I thought this was a good sign, but the men blacked out the name Valmet on the glove and said: Now here is something I can really use.”

The incident brought out the sisu (a special Finnish word for perseverance and guts) in Tiitinen again. The requirements of peat contractors were carefully analysed, and with the help of the product development the necessary improvements were quickly made to Valtra tractors.

In November 1992 the Valtra 8100 Peat Special was introduced featuring a reliable Delta Powershift transmission, extra heavy-duty PTO and an overall design suitable for peat production. In

addition, a round-the-clock spare parts and service call-out was organised, as peat contractors work on weekends and nights whenever weather permits harvesting.

“By 1995 Valtra’s market share of peat tractors in Finland exceeded 70 percent. Our overall market share in Finland is about 50 percent”, Tiitinen reports.

Peat tractors are designed by listening to customers

horsepower. Already over ten years ago Valtra innovated Sigma Power, a system that provides extra power for PTO that has since been widely adopted by other manufacturers. Similarly, the TwinTrac reverse drive system is o en useful with ditching implements and bulldozer blades installed at the end of a tractor. Extra fi lters are available for engine

and cabin air intake, and the intake vent is located as high as possible.

Even though Valtra tractors are technically well suited for peat harves ng, the real secret behind the popularity of Valtra tractors might be the a tude of Valtra personnel. Valtra servicing, spare parts, engineering and manufacturing personnel really understand the challenging condi ons on peatlands thanks to the tough Finnish origins of the company.

Tommi PiteniusCommunications Of cerValtra Oy Abemail: [email protected]

Valtra Factory in Suolahti.

Peat tipping.


Technology Seminar

There are various methods developed for water treatment in peat harvesting, reducing harmful emissions during peat production. In Finland, all peat production areas exceeding 10 hectares are subject to a licence and this licence defines the conditions under which production is permitted, such as water treatment methods, monitoring of water, noise and dust, and the reporting requirements.

In general, emission control techniques are based on Best Available Technology (BAT) standards. When planning a new produc on area, one must choose the methods suitable for this site. Also old harves ng sites are required to implement be er water treatment methods according to the environmental licence. But where to fi nd the informa on needed?

The data on water treatment methods being sca ered, a joint

project to create a Prac cal guide for water treatment methods in peat harves ng was carried out in 2002 - 2004 by the Associa on of Finnish Peat Industries, Vapo Oy and Turveruukki Oy.

The objec ve of the project was to familiarise the producers as well as the designers and authori es with diff erent methods developed for trea ng water at peat harves ng facili es.

The project also deals with a number of less frequently used methods, or those that have not been proven

suitable for use. The water treatment methods are suggested in an easy-to-use product card format and the guide was updated in 2009 according to new scien fi c research.

Each water treatment method is presented on two pages of a card. The cards contain basic informa on on the method as well as informa ve drawings showing the structure of each water treatment possibility.

The water treatment methods are divided into three categories: basic methods, wetland

Practical Guide to Water Treatment Methods in Peat Harvesting

Text: Tarja Väyrynen

Example cards of the Practical guide for water treatment methods in peat harvesting.

37

methods and special solu ons. The informa on on a card includes:

• Name of the treatment method• Purpose: a short descrip on on its

purpose• Applica on period: describes the

me of the year when the method can be used

• Working principle: describes the structure of the water treatment method and its purifi ca on system

• Treatment effi ciency: average load reduc on

• Cost: average construc on, opera ng and maintenance costs

• Stage of development: describes how commonly a method is being used and whether it is s ll being developed

• Descrip on of performance: describes how the method works, and the structure materials used

• Set up and design: gives more detailed informa on on aspects to be considered when planning and se ng up the treatment method

• Special features: special requirements for the set up, and restric ons

Tarja VäyrynenTurveruukki Oyemail: tarja.vayrynen@turveruukki.

Each method card includes also original scien fi c literature and other sources.

Basic methods

Basic methods are used on all peat harves ng sites. Under this category are presented: fi eld ditch structures, sedimenta on ponds and peak runoff control dams (regula ng dams). These methods balance fl ows and trap solids but do not allow removal of nutrients dissolved in water.

Wetland methods

Wetland methods include overland fl ow fi elds, grassed infi ltra on areas (vegeta on fi elds), peat redistribu on basins and soil infi ltra on. These methods trap solids and nutrients. The overland fl ow fi eld, for example, is regarded as a BAT technique. Prac cally all new produc on sites are nowadays required to have overland fl ow fi elds.

Special solutions

Chemical treatment is regarded as a special solu on for peat harves ng areas. This method has been applied at major produc on sites, and in some cases in areas located upstream from specially protected water systems. There is also a list of other methods that are at the development stage, currently researched or proved unsuitable for use. One product card presents water fl ow measuring methods and water monitoring. Both open water period methods and all year round methods are presented.

The updated Finnish version of the Prac cal guide on water treatment methods in peat harves ng can be found at the website of the Associa on of Finnish Peat Industries at www.turveteollisuuslii o.fi . The 2004 version is also available in English on the same site.

Power Partner

Peatlands are our home groundValtra tractors have all the qualities to perform excellently in

peatland works. Valtra offers a model range from 74 hp to 370

hp and you have a choice of unique Valtra features like TwinTrac

reverse drive system, SigmaPower for heavy duty PTO- imple-

ments, top level operator comfort, Power boost to cope with

load variations, several transmission options and excellent pow-

er and torque reserve. And on top of all this, Valtra tractors have

ideal weight distribution and a top-class power-weight ratio.

All Valtra tractors are tailor-made for your individual needs.

Find out more at www.valtra.com Valtra is a worldwide brand of AGCO

39

There are more than 3,000 persons employed during the hectic season of peat production in Finland. The majority of them drive tractors for machine entrepreneurs, who have signed harvesting contracts with peat producing companies like Vapo and Turveruukki Oy.

It has been es mated that nearly 20% of these seasonal workers are newcomers, and also entrepreneurs change to some extent every year. This background was an essen al star ng point when the need and scope for developing educa onal peat fi re protec on material were considered and the target groups defi ned.

The Associa on of Finnish Peat Industries (Turveteollisuuslii o ry, TTL) and its fi re protec on working group ini ated the collec on of teaching and study material for preven ng peat fi res already in 2005. The purpose was to gather

Preventing Peat Production Site Fires: Educational Material

Text and photo: Hannu Salo

and put in fi les so far sca ered and tacit knowledge of various experts and persons with long prac cal experience. Right from the beginning, there was a close coopera on with the Emergency Services College (Pelastusopisto) that took the responsibility for fund raising, and, later in 2007, also administra on of the project. Many peat producing companies, the Associa on of Machine Entrepreneurs and emergency authori es were involved and also partly funding the project. The main fi nancial resources came, however, from the Na onal Fire Protec on Fund.

The material consists of four diff erent categories on the website of Turveteollisuuslii o. “Torjutaan turvepaloja tausta-aineisto”, the background material of 51 pages, is a comprehensive compila on of what is known about peat fi res and their preven on in Finland. “Opas

An illustration in the Driver’s Guide to demonstrate risks causing peat fires. Graphics: Heikki Autio

Table of ContentsSection I: Peat production and peat res; Introduction, Peat production methods, Laws and legislation concerning peat production re protection and safety.

Section II: Risks and prevention of accidents; Risk management and preventive measures against peat res, Reasons for peat res, Risk factors of various stages of peat production, Maintenance and service of machines to reduce peat re hazards, Fire prevention plan, Fuel storage at the production site, Fire risk inspections, Fire ghting tools and maintenance, Emergency call guidelines.

Section III: Emergency & Rescue Activities; Putting out peat res – early re ghting tips in the production eld, Main principles of re ghting, Peat storage res, Machine res, Leading of re ghting and emergency activities on site, After control of re

Terminology

kulje ajalle”, the Driver’s Guide is condensed and purpose-built especially for inexperienced seasonal workers. For teachers and advisors there is a slide set and an image bank available. All the material can be obtained in Finnish from www.turveteollisuuslii o.fi , -> ohjeita. The Driver’s Guide is also available as a booklet.

For an early bird, a peat fire on the production field is usually easy to prevent.

Hannu SaloAssociation of Finnish Peat Industriesemail: hannu.salo@turveteollisuusliitto.


Technology Seminar

In greenhouse production, the optimal fertilization to maintain maximum production depends on the water use and nutrient requirements of the plants.

It is commonly known that a high concentra on of nutrient salts in the fer ga on solu on causes water stress, ion imbalance, ion toxicity, or a combina on of any of these adverse factors whereas a low concentra on results gradually in nutrient defi ciency in plants.

Greenhouse conditions challenge the grower

Since the uptake of plant nutrients changes with the growing condi ons and even from day to day, the concentra on of one or more nutrients in the root environment may become insuffi cient. An increase of the nutrient concentra on in the fer ga on solu on will improve the nutri onal status of the plant, but beyond the salinity threshold value, the water uptake of the plant will decrease, resul ng in a yield decrease of the crop. Moreover,

value, yield decrease will gradually take place in the substrate-grown cucumber, depending on atmospheric condi ons as well.

Split root fertigation as a novel technique for cultivation

The split root fer ga on (SRF) approach may provide complementary benefi ts over tradi onal fer ga on (TF) in terms of water and nutrient uptake and ul mately yield improvement. In the SRF approach, variable fer lizer EC values can be applied in the unconnected root compartments of a plant.

In MTT, plant response to nutrient salts, as aff ected by an unequal distribu on of salts in the root environment, has been intensively

in summer and on high radia on days par cularly, the transpira on of the plant in the greenhouse can be so great that the root system is unable to provide enough water to maintain leaf water poten al and yield forma on. In such environment the stomata close, and CO2 u liza on for photosynthesis is severely limited. In addi on, fl ower and fruit abor on may occur (Figure 1). Thus, adjus ng the op mum level of the EC value (Electrical Conduc vity) in the root environment to gain maximum produc on, in the unpredictable greenhouse atmosphere, is challenging for the grower.

Cucumbers are a demanding crop

Commercially important, greenhouse cucumber has a high nutrient requirement and is a very produc ve crop when supplied with suffi cient nutrients, but it is also moderately salt-sensi ve. An EC value in the roo ng medium of about 1.5 dS m-1 is shown to be suffi cient for maximum fruit produc on while the salinity threshold value is about 2.5 dS m-1. Above the threshold

Split root fertigation is a Split root fertigation is a promising method to promising method to enhance cucumber yield enhance cucumber yield in greenhouse in greenhouse productionproduction

Figure 1: Stress conditions in the greenhouse increase early fruit abortion of cucumber (two aborted flowers lower down) instead of normal fruit growth (in the middle).

Text and photos: Kari Jokinen, Liisa E. Särkkä, Juha Näkkilä, Risto Tahvonen

41

studied with several greenhouse vegetables such as cucumber, tomatoes and sweet pepper over recent years. The experiments were carried out in Piikkiö in southwestern Finland. The benefi ts of the SRF method on the yield forma on and water use of the peat-grown cucumber crop has been promising. Peat was chosen because of its economic importance in Scandinavian hor culture. Moreover, peat is widely u lized as a substrate in prac cal greenhouse produc on and is composted without environmental problems.

Split root fertigation applied successfully for cucumber In the experiments, cucumber plants were grown in a tradi onal high-wire cul va on system comparable with commercial produc on condi ons (Figure 2). In general, the SRF method improved the overall water uptake and water use effi ciency.

Kari Jokinen, Liisa E. Särkkä, Juha Näkkilä, Risto TahvonenMTT, Plant Production Research Horticulture, Toivonlinnantie 518 FI-21500 Piikkiö, Finland email: kari.jokinen@mtt.

The water uptake has been highest in the root part with the low EC values. In addi on, the variable EC values modifi ed the root morphology signifi cantly (Figure 3). The experimental data have also revealed that the SRF method decreased

fl ower and fruit abor on, leading to an improved fruit set with a small eff ect on vegeta ve growth. Under high radia on condi ons in summer, the proper management of the EC values in the SRF roo ng medium has resulted in a yield enhancement by 17-20% compared to TF. Experiments in winter with less radia on indicated smaller (5-10%) but consistent yield advantages of SRF for cucumber.

In summary, we have shown that in cucumber plants cul vated in paired peat boards with the split root fer ga on method with low and high EC values in the two root compartments, signifi cant yield increases can be gained compared to tradi onal fer ga on (TF) with a constant EC value. In order to enter into commercial cul va on with SRF, addi onal experiments under prac cal greenhouse condi ons are essen al and are to be conducted in 2010 in collabora on with Kekkilä Oy.

Figure 3: The SRF roots growing in the low EC solution (left) are longer and thicker than the roots in the high EC solution (right).

Figure 2: Cucumbers are cultivated with high-wire system in the modern greenhouse. Peat boards are commonly utilized as growing media, and droplet curtains to absorb additional heat and moisture from the atmosphere.


Technology Seminar

The quality of horticultural peat is very sensitive to changes related to self-heating. Best material safety is achieved by securing even quality in production, using good storage techniques and regular temperature monitoring.

In some cases though there is a need for measuring the quality and suitability for use a er the storage phase. No generally accepted methods exist for recognizing self-heated peat, even though self-hea ng is a widely studied subject.

The list of self-hea ng related compounds and chracteris cs that are harmful for plants is also s ll incomplete. Largely it can be assumed that factors are mainly

Laboratory methods for identification of self-heated peat Suitability of different parameters and related identification risks

Text: Jaakko Lehtovaara and Päivi Picken

the same as the ones related to immature composts.

In both cases, it is a ques on of the decomposi on process of organic material and of the end or intermediate products of this process. For example, certain organic acids are known to have harmful eff ects on plants – and increasing quan ty of organic acids is known to be a result of both compos ng and self-hea ng processes.

Many myths for recognizing self-heated peat do live on among diff erent par es working with peat. It is important though, to remember that self-hea ng does not perform miracles: it will not produce or add new chemical elements into the peat, only the form it occurs

in - the compounds - change. This means that, for example, non-selec ve extrac on methods for the determina on of the amount of certain par cular elements are not always very eff ec ve in studying this type of problem.

It is also important not to confuse factors increasing the self-hea ng risk with factors refl ec ng self-hea ng related changes. The most relevant risk increasing factor is the quan ty of easily hydrolysable hemicellulose, but also, for example, the presence of Fe2O3, iron (III) oxide, has been suggested to increase the risk.

Iden fying actual hea ng-related chemical changes in peat is challenging. The natural varia on in peat is very large, even in iden cal looking samples with the same humifi ca on degree and approximately the same botanical composi on. The impact of the geochemical environment of the peatland plays a key role. In an ideal case, a “healthy” reference sample from exactly the same peat type from exactly the same source is used as a reference.

If a reference sample is not available, the cri cal factors used should be factors which change more due to self-hea ng than they vary naturally in peatlands and stock piles. The form of nitrogen is one of these factors. Also chemical oxygen demand in a fi ltered water-solu on of peat might off er some possibili es, which should be studied. Germina on test results indicate if peat can be used as a growing media or not, but they do Peat deposit. Photo: Olli Reinikainen

43

Proceedings, guidelines,

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Jaakko Lehtovaara andPäivi PickenVapo OyP.O. Box 22 40101 Jyväskylä, Finlandemail: jaakko.lehtovaara@vapo. paivi.picken@vapo.

not necessarily explain the reasons for bad germina on.

Some environmental factors cause changes in peat, which may be confused with changes related to self-hea ng. For example, extreme drying during excep onally dry peat harves ng seasons and heavy exposure to UV-radia on may cause hydrophobic behaviour in peat, which is usually connected to self-hea ng. This rules water absorp on out as a tool for iden fying self-heated peat.

Black peat harvested near the mineral subsoil o en includes compounds or elements dissolved form the mineral material ma er, which may have a signifi cant impact on electrical conduc vity. This limits possibili es to use EC as an indicator of self-hea ng status. Using EC requires a thorough background data of the peatland behind the sample.

It is also important to remember that organic materials always change in storage. Some aerobic microbial ac vity always occurs in this environment, as well as parallel and following chemical reac ons.

IPS Membership Application FormHereby I apply for membership in the International Peat Society. Please forward my application to the National Committee in my country (Canada, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Indonesia, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Russia, Sweden, United Kingdom, United States, differing membership fees) or accept me as member associated with the IPS Secretariat in countries without an IPS National Committee (annual fee € 45 individual, € 265 organsations, € 22 student members). Further details can be found at www.peatsociety.org/index.php?id=21.

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In Finland, peat is a significant animal bedding material. The volume of bedding peat used in the country is about 1.3 million cubic metres annually, which is nearly one third of all bedding used.

The structure of slightly decomposed Sphagnum-dominated peat is highly porous. Peat has a large specific surface area, up to 200 m2 g-1. One cubic metre of Sphagnum peat can absorb up to 600-800 litres of liquids. Peat is also known to be a good absorber of malodours, especially ammonia. Peat is a biologically active substance, in a positive way.

Olli Reinikainen and Päivi Picken Vapo OyP.O. Box 22 FIN-40101 Jyväskylä, Finlandemail: [email protected], [email protected]

Text: Olli Reinikainen and Päivi Picken

Peat as Bedding Material for Domestic Animals in Finland

In Finland, peat has been used by farmers in manure handling and soil improvement for hundreds of years.

At the beginning of the 20th century, many farms had peat extracting areas of their own.

In the 1980’s, a large research project, coordinated by the Work Efficiency Association, was launched to compare

straw, saw dust, cutter shavings and peat as litter for dairy cows. The research results strongly supported the traditional views about the benefits of peat use.

Due to these studies, we know today that peat bedding absorbs 4.9 kg of urine per 1 kg of bedding. The corresponding figures for straw, saw dust and cutter chips are 2.5, 1.5 and 3.3 kg/kg. Peat also has the highest ammonia absorption capacity, i.e. 2.5% of its dry weight on the average. This has a special importance in broiler chicken production where the birds breathe near the floor.

Considering the utilisation of manure, peat binds the manure and its nutrients in a very effective way. Peat bedding may also function as a stimulus, something to dig and work with. In horse keeping, peat bedding also keeps the hoofs of the animals in better condition. The most modern application is a peat board bedding, a compact, heat-treated version. Boards suite well, for example, for small scale use, small storage spaces and varying needs – for example for animal clinics where high hygienic demands for conditions are set, i.e. low dust content in the air.

Absorbing liquid manure into peat was developed to control the environmental impacts of liquid manure handling. Vapo has developed in the past a mechanical device (called Lietu) for mixing peat with animal slurry. The result is a semi-solid mixture, which is easy to store on a slab or in a heap.

One cubic metre of slurry requires 1.3 cubic metres of peat. Peat also absorbs the malodours from the peat-slurry mixture, which can then be spread on the field with a solid manure spreader. According to studies by Agrifood Research Finland, peat also enhances the soil improvement value of manure. In general, using peat in animal husbandry is an effective way to utilise manure-related nutrients in crop husbandry and to prevent eutrofication in watercourses.

The most modern application, peat board bedding. Photo: Vapo Oy

Technology Seminar

45

Esa Ruuskanen: Suosta voimaa ja lämpöä. Turve Suomen energiapoli ikassa 1940 - 2010. Power and heat from peat. Peat in Finnish energy policy. Kustantaja Publisher Vapo Oy, Kirjapaino WS Bookwell Oy, Jyväskylä 2010. 223 p. ISBN 978-951-53-3232-5.

The book under review is mainly wri en in Finnish. A er each main chapter there is, however, a well-wri en extended summary in English. The fi gure cap ons as well as the notes in the tables are also in English. About ten percent of the volume can be understood by an English speaking foreigner – assumed that she or he is interested in searching for the informa on. An even more a rac ve alterna ve would have been to publish this historical work in two volumes: one for the Finnish readers and the other one - a bit thinner - for the interna onal audience.

According to the preface, the objec ve of the book is to discuss peat as a part of the Finnish energy policy since the Second World War up to the current mes. It can be agreed with the author that the approach is objec ve, applying the methods of cri cal history studies. As

men oned in the tle of the book, the peat industry is considered at a na onal level. The documented history proves that Vapo Oy and its predecessor, the State Fuel Centre, have had a remarkable role when peat harves ng and peat use for energy and growing media have been developed in the country. In fact by the 2000s, Finland was among the biggest energy peat users worldwide, and the

biggest energy peat harvester and user in the EU.

The historical work reveals three diff erent eras in the Finnish peat-connected energy policy:

In the beginning of the 1970s, the government encouraged the development of peat harves ng and peat use for energy with state subsidies for investments, low-interest loans and taxa on reduc ons (period of regula on).

This period was followed quite rapidly by deregula on. One sign of this second era was that the State Fuel Centre was reorganized to the form of a state-owned company, Vapo Oy, in 1984. This arrangement opened the peat business for compe on. Vapo Oy expanded the commercial poten al of peat in the 1980s by moving also into the garden and environmental peat business, and by expanding interna onally.

The last era - s ll going-on - carries the features of reregula on: Environmental ques ons, aspects involving responsible u liza on of peat resources, and predicted clima c change have risen into focus.

The role of environmental protec on in connec on with peat harves ng and peat use has also varied over me: in the 1960s and 70s mire

conserva on programs set aside valuable mire areas, in the 1980s and 90s watercourse protec on and the impact of peat extrac on on biodiversity were among the key issues. A er that the discussion has been dominated by the concern of climate change.

Peat has, nevertheless, been favored in Finland since it is a domes c-origin fuel, which enhances energy self-suffi ciency, improves security of supply, supports the development of combus on technology adapted to local fuel resources, and provides employment in regions with declining popula on.

This piece of history has been worked out by Esa Ruuskanen, PhD, at the Department of History and Ethnology of the University of Jyväskylä. The author has done a tremendous work by going through numerous archives, sta s cs, poli cal commi ee delibera ons, and by interviewing key persons at the diff erent branches of peat development.

The history of industrial peat u liza on as a whole in Finland and that of Vapo have gone hand in hand the last seven decades. Nevertheless, the analysis and synthesis given by the author are done fairly objec vely; the other enterprises and stakeholders involved have also been taken into considera on.

Peat and the Finnish Energy Policy

Book review

Text: Juhani Päivänen

Juhani Päivänen Prof. emeritusDepartment of Forest Sciences,University of Helsinkiemail: juhani.paivanen@helsinki.


Description of Project

The 40 hectare sculpture park, Sculpture in the Parklands, is located in the vast Boora Bog Complex in County Off aly, Ireland. Dermot Foley Landscape Architects were commissioned to formulate a landscape strategy for the management of the sculpture park. The strategy is based on three main criteria: spa al, orienta on and movement. One of the main spa al proposals is the future management of ecological succession. Other proposals include detail designs for steel signage, path-edges and thresholds.

Peatlands Morphology

There is more than 11,000 km2 of peatlands in Ireland, covering more than 16% of the country and making up approximately 4% of Europe’s peatlands. For centuries, peat has been harvested as a fuel in Ireland. Much of the peatlands have been drained to facilitate large scale commercial harves ng for electricity genera on, bringing

about tremendous spa al change and requiring a new use for the land a er the process of peat extrac on is complete. Tradi onally, land was reused for forestry or grazing. More recently a range of cultural and environmental uses have been promoted for peatlands.

Sculpture in the ParklandsText and photos: Dermot Foley Landscape Architects

View of Lough Boora Parklands with disused peat-extracting railway in foreground.

Boora Pyramid by Eileen McDonagh.

Succession

Sculpture in the Parklands is located on a cutaway bog, meaning that commercial harves ng of peat has ended. In recent years, it has entered its most interes ng phase, a er decades of de-layering by machine

47

Dermot Foley Landscape ArchitectsArgus house, Malpas streetBlackpitts, Dublin 8email: [email protected]

harves ng. The appearance of the landscape structure is now governed by art, forestry, industry, agriculture, tourism, transport, administra on and the defi nable but unpredictable nuances of natural process. Succession is a commonly cited manifesta on of natural process, characterised by the colonisa on of trauma sed land by plant species, in waves of increasing complexity and fragility. The management of succession is perhaps the most interes ng aspect of this project.

Management Process

As part of the landscape strategy, the site is subdivided into a number of zones, depending on the level and type of peat extrac on ac vity which had occurred in the past. Certain zones have been covered with a clay marl which is impeding succession. Others are located near commercial forestry where succession involves a mix of na ve and commercial forestry tree species. The landscape proposals include several diff erent management strategies for the site, which range from complete clearance of vegeta on to reveal the black peaty substrate, to non-interven on.

In this way it is proposed to manage the rela onship between art and nature for future genera ons. The spa al context of exis ng works of art will be managed and new spaces are proposed for future art works. The management process, involving the clearing and transplan ng by volunteers of Betula, Salix and Pinus species has begun in winter 2009/2010.

The Sculpture in the Parklands Landscape Strategy was awarded the Irish Landscape Ins tute Heritage and Conserva on Award in 2009 and was selected for exhibi on at the Third Interna onal Exhibi on of Landscape Architecture in Belgrade.

Juncus effusus colonising peat.

Land ReUse Composite Plan Scale 1:10000.

Ruaille Buaille by Patrick Dougherty.


Paludiculture is paludifuture:Climate, biodiversity and economic bene ts from agriculture and forestry on rewetted peatland

Text: Wendelin Wichtmann, Franziska Tanneberger, Sabine Wichmann and Hans Joosten

Utilisation Plant growth Harvest Q*Agricultural Ex situ fodder (hay, silage) Wet meadows, reeds Early summer ++

In situ fodder (grazing) Wet meadows, reeds Whole year ++Litter Carex meadows, reeds Summer/autumn 0Compost Wet meadows, reeds Late summer 0

Industrial Roo ng material Reeds Winter ++Form-bodies Wet meadows, reeds Autumn/winter +Construction/insulation Phragmites reeds Winter ++/0Paper (cellulose) Phalaris-Phragmites reeds Winter +Basket-ware Willow shrubs Autumn ++Timber/furniture/veneer Alder swamps Frost ++

Energetic Direct combustion and gasi cation Alder/willow swamps, reeds Autumn/winter 0Fermentation Wet meadows, reeds Early summer +Liquid ‘sun fuels’ Wet meadows, reeds Whole year 0

Other Of cinal Natural mires/plantations Early summer ++Food Natural mires/plantations Summer/autumn ++Growing media Peatmoss stands Whole year ++

Growing global population, increasing prosperity in emerging economies and the exploding demand for biofuels have worldwide renewed the attention for peatlands.

Oil palm and pulp planta ons are running unhindered over tropical peatswamps, peatlands in Europe are being re-drained for food and biofuel crops. Not only biodiversity is at stake: biofuel produc on on drained peatland generally generates far more greenhouse gases (GHGs) than it saves. Rewe ng drained peatlands, in contrast, reduces emissions substan ally. Even more emissions are avoided by paludiculture: by using biomass from rewe ed peatlands to replace fossil raw materials and fossil fuels.

What is paludiculture?

Paludiculture (lat. ‘palus’ = swamp), the cul va on of biomass on wet and rewe ed peatlands, is an innova ve alterna ve to conven onal drainage-based peatland agri- and silviculture

(Wichtmann & Joosten 2007). Ideally the peatlands should be so wet that peat is conserved and peat accumula on is maintained or re-installed. Paludiculture uses that part of net primary produc on (NPP) that

is not necessary for peat forma on (which may amount to 80-90% of NPP). In the temperate, subtropical

Tab. 1: Examples of biomass utilisation from wet peatlands in temperate Europe (changed after Wichtmann et al. 2000). Q* = demand for quality: ++ = high. + = medium, 0 = low).

Mosaic of summer cut, winter cut and not cut wet peatland areas in Peene Valley, Germany. Photo: B. Herold

49

and tropical zones, i.e. those zones of the world where plant produc vity is high, peat is generally formed by roots and rhizomes, and mires by nature hold vegeta on of which aboveground parts can be harvested without harming peat forma on. The quintessence of paludiculture is to cul vate plants that

• thrive under wet condi ons, • produce biomass of suffi cient

quan ty and quality, and • contribute to peat forma on.

There is much commercial poten al in using biomass from wet and rewe ed peatlands (Tab. 1). Beside tradi onal agricultural uses for fodder and bedding, biomass can be used as a raw material for industry and for energy genera on. On highly degraded nutrient-rich sites, plan ng of reeds or trees before rewe ng can speed up the establishment of desired stands.

Climate aspects

Drainage of peatlands for conven onal agriculture, forestry and peat extrac on and the use of peat for energy and growing media are currently worldwide responsible for CO2 emissions of 2 gigatons (= 2,000 megatons) per year, i.e. for 6% of the total anthropogenic CO2 emissions (Joosten 2009).

Recent eff orts to mi gate anthropogenic GHG emissions include subs tu ng fossil fuels by biofuels, i.e. fuels produced from biomass with a short regenera on cycle. Also drained peatlands are increasingly used for the produc on of biomass fuels. Such cul va on (e.g. oil palm in Southeast Asia, sugar cane in Florida, maize and

miscanthus in temperate Europe, and part of the peatland forest wood in Scandinavia) generally leads to (much) larger CO2 emissions from the oxidizing peat soil than can be saved by replacing fossil fuels (Couwenberg 2007, Wicke et al. 2008, Sarkkola 2008).

Biogas from maize cul vated on drained peatlands, for example, leads to emissions of some 880 t CO2 per terajoule (TJ) produced energy, palm oil from peatland to 600 t CO2 TJ-1. This is much higher than the CO2 emissions from combus on of fossil fuels like peat (106 TJ-1), coal (anthracite, 98 TJ-1), oil (73 TJ-1) or natural gas (52 TJ-1) (IPCC 2006). Paludicultures on rewe ed drained peatlands, in contrast, contribute to climate change mi ga on in two ways:

• by reducing GHG emissions from drained peatland soils (Fig. 1),

• by replacing fossil resources by renewable biomass alterna ves.

Fig. 1: Net soil emissions from temperate peatlands in relation to mean annual water level for different types of land use, expressed in Global Warming Potential (GWP) (after Couwenberg et al. 2008). N2O emissions are conservatively neglected. The blue lines mark a reduction of 10-15 tons CO2 eq ha-1 a-1 as compared to conventional peatland agriculture and forestry.

Young Alder (Alnus) plantation on rewetted fen peatland. Photo: M. Succow


An example of the posi ve clima c eff ect of paludiculture is the cul va on of common reed (Phragmites australis) on rewe ed peatland. The rewe ng as such results in a GHG emission reduc on of some 15 t CO2 eq ha-1 a-1 (Fig. 1). With a conserva ve yield of 12 t DM ha-1 and a hea ng value of 17.5 MJ kg DM-1, the reed of one hectare can replace fossil fuels in a cogenera on plant that would otherwise emit 15 t CO2. Assuming GHG emissions from handling (mowing, transport, storage, delivery and opera on of the combus on plant) to amount to 2 t CO2 eq ha-1, using reed biomass from paludiculture would thus avoid emissions of almost 30 t CO2 eq ha-1 a-1 (Wichmann & Wichtmann 2009).

Biodiversity aspects

Rewe ng of drained peatland is generally benefi cial for nature conserva on as strongly degraded peatlands are biodiversity deserts. When agricultural land use and peat oxida on have enriched the soil with nutrients, rewe ng o en leads to high produc ve but species-poor vegeta on. Regular harves ng of the biomass then

Modified Seiga reed harvester for summer cutting in Rozwarowo, Poland. Photo: W. Wichtmann

keeps the vegeta on short and the li er layer thin, reduces the trophic level and allows low compe ve species to establish and hold ground. An example is the Aqua c Warbler (Acrocephalus paludicola), a fen mire fl agship species and the only globally threatened passerine species of con nental Europe. The species had its natural habitat in low produc ve fen mires with permanently high

water levels. With increasing drainage and eutrophica on, the warbler became more and more land use dependent, because only regular cu ng maintains the open, sparse vegeta on the species requires (Tanneberger et al. 2010).

On the other hand, biomass use may also confl ict with nature conserva on, e.g. when early cu ng for biogas produc on destroys breeding habitats or when winter harves ng leaves insuffi cient old-grown reed. To prevent confl icts clear priori es have to be formulated.

In case of areas designated as conserva on sites, paludiculture must be considered as a cost-eff ec ve management op on, instrumental but ancillary to conserva on.

On former strongly degraded sites, where any rewe ng and management will increase biodiversity, climate benefi ts can prevail. Here, monitoring is recommended to detect the appearance of protected species and habitats and to be able to modify management. Care has to be taken, however, that the new biodiversity values do not frustrate paludiculture management that has caused the re-appearance of these values in the fi rst place.

Phalaris-bales waiting for burning in the co-generation plant. Photo: W. Wichtmann

51

Wendelin Wichtmann, Franziska Tanneberger, Sabine Wichmann and Hans JoostenGreifswald University, Institute of Botany and Landscape EcologyInstitute for Sustainable Development of Landscapes (DUENE e.V.)Michael Succow Foundation for the Protection of NatureGrimmer Str. 88D-17487 Greifswald, Germanyemail: [email protected]

Economic implications

In the temperate zone most drained peatland was used as pasture or meadow. Nowadays large areas are abandoned because of progressive soil degrada on, insuffi cient produc vity, too low fodder quality for dairy ca le, and regional decline in livestock. Grazing for meat produc on, e.g. by suckler cows or lambs, generates defi cits of several hundred Euro per hectare per year and fully depends on agricultural subsidies (Plachter & Hampicke 2010). The con nued costs of drainage - with all external diseconomies - are, furthermore, largely borne by society, not by the individual user.

Paludicultures off er an alterna ve agricultural future for degraded peatlands. Although special wetland-adapted harvest machinery is required, thermal u lisa on of winter harvested Phragmites reeds in Northeast-Germany can fully compete with Miscanthus or straw from mineral soils also without subsidies or payments for ecological services. For individual farms, the perspec ves of paludiculture are decisively determined by the agricultural subsidies that compe ve (but unsustainable!) land use op ons receive (e.g. EU direct payments), not by objec ve economic costs and revenues (Wichmann & Wichtmann 2009).

Paludicultures provide valuable ecosystem services that are not (yet) paid, including reduc on of GHG emissions, protec on of ground- and surface water, reten on of water in the landscape and conserva on of biodiversity. From a macroeconomic point of view, transfer payments to farms that put paludiculture into prac se are therefore a very cost-eff ec ve way to fulfi l interna onal commitments with respect to protec ng climate, water and biodiversity.

Conclusions

Paludiculture is agricultural produc on on rewe ed peatland

that does not degrade the peat layer and even adds to peat accumula on.

Paludiculture• decreases GHG emissions

from the peat soil,• allows the produc on of “clean”

biomass that hardly competes with food produc on, and

• restores and maintains habitats for rare and threatened species.

The use of biomass fuels from drained peat soils perversely results in higher emissions than using fossil fuels. Drained peatlands should therefore not be stocked with biomass energy crops, but rewe ed and used for paludiculture.

References

Couwenberg, J. (2007): Biomass energy crops on peatlands: on emissions and perversions. IMCG Newsletter 2007/3: 12-14.

Couwenberg, J., Augustin, J., Michaelis, D. & Joosten, H. (2008): Emission reductions from rewetting of peatlands. Towards a eld guide for the assessment of greenhouse gas emissions from Central European peatlands. Duene Greifswald / RSPB Sandy. 28 pp.

IPCC (2006): IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Volume 2: Energy. http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/vol2.htm

Joosten, H. (2009): The Global Peatland CO2 Picture. Peatland status and drainage related emissions in all countries of the world. Wetlands International, Ede. 35 pp.

Plachter, H. & U. Hampicke (eds.) (2010): Large-scale livestock grazing. A management tool for nature conservation. Springer, Berlin. 400 pp.

Sarkkola, S. (ed.) 2008. Greenhouse impacts of the use of peat and peatlands in Finland. Research Programme Final Report. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Helsinki, 72 pp.

Tanneberger, F., Flade, M., Preiksa, Z. & Schröder, B. (2010) Habitat selection of the globally threatened Aquatic Warbler at the western margin of the breeding range and implications for management. Ibis 152: 347-358.

Wichmann, S. & Wichtmann, W. (2009): Bericht zum Forschungs- und Entwicklungsprojekt Energiebiomasse aus Niedermooren (ENIM). Institut für Botanik und Landschaftsökologie, Greifswald, 192 pp. http://paludiculture.botanik.uni-greifswald.de/documents/enim_endbericht_2009.pdf

Wichtmann, W. & Joosten, H. (2007): Paludiculture: peat formation and renewable resources from rewetted peatlands. IMCG-Newsletter 2007/3: 24-28.

Wichtmann, W. Knapp, M. & Joosten, H. (2000): Verwertung der Biomasse aus der Offenhaltung von Niedermooren. Zeitschrift für Kulturtechnik und Landentwicklung 41: 32-36.

Wicke, B., Dornburg, V., Junginger, M. & Faaij, M. (2008): Different palm oil production systems for energy purposes and their greenhouse gas implications. Biomass and Bioenergy 32: 1322-1337.

Planting reed before rewetting. Photo: W. Wichtmann


Cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait, Vaccinium oxycoccm, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Vaccinium myrtilloides Michx, and Vaccinium mytrillus is an evergreen and creeping shrub which is both cultivated and wild-harvested.

Cranberries are characteris c of severe climate, boreal landscape and organic soils. The cranberry is na ve to acidic bogs and peat wetlands as it favors acidic condi ons (pH 3.5-4.5). In 2004, according to a Food and Agriculture Organiza on (FAO) report, world produc on of cranberry was equal to 757 million pounds in weight. The

produc on of cranberry is largely limited to the northern USA and Canada, which are at the top of world produc on of this plant with 82% and 14%, respec vely. The produc on of cranberries in other countries is signifi cantly lower than in the USA or Canada (Latvia 2%, Belarus <1%, Azerbaijan <1%, Ukraine <1%, and Estonia <1%).

The fruit is an epigenous or a “false” berry. The fruits are bright red with waxy bloom at maturity, giving dark red to black appearance. Color changes from green to white, then red during its development. Fruit matures in 60 - 120 days a er

fer liza on, depending on cul var

and weather. Red color is the primary determinant of harvest maturity and

fruit

quality. Color increases

over me, therefore harvest is delayed as long as

possible to allow color development.

About 90-95% of the cranberry crop is processed into juices and sauces. Recently juice blends have become more popular. Cranberry juice and fruits are reported to display a number of health benefi ts including:

1) potent an oxidant ac on, 2) cholesterol reduc on, 3) vasorelaxant eff ects, 4) the preven on of urinary tract

infec ons5) the reduc on of biofi lm forma on, 6) and in vivo an cancer eff ects.

The presence of the following substances in cranberries are responsible for its benefi cial impact on human health: anthocyanins (Mazza & Minia 1993), proanthocyanidins (condensed tannins) (Foo & Porter 1981; Foo

et al., 2000a, 2000b), fl avonol glycosides (Puski & Francis 1967), low molecular weight phenolic acids (Zuo

et at., 2002), organic acids (Heimhuber et al., 1990), and sugars (Hong & Wrolstad 1986).

Thus knowledge for understanding the bioavailability, mechanism of uptake, and consequences of biotransforma on of these biologically ac ve substances a er consump on of cranberries is urgently needed. Incorpora ng cranberries in a balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains is recommended for dietary

Physiological impact of biologically active substances in cranberries on human health

Cranberry field.

Mature fruit.s.

Text and photos: Lech Wojciech Szajdak

53

modifi ca on for the preven on of Cardiovascular disease (CVD). CVD seems to be a major cause of death in most industrialized countries (Chu & Liu 2005). In the US, the annual CVD death rate exceeds 1 million with an annual economic cost evaluated at over 350 $ billion, surpassing 3% of US GDP (gross domes c product) for a single disease (American Hearts Associa on, 2003). Wise diet is said to be an eff ec ve method of neutralizing the forma on of atherosclero c lesions. An increase in fruit and vegetables intake of one daily serving decreases the risk of CVD to 4% (Joshipura et al., 2001).

As oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL) plays a signifi cant role in the ini a on and accelera on of atherosclero c process, the inhibi on of CVD via lowering LDL oxida on was suggested. Cranberries have revealed a very high phytochemical and an oxidant ac vity (Chu et al., 2002; Sun et al., 2002). Just a single intake of cranberry juice leads to a signifi cant increase in plasma an oxidant level up to 7 hours and changes high-density lipoprotein (HDL) of hypercholesterolemic human subjects when consumed for an extended period (Viason et al., 2003).

In addi on, fresh cranberry extracts have been shown in vitro to inhibit LDL oxida on (Wilson et al., 1998), which is a cri cal point in atherosclero c conversion (Lusis 2000). The an oxida ve ac vity of 100 g cranberries against LDL oxida on is equivalent to 1000 mg vitamin C (ascorbic acid) or 3700 mg vitamin E (tocopherol).

Cranberry extracts also signifi cantly induce the expression of hepa c LDL receptors and increase intracellular uptake of cholesterol in HepG2 cell in vitro in a dose dependent manner. This suggests that cranberries could

clear excessive plasma cholesterol from the vascular system. The pharmacokine c mechanism is based on the proper es of biologically ac ve substances in cranberries. These compounds are responsible for the inhibi on of LDL oxida on. They induce expression of LDL receptors, and increase the uptake of cholesterol in hepatocytes (Chu & Liu 2005).

Deriva ves of phenolic compounds found cranberry represent a rich source of natural an oxidants and reveal inhibitory eff ects on mutagenesis and carcinogenesis (Rice-Evans et al., 1996; Zuo et al., 2002). In cranberry fruit, fl avonoids and phenolic acids exist predominantly in combined forms, such as glycosides and esters. A total of 400 mg of total fl avonoids and

Creeping shrub of cranberry.

Sorting of the fruits.


phenolic compounds/l of sample was found in freshly squeezed cranberry juice, which was distributed as about 44% of phenolic acids and 56% of fl avonoids. Fi een benzoic and phenolic acids (benzoic, o-hydroxybenzolic, cinnamic, m-hydroxybenzoic, p-hydroxybenzoic, p-hydroxyphenyl ace c, phthalic, 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic, vanillic, o-hydroxycinnamic, 2,4-dihydrobenzoic, p-coumaric, ferulic, caff eic, and sinapic) were iden fi ed in cranberry fruit in their free and bound forms.

The experimental results indicated that cranberry fruit contains a high content of benzoic and phenolic acids (5.7 g/kg fresh weight) with benzoic acid being the most abundant (4.7 g/kg fresh weight). Benzoic and phenolic acids occur mainly in bound forms while only about 10% of them occur as free acids. What is more, a cranberry fruit, according to the results, includes p-coumaric (0.25 g/kg fresh weight) and sinapic acids (0.21 g/kg fresh weight). Querce n and myrice n were the major fl avonoids in the freshly squeezed cranberry juice. In addi on, the deriva ves of fl avonol glycoside conjugates were represented by: querce n-3- -arabinopyranoside, myrice n-3- -xylopyranoside, querce n-3- -glucoside, querce n-3-O-(6”benzoyl)- -galactoside,

3’-methoxyquerce n-3- - xylopyranoside, and querce n-3-O-(6”-p-coumaroyl)- -galactoside (Vvedenskaya et al., 2004).

It has been well established that complex mixtures of biologically ac ve substances in cranberry fruit can provide protec ve health benefi ts mainly through a combina on of addi ve and/or synergis c eff ects. These substances can have complementary and overlapping eff ects on oxida ve stress, the immune system, gene expression in cell prolifera on and apoptosis, and hormone metabolism, and they can have direct an bacterial and an viral infl uence. In addi on, the human tumor cell inhibitory ac vi es of cranberries against oral, prostate, and colon cancer cell lines was postulated (Yan et al., 2002; Vaisberg & Neto 2003; Seeram et al., 2004).

Moreover, recent studies indicate that an extract from a cranberry displays an microbial ac vity against several food-borne as well as human pathogens (Cavanagh et al., 2003; Va em et al., 2005). It also inhibits the adhesion of Helicobacter pylori to the gastric mucus. Helicobacter pylori is a “Gram nega ve” microaerophilic bacterium that lives in the stomach and duodenum. Infec ons caused by Helicobacter

pylori are generally recognized as one of the e ological agents of gastri s, pep c ulcer, gastric cancer, mucosa-associated lymphoid ssue lymphoma (Uemura et al., 2001; Fox & Wang, 2001) and cardiovascular diseases (Pellicano et al., 2003). Helicobacter pylori have co-existed with humans and epidemiological inves ga on indicated that this bacteria is indigenous to the stomachs of more than 50% of the popula on and reaching 80% in some countries (Dunn et al., 1997; Va em et al., 2005). Most chronic infec ons of Helicobacter pylori are asymptoma c and if coloniza on of the bacteria persist symptoms appear in 15-20% of the infected popula ons (Parsonnet et al., 1991). Dietary management of Helicobacter pylori infec on by consuming fruits of cranberry and their products could be an eff ec ve strategy due to likelihood of high compliance and absence of side eff ects.

Clinical inves ga ons also confi rm the benefi cial impact of cranberries on the preven on of urinary tract infec ons (Kon okari et al., 2001; Stothers 2002; Howell et al., 2005). Adhesion of microorganisms to the uroepithelim is the ini al step in the development of mammalian urinary tract infec ons. Cranberry may inhibit the adhesion of P-fi mbriated uropathogenic strains of Escherichia coli to uroepithelial cells (Ofek et al., 1991). Escherichia coli strains that express P-fi mbriae are associated with both cys s and pyelonephri s (Roberts et al., 1989). The majority of P-fi mbriated Escherichia coli that cause a urinary tract infec on bind glycosphigolipid receptor sites on the uroepithelium that are similar in structure to the P blood group an gens on the surface of A1, Rh+ human red blood cells (Kallenius et al., 1980). Proanthocyanidins, isolated from a cranberry, inhibited P-fi mbrial adhesion in vitro, and thus may be the substance responsible for the benefi cial eff ect on urinary tract infec ons preven ons (Howell et al., 1998).

Cranberries are an excellent dietary source of a wide array of phytochemicals with physiological

Figure 5: Sorted cranberries, ready for selling.

55

signifi cance. They include fl avonol glycosides, athocyjanins, proanthocyanidins, and organic and phenolic acids. Cranberry juice and fruits exhibit various health benefi ts. Numerous studies have shown that cranberries display potent an oxidant ac vity. Moreover, they reduce cholesterol and biofi lm forma on and prevent urinary tract infec ons. Furthermore, cranberries are reported to have vasorelaxant and in vivo an cancer eff ects.

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against human tumor cell lines. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 52: 2512-2517.

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Vaisberg A.J. & Neto C.C. 2003. Identi cation of triterpene hydroxycinnamates with in vitro antitumor whole cranberry fruit (Vaccinium macrocarpon). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 51: 3541-3545.

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Vvedenskaya I.O., Rosen R.T., Guido J.E., Russel D.J. Mills K.A. & Vorsa N. 2004. Characterization of avonols in cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) powder. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 52: 188-195.

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Yan X., Murphy B.T., Hammond G.B., Vinson J.A. & Neto C.C. 2002. Antioxidant activities and antitumor screening of extracts from cranberry fruit (Vaccinium macrocarpon). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 50: 5844-5849.

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Lech SzajdakResearch Center for Agricultural and Forest EnvironmentPolish Academy of Sciences ul. Bukowska 19PL-60 809 Poznan, Polandemail: [email protected]


IPS Commission III:All-Russian 7th Scien fi c School of Young Scien sts with Interna onal Par cipa on: Bogs and BiosphereTomsk, Russia, 13 - 19 September 2010More info: www.ltorf.tom.ru

IPS Commission II, SympoPeat, Dutch Na onal Commi ee, Interna onal Society for Hor cultural Science (ISHS):Peat in Hor culture - Life in Growing Media11 October 2010, the NetherlandsMore info: www.veengenootschap.nl/symposium1.html

Symposium on Responsible Peatland Management and Growing Media Produc onQuébec City, Canada, 13 - 17 June 2011More info: www.peatlands2011.ulaval.ca

IPS and Interna onal Society for Hor cultural Science (ISHS):Interna onal Symposium on Growing Media, Compos ng and Substrate AnalysisCastelldefels, Barcelona, Spain, 16 - 22 Oct 2011More informa on: www.ishs.org

14th Interna onal Peat CongressPeatlands in BalanceStockholm, Sweden, 3 - 8 June 2012More info: www.ipc2012.se

Future IPS Meetings and Symposia

A frequently updated list of IPS events and symposia of related organisations is posted at www.peatsociety.org. To inform us about future happenings of interest for IPS members, please contact [email protected].

Events of related organisationsIMCG Field Excursion and symposiumSlovakia and Poland, 5 - 17 July 2010More info: www.imcg.net

XXVIII Interna onal Hor cultural CongressLisbon, Portugal, 22 - 27 August 2010More info: www.ishs.org

7th SER European Conference on Ecological Restora onEcological Restora on and Sustainable Development - Establishing Links Across Fron ersAvignon, France, 23 - 27 August 2010More info: www.seravignon2010.org

XXIII IUFRO World Congress - Forests for the Future:Sustainability and EnvironmentSeoul, Korea, 23 - 28 August 2010More info: www.iufro.org

Hor Fair 2010Amsterdam, the Netherlands12 - 15 October 2010More info: www.hor fair.com

Forest Bioenergy 2010 Tampere and Jämsä, Finland, 31 August - 4 SeptemberMore info: www.fi nbio.fi

6th Interna onal Congress of theEuropean Society for Soil Conserva onInnova ve Strategies and Policies for Soil Conserva onThessaloniki, Greece, 9 - 14 May 2011More info: www.esscthessalonikicongress.gr

IPS Conven on including Annual Assembly, Seminars on Peat Technology and Peatland A er-Use, Execu ve Board, Scien fi c Advisory Board and Commission mee ngsJyväskylä, Finland, 14 - 18 June 2010

IPS Commission VI, IPS Finnish Na onal Commi ee:18th Bad Neydhar ng Round Table on the Use of Peat in Balneology, Medicine and TherapyKurikka, Finland, 2 - 4 September 2010More info: rii [email protected]

Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian Na onal Commi ee:Bal c Peat ForumDruskininkai, Lithuania, 2 - 4 September 2010

IPS Commission VII:Ditch Network Maintenance in Peatland Forests - Upda ng our knowledge on mber produc on, environmental eff ects and newest adap ve prac cesHonne, Norway, 13 - 15 September 2010More informa on: [email protected]

3

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